Divemaster

Course
Presentation
Notes

2010
 © PADI 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this may be reproduced in any form.

Published by
PADI – The Professional Association of Diving Instructors
30151 Tomas
Rancho Santa Margarita, CA 92688 – 2125

Version 2.0

C-2
 Role and
Characteristics
of a PADI
Divemaster

Curriculum
1
 NOTES:
1. Conduct this presentation to begin the PADI Divemaster course, before
any practical application components. You may combine it with a course
orientation that overviews the requirements, schedule and logistics.
2. This presentation sets the tone for the course and lays the groundwork
for developing professionalism and desired attitudes in candidates.
3. Encourage discussion and interaction, which not only assists in attitude
development, but will help develop familiarity between candidates, you
and your staff.
4. If possible, have candidates read the first chapter of the PADI Divemaster
Manual and complete the Knowledge Review before this presentation.
Role and

5. Also have candidates watch the PADI Divemaster Video prior to this
Characteristics

Welcome to Your
Divemaster Course presentation, or immediately after it.
Role and Characteristics of a
PADI Divemaster

Overview
Role and
Characteristics
I. Welcome and Introductions
Overview

Welcome and Introductions

II. Your Role

Your Role

Your Responsibilities

Your Expertise

Course Schedule,
Assignments
A. What two broad characteristics may divers expect in a PADI
and Logistics
Divemaster?
B. What characteristics does a good role model PADI Divemaster have?
C. How may role model behavior affect other divers?
D. Why do divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?

III. Your Responsibilities

A. What are the benefits of being a PADI Divemaster and a PADI
Member?
B. What are the responsibilities of a PADI Divemaster?
C. What is a “mentor relationship” between the instructor and you?

IV. Your Expertise

A. What characteristic allows experts to more easily solve problems
than nonexperts?
B. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference library, and what
might you include in such a library?
C. How does additional training help you gain expertise?

V. Course Schedule, Assignments, and Logistics

Role and Characteristics

2
Outline
I. Welcome and Introductions
Role and
Welcome and Introductions Characteristics

A. [Welcome candidates to the course and congratulate them on going

pro.]
B. [Introduce yourself and have your staff and candidates introduce
themselves. Encourage a relaxed and friendly atmosphere and get What is a PADI Divemaster?

everyone interacting.]
C. [Complete any remaining administrative paperwork.]
D. [Ask the question – What is a PADI Divemaster? – to start a class
discussion. Write the answers and ideas on a board to refer to later for
further discussion.]

II. Your Role

A. What two broad characteristics may divers expect in a PADI Your Role
Role and
Characteristics
What two broad characteristics may divers

Divemaster? expect in a PADI Divemaster?

Professionalism

Have expert dive skills, rescue skills and

1. Professionalism

knowledge about dive management
Use good judgment – follow responsible dive
practices, adhere to PADI Standards and make
conservative decisions
a. This includes having expert dive skills, rescue skills and



Dress and act like a professional
Have good interpersonal skills,

knowledge about dive management and leading dives. which makes interacting with
you enjoyable
continued. . .

b. It also means having good judgment that you display by

following responsible dive practices, adhering to PADI Standards
and making conservative decisions about dive conditions or
other situations that may affect safety.
c. Divers expect that you will dress and act like a professional.
d. They also expect that you’ll have good interpersonal skills, which
makes interacting with you enjoyable and adds fun to the dive
experience.
2. Role-model behavior Your Role
Role and
Characteristics

a. This means that you’re someone other divers base their behavior
What two broad characteristics may divers
expect in a PADI Divemaster?
Role-Model Behavior
on because they respect how you conduct yourself.



Someone other divers base their behavior on
Someone with the ability to empathize with and
accept divers as they are — earns and maintains

b. Divers expect that as a role model you have the ability to respect, trust and confidence

empathize with and accept them as they are in supervisory

situations. This helps earn and maintain their respect, trust and
confidence.
B. What characteristics does a good role model PADI Divemaster have? Role and
Your Role Characteristics

1. Along with acting like a professional, as a good role model you: What characteristics does a good role-model
PADI Divemaster have?
Act like a professional and:

a. Have excellent dive skills.

Have excellent dive skills
Exude confidence and
prioritize safety

b. Exude confidence and prioritize personal safety and the safety of

Practice safe, responsible diving
Demonstrate appropriate care
for the environment

others.
Be equipped with well-maintained

and up-to-date dive gear

b. Practice safe, responsible diving. continued. . .

c. Demonstrate appropriate care for the environment.

Presentation Notes
3
 d. Are equipped with well maintained and up-to-date dive gear.
Role and
Characteristics
e. Have good fitness for diving.
Your Role
What characteristics does a good role-model
PADI Divemaster have? f. Keep up with dive trends, information and practices, including
Act like a professional and:




Have good fitness for diving
Keep up with dive trends, information and
environmental issues.
practices – including environmental issues

Easily build rapport with student
divers, divers and customers
g. Can easily build rapport with student divers, divers and
Demonstrate customer service
customers, which helps inspire them to pattern their dive habits


and act on business needs
of dive operation

Read people and situations,
and make conservative judgment calls after you.
h. Demonstrate customer service and act on the business needs of
the dive operation you’re associated with.
i. Read people and situations, and make conservative judgment
calls.
Your Role
Role and
Characteristics C. How may role-model behavior affect other divers?
How may role-model behavior affect other divers?

Good role-model behavior. . . [NOTE: Ask candidates how good and bad role-model behavior affects other divers.

Bad role-model behavior. . . Encourage a discussion — confirm and elaborate on candidate responses. Conclude with
these key points:]

1. Good role-model behavior gives divers a behavior pattern to follow

continued. . . with respect to responsible dive practices and habits.
Role and
Your Role Characteristics
How may role-model behavior affect other divers? 2. Good role-model behavior helps student divers learn a lot by just
Good role-model behavior:

Gives divers a pattern to follow with respect to
responsible dive practices and habits
watching the instructor and assistants. Consistency between you and

Helps student divers to learn by just watching and
consistency reinforces what they learn
Is more likely to give you
the instructor reinforces what student divers learn.
credibility and encourage
divers to consider
your suggestions 3. Good role-modeling is more likely to give you credibility and
continued. . . encourages divers to consider your suggestions.
Role and
Your Role Characteristics
How may role-model behavior affect other divers?
4. Poor role-model behavior, such as not following responsible dive
Bad role-model behavior includes:

Not following responsible dive practices,
practices, disregarding personal fitness or using poorly-maintained
disregarding personal fitness or using poorly-
maintained equipment, which can cause divers to
question these practices, habits and needs
equipment, can cause divers to question these practices, habits and

Being uncaring, unempathetic and even
demeaning towards others, which can cause
divers to question you and your suggestions
needs. People follow your example as much as (sometimes more
than) what you say — don’t pass on bad habits.
continued. . .

Role and
5. Poor role-modeling, such as being uncaring, unempathetic and even
Your Role
Divers will follow your example
Characteristics
demeaning towards others, can cause divers to question you and
as much as, or more than, what you
say your suggestions. Divers will be less likely to act on your advice.
D. Why do divers want the assistance of a PADI Divemaster?
Don’t pass on 1. Certified divers can dive unsupervised within the limits of their
bad habits!

training and experience, yet often seek the supervision of a dive

Your Role
Role and
Characteristics
Why do divers want the assistance
professional because they want it, rather than need it.
of a PADI Divemaster?

Certified divers often seek the supervision of a dive
professional because they want it, rather than need it 2. Divers expect that a divemaster:
A divemaster:




Knows where to find the best diving
Can handle dive logistics
a. Knows where to find the best diving.
Will recommend techniques
b. Can handle dive logistics.


for diving in local conditions,
and help divers compare their
skills and experience to
those conditions
continued. . . c. Will recommend techniques for diving in the local conditions
and help divers compare their skills and experience to those
conditions.
d. Can handle difficulties – minor or major – that may arise.

Role and Characteristics

4
 Role and

e. Will provide information that helps improve safety and adds Your Role Characteristics
Why do divers want the assistance
of a PADI Divemaster?
to the fun, which allows them to better enjoy the whole dive A divemaster:

Can handle difficulties

experience. – minor or major –

that may arise

Will provide information that
helps improve safety

III. Your Responsibilities

and adds to the fun

A. What are the benefits of being a PADI Divemaster and PADI

Member? Your Responsibilities
Role and
Characteristics
Role and
What
Your Characteristics
are the benefits of being a PADI Divemaster
Responsibilities

1. As a PADI Divemaster you are a PADI Member. This makes

and PADI
What are the benefits
You are part ofand
respected
thePADI
Member?
of being
world’s
a PADI Divemaster
largest and most
Member?
PADI Officesdiver training
worldwide organization
support you by:

you part of the world’s largest and most respected diver training
Developing diver education
programs and products

organization.

Issuing certification cards and
maintaining records

Providing educational consultation and monitoring
instructional activities
[Show This is PADI video, if available in a language candidates understand.]
Supporting environmental
conservation
and diver safety

2. Supporting PADI Members and their diving activities is a large part

continued. . .

of the PADI organization’s focus. As a member, you can count on

PADI Offices worldwide to do the following:
a. Develop diver education programs and related educational
products.
b. Depending upon your membership level and qualifications,
issue certification credentials and maintain certification records.
c. Provide consultation regarding diver program implementation
and educational product use, and monitor instructional
activities.
d. Support environmental conservation and diver safety through
various means including partnership and/or contributions to
nonprofit organizations such as the Project AWARE Foundation.
e. Provide access to affordable professional insurance and risk Role and
Characteristics
management support. Your Responsibilities
What are the benefits of being a PADI Divemaster
and PADI Member?

f. Create credibility and opportunities for you through PADI’s PADI Offices worldwide support you by:

Providing access to affordable professional
insurances and risk management support

brand recognition, popularity and promotional efforts.
Creating credibility and opportunities for you
through PADI’s brand recognition, popularity and
promotional efforts

g. Provide business support services through educational materials,

Providing business support services
Keeping you informed through
publications and other

updates, seminars, insurance and other services. communications on the Pros’ Site

h. Keep you informed through publications including The

Undersea Journal, Training Bulletins, newsletters, industry alerts,
web-based articles and other communications on the Pros’ Site Your Responsibilities
Role and
Characteristics

at [Link]. You earn a credential that allows you to

potentially work as a dive professional by
assisting with PADI diver courses or
conducting some PADI programs
3. As a PADI Divemaster, you earn a credential that allows you to independently

potentially work as a dive professional by assisting with PADI diver

courses or conducting some PADI programs independently (more
about these later).
Role and
Characteristics
B. What are the responsibilities of a PADI Divemaster?
Your Responsibilities
What are responsibilities of a PADI Divemaster?

Adhere to PADI Standards
Meet Membership Commitment
1. As a PADI Divemaster, you have the responsibility to adhere to


– Code of Practice
Refer to your PADI Instructor Manual

Fulfill Divemaster Duties

PADI Standards when assisting with or conducting PADI programs


Refer to your PADI Instructor Manual

Renew annual membership

as outlined in your PADI Instructor Manual. Much of what you learn

in this course applies to this.

Presentation Notes
5
 2. In your PADI Instructor Manual, you’ll also find a Code of Practice
that explains the professional and ethical behavior expected as part
of your membership commitment. Let’s review each item, so that
you are clear about what is expected.
[Note: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual, Professional Membership
Guide, Membership Commitment, Code of Practice. Involve them in reading through
each item and discuss as necessary for clarity.]

3. Also in the Professional Membership guide of your PADI Instructor

Manual, you’ll find a list of the tasks a divemaster can take on under
Divemaster Duties. Let’s review each item, so that you are clear
about what you can do.
[Note: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual, Professional Membership
Guide, PADI Professional Ratings, Divemaster Duties. Involve them in reading through
each item and discuss as necessary for clarity.]

4. To continue functioning as a PADI Divemaster, you’re also

responsible for renewing your membership annually.
a. If you allow your membership to lapse, you lose all the
benefits listed, and you may not act in the capacity of a PADI
Divemaster.
b. Your PADI Office will send you a renewal notice each year. You
may also sign up for automatic renewal, which authorizes your
PADI Office to renew you by charging the renewal fee to your
credit card.
c. You need to keep your PADI Office informed of your current
address so that you can receive information and important
notices.

Your Responsibilities
Role and
Characteristics
C. What is a “mentor relationship” between the instructor and you?
What is a “mentor relationship” ?

We’ll develop a relationship beyond a typical
student diver-instructor relationship 1. Because the PADI Divemaster course is an important step in
I’ll work to be your coach, guide, confidant
becoming a dive professional, you’ll find our relationship will


and advisor

We’ll discuss how to make judgment calls and the
thinking that goes into decisions

We’ll talk about how your
actions or inactions
develop beyond a typical student diver-instructor relationship.
may affect others

I’ll pass on my personal
tips and suggestions for
handling different diving situations
2. It’s more of a mentor-protégé relationship, which means I’ll work to
become your coach, guide, confidant and advisor as I help prepare
you to be an assistant and peer.
3. We’ll discuss how to make judgment calls and the thinking that goes
into decisions during the instruction or supervision process.
4. We’ll also talk about how your actions or inactions may affect
others, and I’ll pass on my personal tips and suggestions for
handling different diving situations.
5. If you have the opportunity to work with other instructors during
this course, plan to have a similar relationship and feel free to ask
“why?” and “how?” about decisions that are made.

Role and Characteristics

6
IV. Your Expertise Your Expertise
Role and
Characteristics
What characteristic allows experts to more easily
solve problems than nonexperts?

A. What characteristic allows experts to more easily solve problems  A broad knowledge and skill base allows
professionals to be better at solving problems
specific to their area of expertise

than nonexperts?
Better at identifying cause-and-effect relationships to deal

with problems and create solutions

During this course, you’ll solidify your dive theory knowledge

along with fine-tuning dive and rescue skills to better prepare you

1. As discussed earlier, professionals are people who have a high level

to solve problems and handle a variety of diving situations

of knowledge and skill in a particular area. This broad knowledge

and skill base is what allows professionals to be better at solving
problems specific to their area of expertise.
2. Research in cognitive psychology shows that experts have better
problem solving abilities than nonexperts primarily because they
have this knowledge base to draw upon — not because they’re better
problem solvers per se.
3. A large theoretical and experiential knowledge base makes it easier to
identify cause-and-effect relationships when dealing with problems
and creating solutions.
4. By reviewing and solidifying your dive theory knowledge along with
fine-tuning your dive and rescue skills, you’ll be better prepared
to apply your expertise to solve problems during the practical
application portion of this course.
5. Your knowledge and skill base will also better prepare you to handle
the variety of diving situations that may arise when acting as a
certified assistant or dive supervisor after the course.
B. Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference library, and what Role and
Characteristics
Your Expertise

might you include in such a library? Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference
library, and what might you include in such a library?
 Gives you a place to look up information

1. A dive reference library gives you a place to look up information  Increases your expertise by
broadening your knowledge

Include not only books, but

and periodically review and refresh your knowledge.

magazines, videos, maps and
other media – digital files,
online references, podcasts,
photos, etc.

2. Having reference materials beyond your PADI Diver manuals

increases your expertise by broadening your knowledge beyond what continued. . .

you previously learned.

3. Keep in mind that your reference library may include not only
books, but magazines, videos, maps and other media, such as digital
files, online references, podcasts, photos, etc.
a. You may bookmark appropriate websites and check them
regularly for updated news, etc.
b. Online forums are useful, but require caution because they may
contain opinions or statements that are not factual, not accurate
or highly biased.
4. Gather reference items based on your personal interests – including Your Expertise
Role and
Characteristics

topics such as: Why does it benefit you to have a dive reference
library, and what might you include in such a library?
Gather items based on personal interests:

a. Technical and scientific diving

Technical and scientific diving
Aquatic animals, plants and
environmental conservation

b. Aquatic animals, plants and environmental conservation

Underwater imaging
Dive travel

Maritime history and wrecks

c. Underwater imaging



Coastal navigation
Dive equipment care, maintenance and repair

Presentation Notes
7
 d. Dive travel
e. Maritime history and wrecks
f. Coastal navigation
g. Dive equipment care, maintenance and repair
[Note: Ask candidates for other examples from their personal libraries.]

Your Expertise
Role and
Characteristics C. How does additional training help you gain expertise?
How does additional training help you gain expertise?
 PADI Specialty Diver courses:

Go into more theoretical detail and allow you to apply this
knowledge during dives
1. Being certified as a PADI Specialty Diver, helps broaden your

Give you broader dive opportunities
Develop additional skills expertise as a dive supervisor and instructional assistant. This training
PADI Specialty Instructor ratings:
is important because:


Digital Underwater Photographer

Emergency Oxygen Provider

a. Specialties often go into more theoretical detail and give you a

continued. . .
chance to apply this knowledge during specialty dives.
b. Specialty training gives you broader dive opportunities, which
contributes to your overall dive experience.
c. Specialty training develops additional skills that you can apply in
supervising certified divers and assisting student divers.
2. As a PADI Divemaster, you can qualify as a PADI Specialty Instructor
to teach two popular specialty courses – PADI Digital Underwater
Photographer course and PADI Emergency Oxygen Provider – before
you become a PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor. You’ll learn
more about how to do this in the section – Divemaster Conducted
Programs.
Role and
3. If technical diving interest you, PADI TecRec courses will greatly
Your Expertise Characteristics
How does additional training help you gain expertise? expand your knowledge and skills as a dive professional.

PADI TecRec courses will
greatly expand your
knowledge and skills as
a dive professional 4. Other training that you pursue that is dive-related or dive business-

Other dive-related or
dive business-related
training adds to your
related will not only add to your knowledge and skills, but help
knowledge and skills
base and helps you
reach career goals
you reach your long-term and career goals. The following options
and suggestions are covered during the topic – Business of Diving
and Your Career – however, you may want to start planning for this
training now:
a. Boat handler or captain’s license
b. Sales and business training
c. Manufacturer’s equipment repair technician
d. Compressor or diesel engine mechanic
e. Research diving
Role and
Characteristics
5. Becoming a Discover Scuba Diving Leader authorized you to conduct
Your Expertise
How does additional training help you gain expertise?
 Discover Scuba Diver Leader:
Discover Scuba Diving in confined water. This allows you to:

Introduce people to the thrill of breathing underwater for the
first time
Aid the dive center or resort by being available
a. Introduce people to the thrill of breathing underwater for the first
to offer programs

Add to the your experience
with novice divers in
preparation for becoming
time and inspire them to go to certification.
a PADI Instructor

b. Aid the dive center or resort by being available to offer Discover

Scuba Diving programs when the instructional staff is busy.
c. Add to the your experience with novice divers in preparation for
becoming a PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor.

Role and Characteristics

8
V. Course Schedule, Assignments, and Logistics Schedule, Assignments and Logistics
Role and
Characteristics

You get out of this course what you put into it

A. Success in this program comes through applying yourself to the Suggestions for success:

Use independent study materials effectively

assignments and exercises consistently. Like any learning process, you

Ask – if you don’t understand something
Start the assignments and give yourself adequate
time to prepare

get out of this course what you put into it.
Practice outside of scheduled sessions
– help each other

Don’t limit yourself – pursue interests

B. Here are a few suggestions to help you progress through the course:
1. If you are participating in Divemaster Online (and haven’t already
completed it) use the system fully – watch the videos, check out
the additional information links, and review and repeat topics as
necessary to fully understand each concept.
a. Remember that you have access to the PADI Divemaster
Manual, so refer to it during the course and use it as a reference
after certification.
2. If you’re reading the PADI Divemaster Manual, carefully focus on
each chapter, watch the PADI Divemaster Video and then complete
the Knowledge Reviews. Write in your books as you study – make
notes, highlight important concepts to review, etc.
3. If you’re having trouble mastering or understanding something, let
me know as soon as possible.
4. Don’t wait until the last minute to prepare for a session or to work
on assignments. Start the assignments right away and give yourself
adequate time to put together your best effort.
5. Practice outside scheduled sessions with other candidates. This
will help you fine-tune your dive and rescue skills in a relaxed
environment and at your own pace. Help your fellow candidates
and let them help you. You learn by helping and being helped.
6. Don’t limit yourself. If you’re interested in something, find out all
you can about it, even if it’s beyond the course requirements.
C. Schedule Role and
Characteristics
Schedule, Assignments and Logistics

[NOTE: Give candidates the course schedule, including session times and locations,
Schedule

Assignments
integrating assignment and due dates.]
Logistics

Monitoring Progress

D. Assignments
Administration

[NOTE: Assign the Emergency Assistance Plan including location, date due and the
criteria for a complete plan. Discuss the Mapping Project.]

E. Logistics
[NOTE: Provide a list of all equipment and materials candidates need to have. Discuss
any other logistical requirements or issues.]

F. Monitoring Progress
[NOTE: Provide candidates with copies of score sheets and training records you’ll use
throughout the program and explain how you’ll track their progress and critique their
performances.]

Presentation Notes
9
 G. Administration
[NOTE: Finish any paperwork, collect remaining fees, etc.]

Summary
Role and
Characteristics
Summary

Welcome and Introductions

I. Welcome and Introductions

Your Role

Your Responsibilities

Your Expertise

Course Schedule,

II. Your Role

Assignments
and Logistics

III. Your Responsibilities

IV. Your Expertise

V. Course Schedule, Assignments, and Logistics

Role and Characteristics

10
Supervising
Diving
Activities

Presentation Notes
11
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online or by reading Chapter
2 of the PADI Divemaster Manual and watching the Divemaster Video.
You may also use this presentation for prescriptive remediation while
reviewing the Chapter 2 Knowledge Review with candidates.
Supervising
Diving Activities
2. This presentation introduces problem solving skills and further develops
Supervising Diving
the concept of using good judgment to make decisions about diving
Activities situations.

Overview
Go To Knowledge Review

Supervising
I. Dive Planning
Overview Diving Activities

 Dive Planning • What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning for a group of
Diver Behavior
certified divers?


 Dive Supervision
 Dive Briefings
 Problem Management
• How do you plan a dive by “thinking through the dive”?
• How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and how do
conditions affect diving?
• What are three aspects of planning dives for remote areas?
• What is the primary purpose of diver accounting procedures?

II. Diver Behavior

• What individual differences in divers does a divemaster have to be
prepared to accommodate?
• What are six characteristics of responsible diver behavior?
• What are four ways to encourage responsible diver behavior?
• How do you assess divers before a dive for experience level, possible
stress and possible equipment problems?
• What are the characteristics of predive stress, and how do you help
divers deal with it?

III. Dive Supervision

• What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
• What eight types of equipment can assist in supervising certified
divers?

Supervising Diving Activities

12
IV. Dive Briefings
• What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
• Why is it important to include an environmental orientation in
every briefing?
• What predive suggestions can you give to help divers interact
responsibly with the environment and aquatic life?

V. Problem Management
• How do you prepare to handle problems that may occur at a dive
site?
• When do dive supervision and problem management call for your
judgment, and how do you develop good judgment?
• What are the general steps for handling a dive problem?
• What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in the event of a dive
accident?

Outline
Supervising
Dive Planning Diving Activities
Study Objectives
1. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?

I. Dive Planning 2.

3.
How do you plan a dive by “thinking through
the dive”?
How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and
how do conditions affect the dive?

A. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning for a group of 4. What are three aspects of planning dives for
remote areas?
5. What is the primary purpose of diver

certified divers? accounting procedures?

1. Your role as a divemaster is to provide broad planning for the Dive Planning
KR Supervising
Diving Activities

group because you know the dive site and local environment. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?
 Provide broad planning for the group

Generally, you make your broad plan and provide dive briefing  Base plan and recommendations on:
 An assessment of the environment
and present conditions

recommendations based on:  What you know

about the divers

a. An assessment of the environment and the present conditions.

b. What you know about the divers you’re supervising. This may continued. . .

include what they tell you, previous experiences with them,

observations of them, log books, certifications, etc.
2. By supplying divers with guidelines, you allow them to plan their
Supervising

individual dives. This may include: Dive Planning Diving Activities

What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?

a. Orienting divers to the site and conditions. For example, giving  Supply divers with guidelines that allow them to
plan their individual dives

them a depth range, suggesting entry and exit points based on

 Orient divers to the site and conditions:
 Depth range
 Entry and exit points

water conditions, describing the site topography and possible 


Topography
Possible route to
see features

routes to take to observe interesting features, explaining local

 Local conservation laws
and protocols

conservation laws and protocols, etc. continued. . .

b. Advising divers of potential hazards such as currents, surge, Dive Planning

Supervising
Diving Activities

abrupt thermoclines, etc. What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?
 Advise divers of potential hazards

c. Being prepared for reasonably foreseeable emergencies. You can  Prepare for emergencies



Point out emergency equipment
Encourage emergency

point out what emergency and first aid equipment is available, preparation as part of
individual dive plans

and encourage divers to discuss emergency preparation as part of

their dive plans. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
13
 Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities 3. You are not normally responsible for planning the individual dives
of certified divers. Each diver must be responsible for planning the
What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers?
 You are NOT responsible for planning


individual dives
Each diver must take responsibility because: dive within the limits you set and then implementing the plan. This
 Divers bear the consequences



Divers know and must set their own limits
Conditions can change,
and divers need to revise
is important because:
the plan based on their limits
 You can’t control everything
divers do a. Divers will bear the consequences of the dive plan, so they must
continued. . . accept responsibility for it.
b. You can’t know divers’ comfort, training or experience levels as
well as they do, thus they have to set their own limits.
c. Conditions can change and divers may have to quickly revise the
dive plan based on their personal limitations.
d. You can’t directly control everything divers do – they need to be
responsible for their own actions.

Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities
4. Although divers are responsible for their plans, you can assist them,
What is the role of the divemaster in dive planning
for a group of certified divers? if asked, by providing information and encouraging them to choose
 You can assist, if asked


 Encourage responsible courses of action

Divers are encouraged

responsible courses of action. (We’ll talk more about responsible
to seek out a local
area orientation
 Information you provide helps
diver behavior in the next topic.)
divers meet their responsibility

5. Keep in mind that the PADI Safe Diving Practices Statement of

Understanding encourages divers to seek out a local area orientation
when going to a new site or diving in new conditions. The
information you provide about the conditions and environment
is important to help divers meet their responsibility to receive an
orientation. (We’ll discuss more about how you can do this using the
Discover Local Diving program later in the course.)
Supervising
B. How do you plan a dive by “thinking through the dive”?
Dive Planning Diving Activities


How do you plan a dive by
“thinking through the dive”?
Make a list – in order:
1. Thinking through the dive is an effective way to plan it. As you




Predive preparation – weather and tides?
Organize equipment – take to dive site
Imagine greeting divers and checking in
think of things, make a list what needs to be done and in which



Think about getting
ready for dive
Visualize postdive
order.
activities – rinsing
equipment, having
snacks, logging dive,
etc.
a. Start with predive preparation, such as checking the weather and
continued. . .
tides.
b. Continue with organizing equipment and loading everything
you’ll need on the boat or in the car to take to the dive site.
c. Next, imagine greeting the divers and checking them in for the
dive. This will remind you to have all necessary paperwork.
d. Think about how activities on the boat or beach will occur as
everyone gets ready for the dive.
e. Also, visualize postdive activities such as rinsing and repacking
equipment, or having snacks while talking about and logging the
Supervising
dive on the dive roster and in personal logbooks.
Dive Planning Diving Activities
How do you plan a dive by
“thinking through the dive”? 2. You also need to think through possible incidents or emergencies
 Think through possible


emergencies
Think about information that
that you should prepare for and add them to the list.
divers need to plan dives
 For example – Project AWARE’s
Ten Tips for Underwater Photographers
3. Make sure you think through the information that individual divers
need to plan their own dives, so you can provide as many details as
reasonably possible for the divers.

Supervising Diving Activities

14
 a. For example, if divers taking photos, make sure they are familiar Dive Planning
How do you plan a dive by
Supervising
Diving Activities

with techniques to avoid harming the environment as listed 

“thinking through the dive”?
After you’ve mentally gone through the dive, go
back and ask – “what if?”

in Project AWARE’s Ten Tips for Underwater Photographers 


What if a diver forgets equipment?
What if a diver suffers DCI?
Think through likely difficulties
(available for download from [Link]).

or emergencies
 Learn to find, gather and use
information for dive planning

4. After you’ve mentally gone through the dive outing, go back

through again asking yourself “what if?”
a. What if a diver forgets a piece of equipment,
b. What if a diver suffers DCI or an emergency?
5. Think about reasonably likely difficulties and emergencies, and
include preparing for them in your dive plan.
6. Much of what you learn in this course teaches you how to find,
gather and use information for dive planning.
C. How do you evaluate general dive conditions, and how do Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities

conditions affect diving? 

How do you evaluate general dive conditions,
and how do conditions affect the dive?
Dive conditions affect techniques

1. Your experience thus far has taught you that dive conditions greatly
 Consider conditions in your broad group planning
 Determining “acceptable” conditions depends on
diver skills and experience

affect dive techniques or even whether diving is worthwhile. You  Your recommendations help
divers determine whether
conditions are “acceptable”

normally consider dive conditions in your broad group planning

 Explain your observations
and conclusions
 Teach them how to
evaluate conditions

and briefings so divers can consider them in their individual plans. continued. . .

2. Being able to accurately evaluate conditions is an important part of

dive planning.
a. Determining “acceptable” conditions may depend partly on
the skill and experience of the divers. For example, a beach
entry through surf may be fine for some divers but beyond the
capabilities and comfort of other divers.
b. As a divemaster, your evaluation and recommendations help
divers determine whether the conditions are acceptable for them.
c. It helps divers plan their own dives when you explain your
observations and conclusions. It also teaches them how to
evaluate conditions for themselves.
3. Weather is a factor that always needs to be considered when Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities

evaluating conditions. How do you evaluate general dive conditions,

and how do conditions affect the dive?
 Weather is a factor – get information from:

a. You can get information about the weather expected for your 


TV, radio and newspaper
Internet weather sites
Telephone services

planned dive from these sources:  Your experience

• TV, radio and newspaper

• Internet weather sites continued. . .

• Telephone services – call in to listen to the forecast

• Your experience with local weather behavior KR Supervising
Dive Planning Diving Activities

b. There are several aspects of weather that affects dive conditions: How do you evaluate general dive conditions,
and how do conditions affect the dive?
 Weather affects conditions by:

• The first is wind, which can cause waves, surf, surge and 


Wind – causes waves, surf, surge and
surface currents
Rain – results in

surface currents plus poor visibility. Offshore wind can calm

runoff
 Temperature
– affects comfort

surf and cause an upwelling and good visibility.

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
15
 • Next is rain that results in runoff, which causes poor
visibility or poor water quality.
• Finally, temperature – hot or cold – can cause discomfort
before or after a dive. Air temperature can sometimes change
water temperature in a couple of days.
Dive Planning
KR Supervising
Diving Activities 4. Tides and tidal currents can affect visibility, depths and overall safety
How do you evaluate general dive conditions,


and how do conditions affect the dive?
Tides and tidal current affect visibility, depth and
based on water movement during any dive.
water movement
 Get information from tide charts and marine
weather reports
a. You can get information about the local tides from tide charts as
well as from marine weather reports.
 Your experience teaches
you to observe how tide
affects currents
Ideal dive time – usually
b. Your experience with local conditions will teach you to observe

slack high tide

continued. . .
how an incoming or outgoing tide affects currents at different
dive sites. For example, the strength of the water flow in and out
of a restricted bay varies depending on the tidal cycle.
c. The ideal dive time is usually slack tide when high tide peaks.
However, you need to learn how tides specifically affect the dive
sites you frequent.
d. You’ll learn more about tides during the presentation —
Awareness of the Dive Environment.
Supervising
Diving Activities
5. Whether currents are caused by tides, wind or the Earth’s rotation,
Dive Planning
How do you evaluate general dive conditions,
and how do conditions affect the dive?
they are an important consideration for dive planning.
 Currents are an important consideration
 For example, a long shore current flows down the coast –
plan to compensate for it a. For example, long shore currents caused by waves striking shore
at an angle create water flow down the coast. You need to be able
to recognize a long shore current in order to plan the dive to
continued. . .
compensate for it.
b. You’ll learn more about currents and how to identify them
during the presentation — Awareness of the Dive Environment.

Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities
6. To evaluate visibility without getting into the water, you need to
How do you evaluate general dive conditions,
and how do conditions affect the dive? have a good vantage point that allows you to see into the water as
 Evaluate visibility from a good


vantage point
Determine visibility by looking at:
much as possible. Even then it’s difficult to determine exactly what
the visibility will be; however, from experience you can determine
 Weather
 Outgoing tides
carrying sediment
 Waves and currents



Plankton blooms
Time of day
Nature of the aquatic environment
whether it’s better or worse than usual for the site.
a. You can also determine what the visibility may be by looking at
factors that affect it, including:
• Weather
• Outgoing tides carrying sediment
• Waves and current that stir up sediment
• Seasonal temperature changes which cause plankton blooms
• Time of day and amount of light penetrating the water
• Nature of the aquatic environment – for example, a silty lake
versus clear spring water.

Supervising Diving Activities

16
D. What are three aspects of planning dives for remote areas? Dive Planning
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
What are three aspects of dive planning

1. Sometimes diving takes place in areas that are hours away from dive 
for remote areas?
Sometimes diving takes place in areas far away
from dive or emergency services

services or emergency medical personnel. If you are planning a dive  If you plan a dive for a remote area:
 Preparation and planning need to cover more logistics –
food, sleeping arrangements, compressor, etc.

for a remote area, consider these three aspects: 


Have additional
medical supplies
Think in terms of
self-sufficiency

a. Your preparation and planning will need to cover more logistics – have supplies
and tools

depending on the location and type of diving. You may need

to organize food, sleeping arrangements, compressors for filling
tanks, etc.
b. You also may need to have additional medical supplies on hand
(for example, several hours worth of emergency oxygen) and
need to have a plan for emergency evacuations.
c. You should think in terms of self-sufficiency and try to have the
supplies and tools you might need to take care of problems that
arise, such as a boat engine breaking down.
E. What is the primary purpose of diver accounting procedures? KR Supervising
Diving Activities
Dive Planning

1. Having a formal accounting procedure is critical for tracking divers

What is the primary purpose of diver
accounting procedures?
 Procedure is critical for tracking divers in

in and out of the water, whether you are supervising them from a
and out of the water
 Primary reason – make sure every diver comes
back aboard before boat leaves or returns to shore

boat or shoreline.
 Incident reports indicate that
when divers have been left
behind, the likely cause isn’t
faulty accounting procedures,
but rather failure to

2. The primary reason for having and using accounting procedures is

use a procedure

to make sure every diver comes back aboard before the boat leaves,
continued. . .

or that every diver returns to shore after the dive.

a. With only a handful of divers, it might not be difficult to note
when each diver returns, but with a larger group it usually calls
for a more formal procedure.
b. Incident reports indicate that in the few cases where divers
have been left behind, the likely cause isn’t faulty accounting
procedures, but rather failure to use a procedure.
3. Along with relevant dive site information for dive planning, you Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities
What is the primary purpose of diver

also should explain the diver accounting method you’ll use so that 
accounting procedures?
Explain diver accounting method, so that divers
know what is expected

all divers know what is expected. Divers need to understand the  Divers need to understand
importance and follow
system to avoid confusion

importance of adhering to the system, and that it is followed to

avoid confusion and prevent you from losing track of a diver.
continued. . .

4. Common diver accounting procedures include:

Supervising

a. Have a dive roster listing all divers. Listing buddy teams together Dive Planning Diving Activities
What is the primary purpose of diver
accounting procedures?

makes it easier to find and check off names as both divers enter  Common diver accounting procedures:
 Record names on diver roster slate

and exit the water. The PADI Dive Roster slate provides a
▶ Waterproof surface to record information
 Double check roster before first dive
▶ Consider listing nondivers

waterproof surface to write each diver’s name as well as time in

the water, time out of the water, and maximum depth.
continued. . .

b. Double check that all divers are on the roster before the first
dive.
c. Use the dive roster to check divers in and out of the water.

Presentation Notes
17
 Dive Planning
Supervising
Diving Activities d. After each dive, perform a visual roll call. Make sure you personally
see each diver. During your briefing, make it clear that each diver
What is the primary purpose of diver
accounting procedures?
 Common diver accounting procedures:
 Use roster to check divers
in and out of water – followed by roll call
▶ Personally see each diver
must be present during roll call and that no one can answer for any
other diver. Some divers may want to answer for another to speed
▶ No one can answer for

any other diver

 Additional tracking

up the roll call; do not allow this to happen.

systems – numbered
tabs and tag board

5. There are additional tracking systems to consider. One system uses

numbered tags and a tag board. Divers each remove a tag and clip it
to their BCDs. After the dive, the divers unclip their tags and return
Diver Behavior
Supervising
Diving Activities
them to the board.
Study Objectives
1. What individual differences in divers does a

II. Diver Behavior

divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?
2. What are six characteristics of responsible
diver behavior?
3. What are four ways to encourage

A. What individual differences in divers does a divemaster have to be

responsible diving?
4. How do you assess divers before a dive for
experience level, possible stress and possible

prepared to accommodate?
equipment problems?
5. What are the characteristics of predive stress, and
how do you help divers deal with it?

Supervising
1. Because divers will vary in several ways, you need to accept their
Diver Behavior Diving Activities
What individual differences in divers does a abilities and know how to adapt your approach to their needs.
divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?

2. Individual differences you need to recognize and accommodate

 Divers vary – accept their abilities and adapt your
approach to their needs
 Differences to recognize and accommodate:
 Skill level – novice diver vs. seasoned diver
▶ Adapt interaction based on observed skill level

▶ Example – experienced diver

include:
with no local dives may want
more guidance than novice
diver with several local dives
a. Skill level — A novice diver may need and want more advice
continued. . .
and assistance while preparing for a dive than a seasoned diver.
Adapt your interaction based on general observed skill levels, not
necessarily just on certification level (more on this later).
b. Physical challenges — Individuals with physical challenges can
Diver Behavior
Supervising
Diving Activities
What individual differences in divers does a
use adaptive techniques to master dive skills and enjoy diving.
divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?
 Physical challenges
 Use adaptive techniques
Sometimes minor equipment modifications are necessary to



Modify equipment
Assist with entries and exits
Plan dive around the
compensate for physical impairments and assistance may be
diver’s capabilities
needed when entering and exiting the water. Adapt to what the
diver can do and plan the dive around the diver’s capabilities.
c. Learning challenges — People with learning disabilities have
continued. . .

Diver Behavior
Supervising
Diving Activities difficulty receiving, processing, storing and responding to
What individual differences in divers does a


divemaster have to be prepared to accommodate?
Differences to recognize and accommodate:
information, yet can do well academically if they know how to
compensate for their learning difficulties. Find out what learning
 Learning challenges – find out what learning method works
best for the diver
 Different cultures – be sensitive to local cultures
 Responsible behavior – encourage responsible behavior and
be aware of divers who put themselves and others at risk
method works best for such a diver so you can adjust your
approach to meet the diver’s needs.
d. Different cultures — Culture affects how people approach the
social interaction side of diving. Be sensitive to the cultural needs
of those you supervise and the local culture where you dive.
e. Responsible behavior — Although you can encourage and role
model responsible behavior, divers are responsible for their actions.
Diver Behavior
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
Be aware of divers who may put themselves or others at risk.
What are six characteristics of responsible

B. What are six characteristics of responsible diver behavior?

diver behavior?
 A diver displaying responsible behavior will:
 Stay within personal limits

1. A diver displaying responsible behavior will:

 Use required equipment
 Maintain equipment
properly

a. Stay within personal limits and plan dives within limits of training,
 Check air supply frequently
 Stay well within no stop
limits
 Avoid contact with aquatic
life experience and buddy’s abilities.

Supervising Diving Activities

18
 b. Use the equipment generally accepted as required for a dive.
c. Maintain equipment properly, and check it before diving.
d. Check air supply frequently, and end each dive with an
appropriate reserve.
e. Stay well within no decompression limits, make safety stops and
generally follow conservative dive practices.
f. Avoid contact with sensitive aquatic life, and dive in an
environmentally sensitive manner.
C. What are four ways to encourage responsible diver behavior? Diver Behavior
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
What are four ways to encourage responsible diving?

1. Be a good role model by making sure your dive habits reflect the 

Be a good role model to inspire others
Remind divers of responsible behavior

characteristics of a responsible diver so that you inspire other divers 


Make responsible behavior easier logistically
Reward responsible behavior

to do the same.
2. During dive planning and dive briefings, suggest or remind divers of
responsible behaviors.
3. When practical, make responsible behaviors easier logistically – for
example, place a marker or hang bar at 5 metres/15 feet to assist
divers make a safety stop.
4. Also, reward responsible behavior by acknowledging when divers follow
safe diving practices and protect the dive environment.
D. How do you assess divers before a dive for experience level and KR Supervising
Diving Activities
Diver Behavior

possible stress? How do you assess divers before a dive for

experience level and possible stress?
 Indirect techniques to estimate skill level and

1. Use the following indirect techniques to estimate skill level and diver
stress during predive interactions:
 Look at the diver’s equipment
– assessing condition,

stress during normal predive interactions: configuration and age

 Watch the diver’s behavior
– looking for signs of

a. Look at the diver’s equipment, assessing condition, configuration

stress or lack of experience

and age. For example: continued. . .

• All rental gear may indicate a novice or infrequent diver.

• Old gear may indicate a rusty diver returning to diving.
• Dangling equipment may indicate inexperience or lack of
familiarity with environmentally sensitive dive techniques.
• Inappropriate or missing gear requires you to find out more
about the diver’s experience or attitude about responsible
behavior.
b. Watch the diver’s behavior, looking for signs of stress or lack of
experience. For example:
• Withdrawal, excessive talking or excessive time preparing
may indicate stress or concerns about the dive.
• Withdrawal or looking pale may be signs of illness or injury. Diver Behavior
Supervising
Diving Activities

• Overdependence on a dive buddy for planning and gear 

How do you assess divers before a dive for
experience level and possible stress?
Direct techniques to obtain information:

setup may indicate inexperience. 


Check the diver’s log book and certification card
Have the diver fill out information details when registering
for a dive
 Interview the diver

2. Use the following techniques to obtain information directly from

the diver about skill level, stress and equipment concerns:

Presentation Notes
19
 a. Check the diver’s log book and certification card.
b. Have the diver fill out personal contact information,
certification, experience and emergency contact details when
registering for the dive.
c. Interview the diver, asking about concerns, experience, etc. —
particularly if indirect assessment raises a question.
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
E. What are the characteristics of predive stress, and how do you help
Diver Behavior
What are the characteristics of predive stress,
and how do you help divers deal with it?
divers deal with it?
 Signs and symptoms of predive stress include:



Behavioral change – becoming withdrawn, irritable,
talkative or distracted
Perceptual narrowing
1. Whether observed indirectly or directly, the signs and symptoms of
predive stress include:
 Physical stress
 Expressing concern
about the dive
 Reports from other divers

a. A behavioral change in which the diver becomes withdrawn,

continued. . .
irritable, overtly talkative or distracted.
b. Perceptual narrowing in which the diver focuses on an action or
task to the exclusion of alternative actions or considerations.
c. Physical stress displayed as sweating profusely, exhaustion,
nausea or vomiting.
d. A diver expressing concern about the dive to a buddy or to you.
e. Reports from other divers that someone is exhibiting stress.
Supervising
2. As you learned in your PADI Rescue Diver course, the stress
Diving Activities

response cycle starts with a build up of anxiety that produces

Diver Behavior
What are the characteristics of predive stress,
and how do you help divers deal with it?


Handle stress prior to a dive
Some stress is normal
PANIC
psychological and physical stress and adds to the original stress.
 Excessive stress
requires attention
STRESS This begins an uncontrolled cycle of rising stress until it exceeds the
ANXIETY diver’s ability to self-control emotions and the diver panics.
a. To avoid or stop the stress response cycle, it’s best to handle
PROBLEM

continued. . .

stress, as much as possible, prior to a dive.

b. Keep in mind that some stress is normal and helps a diver focus
on important tasks such as equipment preparation and dive
Supervising
planning. Excessive stress, however, requires your attention.
Diver Behavior Diving Activities
What are the characteristics of predive stress,
and how do you help divers deal with it?
3. When you notice possible predive stress, confirm it by simply asking
the diver about the signs observed.
 When you notice possible predive stress,
ask the diver
 Stress may be obvious – overheating
 Diver may explain problem
 You may not be able to
determine stressor
– use your best judgment
a. The cause of stress may be obvious, such as physical stress caused
by overheating, or the diver may simply explain the problem.
continued. . . b. In some instances, you may not be able to determine the stressor
and the diver may not tell you – use your best judgment as to
what the stressor may be.

Diver Behavior
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
4. Stress is relieved by either removing the stressor, changing the diver’s
What are the characteristics of predive stress,
and how do you help divers deal with it? perception of the stressor so it’s no longer threatening, or the diver
Stress is relieved by:
simply becoming able to cope with it. For example:

 Removing the stressor
 Changing the diver’s perception
of stressor


 The diver becoming able to cope
with stressor
For example:
a. Physical stress is usually simply relieved by removing or



Removing or changing problem equipment
Moving the diver to more comfortable location
Reviewing procedures and providing information
changing the equipment causing the problem, or moving the
continued. . . diver to a more comfortable location.

Supervising Diving Activities

20
 b. Stress about the dive may be relieved by reviewing procedures,
providing additional information and offering options. For
example:
• A diver concerned about strong currents may feel better if
you review current diving procedures.
• A diver concerned about the nurse sharks at the dive site
may benefit from learning that nurse sharks are docile and
Supervising
not generally associated with attacks. Diver Behavior Diving Activities

Make it clear that if someone doesn’t

• A diver concerned about successful navigation during a dive feel up to a dive for any reason, it’s
okay not to dive
may appreciate the option to make a guided dive.
5. Make it clear that if someone doesn’t feel up to a dive for any reason,
it’s okay not to dive.
Supervising

III. Dive Supervision Dive Supervision Diving Activities

Study Objectives
1. What are four aspects of supervision in
managing dives?

A. What are four aspects of supervision in managing dives? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
inwater versus out-of-water supervision, and
advantages and disadvantages of out-of-water
versus inwater supervision?

1. Adequate dive planning including proper environmental and diver 3. What eight types of equipment can assist in
supervising certified divers?

assessments, as previously discussed, is the first aspect of supervision

when managing a dive. This includes being prepared with KR Supervising

appropriate equipment and being ready to respond to problems. Dive Supervision Diving Activities
What are four aspects of supervision
in managing dives?

2. The next aspect is communicating clearly with divers while

 Adequate dive planning
 Proper environmental
and diver assessments

informing them about procedures, the dive plan and other key
 Equipment preparation
 Communicating clearly
with divers

information. 


Having a good vantage point
Recognizing, anticipating and identifying
possible problems

3. Having a good vantage point is the third aspect. You need to put
yourself in the most effective position to see and assist divers.
4. Finally, recognizing, anticipating and identifying possible problems
so you can prevent, correct or respond to them is part of supervising
and managing a dive.
B. What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out- Dive Supervision
Supervising
Diving Activities

of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of- What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?

water versus inwater supervision?

 Choose a location for supervising divers
by considering your ability to spot and
respond to problems
 Sometimes the ideal

1. Choose your location for supervising certified divers by considering

place to watch isn’t
the ideal place to
respond from

your ability to spot and respond to a problem. Keep in mind that

sometimes the ideal place to watch isn’t always the ideal place to continued. . .

respond from – you may need to compromise.

2. Other factors that influence your supervision choices include: Dive Supervision
Supervising
Diving Activities

a. The skill and experience level of divers.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
 Factors that influence your choice:

b. The number of divers and diver groups or buddy teams. 


Skill and experience level of divers
Number of divers, groups
or buddy teams

c. Environmental conditions.
 Environmental conditions
 In some areas, governmental
regulations and standards
– follow local protocol

d. Note that in some areas, governmental regulations and standards

require both inwater and out of water supervision. Follow local continued. . .

protocol as appropriate.

Presentation Notes
21
 Dive Supervision
Supervising
Diving Activities
3. The advantages of inwater supervision include:
a. Putting you close to divers to respond to or prevent problems.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
 Advantages of inwater supervision:



Puts you close to divers to respond
or prevent problems
Minimizes divers accidentally
b. Minimizing problems such as divers accidentally exceeding their
exceeding depth limit,
making navigation errors,
damaging aquatic life,
running low on air, etc.
maximum depth, making navigation errors, damaging aquatic
life or running low on air, because you’re there to guide and
 Adds interest by guiding
divers and pointing
out aquatic life

continued. . . remind them.

c. Adding to the dive by guiding divers to interesting areas and
pointing out local aquatic life.
Dive Supervision
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
4. The disadvantages of inwater supervision include:
a. Only being able to watch one group of divers, so it may not be
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
 Disadvantages of inwater supervision:

appropriate with multiple groups or buddy teams.

 You’re only able to watch one group
 Some divers prefer to explore independently

b. Some divers don’t like diving in a group and prefer to explore

independently.
continued. . .

