ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS AND ITS

EFFECT ON HUMAN BODY

A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, usually with less
food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are synthetic. Those that are not
natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners.

An important class of sugar substitutes are known as high-intensity sweeteners. These are
compounds with sweetness that is many times that of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result,
much less sweetener is required, and energy contribution often negligible. The sensation of
sweetness caused by these compounds (the "sweetness profile") is sometimes notably different
from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet
sensation.

If the sucrose (or other sugar) replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, then a
bulking agent is often also needed. This may be seen in soft drinks labeled as "diet" or "light,"
which contain artificial sweeteners and often have notably different mouthfeel, or in table sugar
replacements that mix maltodextrins with an intense sweetener to achieve satisfactory texture
sensation.

In the United States, six intensely-sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are
saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, and stevia. There is some
ongoing controversy over whether artificial sweetener usage poses health risks. The US Food
and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food [Link] additives must be
approved by the FDA, which publishes a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list of
[Link] date, the FDA has not been presented with scientific information that would support
a change in conclusions about the safety of the six approved high-intensity sweeteners. The safe
conclusions are based on a detailed review of a large body of information, including hundreds of
toxicological and clinical studies

There is also an herbal supplement, stevia, used as a sweetener. Controversy surrounds lack of
research on stevia's safety and there was a battle over its approval as a sugar substitute.

The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food use are artificially-synthesized compounds.
However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which
are found in berries, fruit, vegetables, and mushrooms. It is not commercially viable to extract
these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the
appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, and
glucose to sorbitol. Still other natural substitutes are known, but are yet to gain official approval
for food use.

Some non-sugar sweeteners are polyols, also known as "sugar alcohols." These are, in general,
less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food
products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is 'fine-tuned' by mixing with high-intensity
sweeteners. As with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a
complex proprietary process.
CONTENTS

[Link] OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETENER

[Link] OF SUGAR SUBSTITUTES

[Link] SWEETENERS

[Link] SWEETENER

[Link] INDUSTRY USAGE OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETENER

[Link] FOR USE

[Link] ISSUES

[Link]
TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS

Cyclamate

In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned the sale of cyclamate
in 1970 after lab tests in rats involving a 10:1 mixture of cyclamate and saccharin indicated that
large amounts of cyclamates causes bladder cancer, a disease to which rats are particularly
susceptible. The findings of these studies have been challenges and some companies are
petitioning to have cyclamates reapproved[citation needed]. Cyclamates are still used as sweeteners in
many parts of the world, and are used with official approval in over 55 countries.

Saccharin

Aside from sugar of lead, saccharin was the first artificial sweetener and was originally
synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg. Its sweet taste was discovered by accident. It had
been created in an experiment with toluene derivatives. A process for the creation of saccharin
from phthalic anhydride was developed in 1950, and, currently, saccharin is created by this
process as well as the original process by which it was discovered. It is 300 to 500 times as sweet
as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary
beverages. The bitter aftertaste of saccharin is often minimized by blending it with other
sweeteners.

Fear about saccharin increased when a 1960 study showed that high levels of saccharin may
cause bladder cancer in laboratory rats. In 1977, Canada banned saccharin due to the animal
research. In the United States, the FDA considered banning saccharin in 1977, but Congress
stepped in and placed a moratorium on such a ban. The moratorium required a warning label and
also mandated further study of saccharin safety.

Subsequently, it was discovered that saccharin causes cancer in male rats by a mechanism not
found in humans. At high doses, saccharin causes a precipitate to form in rat urine. This
precipitate damages the cells lining the bladder (urinary bladder urothelial cytotoxicity) and a
tumor forms when the cells regenerate (regenerative hyperplasia). According to the International
Agency for Research on Cancer, part of the World Health Organization, "Saccharin and its salts
was (sic) downgraded from Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans, to Group 3, not
classifiable as to carcinogenicity to humans, despite sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity to
animals, because it is carcinogenic by a non-DNA-reactive mechanism that is not relevant to
humans because of critical interspecies differences in urine composition."