Supervising
Diving Activities
5. The advantages of supervising divers while out of water, such as
Dive Supervision
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
from a boat or the shore, include:
a. It’s the most effective way to supervise multiple buddy teams
 Advantages of out of water supervision:
 Provides an effective way to supervise multiple
buddy teams and groups
Puts you close to

and groups at once.


emergency-related
equipment
 Gives buddy teams more
individual options

b. It usually puts you close to emergency-related equipment for

continued. . . rapid deployment.
c. It often gives buddy teams more individual options in where
they go during the dive.
KR Supervising

6. The disadvantages of out of water supervision include:

Dive Supervision Diving Activities
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
 Disadvantages of out of water supervision:
 You’re not able to remind divers to
follow dive procedures
a. You’re not on hand to remind divers of their responsibilities to
 You can’t show divers points
of interest follow appropriate dive procedures.
b. You can’t show divers around the points of interest on the site.
continued. . . 7. When you decide on the best supervision location for a particular
Dive Supervision
Supervising
Diving Activities
What are the advantages and disadvantages of inwater versus out-
dive, make sure you:
a. Have appropriate emergency response equipment at hand.
of-water supervision, and advantages and disadvantages of out-of-
water versus inwater supervision?
 Decide on the best supervision location
 Have appropriate emergency equipment
 Brief divers about where you’ll be and
what your role will be during the dive b. Brief divers about where you’ll be and what your role is during
the dive.
C. What types of equipment can assist in supervising certified divers?
Dive Supervision
Supervising
Diving Activities 1. To assist you in keeping track of divers while supervising a dive, you
What types of equipment can assist in


supervising certified divers?
To keep track of divers, use management
may find management equipment helpful, such as a clipboard or
equipment:



Clipboard
Dive roster
dive roster, binoculars and a dive site map.
 Binoculars
 Dive site map
2. It’s also prudent to have emergency response equipment prepared
and easily accessible including:
a. Emergency oxygen.
continued. . .

Supervising
Diving Activities

b. A first aid kit with a pocket mask and barriers.

Dive Supervision
What types of equipment can assist in
supervising certified divers?
Have emergency response equipment:

c. A rescue float or life ring with line.


 Emergency oxygen
 First aid kit with pocket mask
 Rescue float or life ring

d. A marine radio or cellular telephone.

 Marine radio or cellular phone

continued. . .

Supervising Diving Activities

22
 3. Other equipment that you’ll find useful in managing a dive and Dive Supervision
KR Supervising
Diving Activities

helping divers get the most out of the experience include:

What types of equipment can assist in
supervising certified divers?
 Other useful equipment:
Tool kit with spare o-rings, straps, buckles, etc.

a. A tool kit with spare o-rings, fin straps, weight belt buckles, etc.

 Spare regulator and BCD
 Dive specific equipment
– dive lights, inflatable
signal tubes, etc.

b. A spare regulator, BCD and other equipment specific to the dive

and location, such as dive lights, inflatable signal tubes, etc.

IV. Dive Briefings Dive Briefings

Study Objectives
Supervising
Diving Activities

1. What 10 points does a dive briefing

A. What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include? 2.

usually include?
Why is it important to include an environmental
orientation in every briefing?

1. As mentioned, good communication with divers before a dive 3. What predive suggestions can you give to help
divers interact responsibly with the environment
and aquatic life?

aids in dive planning and sets clear expectations for the dive. The
effectiveness of your dive briefing is important to dive safety and
success. It’s also key to helping divers enjoy the dive. Dive Briefings
Supervising
Diving Activities
What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?

a. Dive briefings have their practical aspects, but that doesn’t mean  Good communication before a dive helps in dive planning and
sets clear expectations
 Important for dive safety

they have to be dry, humorless speeches. Do what you can to 

 Key to helping divers enjoy dive
Dive briefings have practical aspects, but don’t have to be dry,
humorless speeches – make it entertaining

make the briefing entertaining. Divers pay attention, remember

 Things to avoid:
 Being negative
 Over stressing hazards – be realistic

and respond better when the briefing is enjoyable.

 Including irrelevant stories
 Briefings are supposed to be brief
– keep diver comfort in mind

b. There are a few things you’ll want to be cautious to avoid during continued. . .

your briefing.
• The first is being negative in a way that takes the fun out of
the dive.
• The second thing to avoid is over stressing hazards. Give
realistic appraisals of possible hazards so divers can plan
accordingly and avoid them.
• Third, don’t include irrelevant stories. Say what needs to be
said, be entertaining, but remember that a long-winded, self
indulgent briefing can take the fun out of a dive before it
starts.
c. Briefings are supposed to be brief. Keep diver comfort in mind,
such as by giving the briefing before divers climb into exposure
suits in hot weather.
2. Here are the 10 points you’ll generally include in a dive briefing: Dive Briefings
Supervising
Diving Activities

(in any order) What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
10 points of a dive briefing (in any order):
 Dive site name

a. Dive site name  Site description – topography,

points of interest, hazards,
conditions, depth, compass

b. Site description: topography, points of interest, hazards to avoid, headings, facilities, emergency
equipment, etc.
 Your role and how divers will

water conditions, depth range, compass headings, facilities 

be able to recognize you
Entry and exit techniques

(a map helps, when available), where to locate emergency continued. . .

equipment, etc.
c. Your role and how divers will be able to recognize you Supervising

underwater, if appropriate. Dive Briefings Diving Activities

What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
10 points of a dive briefing (in any order):

d. Entry and exit techniques  Dive procedures – suggested course, problem

avoidance, safety stops, air reserves,
group control, etc.

e. Dive procedures – suggested course to follow, problem  Emergency procedures – local protocols,
separation, low on or out-of-air, diver recall
procedures, surface signaling devices, etc.

avoidance in local conditions, safety stops, air reserves, group 


Signal review
Roster and buddy check

control, etc. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
23
 f. Emergency procedures – local protocols, buddy or group
separation procedures, low-on-air/out-of-air procedures, diver
recall procedures, use of surface signaling devices, etc.
g. Signal review specific to the dive. You may also remind buddy
teams to review their own signals.
KR Supervising
h. Roster and buddy check – check that everyone is listed on the
Diving Activities

dive roster and that everyone has a buddy.

Dive Briefings
What 10 points does a dive briefing usually include?
10 points of a dive briefing (in any order):

i. Environmental orientation — how to properly care for and

 Environmental orientation – care and interaction
 Predive safety check – BWRAF

interact with the environment. (more on this next).

j. Predive safety check – remind divers of their responsibility to
perform a predive safety check (BWRAF).
Dive Briefings
Supervising
Diving Activities B. Why is it important to include an environmental orientation in
Why is it important to include an environmental


orientation in every briefing?
The orientation informs divers about the unique
every briefing?
aspects of the particular dive environment

1. For certified divers who have little or no experience in the local

area, an environmental orientation informs them about the unique
aspects of the particular dive environment. However, even divers
who dive regularly in the area will benefit from being reminded
about the interesting features of the dive site.
Dive Briefings
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
2. In every briefing, you should include descriptions of the following

Why is it important to include an environmental
orientation in every briefing?
Include descriptions of the following:
points, as appropriate:
a. Physical properties – visibility, temperature and water
 Physical properties – visibility,
temperature and water movement
 Local ecosystem and topography
– reef, kelp forest, fresh water, etc.



Cautions about things that
scrape, puncture, sting or bite
How to minimize disturbing or
movement,
damaging the environment

b. Local ecosystem and topography – coral reef, kelp forest,

fresh water spring, shipwreck, steep wall, submarine canyon,
pinnacles, rocky bottom, etc.
c. Cautions about avoiding things that can scrape, puncture, sting
or bite – sharp rocks, coral, metal structures or wrecks, sea
urchins, jellyfish, fire coral, snapping turtles, etc.
d. How to minimize disturbing or damaging the environment,
such as good buoyancy control, anti-silting techniques, etc.

Dive Briefings
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
C. What predive suggestions can you give to help divers interact
What predive suggestions can you give to
help divers interact responsibly with the
environment and aquatic life?
responsibly with the environment and aquatic life?
 Use Project AWARE Foundation’s Ten Ways a
Diver Can Protect the Underwater Environment:
 Dive carefully to protect fragile
ecosystems
1. An easy way to cover responsible interaction with the environment is
to use Project AWARE Foundation’s Ten Ways a Diver Can Protect
 Be aware of your body and equipment
 Consider how your interactions affect
aquatic life
 Respect underwater life and cultural


heritage
Be a role model for others the Underwater Environment (go to [Link])
2 Key points include:
a. Dive carefully to protect fragile aquatic ecosystems – avoid
bumping, kicking or touching organisms.
b. Be aware of your body and equipment placement – maintain
buoyancy control and keep your gauges and alternate air source
secured so they don’t drag.

Supervising Diving Activities

24
 c. Consider how your interactions affect aquatic life – avoid
handling, feeding or riding on aquatic life. Also, be aware of
how your presence can disturb natural behaviors – for example,
avoid scaring creatures who are protecting nests or their young.
d. Respect underwater life and the underwater cultural heritage –
be aware of local protected species, avoid disrupting the local
ecosystem and leave the environment as you find it.
e. Be a role model for other divers when interacting with the Problem Management
Supervising
Diving Activities

environment. 1.
Study Objectives
How do you prepare to handle problems that may
occur at a dive site?
2. When do dive supervision and problem

V. Problem Management
management call for your judgment, and how do
you develop good judgment?
3. What are the general steps for handling a dive
problem?
4. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in

A. How do you prepare to handle problems that may occur at a dive the event of a dive accident?

site?
Supervising

1. Good problem solvers generally have a lot of tools to use, including Problem Management Diving Activities
How do you prepare to handle problems that

field-specific knowledge, relevant skills, experience and equipment.

may occur at a dive site?
 Good problem solvers
have a lot of tools:

a. As a dive professional, you broadly prepare to handle problems

 Field-specific knowledge
 Relevant skills
 Experience

by continuing to increase your knowledge, skill and experience.

 Equipment

 As a dive professional, you broadly

prepare to handle problems by
continuing to increase your
b. This may mean taking additional continuing education courses knowledge, skill and experience

continued. . .

or seeking out specific training such as boat handling or

equipment repair.
2. Psychologists see problems as two types: Problem Management
Supervising
Diving Activities
How do you prepare to handle problems that

a. Routine problems – those you’ve seen before and already have may occur at a dive site?
Two types of problems:

solutions for. For example, an emergency evacuation plan  Routine – those you’ve seen before and already
have solutions for
 For example, an emergency evacuation plan

provides a preplanned solution to the problem of who to contact  Unfamiliar (novel) – situations you’ve never
experienced or trained for, and need to create
solutions for

and how to evacuate an injured diver.  For example, an underwater strobe catching fire

b. Unfamiliar problems – situations that you’ve never experience or continued. . .

trained for, and need to create a solution for. These problems are
unusual and not reasonably foreseeable. For example, someone’s
underwater strobe catching on fire.
3. You prepare for all problems by paying attention to the steps Problem Management
KR Supervising
Diving Activities

required to deal with each familiar and unfamiliar situation. This 

How do you prepare to handle problems that
may occur at a dive site?
Pay attention to steps required to deal with each

helps you to apply the same or similar steps the next time you face 
familiar and unfamiliar situation
Gather physical resources
– spare equipment, tools,
the same or a similar problem. first aid kit, emergency
oxygen, etc.
 Be familiar with the dive site

4. You also can prepare by gathering the physical resources to handle

problems, such as spare equipment, tools, first aid kit, emergency
oxygen, etc.
5. Being familiar with a dive site, before you take other divers there,
gives you lots of insight into preventing and then handling problems
that may occur.

Presentation Notes
25
 Problem Management
Supervising
Diving Activities B. When do dive supervision and problem management call for your
judgment, and how do you develop good judgment?
When do dive supervision and problem
management call for your judgment,
and how do you develop good judgment?
 Judgment – having to make a decision when you


have incomplete information or when information
you have doesn’t direct a clear decision
Apply judgment to dive supervision:
1. Dive supervision and problem management call for your judgment,


Evaluating dive conditions
Choosing dive techniques to
recommend
which can be defined as having to make a decision when you have
incomplete information, or when the information doesn’t direct a
 Picking a vantage point
 Choosing the best solutions
to problems

continued. . .
clear decision.
2. You apply your judgment to many elements of dive supervision,
such as:
a. Evaluating whether dive conditions are acceptable.
b. Choosing which dive techniques to recommend.
c. Picking a vantage point for supervising dive activities.
d. Choosing the best of several possible solutions to problems.
Problem Management
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
3. To develop good judgment:
a. Gain experience by assisting other dive professionals who can
When do dive supervision and problem
management call for your judgment,
and how do you develop good judgment?

explain their judgments to you.

 To develop good judgment:
 Gain experience by assisting other
dive professionals
 When in doubt,
be conservative
b. When in doubt or making decisions that you have less
experience with, be conservative. Being unnecessarily cautious is
continued. . .
generally better than being insufficiently cautious.
Supervising
Diving Activities
c. Be cautious to avoid letting emotions or desires inappropriately
Problem Management
When do dive supervision and problem
management call for your judgment,
influence your judgment. For example, you wouldn’t want to
and how do you develop good judgment?
 To develop good judgment:
 Avoid letting emotions or desires
continue a dive in poor conditions just because you don’t want
the divers to be disappointed.
influence your judgment
▶ Don’t continue a dive in poor
conditions because you don’t
want to disappoint divers

d. As with problem solving, dive experience and continuing your

 Continue your education
and gain dive experience

education provide you with knowledge that helps you make

good judgments.

Problem Management
KR Supervising
Diving Activities
C. What are the general steps for handling a dive problem?
What are the general steps for handling


a dive problem?
Every dive problem is 1. Because every dive problem is slightly different and may have
slightly different and may


have various solutions
General steps:
various solutions, follow these general steps each time you handle a
problem:
 Identify the problem precisely
 Inventory your resources
 Create several possible solutions
 Choose the best – devote energy to that solution
 Assess and revise – adjust solution as you go
a. Identify the problem precisely. The more specific the problem,
the more specifically you can apply a solution.
b. Inventory your resources. Think about what resources you can
apply to the problem, including tools, your skills and knowledge
and those of other people who may help.
c. Create several possible solutions. Try to make these as different
as possible.
d. Choose the best. Pick one that seems the most feasible and likely
to succeed, and devote your energy to that solution.
e. Assess and revise. As you handle the problem, assess your
progress, and adjust the solution as you go, building on the ideas
and experience you gain by applying the solution.

Supervising Diving Activities

26
 D. What are the two likely roles of the divemaster in the event of a dive Problem Management
KR Supervising
Diving Activities

accident?
What are the two likely roles of the divemaster
in the event of a dive accident?
 If you’re the most
qualified person

1. If a dive accident occurs and you’re the most qualified person present, you’ll
manage the accident
Have an emergency
present, you’ll probably manage the accident. This would be the

assistance plan
ready

expected situation when supervising certified divers.

a. You’ll want to have an emergency assistance plan ready to deal continued. . .

with emergencies.
b. Be prepared to follow the steps you learned in your PADI Supervising
Diving Activities
Problem Management
Rescue Diver course including: What are the two likely roles of the divemaster
in the event of a dive accident?
 Follow steps learned as a Rescue Diver:

• Assess the situation and form a plan of action. 


Assess the situation and form a plan of action
Act on your plan
 Delegate by assigning tasks

• Act on your plan. 


Provide BLS, first aid and emergency oxygen
Control the scene
Evacuate the patient

• Delegate by assigning tasks to suitably qualified individuals.

 If a more qualified person is present,
you’ll probably assist

• Provide basic life support (BLS), first aid and emergency

oxygen as necessary for the patient.
• Control the scene.
• Evacuate the patient to the closest appropriate medical
facility.
2. If a more qualified person is present, you will probably assist under
that person’s management. This would be the expected situation
when assisting an instructor with student divers.

Summary Summary
Supervising
Diving Activities

 Dive Planning

I. Dive Planning
 Diver Behavior
 Dive Supervision
 Dive Briefings
 Problem Management

II. Diver Behavior

III. Dive Supervision

IV. Dive Briefings

V. Problem Management

Presentation Notes
27
Supervising Diving Activities
28
Assisting with
Student Divers

Presentation Notes
29
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or by reading Chapter
Assisting with
3 of the PADI Divemaster Manual and watching the Divemaster Video.
Student Divers
You may also use this presentation for prescriptive remediation while
Assisting with reviewing the Chapter 3 Knowledge Review with candidates.
Student Divers
2. This presentation explains a divemaster’s role as an instructional assistant
and highlights aspects of control, supervision and logistics.
Go To Knowledge Review

Overview
Assisting with
Overview

The Assistant’s Role

Student Divers
I. The Assistant’s Role

Control, Supervision and Logistics

Demonstrating Skills • What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster compared to that of

Problem Solving
a PADI Instructor in an instructional setting?
• What seven functions may you be asked fulfill as an instructional
assistant in confined and open water?
• What is your primary role in the relationship between you and
student divers in training?

II. Control, Supervision and Logistics

• How does positioning affect your ability to assist with student diver
control?
• For skills practice, what are the advantages and disadvantages of
different student diver arrangements and assistant positioning?
• What are the methods and considerations for direct contact with a
student diver?
• What logistical functions may you perform to assist with diver
training at the surface?
• What are five examples of logistical functions you may perform to
assist with student diver training underwater?

III. Demonstrating Skills

• When would you demonstrate a skill, and for what reasons?
• What are the characteristics of a demonstration-quality skill?
• How do you develop demonstration-quality skills?
• What are the 20 basic dive skills from the PADI Open Water Diver
course?
• What are the skin dive skills specific to the PADI Skin Diver course?

Assisting with Student Divers

30
IV. Problem Solving
• What common problems occur as student divers develop skills in
confined and open water?
• What three steps do you take to help a student diver master a dive
skill?
Assisting with
• How should you adapt your approach to create a comfortable The Assistant’s Role
Study Objectives
Student Divers

learning environment for people with differing physical abilities? 1. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an
instructional setting?
2. What seven functions may you be asked to fulfill
as an instructional assistant in confined and open

Outline
water?
3. What is your primary role in the relationship
between you and student divers in training?

I. The Assistant’s Role

Assisting with

A. What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster compared to that of The Assistant’s Role Student Divers
What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an

a PADI Instructor in an instructional setting?

instructional setting?
You’re authorized to conduct certain programs
– not teach people how to scuba dive
Your role during courses is to assist the instructor
1. Although as a PADI Divemaster you are authorized to conduct a few


– add safety,
efficiency,
effectiveness

PADI programs independently, you are not qualified to teach people and enjoyment

how to scuba dive – that is the role of a PADI Instructor. continued. . .

2. Your primary role during scuba diving courses is to assist the

instructor, which adds to safety, efficiency, effectiveness and
enjoyment of the learning experience.
3. In an instructional setting, under the instructor’s direction, you The Assistant’s Role
KR Assisting with
Student Divers

handle logistics, help with student diver supervision and generally What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an
instructional setting?

support the instructor’s decisions and efforts.

Handle logistics
Help with supervision

Support the instructor’s

a. You are an important member of the instructional team and

decisions and efforts
Be ready to complete
assigned tasks
need to be ready to complete tasks as assigned by the instructor.

Role-model safe and responsible diving practices
Pay attention to the instructor

b. Remember that as a role model, student divers will follow your continued. . .

example not only regarding safe and responsible diving practices,

but also how you pay attention to and work with the instructor.
4. In your role as an instructional assistant, you should anticipate and Assisting with
Student Divers
The Assistant’s Role

provide what the instructor requires to meet the needs of student What is the primary role of a PADI Divemaster
compared to that of a PADI Instructor in an
instructional setting?

divers.  Anticipate what the

instructor requires to
meet student diver needs

a. You need to be alert while assisting with confined or open water  Be alert – pay attention to
what’s going on and think
about what’s coming next
dives. This means that you are not only paying attention to what

Example — buoyancy challenge
Example — mild surface current

is presently going on, but also thinking about what is coming

next.
b. For example, if the plan is to conduct a buoyancy challenge of
swimming through hoops at the end of a confined water dive
and you see that the last student diver is working on the final
skill with the instructor, you can be ready to position the hoops
– before the instructor asks you to get them.
c. Another example is that you notice a mild surface current at the
dive site, so you add an extra trail line to the float as you prepare
it for the dive – anticipating that this will make keeping student
divers near the float a lot easier.
Presentation Notes
31
 The Assistant’s Role
Assisting with
Student Divers B. What seven functions may you be asked to fulfill as an instructional
What seven functions may you be asked to fulfill as an
instructional assistant in confined and open water?
 Functions vary, but typically include:
assistant in confined and open water?

Supervise equipment

distribution and collection
– handle difficulties
Supervise student divers
1. Your functions as an instructional assistant will vary with the needs
not watched by instructor

Handle logistics and
coordinate student diver flow
Conduct the exploration
of the moment, but will typically include many of the following:
portion of dives

a. Supervise the predive equipment distribution to student divers,

continued. . .

postdive equipment collection, and handling equipment

difficulties.
b. Supervise student divers not being immediately watched by the
instructor.
c. Handle logistics and coordinate student diver flow to keep
things moving during training.
d. Conduct the exploration portion of dives.
KR Assisting with
Student Divers
e. Provide the instructor with additional information about
The Assistant’s Role
What seven functions may you be asked to fulfill as an
instructional assistant in confined and open water?
student diver performance.
 Functions vary, but typically include:

Provide the instructor with
information about student
diver performance
f. Check divers in and out of the water at a training site.
Check divers in and

g. Help student divers with learning difficulties on an individual

out of the water

Help student divers with
learning difficulties

You’ll practice these functions during

basis.
workshops and your internship

2. We’ll discuss these functions in more detail next. Also note that
as you progress through this course, you’ll have an opportunity to
practice all these functions either during role-playing workshops or
while working with student divers during your internship.

The Assistant’s Role

Assisting with
Student Divers
C. What is your primary role in the relationship between you and
What is your primary role in the relationship between
you and student divers in training? student divers in training?
 Relationship is similar to, but not identical to, the
relationship between student divers and instructor
 Primary role – be a link

Part of the instructional team
1. The relationship between you and student divers is similar to, but
– not the ultimate authority

Viewed as someone
between student
and instructor
not identical to, the relationship between student divers and the
instructor.
2. Your primary role is to be a link between the student divers and the
continued. . .

instructor. Student divers see you as part of the instructional team

having a level of authority, but you aren’t the ultimate authority –
that’s the instructor’s role. Thus, you are often viewed as someone of
a level between the students and the instructor.
KR Assisting with
Student Divers
3. As this link, you have the ability to assist student divers by listening
The Assistant’s Role
What is your primary role in the relationship between
you and student divers in training? to their concerns and problems and then taking these concerns to
Assist student divers by listening to concerns

the instructor, as appropriate.



It’s critical that you’re approachable

Students may feel more comfortable talking to you

Make the effort to get to know each student diver

a. It’s critical that student divers feel you are approachable so they
will come to you with concerns or problems, because sometimes
continued. . .
students feel more comfortable confiding in you than they do
Assisting with
with the instructor.
The Assistant’s Role Student Divers
What is your primary role in the relationship between
you and student divers in training? b. You need to make the effort to get to know each student diver
 Your relationship allows you to keep training
enjoyable, entertaining and relevant when the
instructor is busy individually to build this trust.

While waiting, keep divers focused,
involved and having fun

4. Your relationship with student divers also allows you to help keep
training enjoyable, entertaining and relevant when the instructor is
busy handling issues.
Assisting with Student Divers
32
 a. If a situation arises where student divers must wait for the
instructor, they will look to you to keep them focused, involved
and having fun. Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers
Study Objectives

b. For example, while waiting at the dive site, you can explain the 1. How does positioning affect your ability to assist
with student diver control?
2. For skills practice, what are the advantages and

aquatic life student divers may see on the dive. disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?
3. What are the methods and considerations for
direct contact with a student diver?
4. What logistical functions may you perform to

II. Control, Supervision and Logistics assist with diver training at the surface?
5. What are five examples of logistical functions you
may perform to assist with diver training
underwater?

A. How does positioning affect your ability to assist with student diver Assisting with
Student Divers
Control, Supervision and Logistics

control? How does positioning affect your ability to assist

with student diver control?

Instructional assistant functions include
coordinating student diver flow and supervising
1. As mentioned, instructional assistant functions include coordinating

divers not watched by the instructor
Your position relative

student diver flow to keep things moving during training and to divers and the
instructor is important
for coordination,
supervision and
supervising student divers not being immediately watched by the control

instructor. continued. . .

2. Your position in the water relative to the student divers and

the instructor is important to provide adequate coordination,
supervision and control.
3. Good positioning makes it easier for you to see the entire group and Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers

the instructor. 
How does positioning affect your ability to assist
with student diver control?
Good positioning makes it easier for you to see
the entire group and instructor
a. It’s important that you can see the instructor’s signals and
Important to see the
instructor’s signals
Need to see problems

respond if assistance is needed.

and be positioned
to respond
 Good positioning
allows you to direct
b. You also need to be able to see if a student diver is having a diver movement

problem and be positioned to quickly respond.

4. Good positioning also allows you to direct student diver movement
to and from the instructor, as required. Entry-level divers sometimes
have limited awareness of their surroundings and need guidance to
find their place within the group.
B. For skills practice, what are the advantages and disadvantages of Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers

different student diver arrangements and assistant positioning?

For skills practice, what are the advantages and
disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?
 During practical application, you’re likely to see

1. During the practical application portion of this course, you are likely different arrangements depending on:




Level of training
Site logistics

to see different student diver arrangements depending on the level of 

Instructor’s preference

To be prepared, you need to

know common arrangements
training, site logistics and the instructor’s preference. To be prepared – advantages and disadvantages

to position yourself effectively, you need to know the common continued. . .

arrangements as well as their advantages and disadvantages.

2. The first arrangement is that the student divers form a semicircle Control, Supervision and Logistics
KR Assisting with
Student Divers

or line with the instructor centered in front and you supervise For skills practice, what are the advantages and
disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?

from behind the group, directly opposite instructor. Typically in  First arrangement:

Student divers in semicircle

Instructor in front

this arrangement, the instructor moves from student to student to

You supervise from
behind the group
Instructor moves from

conduct skills practice. 

student to student
Advantages – you can
see the entire group and
are close to the divers
a. The advantage of this arrangement is that you can see the entire continued. . .

group and the instructor, and you’re close to all student divers.
b. The disadvantage is that student divers can’t see you and you
can’t see their faces.

Presentation Notes
33
 Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers • The student divers will need to turn around to get your
For skills practice, what are the advantages and
disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?
attention
 Disadvantages – divers can’t see you and you
can’t see their faces

Divers need to turn around
to get your attention
• In this arrangement, be aware of student divers who are not

Be aware of student
divers who are not looking
at instructor – they
may be looking around for
looking at the instructor or watching the student diver who
someone to help them
is performing the skill, because they may be experiencing
continued. . .
stress or having a problem and are looking around for
someone to help them.
Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers
3. The second common arrangement is to have student divers in a line
For skills practice, what are the advantages and
disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?
with the instructor at one end and you at the other. Once a student
 Second arrangement:




Student divers in a line
Instructor at one end
diver completes a skill, the instructor has the diver swim to you. You
You at the other end

put the diver at the end of line, and the line moves down until all



Once student diver completes
skill, the diver swims to you
and the line moves

student divers complete the skill.

 Advantages – you can see entire
group and instructor, and they can see you
 Disadvantages – you’re far from divers at other end;
diver swimming can kick up silt, affecting visibility

continued. . . a. The advantage of this arrangement is that you can see the entire
group and the instructor, and they can see you.
b. One disadvantage is that you are at one end far from student
divers at the other end, although the instructor is there.
c. Another disadvantage is that if you are on a silty bottom, the
student divers are likely to kick up silt as they swim from one
end to the other, thus affecting visibility.
Assisting with
Control, Supervision and Logistics Student Divers
For skills practice, what are the advantages and
4. You may learn variations of these common arrangements as you gain
disadvantages of different student diver
arrangements and assistant positioning?
experience working with different instructors and student divers.
However, the key is to position yourself to maintain communication
with the instructor to reduce any delays in handling problems or
Position yourself to maintain communication
with the instructor to reduce delay in handling
problems and coordinating activities
coordinating activities.
Assisting with
C. What are the methods and considerations for direct contact with a
Control, Supervision and Logistics Student Divers
What are the methods and considerations for direct
contact with a student diver?
student diver?
 Control sometimes requires direct contact with a
student diver:

Provide reassurance
Prevent inappropriate response
1. Control sometimes requires making direct contact with an

– bolting
Prevent buoyancy problem
Control rate of ascent or descent
individual student diver. You may do this to:
Steady a diver with water

a. Provide reassurance – appropriate contact can help a diver with a

motion present

continued. . . problem calm down by reminding the diver that you’re there.
b. Prevent an inappropriate response – for example, bolting to the
surface.
c. Prevent a buoyancy problem – too positively or negatively
buoyant.
d. Control the rate of an ascent or descent.
e. Steady a diver while practicing a skill with some water motion
present. For example, when a student diver is clearing a mask
KR Assisting with
while on the bottom in mild surge.
Control, Supervision and Logistics Student Divers
What are the methods and considerations for direct
contact with a student diver? 2. Direct contact with a student diver is not always required provided
Direct contact is not always required provided
you are close enough to make contact immediately should the

you are close enough
 Be sensitive about where and how you
make contact

Center strap of female’s BCD
may cause unintended offense
situation call for it.
 Hold the BCD at shoulder
or low on outside
 Remind student divers during
briefings that direct contact is
3. Be sensitive about where and how you make direct contact with
sometimes needed for safety
continued. . .

Assisting with Student Divers

34
 a diver because different cultures may have different perceptions
regarding personal space and appropriate contact, especially between
genders.
a. For example, a male divemaster holding the center strap of a
female’s BCD may cause unintended offense because it is so
close to her chest.
b. Generally, holding the BCD at the shoulder or low on the
outside, depending upon the circumstances, provides ample
control with minimal likelihood of cultural sensitivities.
4. It helps if you or the instructor remind student divers during
briefings that direct contact is sometimes needed for safety or
control and explain how it will be made. For example, it’s a normal
part of the controlled emergency swimming ascent and this should
be mentioned during the briefing.
5. If direct contact is appropriate during additional skill practice under Control, Supervision and Logistics
Assisting with
Student Divers
What are the methods and considerations for direct
your supervision, use a method that does not interfere with the skill 
contact with a student diver?
Use a direct contact method that does not
interfere with the skill:
or provide unintended help. For example:
Make contact below the arms during
mask clearing

Hold the student’s left side during

a. Make contact below the student diver’s arms during mask

regulator recovery and clearing
Hold the SPG hose during hovering –
loose grip
During CESA, make contact by

clearing so you don’t restrict movement.

swimming slightly ahead of diver –
don’t interfere with kicks

b. Hold the student’s left side during regulator recovery and

clearing so you leave the right (recovering) arm unobstructed.
c. During hovering, a common technique is to hold the SPG hose
to prevent an uncontrolled ascent. Use a loose grip that does not
help the student diver hover – unless you need to stop an ascent.
d. During confined water practice of the controlled emergency
swimming ascent, make contact by swimming slightly ahead of
the diver so you can see exhalation bubbles, but enough to the
side so you don’t interfere with the diver’s kicks. This is similar
to the technique the instructor will use in open water.
D. What logistical functions may you perform to assist with diver Assisting with
Student Divers
training at the surface?
Control, Supervision and Logistics
What logistical functions may you perform to assist
with diver training at the surface?
 On the surface, logistical functions vary:

1. On the surface, you play an important role supervising and

Help coordinate and monitor equipment
Assist with loading and unloading
vehicle or boat

coordinating activities. The logistical functions you fulfill vary and

Coordinate air fills between dives
Take charge of special equipment or
safety equipment

are important for safety, control and effective course conduct.

2. Because diving is an equipment intensive activity, you help continued. . .

coordinate and monitor equipment so that all divers have what they
need to dive. This includes:
a. Assisting with loading and unloading of vehicles or the boat. Assisting with
Control, Supervision and Logistics Student Divers

b. Coordinating air fills between dives, if necessary. What logistical functions may you perform to assist
with diver training at the surface?
Another task – coordinate
c. Taking charge of special equipment or safety equipment.

student divers at training site:

Show divers where to go,
where to place equipment
and what to do

3. Another task typically handled by divemasters is to coordinate 

– set up equipment
No matter what course
– help divers prepare to dive

student divers at the training site.

Entry-level – provide
more guidance
Continuing education
– help prepare specialty equipment

Presentation Notes
35
 a. This includes showing student divers where to go, where to
place their equipment, and what to do, such as setting up their
equipment.
b. If there are several groups of student divers at a training site,
your role in directing student divers is even more important –
especially if student divers are participating in different levels of
training,
4. No matter what course you are assisting with, you also help student
divers prepare for the dive.
a. With entry-level divers, you need to provide more guidance as
student divers gear up and perform equipment checks.
b. With divers taking continuing education courses, you help them
prepare specialty equipment.
Assisting with
Student Divers
5. You also provide logistical support by explaining and enforcing
Control, Supervision and Logistics
What logistical functions may you perform to assist
with diver training at the surface?
safety or facility rules. For example, reminding divers not to run in
Explain and enforce safety and facility rules
the pool area, making sure they dispose of rubbish properly, and


Do not run in pool area

Dispose of rubbish properly

asking them not to practice scuba skills before the instructor covers

Do not practice skills before
the instructor covers them
 Escort student divers in
and out of the water, or to
and from the shore,
boat and float
them, etc.
 Handling paperwork under the instructor’s

6. Depending on the number of student divers, the environmental

direction
continued. . .

conditions and the training level, your role could be to escort

student divers in and out of the water or to and from the boat
or shore to the float. This support adds efficiency to the flow of
activities.
7. Another logistical function is handling paperwork under the
instructor’s direction, such as recording student diver scores, etc.

Control, Supervision and Logistics

Assisting with
Student Divers E. What are five examples of logistical functions you may perform to
assist with student diver training underwater?
What are five examples of logistical functions you
may perform to assist with diver training underwater?
Underwater you play an important role
supervising and coordinating activities

Lead the group with the instructor
taking rear, or take the rear 1. Underwater you also play an important role supervising and
while instructor leads

Conduct air checks
at regular intervals
coordinating the activities of student divers. Besides positioning
Help the instructor
yourself for control during skills practice, you help the instructor by


with navigation

continued. . .
fulfilling several other functions.
2. The first function is to either lead the group with the instructor
taking up the rear, or take up the rear when the instructor leads, as
the group explores a dive site.
3. The second function is to conduct air checks with student divers
at regular intervals. This reinforces good diving habits for student
divers and allows you to keep the instructor informed about how
much air student divers have.
4. Another important function is to help the instructor with navigation
and keep track of the course to follow back to the exit. On dives
where visibility is limited and the instructor needs to focus on
student diver activities, you provide navigational assistance.

Assisting with Student Divers

36
 5. Another function is to stay with a group of student divers when the Control, Supervision and Logistics
KR Assisting with
Student Divers
What are five examples of logistical functions you
instructor has to assist one diver. may perform to assist with diver training underwater?
 Stay with the group when the
instructor assists one diver

a. This occurs, for example, during a descent when one diver has

During descent – one diver
has difficulty equalizing
During ascent skills

difficulty equalizing but the rest of class continues descending.  Escort divers during continuing
education courses

Provide added safety

b. Another example is while the instructor is conducting an ascent

and control

Provide some guidance with
the instructor’s approval
– reason to hold PADI Specialty

skill with one or two divers and you remain on the bottom with
Diver certifications

the rest.
6. A final function is to escort certified divers during continuing
education courses.
a. There are many activities, such as navigation exercises, that allow
the instructor to indirectly monitor the dive.
b. You provide added safety and control by escorting divers during
these activities.
c. If you’re qualified in a specialty, you may also provide some
guidance, with the instructor’s approval. This is another reason Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers

to include PADI Specialty Diver certifications in your growth as 1.

Study Objectives
When would you demonstrate a skill, and for what
reasons?

a professional. 2. What are the characteristics of a demonstration-

quality skill?
3. How do you develop demonstration-quality skills?
4. What are the 20 basic dive skills from the PADI

III. Demonstrating Skills

Open Water Diver course?
5. What are the skin dive skills specific to the PADI
Skin Diver course?

A. When would you demonstrate a skill, and for what reasons?

KR Assisting with

1. Most often, particularly in the PADI Open Water Diver course, Demonstrating Skills Student Divers
When would you demonstrate a skill,
and for what reasons?

the instructor will demonstrate skills for student divers. However, 


Most often, the instructor demonstrates skills
Times and reasons the instructor might ask
you to demonstrate:
there are times and reasons when the instructor might ask you to
Assist with two-person demonstration
– alternate air source use

Help a student diver with

demonstrate, including:

a problem learning a skill
When instructor prefers
to maintain control and
watch student divers

a. To assist with a two-person demonstration for skills such as while you demonstrate

alternate air source use.

b. When helping a student diver with a problem learning a skill.
The student diver would have already seen the instructor’s
demonstration, but you may demonstrate additional times to
help the student diver see the critical steps.
c. When the instructor prefers to maintain control by personally
watching the student divers while you demonstrate.
B. What are the characteristics of a demonstration-quality skill? Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers
What are the characteristics of a

1. You realize that a skill is actually a series of key subskills or steps

demonstration-quality skill?
A skill is a series of key subskills or steps
performed in sequence

performed in sequence.

Steps = Critical Attributes
As an experienced diver,
you probably don’t think
a. These steps are called critical attributes, because without them,

about the steps
As an instructional assistant,

you can’t perform the skill correctly. you need to be familiar with
each skill to help student
divers master them

b. As an experienced diver, you probably don’t think about continued. . .

the steps as you perform skills while diving. However, as an

instructional assistant, you need to be familiar with the critical
steps of each skill so that you can help student divers master
them.

Presentation Notes
37
 Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers 2. When you demonstrate a skill for student divers, you want to be
What are the characteristics of a


demonstration-quality skill?
When you demonstrate a skill, be sure student
sure they can see each step in sequence. A demonstration quality
divers can see each step in sequence
 Demonstration quality skill characteristics:

Performed slowly
skill performance has these characteristics:
Critical attributes emphasized

a. The skill is performed slowly so that there is time to observe the

Sequence – stress order of
critical attributes

Clearly seen – repeated if necessary

Fluid to show how steps flow together
details of the skill.
continued. . .
b. The critical attributes are emphasized, especially those that may
be easy to miss by someone who has never performed the skill.
c. When the sequence of the steps are important to the skill, you
also stress the order of the critical attributes.
d. Student divers need to clearly see the demonstration, which
means the demonstration is repeated, if necessary, to show more
than one angle.
e. The skill demonstration must also be fluid, so that student
divers get an accurate and realistic view of how the steps flow
together.
f. Within reason, you can’t over demonstrate a skill.
Research shows that learners pick up nuances from further
demonstrations after practicing, so don’t hesitate to repeat a
demonstration after student divers attempt the skill a few times.
Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers
3. For example, let’s examine the simple skill of clearing a partially

What are the characteristics of a
demonstration-quality skill?
Clearing a partially flooded mask:
flooded mask.

Get water into mask
– break seal near top
Seal mask to face, breathe in and
a. The first step is to get water into the mask. One technique is to
start exhaling through nose

Tilt head slightly
to look up break the mask seal near the top and slowly let water in. This
shows control and avoids having water rush in, perhaps going up
the nose.
b. The next step is to seal the top of the mask to the face, breath in
and then start exhaling through the nose.
c. For a mask without a purge, tilting the head slightly to look up
makes clearing more efficient.
KR Assisting with
Student Divers
C. How do you develop demonstration-quality skills?
Demonstrating Skills
How do you develop demonstration-quality skills?


Improve demonstrations during this course
To better prepare:
1. You’ll work on improving the quality of your skill demonstrations

Watch the PADI Open Water Diver Video
Consult your PADI Instructor Manual
for performance requirements
during various water sessions in this course. You can better prepare

Look in PADI’s Guide to Teaching
for technique suggestions
Get in the water and practice
to develop demonstration quality skills by doing the following:

Have someone assess your performance

– practice with knowledge of results
Practice until fluid and automatic a. Start by watching skill demonstrations in the PADI Open Water
Diver Video and note the critical attributes.
b. Consult the PADI Instructor Manual for the performance
requirements of each skill and look in PADI’s Guide to Teaching
for the technique suggestions for accomplishing each skill.
2. The best way to continue improving is to get in the water and
practice skills. The only way to master a motor skill is through
repeated practice.
a. You also need to know how well you perform the skill, so it’s
important to have someone assess your performance.

Assisting with Student Divers

38
 b. Practice until each skill is fluid and automatic.
D. What are the 20 basic dive skills from the PADI Open Water Diver Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers

course? 
What are the 20 basic skills from the PADI
Open Water Diver Course?
You’ll practice these skills during this course:

Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation, donning

1. There are 20 basic skills you will practice during the Dive Skill



and disassembly
Predive safety check (BWRAF)
Deep-water entry
Buoyancy check at surface

Evaluation portion of this course. These skills are what new divers



Snorkel-regulator / regulator-snorkel exchange

Five-point descent

Regulator recovery and clearing

learn and skills you might be asked to demonstrate when assisting

Mask removal, replacement and clearing

Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use
(stationary)

Alternate air source assisted ascent

with an Open Water Diver course. They include: continued. . .

a. Equipment assembly, adjustment, preparation, donning and

disassembly
b. Predive safety check (BWRAF)
c. Deep-water entry
d. Buoyancy check at surface
e. Snorkel-regulator/regulator-snorkel exchange
f. Five-point descent
g. Regulator recovery and clearing
h. Mask removal, replacement and clearing
i. Air depletion exercise and alternate air source use (stationary)
j. Alternate air source-assisted ascent
k. Free-flowing regulator breathing KR Assisting with
Student Divers
Demonstrating Skills

l. Neutral buoyancy What are the 20 basic skills from the PADI
Open Water Diver Course?
 You’ll practice these skills during this course:

m. Five-point ascent





Free-flowing regulator breathing
Neutral buoyancy
Five-point ascent

Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent

n. Controlled Emergency Swimming Ascent

Hover motionless for 30 seconds
Underwater swim without a mask
Remove and replace weight system underwater

Remove and replace scuba unit underwater

o. Hover motionless for 30 seconds

Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface
Remove and replace weight system on the surface
You’ll develop demonstration-quality skills for upper training
levels as well as other skills beyond these fundamentals

p. Underwater swim without a mask

q. Remove and replace weight system underwater
r. Remove and replace scuba unit underwater
s. Remove and replace scuba unit on the surface
t. Remove and replace weight system on the surface
2. You’ll eventually develop demonstration quality skills for upper
training levels as well as other skills beyond these fundamental skills
that an Open Water Diver student masters.
E. What are the skin dive skills specific to the PADI Skin Diver course? Demonstrating Skills
Assisting with
Student Divers
What are the skin dive skills specific to the

1. In addition to scuba skills, there several skin diving skills that you 
PADI Skin Diver Course?
You’ll also practice these skin dive skills:
Vertical, head first dive

will practice during the Dive Skill Evaluation portion of this course.



Underwater swim on a single breath

Snorkel clear – blast method
Snorkel clear – displacement method

These skills are part of the PADI Skin Diver course, which you

can teach as a PADI Divemaster and thus, need to be comfortable

demonstrating. They include:
a. Make a vertical, head first dive from the surface in water too
deep in which to stand.
b. Swim at least 15 metres/50 feet underwater on a single breath.

Presentation Notes
39
 c. Ascend from a surface dive, clear a snorkel using the blast
method and resume breathing through the snorkel without
lifting the face from the water.
Problem Solving
Assisting with
Student Divers
d. Ascend from a surface dive, clear a snorkel using the
1. What
Study Objectives
common problems occur as student divers
develop skills in confined and open water?
displacement method and resume breathing through the snorkel
2. What three steps do you take to help a student
diver master a dive skill? without lifting the face from the water.
3. How should you adapt your approach to create a
comfortable learning environment for people with
differing physical abilities?

IV. Problem Solving

A. What common problems occur as student divers develop skills in
Assisting with
Problem Solving Student Divers
What common problems occur as student divers
confined and open water?
develop skills in confined and open water?
Role – help a student diver who is having difficulty
1. As mentioned, one of your roles is to help a student diver who is


learning a skill

Need to identify the problem and respond

Knowing what common
problems occur makes
it possible to anticipate
having difficulty learning a skill. To better assist the diver, you need
problems and then
pass on your observations to identify what problem the diver is having and respond to help
continued. . .
solve it.
2. Also, knowing what common problems occur during skill
development makes it possible for you to anticipate problems and
then pass on your observations to the instructor.
Problem Solving
KR Assisting with
Student Divers
3. When assisting, be sure the student diver understands the problem


What common problems occur as student divers
develop skills in confined and open water?
Be sure the student diver understands the problem
and if possible, have the diver self-correct the problem to promote

If possible, have the diver self-correct the problem
to promote learning learning.

Take action for problems with
immediate safety concerns or
that are logistically difficult a. Of course, you do need to take action for problems with
Refer to the commonly
encountered problems list
in your PADI Divemaster Manual
immediate safety concerns or that are logistically difficult for a
and PADI’s Guide to Teaching

student diver to correct, such as a cylinder slipping out of the

BCD’s strap.
4. Please refer to the commonly encountered problems list in your
PADI Divemaster Manual or PADI’s Guide to Teaching.
Assisting with
Student Divers
B. What three steps do you take to help a student diver master a dive
Problem Solving
What three steps do you take to help a
student diver master a dive skill?
skill?

Helping requires patience
Follow these steps:
1 — Redemonstrate the skill
1. Helping student divers who have difficulty with a skill requires
2 — Have the student attempt
the skill – look for missing
or improperly performed
patience, but it also gives you experience for when you become an
critical attributes
instructor.
continued. . .
2. If the instructor asks you to assist a student diver who has a
difficulty, follow these three steps:
a. First, redemonstrate the skill so the student diver can watch for
missing critical attributes.
b. Second, have the student diver attempt the skill and carefully
look for missing or improperly performed critical attributes.
Assisting with
• If the diver’s actions create a safety concern, stop the exercise
KR

Problem Solving Student Divers

What three steps do you take to help a
student diver master a dive skill?
3 — Student unsuccessful – redemonstrate the skill immediately.
pointing out missed or improper steps
 Have the student try again

Reinforce critical attributes
Describe what parts were
c. Third, if the student diver wasn’t successful, redemonstrate the

performed well
Patiently review the skill
Work on critical
skill, making sure to point out the missed or improper steps.
attributes separately

continued. . .

Assisting with Student Divers

40
 d. Follow up by having the student diver try the skill again.
• If successful, reinforce how well the student diver performed
all the critical attributes.
• If not successful, keep the student diver motivated by
describing what parts of the skill the diver performed
well. This encourages the diver to continue trying. Then,
patiently review the skill again.
• If possible, work on critical attributes separately so that the
diver enjoys success as the skill develops. Problem Solving
Assisting with
Student Divers
What three steps do you take to help a

3. Continue until the student diver performs the skill successfully

student diver master a dive skill?
Continue until the student diver performs the skill
successfully without difficulty or stress

without difficulty or stress.
Ask the instructor to assess skill mastery

4. When you observe the student diver is performing the skill

adequately, ask the instructor to assess skill mastery.
C. How should you adapt your approach to assist people with differing Problem Solving
Assisting with
Student Divers

physical abilities? How should you adapt your approach to assist

people with differing physical abilities?
 The ability to assist divers with
differing physical abilities is
1. During the presentation – Supervising Diving Activities – the need important when acting
as an instructional assistant
Sometimes classes include:
for a divemaster to be able to accommodate certified divers with


Children

Older adults
Students with physical impairments

differing physical abilities is discussed. The ability to assist such

 You’ll gain skills and knowledge that will prepare

you to accommodate differences, creatively solve
problems and help divers with special challenges
divers is also important when acting as an instructional assistant. continued. . .

2. You will sometimes work with classes that include children or older
adults, or encounter student divers that have physical impairments.
The skills and knowledge you gain during this course will help
prepare you to accommodate differences, creatively solve problems
and help student divers with special challenges.
Assisting with
a. Make sure you are familiar with the Youth Leader’s
KR

Problem Solving Student Divers

How should you adapt your approach to assist

Commitment, found in the Professional Membership Guide 

people with differing physical abilities?
Make sure you’re familiar with:
Youth Leader’s Commitment

of your PADI Instructor Manual. It outlines the additional
Child Protection Guidelines for
PADI Dive Centers and Resorts

Also apply to vulnerable adults

requirements and obligations you have when working with
Children and Scuba Diving:
A Resource Guide for
Instructors and Parents

children.
b. You can also refer to the Child Protection Guidelines for PADI continued. . .