In 2001, the United States repealed the warning label requirement, while the threat of an FDA
ban had already been lifted in 1991. Most other countries also permit saccharin, but restrict the
levels of use, while other countries have outright banned it.
Aspartame

Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter at the G.D. Searle company (later
purchased by Monsanto). He was working on an anti-ulcer drug and spilled some aspartame on
his hand by accident. When he licked his finger, he noticed that it had a sweet taste. It is an
odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids aspartic acid and
phenylalanine. It is about 200 times as sweet as sugar and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or
in frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum. When cooked or stored at high
temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent amino acids. This makes aspartame
undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in somewhat acidic conditions, such as in
soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like
sugar. When eaten, aspartame is metabolized into its original amino acids. It has the same food
energy as proteins, but because it is so intensely sweet, relatively little of it is needed to sweeten
a food product, and is thus useful for reducing the number of calories in a product.

Since the FDA approved aspartame for consumption, some researchers have suggested that a rise
in brain tumor rates in the United States may be at least partially related to the increasing
availability and consumption of aspartame. Some research, often supported by companies
producing artificial sweeteners[citation needed], has failed to find any link between aspartame and
cancer or other health problems.A recent paper attempted to demonstrate a link between this
substance and cancer, leading some to renew calls for the FDA to pull aspartame from the
market. This research has led the Center for Science in the Public Interest to classify aspartame
as a substance to be avoided in its Chemical Cuisine [Link], the EFSA's press
release about the study, published on 5 May 2006, concluded that the increased incidence of
lymphomas/leukaemias reported in treated rats was unrelated to aspartame, the kidney tumors
found at high doses of aspartame were not relevant to humans, and that based on all available
scientific evidence to date, there was no reason to revise the previously established Acceptable
Daily Intake levels for aspartame.

Several European Union countries approved aspartame in the 1980s, with EU-wide approval in
1994. The European Commission Scientific Committee on Food reviewed subsequent safety
studies and reaffirmed the approval in 2002. The European Food Safety Authority reported in
2006 that the previously established Adequate Daily Intake was appropriate, after reviewing yet
another set of studies.

It has also been investigated and approved by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives of
the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization.

Sucralose

Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times as sweet as sugar. It is produced from
sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups. It is used in beverages, frozen
desserts, chewing gum, baked goods, and other foods. Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is
stable when heated and can therefore be used in baked and fried goods. About 15% of sucralose
is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body unchanged. The FDA approved
sucralose in 1998.

Most of the controversy surrounding Splenda, a sucralose sweetener, is focused not on safety,
but on its marketing. It has been marketed with the slogan, "Splenda is made from sugar, so it
tastes like sugar." Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar prepared from either sucrose or raffinose.
With either base sugar, processing replaces three oxygen-hydrogen groups in the sugar molecule
with three chlorine atoms.

Safety concerns pertaining to sucralose revolve around the fact that it belongs to a class of
chemicals called organochlorides, some types of which are toxic or carcinogenic; however, the
presence of chlorine in an organic compound does not in any way ensure toxicity. The way
sucralose is metabolized may suggest a reduced risk of toxicity. For example, sucralose is
extremely insoluble in fat and thus does not accumulate in fat as do some other organochlorides;
sucralose also does not break down and will dechlorinate only under conditions that are not
found during regular digestion (i.e. high heat applied to the powder form of the molecule).

Lead acetate

Lead acetate (sometimes called sugar of lead) is an artificial sugar substitute made from lead that
is of historical interest because of its widespread use in the past, such as by ancient Romans. The
use of lead acetate as a sweetener eventually produced lead poisoning in any individual ingesting
it habitually. Lead acetate was abandoned as a food additive throughout most of the world after
the high toxicity of lead compounds became apparent.
List of sugar substitute
The three primary compounds used as sugar substitutes in the United States are saccharin (e.g.,
Sweet'N Low), aspartame (e.g., Equal, NutraSweet) and sucralose (e.g., Splenda, Altern). Maltitol
and sorbitol are often used, frequently in toothpaste, mouth wash, and in foods such as "no sugar
added" ice cream. Erythritol is gaining momentum as a replacement for these other sugar
alcohols in foods as it is much less likely to produce gastrointestinal distress when consumed in
large amounts. In many other countries xylitol, cyclamate and the herbal sweetener stevia are
used extensively.