Dive Centers and Resorts found on the PADI Pros’ Site at padi.
com and in PADI’s Guide to Teaching. These guidelines also
apply to protection of vulnerable adults.
c. For more information, refer to the book – Children and Scuba
Diving: A Resource Guide for Instructors and Parents.
3. Here are a few adaptive approaches to keep in mind when acting as
an instructional assistant:
a. When student divers are small and less powerful, such as a child Problem Solving
Assisting with
Student Divers

or older adult, be ready to offer assistance with equipment and How should you adapt your approach to assist
people with differing physical abilities?
Adaptive approaches:

provide close supervision.  Small and less powerful

Offer assistance with equipment

Provide close supervision

• Work with the instructor to make sure that student divers

Properly fit with equipment and cylinders
Help with entries and exits
Position yourself for added control

have properly fitted equipment and smaller cylinders if

possible. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
41
 • Be available to help with water entries and exits.
• Position yourself in the water to offer assistance and added
control, particularly if water movement is a factor.
Problem Solving
Assisting with
Student Divers
b. Student divers with limited mobility sometimes need assistance
How should you adapt your approach to assist
people with differing physical abilities?
Adaptive approaches:
when entering and exiting the water. Work with the instructor
 Limited mobility

Assist when entering and exiting the water
to help steady or lift divers making sure you use proper lifting
Steady or lift divers using proper lifting techniques

techniques. However, don’t lift or handle more than you can

easily manage.
continued. . . c. When working with a student diver with a physical impairment
Problem Solving
KR Assisting with
Student Divers who is having difficulty mastering a skill, start by focusing on
How should you adapt your approach to assist
people with differing physical abilities?
Adaptive approaches:
what the diver can do and what the skill is trying to accomplish.
 Physical impairments




Focus on what the diver can do
Look for a way to accomplish goal
• Don’t get stuck on a particular technique; instead, look for a
Work through innovative ways

way to accomplish the goal using the diver’s abilities.

to perform the skill
 For example:

Deep water entry – back roll, front roll, side roll




Mask clear with forearm
Efficient swimming using hands
Contact an Educational Consultant at your PADI Office
• Put yourself in the diver’s position and work through
innovative ways to perform the skill.
• For example, deep water entries can be back rolls, front rolls
or even side rolls.
• Also, mask clearing can be accomplished by pushing on the
mask with a forearm instead of a hand.
• Another example is that efficient swimming is possible with
hands instead of fins.
4. If questions come up about adaptive approaches during a program
you in which you are assisting, contact an Educational Consultant
at your PADI Office. Consultants have experience and training
specific to working with divers with disabilities. Also, there are
organizations, throughout the world, that specialize in training dive
professionals to work with divers with disabilities, if this interests
you.

Summary
Assisting with
Student Divers
Summary

The Assistant’s Role

Control, Supervision and Logistics

Demonstrating Skills
I. The Assistant’s Role

Problem Solving

II. Control, Supervision and Logistics

III. Demonstrating Skills

IV. Problem Solving

Assisting with Student Divers

42
Diver Safety
and Risk
Management

Presentation Notes
43
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or read Chapter 4 of
the PADI Divemaster Manual. You may also use this presentation for
prescriptive remediation while reviewing the Chapter 4 Knowledge
Review with candidates.
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
2. This presentation focuses on diver safety and explains risk management
Diver Safety and Risk techniques and tools that divemasters will use as certified assistants and
Management
dive supervisors.

Go To Knowledge Review
Overview
Overview
Diver Safety and
Risk Management I. Defining Risk Management
Defining Risk Management
• What is meant by risk management?

Risk Management Techniques

Risk Management Tools

Quality Management • Why is risk management so important?

• What are meant by duty of care and negligence in most legal
systems?
• Why are your health, personal safety and diving proficiency
important to managing risk?

II. Risk Management Techniques

• Why do you need to be familiar with the General Standards and
Procedures Guide in your PADI Instructor Manual?
• How does adhering to standards help you reduce risk?
• Why is your judgment important when applying standards?
• What is the PADI Member Code of Practice and how does it apply
to risk management?
• What is the Youth Leader’s Commitment and how does it apply to
risk management?
• What suggestions can help you manage your own risk?

III. Risk Management Tools

• What is the role of proper paperwork and administration in
reducing risk?
• What steps should you take in the event of an accident?
• Why is it recommended that you carry professional liability
insurance, even when it is not required and you plan to function
exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor?

Safety and Risk Management

44
IV. Quality Management
• How does the PADI Quality Management process help you reduce
risk?
• What are the steps in the Quality Management process? Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Defining Risk Management
Study Objectives
1. What is meant by risk management?
2. Why is risk management so important?

Outline
3. What are meant by duty of care and negligence in most legal
systems?
4. Why are your health, personal safety and diving proficiency
important to managing risk?

I. Defining Risk Management

A. What is meant by risk management? Defining Risk Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What is meant by risk management?
As an experience diver,

1. As an experienced diver who has taken many scuba courses, you’ve

you’ve learned that diving
has inherent risks

Anytime people are in

learned that diving has inherent risks that could result in serious

the water, there is potential
for problems
Divers acknowledge these risks,
take precautions, follow established

injury. Anytime people are in the water – out of their normal guidelines and make good choices to reduce risk
= Risk Management

element – there is potential for problems.

continued. . .

2. Active divers and dive professionals acknowledge these risks and take
precautions, follow established guidelines and make good choices in
order to reduce risk — this is risk management.
3. As a divemaster, you have greater knowledge, experience and skills
Diver Safety and
Defining Risk Management Risk Management
What is meant by risk management?

than a novice diver to help prevent, avoid or minimize problems.
As a divemaster, you have greater
knowledge, experience and skill
than a novice diver
You have an ethical responsibility to

You also have an ethical responsibility to look after the divers you


look after the divers you supervise

You can never guarantee safety,
however, you can
use your judgment to help manage

supervise. risk and improve safety

4. You can never guarantee that divers will be completely safe, however,
you can use your judgment to help manage risk and improve safety
for the divers under your care and influence.
B. Why is risk management so important? Defining Risk Management
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Why is risk management so important?

1. Striving to keep divers safe is the primary and most important goal The primary and most important goal of risk
management is to improve diver safety

of risk management. Preventing problems and avoiding situations

where divers could be hurt or injured is a key responsibility of dive
professionals (more on this when going over the PADI Member
Code of Practice). continued. . .

2. Risk management also plays the important role in providing liability Defining Risk Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Why is risk management so important?
protection and helping to protect you legally in case something goes  Also plays an important role in providing liability protection and
helping protect you legally in case something goes wrong
despite your best efforts

wrong, despite your best efforts. By following a proven standard

Follow a proven standard of practice
Document your actions
Helps maintains the availability of insurance

of practice and by documenting your actions, you maintain an



Reliable and adequate insurance coverage is directly related

to effectiveness of managing risk

First step – reduce claims by preventing accidents

improved level of liability protection.
Second step – reduce claim losses through
more effective defense

3. Helping to maintain the availability of insurance is another reason. continued. . .

Dive professionals need the protection of reliable insurance coverage

and continued availability of adequate insurance is directly related
to the effectiveness of managing diving’s risks. The first, most
important step, is to reduce claims by preventing accidents. The
second is to reduce claim losses through successful defense when
litigation does occur.

Presentation Notes
45
 Defining Risk Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management 4. Diving’s continued viability as an industry also depends on
Why is risk management so important?
 Continued viability of the dive industry
depends on maintaining:
maintaining good public relations and its image as a responsible,
Good public relations

professionally practiced activity with a reasonable safety record.

Image as a responsible, professionally practiced activity with

a reasonable safety record

C. What are meant by duty of care and negligence in most legal

systems?
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
1. When you function as a dive supervisor, instructional assistant or
Defining Risk Management
What are meant by duty of care and negligence
in most legal systems?
provide other dive-related services to someone, a legal relationship
When you function as a dive

exists under most legal systems.

supervisor or instructional
assistant, a legal relationship
exists under most
legal systems

Because you are the
knowledgeable dive
professionals, you have an
obligation to do your best to
2. Because you are a knowledgeable dive professional in this
protect divers in your care
Duty of Care relationship, you have a an obligation to do your best to protect
continued. . . the divers in your care. This means that you are expected to act as a
reasonably prudent divemaster would act under the same or similar
circumstances to protect less knowledgeable divers from harm. This
is what is meant by duty of care. You can’t ever guarantee diver
safety, but you have a duty to generally use your best efforts to avoid
reasonably foreseeable accidents.
Defining Risk Management
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management 3. You fulfill this duty by taking steps to prevent problems and by also
What are meant by duty of care and negligence


in most legal systems?
Fulfill this duty by taking steps to
prevent problems and prepare for
preparing for emergency situations including:
emergency situations:

Follow PADI Standards and adhere to
PADI Member Code of Practice
Evaluate and reevaluate
a. Following PADI Standards, adhering to the PADI Member
Code of Practice, following safe and responsible diving practices
environmental conditions

Be aware of factors that put divers at risk

Exercise sound judgment

and adhering to local practices that are in place to reduce risk.

Have appropriate safety equipment
and be ready to respond

continued. . .

b. Evaluating and reevaluating environmental conditions before

and during a dive.
c. Being aware of factors that put divers at risk, including diver
behavior.
d. Exercising sound judgment based on your experience and
training.
e. Having appropriate safety equipment available and being
prepared to respond in an emergency.
Defining Risk Management
KR 2
KR 3
Diver Safety and
Risk Management 4. Failing to meet a duty of care is considered negligence under most
What are meant by duty of care and negligence


in most legal systems?
Failing to meet a duty of care is considered negligence
legal systems.
Most legal systems look strictly at what

a. Most legal systems will look strictly at what happened or didn’t


happened or didn’t happen

A mistake or omission could be considered negligence
Intent of actions or inaction is not relevant

happen to determine negligence. A mistake or unintentional



Intentionally harmful acts may be gross negligence

or criminal behavior

Be conservative and focus on doing the right thing

omission that results in a problem could be considered
negligence.
b. The intent of a dive professional’s actions or inactions is
not relevant, because it’s unlikely that a dive professional
would purposely try to harm a diver. Intentional acts may be
considered gross negligence or criminal behavior.
5. It’s important to be conservative and focus on doing the right thing,
which is to put diver safety as your first priority.

Safety and Risk Management

46
D. Why are your health, personal safety and diving proficiency Defining Risk Management
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management

important to managing risk? 

Why is your health, personal safety and diving
proficiency important to managing risk?
Assure your own safety and be in good shape to focus on the
safety of divers you supervise

1. You must assure your own safety and be in good shape – mentally

Feeling ill – may not be attentive and alert
Poor fitness – may make it
difficult to deal with
unpredictable conditions

and physically – to be able to focus on the safety of the divers you 

or handle emergency situations
Follow safe diving practices

supervise.

Bending rules and pushing
limits puts you at risk

If you’re hurt, the risk increases for divers in your care

a. If you’re feeling ill, you may not be attentive and alert. continued. . .

b. Poor physical fitness may make it difficult to deal with

unpredictable dive conditions. You need to have the strength
and stamina to handle an emergency situation.
2. Even though you may be better trained than the average diver, you
still need to follow safe diving practices because bending the rules
and pushing the limits puts you at risk. If you get hurt, the risk
increases for the divers in your care.
3. To be a good role model and better manage risks through Defining Risk Management
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management

your personal health and diving proficiency, follow these 

Why is your health, personal safety and diving
proficiency important to managing risk?
Be a good role model:

recommendations:

Stay physically fit
Plan your dives carefully

Stay hydrated

a. Stay physically fit by exercising regularly, getting adequate rest

When ill or injured,
moderate dive activities
Pay attention to your mental health

and eating properly.
Continue your dive education and professional training

Show that you take your responsibility seriously

b. Plan your dives carefully and stay well within the no

decompression limits. Make a safety stop at the end of all dives.
Take a day off from diving every few days.
c. Stay hydrated, especially in hot weather.
d. When ill or injured, moderate your dive activities accordingly.
e. Pay attention to your mental health – dive for fun, not just for
work, so you avoid burnout and engage in other pastimes.
f. Continue your dive education and professional training. This Risk Management Techniques
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Study Objectives
not only broadens your skills and knowledge, but also shows 1. Why do you need to be familiar with the General Standards and
Procedures Guide in your PADI
Instructor Manual?

that you take your responsibilities seriously. 2.

3.
How does adhering to standards help you reduce risk?
Why is your judgment important when applying standards?
4. What is the PADI Member Code of Practice and how does it apply
to risk management?
5. What is the Youth Leader’s Commitment and how does it apply

II. Risk Management Techniques

to risk management?
6. What suggestions can help you manage your own risk?

A. Why do you need to be familiar with the General Standards and

Diver Safety and
Procedures Guide in your PADI Instructor Manual? Risk Management Techniques Risk Management
Why do you need to be familiar with the General
Standards and Procedures Guide in your PADI

1. As mentioned, following PADI Standards and adhering to local

Instructor Manual?
Following PADI Standards and adhering to local practices helps
reduce risk

practices helps reduce risks.

Foundational standards are found
in the General Standards and
Procedures Guide
Please open your manual to this guide
Be familiar with general standards,

2. The foundational or “general” standards that you and all other

because they apply to all PADI
courses and programs

PADI Members need to follow are contained in the General continued. . .

Standards and Procedures Guide of your PADI Instructor Manual.

3. You need to be familiar with this guide because standards outlined
here apply to all PADI courses and programs and are not repeated in
the individual course guides.
[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual.]

Presentation Notes
47
 Risk Management Techniques
Diver Safety and
Risk Management 4. There are two parts to the General Standards and Procedures Guide.
Why do you need to be familiar with the General
Standards and Procedures Guide in your PADI
Instructor Manual? a. The first is Training Standards, which is an alphabetical listing of
Two parts:

Training Standards – alphabetical
listing of definitions and key concepts

Paperwork and Administrative
definitions and key concepts.
Procedures – alphabetical listing
of information course and
program administration b. The second is Paperwork and Administrative Procedures, which
Always start by looking in the
General Standards and Procedures
Guide, then refer to individual guides is an alphabetical listing of information about the administration
of PADI courses and programs.
5. When preparing to conduct a PADI program or to assist an
instructor with a course, always start by looking in the General
Standards and Procedures Guide, then refer to the individual guide
for requirements specific to that course or program.
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
B. How does adhering to standards help you reduce risk?
Risk Management Techniques
How does adhering to standards help you reduce

risk?
Standards are the foundation of a proven
1. PADI Standards are the foundation of a proven educational system.
educational system

By following standards, you conduct
courses and programs that are
educationally valid, globally
By following standards, you conduct PADI courses and programs


consistent and backed by the
entire PADI organization
Compliance with standards
that are educationally valid, globally consistent and backed by the
is monitored and enforced
consistently by PADI Offices
worldwide, which further strengthens
the system and overall diver safety
entire PADI organization.
continued. . .
2. Compliance with PADI Standards is monitored and enforced
consistently by all PADI Offices worldwide through quality
management procedures. This adds further strength to the system
and overall diver safety. (We’ll discuss quality management in more
detail in a few minutes.)
Risk Management Techniques
KR 6 Diver Safety and

KR 7 Risk Management 3. You need to adhere to standards because they exist for diver safety
How does adhering to standards help you reduce


risk?
Adhere to standards because they exist for diver safety and
and provide structure, credibility and a basis for legal protection.
provide structure, credibility and a basis for legal protection

Most importantly – standard reduce the risk of an accident
occurring
Should something happen, despite your best efforts,
a. First, and most importantly, standards reduce the risk of an
following standards shows you acted credibly and met the

aspect of the expected duty of care
For example:
Open Water Diver suffers DCI on dive within standards
accident occurring
b. Secondly, should something unfortunate happen despite your

Open Water Diver suffers DCI on dive deeper than allowed by
standards

best efforts, following PADI Standards can reduce legal risk by

continued. . .

showing that you acted credibly as a professional, and that you

KR Diver Safety and
met the expected duty of care.
Risk Management Techniques Risk Management
How does adhering to standards help you reduce
risk?
4. Note that local dive community and industry practices and
regulations aren’t typically part of PADI Standards, but you should

Follow local community and industry practices, because they are
based on what experience
has shown to be the best practices in the
local environment

follow them conservatively as well, because they generally are based

on what experience has shown to be the best practices in the local
environment.
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
C. Why is your judgment important when applying standards?
Risk Management Techniques
Why is your judgment important


when applying standards?
Standards often cover minimums and maximums
1. As you use your PADI Instructor Manual, it’s important to
understand that PADI Standards often cover minimums and
 Your judgment is required to determine how close you should
get to minimums or maximums based
on each situation

Example – environmental
conditions may lead you to
decide to lower ratios,
use a shallower depth,
maximums.
cancel or abort the dive,
or tighten control

2. Your judgment is required to determine how close you should get

continued. . .
the minimums or maximums based on each situation.
a. For example, environmental conditions may lead you to decide
to lower ratios, use a shallower depth, cancel or abort the dive,
or tighten control in order to reduce risk.

Safety and Risk Management

48
 3. By understanding the intent of a standard, you can better apply your Risk Management Techniques
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Why is your judgment important
good judgment when adapting it to specific diving situations. You when applying standards?

By understanding the intent of a
standard, you can better apply good

need to weigh all factors and make conservative decisions.

judgment
Weigh all factors and make conservative
decisions
When you use good judgment, it’s easier

4. When you use good judgment to avoid problems, it’s much easier


to defend your actions and show you
followed standards conservatively

to defend your actions if you can show that you not only followed
standards, but that you followed them conservatively.
D. What is the PADI Member Code of Practice and how does it apply Risk Management Techniques
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What is the PADI Member Code of Practice and how
to risk management? does it apply to risk management?
Please open your Instructor Manual to the Professional
Membership Guide – Code of Practice

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Professional

 Code of Practice outlines professional
and ethical behavior expected as
your membership commitment

Membership Guide, Membership Commitment, Code of Practice. Involve candidates in  Reminds you that you have obligations
to your students and customers

Responsibility for the safety of others

reading through each item and discuss as necessary for clarity.]
Take precautions and manage risk

Please read through each item

so you’re clear about what is expected

1. The PADI Member Code of Practice in your PADI Instructor

Manual outlines the professional and ethical behavior expected as
part of your membership commitment.
2. It specifically reminds you that you have obligations to your students
and dive customers and that you are responsible for the safety of
others. You need to take precautions and manage risk to fulfill this
responsibility.
3. Read through each item, so that you are clear about what is
expected.
E. What is the Youth Leader’s Commitment and how does it apply to Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Risk Management Techniques

risk management? What is the Youth Leader’s Commitment and how

does it apply to risk management?
Please turn to the Youth Leader’s Commitment

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the Youth Leader’s Commitment in the PADI Instructor  When supervising and teaching children, dive professionals are
placed under a higher duty of care

Children aren’t developmentally mature

Manual. Involve candidates in reading through each item and discuss as necessary for 

Need closer attention, supervision and direction
Youth Leader’s Commitment outlines additional requirements

clarity.] and
obligations you
have when working
with children
to manage risk

1. When supervising and teaching children, dive professionals continued. . .

are placed under a very high duty of care. Children aren’t

developmentally mature and thus need closer attention, supervision
and more direction than adults.
2. The Youth Leader’s Commitment outlines the additional Risk Management Techniques
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What is the Youth Leader’s Commitment and how
requirements and obligations you have when working with children does it apply to risk management?
Please read the Youth Leader’s Commitment so

to thoroughly manage risks. 

you’re clear about what is expected
Be familiar with the Child Protection
Guidelines for PADI Dive Centers
and Resorts

a. You should also be familiar with the Child Protection Guidelines
Also apply to vulnerable adults

Find these guidelines on the
Pros’ Site and in PADI’s

for PADI Dive Centers and Resorts. These guidelines also apply
Guide to Teaching

to protection of vulnerable adults. You can find these guidelines

on the Pros’ Site at [Link] and in PADI’s Guide to Teaching.
3. Read the Youth Leader’s Commitment, so that you are clear about
what is expected. Diver Safety and
Risk Management Techniques Risk Management

F. What suggestions can help you manage your own risk? What suggestions can help you
manage your own risk?
 Besides adhering to PADI Standards, upholding the Member
Code of Practice and following local regulations, here are a few

1. Besides adhering to PADI Standards and upholding the PADI suggestions:

Maintain your health and diving proficiency
Use common sense, caution and good judgment

Member Code of Practice, you need to follow established local

Don’t let anyone pressure you into making dives
Make conservative decisions
Know your limitations as dive leader

regulations, environmental laws and industry guidelines to reduce

Gain experience with new dive sites or environments
Seek additional training

Presentation Notes
49
 personal risk. Regulations, laws and guidelines generally exist to
protect people and the local area – so it’s prudent to follow them.
2. As mentioned, maintaining your personal health and diving
proficiency helps manage risk. Don’t dive when you’re not prepared,
mentally or physically to do so and dive conservatively, well within
your personal limits.
3. Use common sense, caution and good judgment.
a. Do not let student divers, employers or personal demands
pressure you into making dives when conditions are not
conducive to a positive experience.
b. Make conservative decisions by reducing ratios, going to an
alternate site or canceling the dive.
4. Know your limitations as a dive leader.
Diver Safety and
a. Gain experience at new dive sites or in new dive environments
Risk Management
Risk Management Tools

1.
Study Objectives
What is the role of proper paperwork and administration in
before taking on a supervisory role.
reducing risk?
2. What steps should you take in the event of a
dive accident? b. Seek out additional training before supervising divers with
3. Why is it recommended that you carry professional liability
insurance, even when it is not required and you plan to function
exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor? different equipment configurations, such as rebreathers, etc.
III. Risk Management Tools
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
• What is the role of proper paperwork and administration in
Risk Management Tools
What is the role of proper paperwork and
administration in reducing risk? reducing risk?
 As part of every scuba course, you’ve completed administrative
paperwork
 The primary purpose is to:

Inform divers of the risks
1. As part of every scuba diving course you’ve taken thus far, you’ve
Help assure that divers

completed administrative paperwork. This is required to make sure

are medically fit

Remind divers of
safe diving practices

you know about the risks and requirements of the particular dive
continued. . .
course.
2. The primary purpose of the administrative paperwork is to inform
divers of the risks of diving, help assure that divers are medically fit
to participate in diving and to remind them of the importance of
following safe diving practices. Administrative paperwork includes:
Diver Safety and
Risk Management Tools Risk Management
What is the role of proper paperwork and
a. A liability release/assumption of risk agreement that informs
participants of risks and confirms that they accept those risks.
administration in reducing risk?
 Liability Release/Assumption of Risk Agreement

Informs divers of the risks



Confirms they accept
those risks
Document name varies
(go to the Pros’ Site at [Link])
 Download current release
from Pros’ Site
b. A medical history form that helps prevent accidents by screening
those medically ineligible to dive.
continued. . .

KR Diver Safety and

• A “yes” answer to any condition requires that the diver
Risk Management
Risk Management Tools
What is the role of proper paperwork and receive a physician’s approval before participating in any
administration in reducing risk?
 Medical History Form

Screens those medically
inwater activities.
ineligible to dive

“Yes” answer requires
physician’s approval
In some areas, all participants
• In some areas, all participants must see a physician prior to
enrolling in scuba activities.


must see a physician

• It’s important for divers to actually write “no” or “yes”

continued. . .
next to each question as the instructions state, because this
verifies that they’ve read the form and considered their
answers to each question.

Safety and Risk Management

50
 c. A safe diving practices statement of understanding that ensures Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What is the role of proper paperwork and
divers are aware of their responsibilities. 
administration in reducing risk?
Safe Diving Practices Statement of Understanding

Ensures divers are aware

3. Administrative paperwork also serves as evidence that you were

of their responsibilities
 Download from the Pros’ Site

diligent about informing divers of the risks involved and that they
agreed to assume responsibility during and after training. PADI’s
forms have regularly been used in court to strengthen defenses. continued. . .

Diver Safety and

Law suits have been dismissed based on proper paperwork. Even if Risk Management Tools Risk Management
What is the role of proper paperwork and
administration in reducing risk?
a suit isn’t dismissed, properly completed paperwork adds to your  Administrative paperwork serves as evidence that:

You were diligent about informing divers

They agreed to assume responsibility

credibility and helps document your professionalism and adherence  PADI’s forms are regularly
used in court to strengthen defenses
 Law suits have been dismissed

to standards  Properly completed paperwork

adds credibility and helps
document your professionalism
and adherence to standards

4. Other paperwork, such as Knowledge Reviews completed by student continued. . .

divers, quiz and exam answer sheets, and log books, also provide the Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Risk Management Tools
documentation needed in many legal systems to show that the dive What is the role of proper paperwork and
administration in reducing risk?

professional followed standards and acted appropriately.

 Other paperwork:

Knowledge Review

Quiz an Exam Answer Sheets

Log books

5. When conducting a program or supervising a dive, make sure you  Provide documentation that:

Student divers learned safety
and risk-reduction principles

review participant paperwork closely to be certain that all blanks are
Dive professional followed
standards and acted appropriately

filled, that it is signed, dated and legible. continued. . .

a. Don’t allow someone to alter or strike through the language on Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What is the role of proper paperwork and
the forms. 
administration in reducing risk?
When conducting a program or supervising a dive:

Review participant paperwork closely

b. If an individual doesn’t wish to accept the risks and

– all blanks filled, it’s signed, dated and legible
Don’t allow someone to alter or strike through language on a
form

responsibilities for participating in a dive program, you don’t

If an individual doesn’t wish to accept risks and
responsibilities, you don’t want that person in program

If in doubt, have diver complete form
Keep paperwork for seven years or longer

want that person in the program.


for local requirements

c. If in doubt about whether a form is required, it’s better to have continued. . .

someone complete it. It’s more of an issue when a required form

is missing than when a form that’s not required is present.
6. Keep all paperwork at least seven years, or longer if the local statute
of limitations is longer.
B. What steps should you take in the event of an accident? Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What steps should you take in the

1. As a preliminary step, have appropriate emergency and rescue 

event of a dive accident?
As a preliminary step, have emergency and rescue equipment
available

equipment available as required by standards, local regulations and  If an accident arises,

your first priority is
emergency care

practices.

Victim (and rescuer)
well-being is the
primary concern
 Activate local emergency medical services system

2. If an accident or emergency situation arises, your first priority is to

continued. . .

render appropriate emergency care. Make the victim’s (and rescuer’s)

well-being your primary concern.
3. Activate the local emergency medical service system as soon as
possible, if necessary. As appropriate, contact the Divers Alert
Network (DAN), The DES (Diving Emergency Service) Hotline or
other emergency services that deal with diving-related accidents. Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
What steps should you take in the

4. Show compassion, but do not volunteer an admission of fault. You 

event of a dive accident?
Show compassion, but do not volunteer opinions or admission
of fault

may not be at fault, so don’t assume you are.  Isolate dive equipment and have someone confirm whether it’s
functional

Leave it intact

Cooperate with authorities if they request equipment

5. Isolate dive equipment and have someone else confirm whether it’s 


Note environmental conditions
Identify witnesses and record names
and contact information

functional – noting the equipment configuration and connections,

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
51
 tank pressure, regulator and gauge function, etc. – however, leave it
intact. Cooperate with authorities if they request the equipment.
6. Make note of environmental conditions, such as the time of day,
conditions, water movement, temperature, visibility, etc.
7. Identify witnesses and record their names and contact information.
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management
8. When answering questions about the accident to local authorities,
Risk Management Tools
What steps should you take in the
event of a dive accident?
state only the facts and refrain from offering opinions or speculation.
 When answering questions, state only facts

Don’t offer opinions or speculate – because it’s more likely to
confuse situation and cause problems
Keep a copy of any statements you make to authorities
a. Providing anything other than the facts is more likely to confuse

You have no obligation to give statements to others
the situation and cause problems than it is to be helpful.
b. Keep a copy of any statements you make. You have no
continued. . . obligation to give statements to others – media, family, etc. –
and it’s not recommended.
Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management 9. Contact your PADI Office and file a PADI Incident Report Form
What steps should you take in the


event of a dive accident?
Contact your PADI Office and file a
PADI Incident Report Form including:
(go to [Link] Pros’ Site, Training Essentials to download the most

Activities leading up to incident
Circumstances of incident current form) that includes facts about:

Actions taken



Attach all diver records and documents
Keep a copy of the report and attachments
Download the most current form from Pros’ Site
a. The activities leading to the incident.
b. The circumstances of the incident.
 Find these steps in PADI’s Guide to Teaching

c. Any action taken by the people involved following the incident.

d. If you are providing second hand information, be sure to
identify that it is second hand information.
e. Attach all diver records and other documents (releases, etc.) that
may apply.
f. Keep a copy of the report and attachments for your files.
[NOTE: Explain to candidates that these steps are listed in PADI’s Guide to Teaching
along with more information about legal responsibility and risk management.]

Risk Management Tools

Diver Safety and
Risk Management
C. Why is it recommended that you carry professional liability
Why is it recommended that you carry professional
liability insurance, even when it is not required and
you plan to function exclusively as an assistant
insurance, even when it is not required and you plan to function


working under a PADI Instructor?
In many most legal systems, you can be sued, regardless of your
involvement or lack of fault
exclusively as an assistant working under a PADI Instructor?

Defending yourself can be costly – insurance provides defense
and payment of any settlement
1. In many legal systems, you can be sued if there is an accident,
regardless of your involvement or lack. Defending yourself can be
continued. . .
costly and liability insurance provides coverage for your defense. If
you are found liable, insurance provides payment of any settlement.
Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
2. Even if you are only assisting an instructor, who does have most of
Why is it recommended that you carry professional
liability insurance, even when it is not required and
you plan to function exclusively as an assistant
the responsibility, insurance coverage is recommended because:
working under a PADI Instructor?
 Even if only assisting an instructor, insurance is recommended
because:
a. You can still be named in the suit.

You can still be named in a suit

The instructor’s insurance doesn’t cover you
You can be found responsible for your actions b. The instructor’s insurance does not cover you – the assistant.

You can be added to a suit already in progress

c. You can be found responsible for your own actions or for what
continued. . .
part you may have played in an accident, even with an instructor
present.
d. You can be added to a suit already in progress.

Safety and Risk Management

52
 3. As a PADI Divemaster, if you plan to conduct allowed programs Risk Management Tools
Diver Safety and
Risk Management

independently, professional liability insurance is required in

Why is it recommended that you carry professional
liability insurance, even when it is not required and
you plan to function exclusively as an assistant
working under a PADI Instructor?
many areas around the world – valuable in all. Be familiar with  If you conduct programs independently, professional liability
insurance is required in many areas
— valuable in all

the requirements in your region and make certain you have the 

Be familiar with requirements in your area
Insurance does not normally cover scuba equipment
Provide equipment from a dive center or resort

insurance you need. (Go to the Pros’ Site for information or contact

Obtain special coverage

your PADI Office).

4. Note that professional liability insurance does not normally provide
liability coverage for personally owned scuba equipment that you
might provide a diver or student diver (such as when something
malfunctions or is forgotten).
a. Instead, provide equipment from a dive center or resort’s normal
rental or class scuba equipment, which will be covered under the
operation’s store insurance.
b. If necessary, you can obtain special coverage as part of your
professional liability insurance to provide liability coverage
for personal equipment you might provide a certified diver or
Diver Safety and
student diver. Quality Management
Study Objectives
Risk Management

1. How does the PADI Quality Management process help you

reduce risk?

IV. Quality Management

2. What are the steps in the Quality
Management process?

A. How does the PADI Quality Management process help you reduce
risk?
1. As discussed earlier, PADI Offices monitor and enforce PADI Diver Safety and
Risk Management
Standards through the PADI Quality Management process. Quality Management
How does the PADI Quality Management process
help you reduce risk?

a. The goals are to strengthen overall diver safety, to maintain

 PADI Offices monitor and enforce standards through a quality
management process

Strengthens overall diver safety

Maintains instructional validity

the instructional validity of PADI programs, to maintain the 

Maintains integrity of PADI and its programs

Assist in maintaining credibility of PADI professionals
Proactive process helps reduce risk by

integrity of PADI and its programs, and to assist in maintaining 

identifying and correcting problems, and documenting
correction
Process is standardized to provide equal application

the credibility of the PADI professionals before the public.

Applies questionnaires process and addresses reports

continued. . .

b. The process also helps reduce risk by identifying and correcting

problems, and documenting the corrections.
2. PADI’s Quality Management process is standardized to provide
equal application. It applies both a proactive questionnaire
process, as well as addresses problems reported by divers and PADI
Members.
3. Monitoring occurs through the use of Course Evaluation Quality Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management

Questionnaires (CEQs) that ask student divers specific questions How does the PADI Quality Management process
help you reduce risk?
 Course Evaluation Questionnaires (CEQs) ask student divers

about their training. questions about training

Provide documentation of following standards and excellent
training

Compliments are passed on to the member

a. Often, CEQs provide documentation that a PADI Member 

Indicate portions or training missing or incomplete

Quality management inquiry begins

Issue with standards identified – provides opportunity to correct

problem

followed standards, and provided excellent training and  Documentation of corrective actions helps prevent further issues

customer service. continued. . .

• Compliments from student divers are passed on to the

member along with recognition for a job well done.
b. Occasionally, CEQs indicate that portions of training were
improper, missing or incomplete. If this happens, a quality
management inquiry begins. (More on this process next.)

Presentation Notes
53
 • The fact that an issue with standards is identified provides an
opportunity to correct the problem with the PADI Member.
• Documentation of corrective action, helps prevent further
issues and strengthens defense of the member in the future, if
necessary.
[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – General Standards and
Procedures Guide, Paperwork and Administrative Procedures, Quality Management.]

Quality Management
KR Diver Safety and
Risk Management 4. As noted in your PADI Instructor Manual, you are required to make a
written report to your PADI Office of PADI Standards violations you
How does the PADI Quality Management process
help you reduce risk?
Please open your Instructor Manual to the General Standards
and Procedures Guide, Paperwork and Administrative


Procedures – Quality Management
You’re required to make
a written report of standards
personally witness. There is a Quality Management Report form for
this purpose.
violations you personally witness

Quality Management Report Form
 Don’t report hearsay or rumors

a. Because the focus of the quality management process is diver safety

 Don’t submit false reports
– this is a standards violation

and program integrity, it’s necessary to let your PADI Office know
if you see any violations.
b. However, don’t report hearsay and rumors – only what you
personally witness. Do not submit false reports.
Quality Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management B. What are the steps in the Quality Management process?
What are the steps in the Quality Management


process?
PADI Office receives information
and contacts the member
[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the Summary of Routine Quality Management Inquiry]

Unsubstantiated – case closed

1. The first step in the quality management process is that a PADI Office

More information needed
– detailed surveys sent out

Unsubstantiated – case closed
Information substantiated or

receives information about a standards violation and then shares this

new problems identified
– member contacted and
more information gathered

continued. . .
information with the PADI Member.
a. If the information is unsubstantiated, the case is closed.
b. If more information is needed, detailed surveys are sent to student
divers. If the information is found to be unsubstantiated, the case
is closed.
c. If the information about a standards violation is substantiated or
new problems are identified, the member is contacted and more
information is gathered and exchanged.
2. In some cases, if the member realizes the mistake or standards
Diver Safety and
Quality Management
What are the steps in the Quality Management
Risk Management
misinterpretation, counseling occurs and the member signs a standards
compliance agreement. The member’s courses are more closely
process?
 In some cases, if the member realizes the mistake
– counseling occurs and
the member signs


compliance agreement

Courses more closely monitored
Other cases warrant being
monitored for a prescribed period.
reviewed by the Quality

3. Other cases warrant being reviewed by the Quality Management

Management committee

Decision made

Appeals process

continued. . .
committee, and a decision is made about how to handle or correct the
member’s situation.
a. There is an appeals process that allows the member to present new
information, and the committee again reviews everything to make
Quality Management
Diver Safety and
Risk Management
a decision.
What are the steps in the Quality Management

Possible decisions:


process?

Member does not understand standard

4 There are several possible decisions the Quality Management
committee might make based on the circumstances:
or has repetitive concerns
– reorientation or retraining

Member refuses to cooperate
or clearly chooses to not abide

by standards – suspended,
terminated or expelled
When severity warrants it
a. First, if the member does not understand the standard or has
– Nonteaching or Inactive Status
Read more in PADI’s
Guide to Teaching
repetitive standards concerns, reorientation or retraining is
required.

Safety and Risk Management

54
 b. Next, if a member refuses to cooperate with quality
management inquiries or clearly chooses not to abide by
standards, the member is suspended, terminated or expelled
from the PADI organization.
• These punitive measures result primarily from ethical
problems, such as criminal acts, severely endangering
divers, blatant disregard for safety, acts of malice against
PADI Members or the PADI organization, or repeated and
persistent failure to follow standards, even after correction.
d. When the severity of the situation warrants it, members are
immediately placed in Nonteaching or Inactive Status pending
the outcome of the investigation.
4. For more information, read about the Quality Management process
in your PADI’s Guide to Teaching.

Summary Diver Safety and

Summary Risk Management

I. Defining Risk Management

Defining Risk Management

Risk Management Techniques

Risk Management Tools

II. Risk Management Techniques
Quality Management

III. Risk Management Tools

IV. Quality Management

Presentation Notes
55
Safety and Risk Management
56
Divemaster-
Conducted
Programs

Presentation Notes
57
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online or by reading Chapter
5 of the PADI Divemaster Manual and watching the Divemaster Video.
You may also use this presentation for prescriptive remediation while
reviewing the Chapter 5 Knowledge Review with candidates.
2. This presentation goes over the standards, structure and techniques
for the PADI programs that divemasters are qualified to conduct
Divemaster-Conducted
independently.
Programs

3. It’s best to conduct this presentation before the corresponding

Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
Divemaster-Conducted Programs Workshops.

Overview
Go To Knowledge Review

I. General Guidelines
Divemaster-Conducted
Overview Programs

General Guidelines
• How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual to find standards

Scuba Review
related to the programs you are qualified to conduct?

Discover Local Diving

Skin Diver Course

Discover Scuba Diving

• What other PADI instructional materials are available to guide your

Specialties
conduct of programs?

II. Scuba Review

• For the PADI Scuba Review program, who is the program intended
for, and what are the program’s approach and philosophy?
• For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are the diver
prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and performance requirements?

III. Discover Local Diving

• For the PADI Discover Local Diving program, who is the program
intended for, and what are the program’s approach and philosophy?
• For the PADI Discover Local Diving program, what are the diver
prerequisites, material, ratio and general considerations?

IV. Skin Diver Course

• For the PADI Skin Diver course, who is the program intended for,
and what are the program’s approach and philosophy?
• For the PADI Skin Diver course, what are the diver prerequisites,
material, ratio and performance requirements?

V. Discover Scuba Diving

• For the PADI Discover Scuba Diving program, who is the program
intended for, and what are the program’s approach and philosophy?

Divemaster Conducted Programs

58
 • For the PADI Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio and
supervision requirements when assisting with a program or taking
participants on a subsequent dive?
• How can a PADI Divemaster become a Discover Scuba Diving
Leader?

VI. Specialties
• What two PADI Specialty Diver courses can a PADI Divemaster
qualify to teach?
Divemaster-Conducted

• What are the benefits of qualifying to teach these two courses? General Guidelines
Study Objectives
Programs

1. How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual to find

standards related to the programs you are qualified
to conduct?

Outline
2. What other PADI instructional materials are available
to guide your conduct of programs?

I. General Guidelines
A. How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual to find standards Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
General Guidelines KR

related to the programs you are qualified to conduct? How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual
to find standards related to the programs you are
qualified to conduct?

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual.] Please open your Instructor Manual
to the How to Use this Manual section

Standards that apply to all courses
and programs are in General
Standards and Procedures Guide
1. In the Diver Safety and Risk Management presentation, you learned
These standards are not repeated
in individual program guides

Always start by looking in General

that standards that apply to all PADI courses and programs are Standards and Procedures

Refer to individual guides for specific requirements

contained in the General Standards and Procedures Guide of your

continued. . .

PADI Instructor Manual.

a. Because these standards are not repeated in the individual
program guides, you need to be familiar with the General
Standard and Procedures Guide.
b. Always start by looking in the General Standards and Procedures
Guide when preparing to conduct a PADI program, then refer
to the individual guide for requirements specific to the program.
2. Keep in mind that standards are listed as minimums and Divemaster-Conducted
General Guidelines Programs

maximums. To clarify this, let’s read through Instructor Judgment How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual
to find standards related to the programs you are
qualified to conduct?
pages in the How to Use this Manual section of your PADI
Keep in mind that many
standards are listed as
minimums and maximums
Instructor Manual. Read through Instructor Judgment

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the How to Use this Manual pages on Instructor
Judgment. Read through the pages and answer questions as necessary.]
continued. . .

3. All individual program guides have a consistent format and General Guidelines
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs

structure, which makes it easy to find the information you need: How do you use the PADI Instructor Manual
to find standards related to the programs you are
qualified to conduct?

a. The first section contains program standards – anything specific  Individual program guides have a
consistent format and structure

Section 1 – Standards specific to

to the program and different from general standards.

or different than general standards

Section 2 – Knowledge Development

Section 3 – Confined Water
Section 4 – Open Water Dives

b. The second section explains knowledge development

 You’ll become familiar with

instructor guides for programs
you’re qualified to conduct
requirements, which may involve reviewing what divers
learned through independent study or delivering a complete
presentation or briefing.
c. The third contains standards pertaining to confined water
training, if required.

Presentation Notes
59
 d. The final section has performance requirements for any open water
dives that are part of the program.
4. During this presentation, you’ll become familiar with the instructor
guides and standards for the programs you are qualified to conduct.
You’ll refer to these guides each time you prepare to conduct a
program.

General Guidelines KR
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
B. What other PADI instructional materials are available to guide your
What other PADI instructional materials are available
to guide your conduct of programs? conduct of programs?
 PADI’s Guide to Teaching provides:
Explanations

1. PADI’s Guide to Teaching provides explanations, teaching techniques

Teaching techniques

Suggested approaches to
meeting standards




How to organize training sessions
Considerations for selecting
dive sites
and suggested approaches to meeting standards for core courses and


Guidance for handling special circumstances

We’ll discuss other available instructional tools

many PADI programs.
a. You’ll find reminders about how to organize training sessions,
considerations for selecting confined and open water dive sites,
guidance about handling special circumstances, etc.
2. As we look at each individual program you are qualified to conduct,
Scuba Review
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
we’ll discuss other available instructional tools, such as the Skill
1. For
Study Objectives
the PADI Scuba Review program, who is the Evaluation Slate for the Scuba Review program.
program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
2. For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are the
diver prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and
3. Remember that you’ll also have an opportunity to practice conducting
performance requirements?
these programs during role-playing workshops.

II. Scuba Review

Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
A For the PADI Scuba Review program, who is the program intended
Scuba Review
For the PADI Scuba Review program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s for, and what is the program’s approach and philosophy?
approach and philosophy?
Many divers who have been inactive for a while feel
1. Many divers who have been inactive for a while feel unsure about their

unsure about their dive knowledge and skills
 Scuba Review allows divers to
quickly review information,


then review basic dive skills
You’re authorized to offer
dive knowledge and skills. The Scuba Review program allows divers to
quickly review safety-related dive information through independent
it to certified divers

Instructor offers it to
noncertified divers preparing
to complete training
continued. . .
study, then to review basic dive skills with your guidance.
2. As as PADI Divemaster, you are authorized to offer Scuba Review to
certified divers who need a refresher. A PADI Instructor is qualified to
offer it to noncertified divers who are preparing to complete training.
3. Because there is a lot of flexibility in the Scuba Review program, you
can offer it to divers for a variety of reasons to meet individual diver
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
needs. For example:
Scuba Review
For the PADI Scuba Review program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
a. Offer it just before the dive season begins (if applicable in your
 Offer Scuba Review for a variety of reasons:

Just before the dive season area.)

Part of a dive travel package



After purchase of new
scuba equipment
Include an open water dive
b. Include it as part of a dive travel package to help tune-up divers

as part of Discover Local Diving
Help former divers become active divers before they go.
c. Offer it to divers who have just purchased new scuba equipment to
help them get comfortable with their new gear.
d. By including an open water dive through the Discover Local
Diving program (more on this in a few minutes), you allow divers
to get the most from the dive.

Divemaster Conducted Programs

60
 4. Scuba Review is a great tool to help former divers become active
divers.
B. For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are the diver
Divemaster-Conducted
Scuba Review Programs
For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are

prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and performance requirements? the diver prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and
performance requirements?
Please open your Instructor Manual
to the Scuba Review Instructor Guide
[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Scuba Review Instructor  Diver needs to be at least 10 years old and certified
Have diver complete Certified Diver Experience
Guide and review the standards. Also, have them refer to their Divemaster Slates.]

Programs Liability Release and Assumption of Risk
Agreement (or appropriate release for your area)
 Diver also completes Medical Statement

1. As listed in the Scuba Review Instructor Guide, a diver needs

Any “yes” answer requires a physician’s approval

continued. . .

to be at least 10 years old and certified as an entry-level diver to

participate in a program conducted by you.
2. You must have the certified diver complete a Certified Diver
Experience Programs Liability Release and Assumption Of Risk
Agreement (product number 10074) and a Medical Statement
(product number 10063).
a. Note that a “yes” answer on the medical history questionnaire
requires that the diver receives a physician’s approval before any
inwater activities.
b. You can download the most current forms from [Link]/Pros’
Site.
3. The materials available for knowledge review independent study Scuba Review KR
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are

include the Scuba Tune-up Guidebook and Scuba Tune-up Online. the diver prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and
performance requirements?
 Materials for independent study:

a. When divers complete the guidebook, quickly review it with 

Scuba Tune-up Guidebook
Scuba Tune-up Online
With guidebook – review and

them and discuss any topics they have questions about. 

discuss topics
With online program – be available to
answer questions and ask for eRecord

b. If divers complete the online program, be available to answer

 Option – have divers review entry level materials and
administer quizzes and/or final exam

continued. . .

questions they have and verify completion by asking for their

eRecord.
4. Another option is to ask divers to review entry-level materials, such
as a current version of the PADI Open Water Diver Manual, and
then administer the PADI Open Water Diver course quizzes and/
or final exam. This verifies that divers have retained important dive
knowledge and identifies any concepts you may need to clarify.
5. You may take up to 10 divers into confined water for skills practice Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
Scuba Review KR

and assessment. Remember that this is the maximum number and For the PADI Scuba Review program, what are
the diver prerequisites, forms, materials, ratio and
performance requirements?

you should use your judgment which may mean choosing to take  Take up to 10 divers into confined water

Use your judgment

fewer divers for better control.  20 skill performance requirements

Refer to the Divemaster Slates
Have the Skill Evaluation Slate
 When completed, provide divers
6. The 20 skill performance requirements are listed in Section Three of with a Scuba Review decal

Note Scuba Review in log books and sign
Offer Discover Local Diving

your Scuba Review Instructor Guide and on your Divemaster Slates.

You’ll practice demonstrating these skills during this course.

7. You can refer to your Divemaster Slates, but it’s also a good idea to
have the slate called the Skill Evaluation Slate to take into confined
water. It lists the skill requirements and also has a place to easily
record which skills divers complete.

Presentation Notes
61
 8. When you’ve completed the knowledge and skills review with divers,
Divemaster-Conducted
provide them with a Scuba Review decal for their certification cards.
Discover Local Diving
Study Objectives
Programs
It’s common to note the Scuba Review in their log books and you
1. For the Discover Local Diving program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
sign it to verify completion. Also consider offering a Discover Local
2. For the Discover Local Diving program, what are the
diver prerequisites, materials, ratio and performance
requirements?
Diving experience.

III. Discover Local Diving

Divemaster-Conducted
A. For the PADI Discover Local Diving program, who is the program
Programs
Discover Local Diving
For the Discover Local Diving program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s
intended for and what is the program’s approach and philosophy?
approach and philosophy?
 Supervised underwater tour designed to
orient divers to different aquatic conditions
1. Discover Local Diving is a supervised underwater tour designed
and environments
 Reasons to participate:

Learn about local environment while on
to orient certified divers to different aquatic conditions and
holiday




Orientation to new dive site
Discover new aspect of dive site
environments. Reasons divers might participate include:

Combined with Scuba Review

continued. . .
a. To learn about the local environment while on a dive holiday.
b. Orientation to a new dive site they’ve never visited. Divers learn
to seek out an orientation anytime they go to a new area or will
dive in conditions that are new to them.
c. Discovering new aspects of a dive site they have visited, but
never fully explored.
d. Combining Discover Local Diving with Scuba Review to get
Divemaster-Conducted
back in the water.
Discover Local Diving Programs
For the Discover Local Diving program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s
2. Discover Local Diving can take place at any dive site used by
approach and philosophy?
 Discover Local Diving can:

Take place at any dive site
recreational divers, and can focus on a wide variety of different
aspects of the dive site. You should customize the experience based

Focus on a wide variety of aspects
 Customize the experience based on what
participants want to learn about and see

on what participants want to learn about and see.

continued. . .
B. For the PADI Discover Local Diving program, what are the diver
Discover Local Diving
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs prerequisites, material, ratio and general considerations?
For the Discover Local Diving program, what are
the diver prerequisites, material, ratio and
performance requirements? [NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Discover Local Diving
Instructor Guide and review the standards. Also, have them refer to their Divemaster
Please turn to the Discover Local Diving Instructor Guide
 Diver needs to be at least 10 years old and certified

For young divers, reference Diver Age Restrictions – Key
Standards in General Standards and Procedures Slates.]
 Have diver complete Certified Diver
Experience Programs Liability
Release and Assumption of Risk
Agreement (or appropriate release
for your area)
1. As listed in the Discover Local Diving Instructor Guide, a diver
continued. . . needs to be at least 10 years old and a certified diver to participate.
a. If you have young divers in the group, be sure to reference the
Diver Age Restrictions – Key Standards in the General Standards
and Procedures Guide for depth maximums and the need to
dive with an adult.
2. You must have the diver complete a Certified Diver Experience
Programs Liability Release and Assumption Of Risk Agreement
(product number 10074). You can download the most current form
Discover Local Diving KR
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs from [Link]/Pros’ Site.
For the Discover Local Diving program, what are


the diver prerequisites, material, ratio and
performance requirements?
You decide how many divers you take on the dive
3. Because there is no “training” involved, you decide how many divers
based on:




Diver comfort
Experience
Diver safety
is primary
you take on the dive based on factors including diver comfort,
experience, age, environmental conditions and logistics.