Natural sugar substitutes

1. Brazzein — protein, 800× sweetness of sucrose (by weight)

2. Curculin — protein, 550× sweetness (by weight)
3. Erythritol — 0.7× sweetness (by weight), 14× sweetness of sucrose (by food energy),
0.05× energy density of sucrose
4. Glycyrrhizin — 50× sweetness (by weight)
5. Glycerol — 0.6× sweetness (by weight), 0.55× sweetness (by food energy), 1.075×
energy density, E422
6. Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates — 0.4–0.9× sweetness (by weight), 0.5×–1.2×
sweetness (by food energy), 0.75× energy density
7. Inulin
8. Isomalt — 0.45–0.65× sweetness (by weight), 0.9–1.3× sweetness (by food energy), 0.5×
energy density, E953
9. Lactitol — 0.4× sweetness (by weight), 0.8× sweetness (by food energy), 0.5× energy
density, E966
10. Luo han guo - 300× sweetness (by weight)
11. Mabinlin — protein, 100× sweetness (by weight)
12. Maltitol — 0.9× sweetness (by weight), 1.7× sweetness (by food energy), 0.525× energy
density, E965
13. Malto-oligosaccharide
14. Mannitol — 0.5× sweetness (by weight), 1.2× sweetness (by food energy), 0.4× energy
density, E421
15. Miraculin — protein, does not taste sweet by itself, but modifies taste receptors to make
sour things taste sweet temporarily
16. Monatin — naturally-occurring sweetener isolated from the plant Sclerochiton ilicifolius
17. Monellin — protein, 3,000× sweetness (by weight)
18. Pentadin — protein, 500× sweetness (by weight)
19. Sorbitol — 0.6× sweetness (by weight), 0.9× sweetness (by food energy), 0.65× energy
density, E420
 20. Stevia — 250× sweetness (by weight) - extracts known as rebiana, Truvia, PureVia;
mainly containing rebaudioside A, a steviol glycoside
21. Tagatose — 0.92× sweetness (by weight), 2.4× sweetness (by food energy), 0.38× energy
density
22. Thaumatin — protein, 2,000× sweetness (by weight), E957

Artificial sugar substitutes

Note that because many of these have little or no food energy, comparison of sweetness based on
energy content is not meaningful.

1. Acesulfame potassium — 200× sweetness (by weight), Nutrinova, E950, FDA Approved
1988
2. Alitame — 2,000× sweetness (by weight), Pfizer, Pending FDA Approval
3. Aspartame — 160–200× sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, E951, FDA Approved 1981
4. Salt of aspartame-acesulfame — 350× sweetness (by weight), Twinsweet, E962
5. Cyclamate — 30× sweetness (by weight), Abbott, E952, FDA Banned 1969
6. Dulcin — 250× sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
7. Glucin — 300× sweetness (by weight)
8. Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone — 1,500× sweetness (by weight), E959
9. Neotame — 8,000× sweetness (by weight), NutraSweet, FDA Approved 2002
10. P-4000 — 4,000× sweetness (by weight), FDA Banned 1950
11. Saccharin — 300× sweetness (by weight), E954, FDA Approved 1958
12. Sucralose — 600× sweetness (by weight), Kaltame, Splenda, Tate & Lyle, E955, FDA
Approved 1998
Food industry usage of artificial sweeteners
The food and beverage industry is increasingly replacing sugar or corn syrup with artificial
sweeteners in a range of products traditionally containing sugar.