Age

Environmental conditions concern

Logistics

 General considerations – briefing, guided tour,

debriefing and logging dive

Refer to your Divemaster Slates a. Remember that diver safety is the primary consideration.

Divemaster Conducted Programs

62
 b. Divers also need to have an enjoyable experience.
4. The general considerations as listed in your Discover Local Diving
Instructor Guide include a briefing, guided tour, debriefing and
logging the dive. Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
Skin Diver Course

a. Guidelines for conducting the program are listed on your 1. For

Study Objectives
the Skin Diver course, who is the program
intended for, and what is the program’s approach

Divemaster Slates for easy reference at the dive site. and philosophy?
2. For the Skin Diver course, what are the diver
prerequisites, materials, ratios and performance
requirements?

IV. Skin Diver Course

A. For the Skin Diver course, who is the program intended for and
what is the program’s approach and philosophy? Skin Diver Course
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the Skin Diver course, who is the program
intended for, and what is the program’s approach

1. The PADI Skin Diver course is for people who are interested in

and philosophy?
For people interested in exploring the underwater
world using skin diving equipment
exploring the underwater world using skin diving equipment – this
Helps people enjoy themselves in the water while
building confidence, skills and judgment

includes both scuba divers and nondivers.

2. The course helps people enjoy themselves in the water while continued. . .

building confidence in skills and developing good judgment about

the dive environment.
3. There are several reasons that individuals may choose this course, Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
Skin Diver Course KR

including: For the Skin Diver course, who is the program

intended for, and what is the program’s approach
and philosophy?

a. Children under 10 years old who don’t meet the minimum age  Reasons to choose the course:

Children under 10 can earn PADI certification

Children who are not ready for scuba benefit from building

for a scuba course but want to earn a PADI certification.

aquatic skiils
People want to learn skills to more comfortably explore
People want to develop skills while improving fitness

b. Children who are not ready to be scuba divers, yet could benefit  Course has two parts – knowledge development
and confined water training

Open water dive is optional

from building their aquatic skills.

c. People who want to learn basic skin diving skills to more
comfortably explore the underwater world.
d. People who want to better develop their skin diving skills while
improving their stamina and physical fitness.
4. The PADI Skin Diver course consists of two parts — knowledge
development and confined water training. An open water dive is
optional.
B. For the PADI Skin Diver course, what are the diver prerequisites, Skin Diver Course
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the Skin Diver course, what are
material, ratios and performance requirements? the diver prerequisites, materials, ratios and
performance requirements?
Please turn to the PADI Skin Diver Course Instructor Guide

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Skin Diver Course



Diver needs to be at least 8 years old
Have diver complete PADI Discover
Snorkeling and Skin Diver Liability
Instructor Guide and review the standards. Also, have them refer to their Divemaster Release and Assumption of Risk
Agreement (or appropriate
Slates.] release for your area)

Take up to 16 skin divers in
confined water – use your judgment

Optional open water dive ratio – 10 skin divers

1. As listed in the Skin Diver Course Instructor Guide, a diver needs to continued. . .

be at least 8 years old to participate.

2. You must have the diver complete a PADI Discover Snorkeling and
Skin Diver Liability Release and Assumption of Risk Agreement
(product number 10089). You can download the most current form
from [Link]/Pros’ Site.
3. You may take up to 16 skin divers into confined water for skills
practice and assessment. Remember that this is the maximum

Presentation Notes
63
 number and you should use your judgment which may mean
choosing to take fewer divers for better control, especially if children
are participating.
a. If you conduct the optional open water dive, the ratio is lowered
to 10 skin divers or fewer.
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
4. In Section Two of the instructor guide, you see that knowledge
Skin Diver Course
For the Skin Diver course, what are
the diver prerequisites, materials, ratios and
development covers information on equipment, pressure-volume
performance requirements?
 Knowledge development covers:

Equipment
relationships that affect skin divers, the dive environment, proper
Pressure-volume relationships

interaction with aquatic life, the buddy system, problem management

Dive environment

Proper interaction with aquatic life

Buddy system

and local safe skin diving practices.

Problem management

Local practices
 Conduct in classroom or at confined water site
 Adjust the scope based on age-level and interests

continued. . .
a. You can conduct knowledge development in a classroom or
choose to do a complete briefing at the confined water site.
b. Adjust the scope of this information based on the age level and
interests of the skin diving students.
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
5. In Section Three of the instructor guide, the 16 confined water
Skin Diver Course
For the Skin Diver course, what are
the diver prerequisites, materials, ratios and
performance requirements are listed. The skills are also listed on your
performance requirements?

16 performance requirements
(also on Divemaster Slates)
Divemaster Slates.
Conduct in a pool or at a
a. This session may take place in a pool or confined open water site.


confined open water site

Work with each skin diver to
master skills

Schedule additional sessions
as necessary
b. Work with each skin diver to master skills and meet the
continued. . .
performance requirements.
c. Schedule additional sessions as necessary for diver mastery and to
build confidence.
Skin Diver Course KR
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
6. Although the open water dive is optional, it adds value to the course.
For the Skin Diver course, what are
the diver prerequisites, materials, ratios and
performance requirements?
Conduct it whenever possible to let student divers apply what they’ve




Open water dive is optional – adds value to course
Let skin divers apply what they’ve learned while learned while they explore a local dive site under your supervision.
exploring a local dive site

Certify using PIC online or submitting a PIC
envelope to your
PADI Office
7. You certify PADI Skin Divers who have met all performance
requirements by using PIC online or submitting a PIC envelope to
your PADI Office.
[NOTE: Show candidates an PIC envelope and discuss how to complete it. If possible,
Divemaster-Conducted
Discover Scuba Diving Programs
Study Objectives
1. For the Discover Scuba Diving program, who is the show candidates how PIC online works.]
program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
2. For the Discover Scuba Diving program, what are
ratio and supervision requirements when assisting
with a program or taking participants on a
subsequent dive?
V. Discover Scuba Diving
3. How can a divemaster become a Discover Scuba
Diving Leader?
A. For the PADI Discover Scuba Diving program, who is the program
intended for and what is the program’s approach and philosophy?
Discover Scuba Diving
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs 1. Discover Scuba Diving allows people to try scuba diving in a pool or
For the Discover Scuba Diving program, who is the
program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
confined open water site, or go on an open water dive.
 Allows people to try scuba diving
 Primary goal – provide nondivers with a careful,
enjoyable and closely supervised experience

Introduces them to the underwater world
2. The primary goal is to provide nondivers with a careful, enjoyable

Encourages further participation
and closely supervised experience that introduces them to the joys
of diving and the underwater world, while encouraging further
continued. . .
participation.
3. Discover Scuba Diving introduces scuba diving in a way that:
a. Makes it convenient to try diving.

Divemaster Conducted Programs

64
 b. Dispels common misconceptions by letting people experience Discover Scuba Diving
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the Discover Scuba Diving program, who is the
how easy diving can be. program intended for, and what is the program’s
approach and philosophy?
 Introduces scuba in a way that:
c. Lets people work through any anxiety about diving in a





Makes it convenient to try
Dispels common misconceptions
Lets people work through

controlled environment.

any anxiety about diving
Allows people to discover whether
they will enjoy scuba diving

Gets people excited about enrolling in an Open Water Diver

d. Allows people to discover whether they will really enjoy scuba

course
 May be conducted in various locations that meet
standards and offer a positive experience

diving.
e. Gets people excited about enrolling in an Open Water Diver
course.
4. Discover Scuba Diving may be conducted at various locations that
meet PADI Standards and offer participants a positive and enjoyable
diving experience.
B. For the PADI Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio and Discover Scuba Diving
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio
supervision requirements when assisting with a program or taking and supervision requirements when assisting with a
program or taking participants on a subsequent dive?
Please turn to the Discover Scuba Diving Program Instructor Guide

participants on a subsequent dive?  Under Instructor Rating

– Divemasters who are DSD Leaders are qualified to
conduct program in confined water

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Discover Scuba Diving

PADI Instructors and Assistant Instructors can conduct pool
and confined open water programs
Instructors are qualified to take participants on open water dive

Program Instructor Guide and review the standards.]

continued. . .

1. As listed under Instructor Rating in the Discover Scuba Diving

Program Instructor Guide, PADI Divemasters who are qualified
DSD Leaders may conduct the program in confined water – either a
pool or confined open water site.
a. This also means that PADI Instructors and Assistant Instructors
can conduct pool or confined open water programs.
b. PADI Instructors may take participants on an open water dive.
2. If you look under Supervision, it explains that after an instructor Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
Discover Scuba Diving

conducts an initial open water dive with participants, a divemaster For the Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio
and supervision requirements when assisting with a
program or taking participants on a subsequent dive?
may take them on additional open water dives. An instructors must  Under Supervision
– after instructor conducts initial open water dive,
a divemaster is qualified to conduct additional
indirectly supervise any additional dives conducted by a divemaster. open water dives

Indirectly supervised
by instructor

3. Under Ratios there is a Participant-to-Instructor chart that shows

the maximum number of participants allowed in either a pool continued. . .

confined water or open water with various supervision. Discover Scuba Diving
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
For the Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio
a. As a divemaster, you are authorized to take two participants on and supervision requirements when assisting with a
program or taking participants on a subsequent dive?
Under Ratios – chart shows maximum participants
a subsequent dive (under an instructor’s indirect supervision, as


Divemaster to 2 participants
on subsequent dives
Divemaster makes it possible

mentioned.)


to take 2 additional participants
into confined open water

Divemaster makes is possible to take 2 additional participants
on open water dive

b. As a divemaster (acting as a certified assistant,) you make it  These are maximum ratios – apply sound judgment
and be conservative

possible for an instructor or assistant instructor to take two continued. . .

additional participants into confined open water.

c. You also make it possible for an instructor to take two additional
participants on an open water dive.
d. Keep in mind that these are maximum ratios, and as noted in
your manual, you must apply continuous and sound judgment
before, during and after the dive, and make adjustments to
reduce risk.

Presentation Notes
65
 Discover Scuba Diving KR
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs 4. Your role during a Discover Scuba Diving program is very similar
to how you assist an instructor during an Open Water Diver course.
For the Discover Scuba Diving program, what are ratio
and supervision requirements when assisting with a
program or taking participants on a subsequent dive?
 Your role is similar to how you assist during an
Open Water Diver course

Proper positioning and good communication
Proper positioning and good communication with the instructor are
 Under Supervision – your responsibility:

Do not leave participants unattended
critical for control.

Position yourself to make immediate physical contact

5. Note that under Supervision, standards clearly outline your

Continually observe participants with only brief, periodic
interruptions needed to lead the dive

Do not engage in any other activities

continued. . .
responsibility to:
a. Not leave participants unattended, either at the surface or
underwater.
b. Position yourself so that you can make immediate physical
contact with, adjust buoyancy for, and render assistance to,
participants.
c. Continually observe participants with only the brief, periodic
interruptions needed to lead the dive and to provide assistance
to individual divers.
d. Not engage in any other activities, such as taking photographs or
video, while supervising participants.
6. You will participate in two Discover Scuba Diving program
workshops to give you practice supervising novice divers and dealing
with any problems that occur.

Discover Scuba Diving KR

Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
C. How can a PADI Divemaster become a Discover Scuba Diving
How can a PADI Divemaster become a
Discover Scuba Diving Leader?
Please turn to the Professional Membership Guide
Leader?
DSD Leaders are qualified to conduct program
[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – Professional

in a pool or confined open water site
 Qualify by completing an internship:

Conduct four separate. actual Discover
Scuba Diving programs under
direct supervision
Membership Guide, Discover Scuba Diving Leader Internship Requirements]

Show your ability to conduct effective
briefings, inwater supervision


and debriefings
Gives you more experience with new 1. As mentioned, divemasters who are DSD Leaders are authorized to
divers and is good preparation for instructor training

conduct the program in a pool or confined open water.

2. After certification as a PADI Divemaster, you qualify as a DSD
Leader by completing an internship that includes:
a. Conducting four separate real (not simulated) PADI Discover
Scuba Diving programs in confined water under the direct
supervision of a PADI Instructor.
Specialties
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs b. Showing your ability to conduct effective briefings, inwater
Study Objectives
1. What two PADI Specialty Diver courses can a PADI
Divemaster qualify to teach?
supervision and debriefings.
2. What are the benefits of qualifying to teach these
two courses?
3. Becoming a DSD Leader gives you more experience with new divers
and is good preparation for instructor training.

VI. Specialties
Specialties
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs A. What two PADI Specialty Diver courses can a PADI Divemaster
What two PADI Specialty Diver courses can a


PADI Divemaster qualify to teach?
You can qualify as a PADI Specialty Instructor for
qualify to teach?
two specialty courses before you become a PADI
Open Water Scuba Instructor




Digital Underwater Photography
Emergency Oxygen Provider
1. As a PADI Divemaster, you can qualify as a PADI Specialty
 You must complete an
instructor training
course conducted by
Instructor to teach two popular specialty courses before you become
a PADI Course Director
a PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor.
a. The first is the PADI Digital Underwater Photographer course.

Divemaster Conducted Programs

66
 b. The second is PADI Emergency Oxygen Provider course.
2. To qualify, you must complete the respective instructor training
course conducted by a PADI Course Director. After you complete
your PADI Divemaster course, look for an instructor training course
for either or both of these programs.

B. What are the benefits of qualifying to teach these two courses? Specialties
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs
What are the benefits of qualifying

1. There are several benefits to qualifying to teach these courses: 

to teach these two courses?
Benefits for teaching these courses:

Gain experience with teaching

a. Teaching these courses is a great way to begin gaining experience

Help your PADI Dive Center or Resort
Earn income

Digital Underwater

with teaching that will help you later as a PADI Open Water Photography
– offer in conjunction
with PADI Skin Diver

Instructor.
Emergency Oxygen

Provider – offer to
anyone interested

b. The ability to teach these courses helps the PADI Dive Center
or Resort through which you operate by allowing them to offer
the programs without tying up the instructor schedules.
c. Offering the programs earns you income.
2. Specific to digital underwater photography – you can offer this
course in conjunction with a PADI Skin Diver course because skin
divers and snorkelers can earn this certification.
3. Specific to emergency oxygen provider – since this is a nondiving
course with no scuba certification prerequisite, you can offer this
course to anyone interested in learning how to provide emergency
oxygen.

Summary Summary
Divemaster-Conducted
Programs

General Guidelines

Scuba Review

I. General Guidelines
Discover Local Diving

Skin Diver Course

Discover Scuba Diving

II. Scuba Review
Specialties

III. Discover Local Diving

IV. Skin Diver Course

V. Discover Scuba Diving

VI. Specialties

Presentation Notes
67
Divemaster Conducted Programs
68
Specialized
Skills and
Activities

Presentation Notes
69
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or by reading Chapter
6 of the PADI Divemaster Manual. You may also use this presentation
for prescriptive remediation while reviewing the Chapter 6 Knowledge
Review with candidates.
Specialized Skills
and Activities 2. This presentation goes over equipment and procedures for specialized
Specialized Skills diving activities as well as a divemaster’s role in supervising these
and Activities activities and assisting with specialty diver courses.

Go To Knowledge Review
Overview
I. Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
Specialized Skills
• How do you set a dive float?
Overview and Activities

Floats, Marker Buoys and

Signaling Devices
• What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and how do you

Mapping
Search and Recovery
properly use the various types?
Deep Diving
• As a divemaster, what signaling and safety devices should you carry

Dive Activities

and know how to use?

II. Mapping
• What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and what
elements do you include in a dive site map?

III. Search and Recovery

• What are five general steps in planning a search and recovery dive?
• What general considerations should you take into account when
using search patterns?
• What is the procedure for lifting an object to the surface with a lift
bag?

IV. Deep Diving

• What steps should you take to plan and prepare for a deep dive?
• What factors should you take into account when supervising a deep
dive?
• What are the procedures for preventing or dealing with gas narcosis,
low-on or out-of-air emergencies and decompression illness?

V. Dive Activities
• What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when
supervising each of the following activities — boat diving, altitude
diving, drift diving, surf diving, night diving, cold water diving,
enriched air diving and technical diving?

Specialized Skills and Activities

70
Outline Specialized Skills
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
Study Objectives
1. How do you set a dive float?
2. What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and

I. Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices

how do you properly use the various types?
3. As a divemaster, what signaling and safety devices
should you carry and know how to use?

A. How do you set a dive float?

1. One of your duties as a dive supervisor or instructional assistant may
be to set the dive float for the group. Setting the float serves several Specialized Skills
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devicesand Activities

purposes: 
How do you set a dive float?
One of your duties may be to set the dive float
Float serves several purposes:

a. It allows you to attach and display a dive flag to warn boat traffic

Display a dive flag to warn
boat traffic
Serves as a surface
support station

away from the area. In many places, the law requires you to
Provides a descent and
ascent reference

display a dive flag when diving.

b. It serves as a surface support station before descending and after continued. . .

surfacing.
c. The float line provides a descent and ascent reference, which is
often required in teaching situations.
2. There are many different types of floats ranging from small buoys to Specialized Skills
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devicesand Activities

commercially designed large units with fabric covers. There are also 
How do you set a dive float?
Types of floats – small buoys to commercially
designed large units with fabric covers

different anchoring methods including:  Anchoring methods:

Weight belt or weights attached to line

Small anchor

a. A weight belt or weights attached to the float line.

Auger to screw into soft bottom
Line or clips to tie or clip to mooring
or inanimate object

b. A small anchor
c. An auger designed to be screwed into a soft bottom, such as continued. . .

sand.
d. Line or clips to be tied or clipped to a mooring or inanimate
object.
3. No matter what type of float you need to set, here are a few Specialized Skills
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
guidelines to follow: How do you set a dive float?
Guidelines for setting a float:
Be familiar with the float and attachment method
a. First, be familiar with the float and attachment method before

 Have a good idea of where you’ll set the float

Familiar with site

getting in the water. 

Snorkel the area
Explore the site on scuba
When anchoring, augering, tying or clipping float:

b. Have a good idea of where you will set the float before you get

Do not damage or disturb aquatic life with attachment or
attached line

Think about where descending divers will land

in the water. continued. . .

• If you’re familiar with the dive site, you probably already

know the ideal spot.
• If the water is clear enough for you to see the bottom, you
may find a good spot as you snorkel the area.
• If you’re not familiar with the site and can’t easily pick a spot
while snorkeling, one option is to explore the site on scuba
to find an appropriate location.
c. When anchoring, augering, tying or clipping the float to the
bottom, do not damage or disturb any aquatic life – either with
the attachment or with the attached line.
• For example, you may find a small sand patch to place
the anchor, but if the line is likely to brush up against the
surrounding coral, then it is not a good spot.

Presentation Notes
71
 KR Specialized Skills
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devicesand Activities d. Consider how water movement, currents or tidal changes will
How do you set a dive float?
Guidelines for setting a float:
 Consider water movement, current and tidal change
affect the float.






Leave enough scope to account for swell and tide
Be aware of what will happen if current shifts
Make sure line won’t damage aquatic life or put too much stress
• Leave enough scope in the float line to account for the swell
on anchor
 Plan your dive to remove float or
get it at the end of the dive day
or rising tide.
• Be aware of what will happen if the current shifts. Make sure
the line won’t damage aquatic life or put too much stress on
the anchor point so that it dislodges.
e. Plan your dive so that you can remove the float at the end of the
dive or be prepared to get it at the end of the dive day.
Specialized Skills
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
B. What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and how do you
What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and how
do you properly use the various types? properly use the various types?
 Surface marker buoys serve a range of purposes:

1. Surface marker buoys serve a range of purposes including:

Marking boundaries for mapping project

Marking locations, routes and
boundaries for search and
recovery operations

Alerting boat traffic to
presence of a diver
Allowing people on shore or
a. Marking boundaries for your mapping project, as previously
boat to identify diver’s location

Providing visual reference for ascent

Delayed surface marker buoys discussed. They are also used for search and recovery operations
continued. . .
to mark locations, routes or boundaries.
b. Similar to a dive float alerting boat traffic to the presence of a
diver. Surface marker buoys are important and often required in
areas with heavy boat traffic, or where divers may be drifting in a
current.
c. Allowing people on shore or on a boat to identify the divers’
location. For example, an instructor asks buddy teams to tow
a surface marker buoy during the Underwater Navigation
Specialty course to allow monitoring exercises from the surface.
d. Providing a visual reference for ascending divers. In some areas,
divers launch a marker buoy during the dive to use as an ascent
line and to complete safety stops. These are referred to as delayed
surface marker buoys.
2. As a divemaster, you’ll likely use a surface marker buoy for most of
the purposes just discussed. To properly use surface marker buoys,
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and how
consider these points:
do you properly use the various types?
 You’ll likely use surface marker buoys
Consider these points:
a. If securing a buoy to mark a specific location, such as when
 If securing a buoy, take care to not harm
or disturb aquatic life
 If towing a buoy, hold the line or reel
mapping a dive site, take care to not harm or disturb bottom
so you can let it go immediately

Do not attach buoy to
your equipment
dwelling aquatic life, similar to the way you set a dive float.
 Be aware of the line and ensure
other divers keep clear
to avoid entanglement b. If towing a marker buoy during a dive, such as a drift dive,
continued. . .

hold on to the line or reel so that you can let go immediately if

necessary. Do not attach the buoy to your equipment.
c. Anytime a surface marker buoy is used, be aware of the line and
Specialized Skills
ensure that other divers keep clear to avoid line entanglement.
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices
What is the purpose of surface marker buoys and how
do you properly use the various types?
3. If using a delayed surface marker buoy, note that protocols vary and
 If using a delayed surface marker buoy
– DSMB – be aware of local practices

Example: Color or two buoys together
you need to be aware of any local practices. For example, the color
Follow these guidelines:
of the buoy may have a specific meaning in a different area, such as


Prepare buoy in advance
– properly attached to reel

When launching, check for

object and divers above
Keep line tight and away
from your equipment,
one color for emergencies. In other areas, two buoys together signals
then inflate carefully

Keep line tight to surface, which keeps buoy upright
a request for help. In general, follow these guidelines:

Specialized Skills and Activities

72
 a. Prepare the buoy in advance making sure it is properly attached
to the clip on the reel.
b. When launching, check for objects or divers above you, keep
the line tight and away from your equipment and then inflate
the buoy carefully, either orally, using a second stage or using an
accessory inflator system as specified by the manufacturer.
c. Once the buoy is on the surface, keep the line taut, which keeps
the buoy upright and increases its visibility.
C. As a divemaster, what signaling and safety devices should you carry Specialized Skills
and Activities
Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices

and know how to use? As a divemaster, what signaling and safety devices
should you carry and know how to use?
Please open your Instructor Manual to the General

[NOTE: Have candidates refer to the PADI Instructor Manual – General Standards and
Standards and Procedures Guide – Equipment
 Certified assistants need two surface signaling
devices – one audible and one visual
Procedures Guide and review the equipment requirements.]