Artificial sweeteners cost the food industry only a fraction of the cost of natural sweeteners, in
spite of the extremely high profit margins for manufacturers of artificial sweeteners. So it is not
surprising that the food industry is promoting its "diet" or "light" products heavily, thus moving
the customers over to its even more profitable artificially-sweetened products.[citation needed]

According to market analysts Mintel, a total of 3,920 products containing artificial sweeteners
were launched in the U.S. between 2000 and 2005. In 2004 alone, 1,649 artificially-sweetened
products were launched. According to market analysts Freedonia, the United States artificial
sweetener market is set to grow at around 8.3% per year to $189 million in 2008.

Aspartame is currently the most popular artificial sweetener in the U.S. food industry, as the
price has dropped significantly since the Monsanto Company patent expired in 1992. However,
sucralose may soon replace it, as alternative processes to Tate & Lyle's patent seem to be
emerging. According to Morgan Stanley, this can mean that the price of sucralose will drop by
30%.
Reasons for use
Sugar substitutes are used for a number of reasons, including:

 To assist in weight loss — some people choose to limit their food energy intake by
replacing high-energy sugar or corn syrup with other sweeteners having little or no food
energy. This allows them to eat the same foods they normally would, while allowing
them to lose weight and avoid other problems associated with excessive caloric intake.
 Dental care — sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the
microflora of the dental plaque.
 Diabetes mellitus — people with diabetes have difficulty regulating their blood sugar
levels. By limiting their sugar intake with artificial sweeteners, they can enjoy a varied
diet while closely controlling their sugar intake. Also, some sugar substitutes do release
energy, but are metabolized more slowly, allowing blood sugar levels to remain more
stable over time.
 Reactive hypoglycemia — individuals with reactive hypoglycemia will produce an
excess of insulin after quickly absorbing glucose into the bloodstream. This causes their
blood glucose levels to fall below the amount needed for proper body and brain function.
As a result, like diabetics, they must avoid intake of high-glycemic foods like white
bread, and often choose artificial sweeteners as an alternative.
 Avoiding processed foods — individuals may opt to substitute refined white sugar with
less-processed sugars, such as fruit juice or maple syrup.
 Cost — many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar.
Health issues
Controversy over health

A 2005 study by the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio showed that
increased weight gain and obesity was associated with increased use of diet soda in a population
based study. The study did not establish whether increased weight leads to increased
consumption of diet drinks or whether consumption of diet drinks could have an effect on weight
gain.

Animal studies have indicated that artificial sweeteners can cause body weight gain. A sweet
taste induces an insulin response, which causes blood sugar to be stored in tissues (including fat),
but because blood sugar does not increase with artificial sugars, there is hypoglycemia and
increased food intake the next time there is a meal. After a while, rats given sweeteners have
steadily increased calorie intake, increased body weight, and increased adiposity (fatness).
Furthermore, the natural responses to eating sugary foods (eating less at the next meal and using
some of the extra calories to warm the body after the sugary meal) are gradually lost.

Some studies have established that artificial sweeteners such as Saccharin, which is a non-caloric sweetener, can
lead to cancer. Research found that Saccharin was responsible for cancer in lab rats. However, the same cannot be
confirmed for human consumption of Saccharin, and attempts to ban the sweeteners have been futile.

There is recorded evidence showing that Aspartame, a non-caloric artificial sweetener, can lead to seizures,
headaches and attention deficit disorders. Some people experience heart palpitations, constipation and swelling of
certain body parts after consuming this artificial sweetener. Other health effects include increase in body weight, fat
percentage and caloric intake.

In some cases, regular intake of artificial sweeteners has resulted in addiction. Some people have developed an
addiction for diet cokes and other sweetened drinks due to the addition of sweeteners. Artificially-sweetened drinks
and food can lead to change in taste buds, development of cravings and activation of the pleasure centers in the
brain that ultimately causes addiction
CONCLUSION
Consumer research shows that low-calorie foods and beverages have become part of the lifestyle of
millions of men and women who want to stay in better overall health, control their weight, or simply
enjoy the many low-calorie products available. With the growing popularity of light foods and beverages,
artificial sweeteners will continue to play a significant role — confirming the world’s ow-calorie
sweetener still has plenty of “new” in it, even after all these years.