Audible – whistle or air horn
Visual – signal mirror, surface marker
buoy, inflatable signal tube or
emergency strobe

1. In your PADI Instructor Manual – General Standards and  If you work on a dive boat, be
familiar with the location and
operation of safety equipment
Procedures, under Equipment, Standard Instructor and Certified
Assistant Equipment – you’ll see that as a certified assistant, you
need to carry two surface signaling devices – one audible and one
visual.
a. Audible devices like whistles or air horns can be easily heard
to gain attention on the surface. You should make sure your
audible device is easily accessible on your equipment should you
ever need to use it.
b. Visual signaling devices like signal mirrors, surface marker
buoys, inflatable signal tubes and emergency strobes are
important because they make you much more visible and easy to
spot on the surface. Again, your device should be accessible and
you should be proficient using it.
2. If you work on a dive boat, you should be familiar with the location
and operation of safety equipment onboard, which may include
personal flotation devices, fire extinguishers, signal devices (horns,
Specialized Skills
lights, flares, EPIRBs), life rings, marine radio, emergency oxygen, Mapping
Study Objective
and Activities

first aid kit, etc. 1. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site,
and what elements do you include in a dive site
map?

II. Mapping
A. What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and what
elements do you include in a dive site map? Specialized Skills
Mapping and Activities

1. For this course, you’ve been assigned to map a dive site for several What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and
what elements do you include in a dive site map?
You’ve been assigned to map a dive site
reasons. The process of mapping:


Broadens your awareness of the dive environment

Gives you practice with underwater navigation

Enhances your ability to communicate with your buddy and

a. Broadens your awareness of the dive environment by having you coordinate activities underwater

focus on details.
b. Gives you practice with underwater navigation. continued. . .

c. Enhances your ability to communicate with your buddy and

coordinate your activities underwater.

Presentation Notes
73
 Mapping
Specialized Skills
and Activities 2. When you’ve completed your dive site map, you can use it:
What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and


what elements do you include in a dive site map?
When you’ve completed your map, use it: a. As a visual guide during briefings.

As a visual guide during briefings

To show divers local facilities,
entry/exit and points of interest
As a navigation reference
b. To show divers local facilities, entry and exit points, and points
of interest to aid their dive planning.

To observe changes in the
dive site over time

c. As a navigation reference when leading dive tours.

continued. . .

d. As a reference to observe changes in the dive site over time.

Specialized Skills
and Activities
3. The first step in mapping a dive site is to gather the tools you’ll use
Mapping
What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and
what elements do you include in a dive site map?
including:
 First step is to gather tools:




Compass
Large slate and pencil
a. An underwater compass for navigation.

Surface marker buoys




Line or measuring device
Lined or graph paper,
plus ruler or protractor
b. A large slate (or several slates) and a pencil to record dive site
OR computer program

features.
continued. . .
c. Surface marker buoys with lines and weights to define the map
area or mark specific reference points.
d. A line or measuring device to check distances.
e. Lined or graph paper and a ruler or protractor to accurately
draw your final map, or a computer program that allows you to
create and print out your map.
Mapping
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
4. The next step is to determine the map boundaries and identify a
What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and
what elements do you include in a dive site map? central point or reference points that you’ll use to gather data. Then,
 Determine map boundaries

Identify a central or reference points
Get in the water and mark those points get in the water and mark those points with your surface marker
Choose a search pattern
buoys.


Example – U-pattern

Use kick cycles as a
general measurement
Measure specific features

5. Next, choose a search pattern that allows you to cover the map area


more accurately

continued. . .
while using your reference points. For example, a U-pattern starting
at a central or corner reference point.
a. You may need to use several sets of patterns to cover the whole
area.
b. You can use kick cycles as a general measurement, but may want
to measure specific features more accurately with a measuring
device.
Mapping
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities 6. You and your buddy need to work together effectively as you swim
What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and


what elements do you include in a dive site map?
Work together
the search pattern.
One controls pattern while other

a. One technique is to have one person control the pattern while

counts kick cycles and keeps notes

Agree on how you will communicate
On each leg, note features and distances
the other person counts kick cycles and keep notes.


 Note distance when you hit specific depths

to show contour
At regular intervals

b. Agree on how you will communicate and coordinate your

Large depth changes,

such as drop offs

continued. . .
activities.
7. On each leg of your pattern, note the features and distance when
you find those features. Depending on your dive site, you may
want to go back after your initial survey and determine the distance
between key features.
8. On each leg, also note the distance when you hit specified depths to
show contour, or record the depth at regular intervals – for example,

Specialized Skills and Activities

74
 every 3 metres/10 feet along the leg. Be sure to note large depth
changes, such as a sharp drop-off, as a feature on the map.
9. When you’ve gathered all the data you need from the dive site – Mapping
Specialized Skills
and Activities

keep in mind that this may take several dives – you are ready to What are the general steps for mapping a dive site, and


what elements do you include in a dive site map?
When you’ve gathered all data, create your map

create your map.  If drawing the map by hand:

Transfer data to lined or graph paper to keep heading angles,
feature placement and depth contours accurate

a. If drawing the map, you may want to transfer your data to lined

Finish by copying to another sheet while fine-tuning
 If using a computer program, use available tools
such as background grids and layers to
keep data accurate and to add details
or graph paper first to keep heading angles, feature placement  Fill in shoreline, facility and
topside features, such as moorings

and depth contours accurate. Then finish the map by copying it

to another sheet while you fine-tune the details.
b. If using a computer program, use available tools such as
background grids and layers to keep the data accurate as well as
add details to create a useful map.
c. Be sure to fill in the shoreline, facilities and topside features.
10. There are many other ways to map using technology and additional
Specialized Skills

tools. Use the method and tools that best fit your environment and Search and Recovery
Study Objectives
and Activities

the time you have available to make your map. 1.

2.
What are five general steps in planning a search and
recovery dive?
What general considerations should you take into
account when using search patterns?
3. What is the procedure for lifting an object to the

III. Search and Recovery

surface with a lift bag?

A. What are five general steps in planning a search and recovery dive?
1. As a dive professional, you will occasionally be involved in search Search and Recovery
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What are five general steps in planning a
and recovery operations. 
search and recovery dive?
As a dive professional, you’ll occasionally be
involved in search and recovery operations

a. Most often, you will be asked to help search for a dropped piece

Dropped equipment
Missing diver
Know how to plan and
of dive equipment.

execute a search and
recovery dive
 Earn PADI Search and

b. If you’re ever at a dive site when a diver is missing, you may be Recovery Diver certification

asked to be part of or lead the search effort. continued. . .

2. To be prepared, you need to be know how to plan and execute a

search and recovery dive. If you’re already certified as a Search and
Recovery Diver, this will be a review. If not, consider earning this
certification.
3. Follow these steps to plan a search and recovery dive: Specialized Skills
and Activities
Search and Recovery

a. Make sure the dive objective is clearly defined. This will help What are five general steps in planning a
search and recovery dive?
Steps to plan a search and recovery dive:

you figure out the scope of the search – whether it’s a simple  Clearly define dive objective

Simple search or complicated operation?

search or a complicated operation that may require several dives. 


Collect and analyze information to determine risks
and improve efficiency
Decide whether to scuba dive or snorkel

b. Collect and analyze all available information to determine 


Choose a buddy or assign dive teams
Conduct a complete briefing – specific tasks, safety
considerations, time limits and recall procedures

possible risks and improve search efficiency. Find out as much as

possible about the object – its description and possible location,
etc.
c. Decide whether it’s better to scuba dive or snorkel to search for
the object.
d. Choose a dive buddy or assign dive teams. It’s best to use
certified Search and Recover Divers, in all cases ensure that dive
teams have a clear search strategy and work together.

Presentation Notes
75
 e. Conduct a complete briefing so that divers understand their
specific tasks – include safety considerations and time limits after
which everyone should surface. If possible, have a way to recall
teams that are still out searching when someone finds the object,
or in case of an emergency.

Search and Recovery

KR 5 Specialized Skills

KR 6 and Activities
B. What general considerations should you take into account when
What general considerations should you take into
account when using search patterns? using search patterns?
 Goal – cover the search area as quickly and
efficiently as possible without leaving gaps
There are several search patterns you can use:
 Expanding square
1. There are several search pattern you can use including the:

Good for looking in
immediate area
Doesn’t require any
a. Expanding square, which is good for looking for something
special equipment

lost in the immediate area because you start at the best guess of
continued. . .
where the object is and continue expanding outward. It’s quick
Specialized Skills
to start and doesn’t require any special equipment
KR

Search and Recovery and Activities

What general considerations should you take into
account when using search patterns?
There are several search patterns you can use:
 U-pattern
b. U-pattern, as discussed in the section on mapping, is good for

Good for searching a large
area for a medium to
large object
searching a relatively large area for a medium to large object.
c. Circular or semicircular rope pattern is effective for smaller
objects over unobstructed bottom. By using a line, one diver
continued. . .

KR Specialized Skills
acts as the center point while the other diver swims a circle or
and Activities
Search and Recovery
What general considerations should you take into
account when using search patterns?
semicircle looking at the bottom. The circle expands after each
There are several search patterns you can use:
 Circular or semicircular rope pattern
pass or semicircle moves along a baseline.

Effective for small object over

unobstructed bottom
One diver is pivot point while
other diver swims
d. Jackstay is a good choice for finding a small object in a large
area. Basically, divers place a line on the bottom and search

Circle expands or semicircle
moves along baseline

continued. . .
along its length, then move it perpendicular a given distance for
KR Specialized Skills the next leg.
Search and Recovery and Activities
What general considerations should you take into
account when using search patterns?
There are several search patterns you can use:
2. You need to pick the best patterns based on the search area, visibility
 Jackstay




Good choice for finding small object in large area
Divers place line on bottom and search along length, then move
and bottom topography as well as the divers and equipment you
it perpendicular for next leg
have available. For example, you wouldn’t use a rope pattern if the
bottom is very uneven or you don’t have enough rope.
continued. . .
3. When choosing and then executing a search pattern, keep the
Search and Recovery
Specialized Skills
and Activities following points in mind:
What general considerations should you take into


account when using search patterns?
Pick the best pattern based on search area, bottom a. Begin the search pattern at a specific location within the
topography, divers and equipment available



Wouldn’t use rope pattern on uneven bottom
When choosing and executing a pattern:
established search area.

Begin search at specific location

Use simplest pattern that
will work
Use simple compass points
b. Use the simplest search pattern that will work.
– N, S, E and W




Have one buddy navigate while other looks
Sketch pattern on slate and use it to keep track c. When using compass-based search patterns, use the compass
points – N, S, E and W – to simplify search headings.
d. It’s often most effective if one buddy navigates the pattern while
the other looks for the object.
e. Sketch the pattern on a slate and use it to keep track of your
Specialized Skills
position. Also note significant features while swimming.
Search and Recovery and Activities
What is the procedure for lifting an object


to the surface with a lift bag?
Once you’ve located a missing object
C. What is the procedure for lifting an object to the surface with a lift
and marked it, double check that your
lift bag has a capacity close to the
object’s negative buoyancy
bag?

Too small – won’t lift object



Too large – ascent difficult to control
You want the bag nearly full so 1. Once you’ve located a missing object and marked it, you want to
that expanding air bubbles out
– greater control

Most lift bags have dump
double check that your lift bag has a lifting capacity as close to the
valves that allow venting
continued. . .
object’s negative buoyancy as possible.

Specialized Skills and Activities

76
 a. If the bag is too small, you won’t get the object off the bottom.
b. If the bag is too large, the air inside will continue to expand
on the way up, which makes the ascent difficult to control and
could result in a runaway ascent.
c. You want the bag to be nearly full when it offsets the object’s
negative buoyancy, so that expanding air bubbles out during
ascent – allowing greater control.
d. Many lift bags have dump valves that allow air to be vented
during ascent.
2. The next step is to attach the bag to the object. Depending on your Search and Recovery
Specialized Skills
and Activities

lift bag, you may need to tie it to the object or use clips to secure it. 
What is the procedure for lifting an object
to the surface with a lift bag?
Next step is to attach bag to object – tie or clip

a. A few useful knots you should be able to tie are the bowline, the  Useful knots:

Bowline
Sheet bend

sheet bend, and two half-hitches.

Two half-hitches

 When secured, test

rigging by pulling

b. When the bag is secured to the object by knots or clips, always

test your rigging by tugging on it prior to attempting a lift. continued. . .

3. Use your alternate air source, or accessory inflator, to slowly add air Search and Recovery
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities

to the lift bag. What is the procedure for lifting an object

to the surface with a lift bag?
 Use alternate air source, or accessory inflator,

a. Inflate the lift bag a little at a time while pulling on the rigging to slowly add air




Pull rigging to test if off bottom
Fill lift bag close to neutral

to test if the object is coming off the bottom.

Be ready to dump air
 Depending on conditions,
accompany bag or allow it
to rise independently
b. Fill the lift bag with enough air so that it’s close to neutral at the  If accompanying it, maintain control by dumping air




Maintain proper ascent rate
Position yourself off to the side

bottom before beginning the ascent.
If it starts to runaway, let it go

continued. . .

c. Be ready to dump air if needed.

4. Depending on conditions and the situation, you may accompany
the lift bag to the surface or allow it to rise independently.
a. If accompanying it to the surface, maintain control of the lift
bag by periodically dumping air from the bag, as necessary.
Maintain a proper ascent rate. Specialized Skills
and Activities
Search and Recovery

b. Position yourself off to the side – not under the object – just in

What is the procedure for lifting an object
to the surface with a lift bag?
On the surface, add air to ensure positive buoyancy

case it comes loose during the ascent.
Get assistance to remove the object

c. If it starts to runaway from you, let it go.

5. On the surface, if necessary, add air to the lift bag to ensure positive
buoyancy. Get assistance to remove the object from the water, if Specialized Skills
and Activities
appropriate. Deep Diving
Study Objectives
1. What steps should you take to plan and prepare for
a deep dive?

IV. Deep Diving

2. What factors should you take into account when
supervising a deep dive?
3. What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?

A. What steps should you take to plan and prepare for a deep dive?
1. From your training thus far, you know that a deep dive is defined
in recreational diving as a dive between 18 metres/60 feet and 40 Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What steps should you take to plan
metres/130 feet. 
and prepare for a dive?
Deep diving is defined in recreational diving as a dive
between 18m/60ft and 40m/130ft

a. You also know that deep diving takes a little more planning and  Takes more planning and preparation due to:

Shorter no decompression limits

preparation due to shorter no decompression limits, potential

Potential effects of gas narcosis

Use air more quickly
 Earn a PADI Deep Diver certification

affects of gas narcosis and the fact that you use air more quickly
at depth. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
77
 b. If you’re already certified as a Deep Diver, you’ve already learned
a lot about preparing for a deep dive. If not, consider earning
this certification.
Deep Diving
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities 2. If you’re going to supervise a deep dive, consider the needs and

What steps should you take to plan
and prepare for a dive?
To supervise deep dives, consider the needs and
capabilities of other divers in your preparation and planning.
capabilities of divers:
 First, have a clear and reasonable dive objective
– dive time is limited
3. The first consideration is to have a clear and reasonable dive
Example – on a large wreck, limit

objective, because your dive time is limited.

exploration to part of the wreck

Minimize stress and avoid task
loading with a simple objective

a. For example, if diving on a large wreck, you may want to limit

continued. . .
exploration to just part of the wreck instead of rushing to try to
see the whole thing on one dive.
b. The goal is to minimize stress and avoid task loading by having a
simple and often singular objective.
Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities 4. Next, you should review and check dive equipment to be sure it’s

What steps should you take to plan
and prepare for a dive?
Next, review and check dive equipment:
appropriate for deep diving and in good condition. Specifically pay

Scuba cylinders large enough and full
Enough exposure protection for temperature at depth
Alternate air sources positioned correctly and everyone familiar
attention to:
with buddy’s configuration

a. Scuba cylinders should be of large enough capacity for the

planned dive and be full.
continued. . .
b. Divers should have enough exposure protection for the cooler
water temperature anticipated at depth.
c. Check that divers have alternate air sources positioned correctly
and that everyone is familiar with their buddy’s alternate air
source configuration.
Specialized Skills
and Activities
d. If divers are using dive computers to plan and monitor the deep
Deep Diving
What steps should you take to plan
and prepare for a dive?
dive, make sure they are familiar with computer use.
 Next, review and check dive equipment:




If using a dive computer, be familiar with use
If using a depth gauge, timing device and RDP,
know no decompression limits for planned depth
e. If divers are using a depth gauge and timing device along with


and deeper depths
Carry a dive light to bring out
colors, read gauges and
an RDP (table or eRDPML), make sure they know the no
keep track of buddy in
lower visibility
decompression limit not only for the planned depth, but deeper
continued. . .
depths should they accidentally go deeper than planned.
f. Encourage each diver to carry a dive light to bring out colors at
depth or to peer into cracks and holes. A light also helps with
reading gauges and keeping track of your buddy in low visibility.
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
5. In preparing for a deep dive, you should also consider other
Deep Diving
What steps should you take to plan
and prepare for a dive?
equipment that will make the dive easier and add to safety, such as:
 Consider other equipment:

Reference line for ascents and descents
Emergency breathing equipment
a. A reference line for ascents and descents allows better control
positioned at the safety stop

Extra weights at safety stop
– clipped to the line or in a mesh bag and makes it easier to keep the group together.
b. If possible at your dive site, it’s a good idea to have emergency
breathing equipment positioned at a safety stop, just in case
a diver is getting low on air. You can suspend a cylinder and
regulator at 5 metres/15 feet next to the reference line.
c. You may also want to have a few extra weights available at
the safety stop to help divers who may be a little buoyant
comfortably complete the stop. Leave extra weights clipped to a
line or in a mesh bag secured at 5 metres/15 feet.

Specialized Skills and Activities

78
B. What factors should you take into account when supervising a deep Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities

dive?
What factors should you take into account
when supervising a deep dive?
 Anytime you supervise a dive, you want proper
preparation, clear communication, a good vantage

1. As you’ve learned, anytime you supervise a dive you want proper 

point and the ability to deal with problems
Factors to consider for supervising a deep dive:

How experienced the divers are

preparation (as just discussed,) clear communications, a good
Less experience – provide

more information

More experience – remind

vantage point and the ability to identify, prevent, correct or respond

divers of key safety points

Remind divers to make
contingency plans for
accidentally exceeding depth and time

to problems. continued. . .

2. Factors you should consider when deciding how best to supervise a

deep dive include:
a. How experienced divers are with deep diving and what
information and guidance they need.
• For divers with less experience, your might provide more
information about descent and ascent techniques, frequent
monitoring of depth, time and air supply, watching for
narcosis, safety stop procedures, etc.
• For more experienced divers, you may only need to remind
divers of key safety points.
• No matter what the divers’ experience levels, be sure to
remind divers to have contingency plans for accidentally
exceeding planned depth and time.
b. Potential for going deeper than planned. Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What factors should you take into account
• Diving along a wall or slope increases the risk of going below 
when supervising a deep dive?
Factors to consider for supervising a deep dive:

the planned depth. You may decide that your best vantage Potential for going deeper than planned

Diving along a wall or slope
increases the risk of going
below planned depth – best

point is to lead the dive so that you can monitor depth and

vantage point is to lead
Diving on flat bottom – best
vantage point in water, but

remind divers to watch their air supply.

following rather than leading

• If diving on a flat bottom, you may still decide that your continued. . .

best vantage point is in the water, but perhaps you follow

rather than leading the dive. You are still close enough to
remind divers to watch their air supply.
c. Diver comfort, skill and attitude. KR Specialized Skills
Deep Diving and Activities

• You need to use your judgment before the dive to determine What factors should you take into account
when supervising a deep dive?
Factors to consider for supervising a deep dive:
how comfortable divers appear along with their attitude

Diver comfort, skill and attitude

Use your judgment – you may choose to stay
closer to certain divers depending

towards following safe diving practices. You may choose to

on what you see
During dive – you may change
position to prevent or

stay closer to certain divers during the dive depending on

quickly respond to problems

End or modify dive if divers
appear uncomfortable
– ascend to a shallower

what you see. level or end the dive

• During the dive, you also need to determine how

comfortable divers appear – if they are controlling their
buoyancy and monitoring their gauges. You may choose
to change your position underwater to be closer to certain
divers to prevent or quickly respond to problems.
• Use good judgment in ending or modifying the dive if divers
appear uncomfortable. At many dive sites, you can ascend
10 metres/30 feet to a shallower level and continue the dive,
which may turn a stressful dive into a fun one. If not, end
the dive

Presentation Notes
79
 Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities C. What are the procedures for preventing or dealing with gas narcosis,
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
low-on or out-of-air emergencies and decompression illness?
 During a deep dive, nitrogen, or gas narcosis,
typically becomes noticeable at approximately
30 m/100 ft

At first, the effect are subtle – slowed thinking and
1. During a deep dive is when divers are most likely to encounter


mild euphoria
Effects increase with depth – motor skills deteriorate, judgment
impaired and slower response to a problem
nitrogen, or more properly, gas narcosis. Although it differs between
 To reduce risk of problems with narcosis, plan deep
dives shallower than 30 m/100 ft individuals, the effects typically become noticeable at approximately
continued. . .
30 metres/100 feet.
a. At first, the effects are subtle – slowed thinking and for some, a
mild sense of euphoria or well being.
b. The effects increase with depth – motor skills deteriorate,
judgment is impaired and slower thinking delays response to a
problem.
2. To reduce problems with gas narcosis while diving, plan deep dives
to be shallower than 30 metres/100 feet. If this is not possible based
on the dive objective, plan multilevel dives with minimal time at or
below 30 metres/100 feet.
Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities 3. If it appears that a diver you are supervising is being impaired by gas
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
narcosis, have the buddy team or group ascend to a shallower depth

If a diver becomes impaired – have buddy team or
group ascend to shallower depth or end the dive or if necessary, end the dive and ascend to the safety stop.
4. Because air consumption is greater at depth, there is a risk of low-
on-air situations or worse, out-of-air emergencies.
continued. . .
a. The obvious prevention is to continually monitor air supply and
Specialized Skills
Deep Diving and Activities
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
ascend with enough air to easily complete a safety stop.
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
 Air consumption is greater at depth – primary
b. As a dive supervisor, remind divers to watch their submersible
concern is increased risk of low-on-air
or out-of-air emergencies
 Prevention – continually monitor
pressure gauges. If appropriate, have divers tell you when they
air supply and ascend with enough
air to complete a safety stop
 Remind divers to watch their SPGs
reach an air consumption point, such as half way, so that you
Have them tell you when they

can help them get back to the ascent line in plenty of time.


reach an air consumption point

Encourage them to slow down

continued. . .

c. Also, encourage divers to slow down to avoid using even more

air due to overexertion.

Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities
5. As discussed, having emergency breathing equipment positioned at a
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
safety stop allows a low-on-air diver to complete the stop.
Having emergency breathing equipment at the safety
6. An out-of-air emergency is particularly concerning on a deep dive

stop allows low-on-air diver to complete stop
 Out-of-air emergencies are dangerous:

because:

Two divers breathing from
one cylinder have increased
breathing rates due to stress

Anxiety may cause divers
to ascend at faster rate

a. Two divers are breathing from one cylinder as they ascend from
continued. . .
depth and likely have increased breathing rates due to stress.
b. Anxiety may also cause the divers to ascend at a faster rate.
7. Without jeopardizing your safety, do your best to support a low-
on-air or out-of-air diver and buddy as they ascend and encourage a
Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities
normal ascent rate.
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
a. It’s best to have a buddy team where one diver is low-on-air start
up immediately, even if not as close to the exit point as desired.
 Without jeopardizing your safety, support low-on-air
or out-of-air diver and buddy

Have buddy team with one diver
low-on-air start up immediately

You may decide to escort team so
there are two divers with
alternate air sources available
• Depending upon the circumstances, you may decide to
escort the team so there are two divers with alternate air

If diver is very low-on-air, switch
diver to alternate air source to
avoid running out-of-air on ascent

continued. . . sources available to share should the low-air diver need it.

Specialized Skills and Activities

80
 • If the diver is very low-on-air, a prudent measure may be to
switch the diver to an alternate air source, which helps the
diver avoid running out-of-air during the ascent.
b. If a diver runs out of air, get the diver settled on the buddy’s Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities

or your alternate air source and start ascending without delay, What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?

encouraging a proper ascent rate.
If diver runs out of air, get settled on buddy’s or your
alternate air source and ascend

Monitor everyone’s gas supply and

• Monitor gas supply on the way to the surface, and be

be prepared to switch the diver to
another alternate air source
Keep in mind that after safety stop,

prepared to switch the out-of-air diver to another alternate out-of-air diver will need alternate
to surface or need to take
emergency cylinder up

air source to avoid emptying the first cylinder – creating continued. . .

another out-of-air situation.

c. Keep in mind that after reaching the emergency cylinder at 5
metres/15 feet for a safety stop, the out-of-air diver will need an
alternate to surface, or will need to take the emergency cylinder
up.
8. To reduce the risk of decompression illness, remind and encourage Specialized Skills
and Activities
Deep Diving
divers to practice safe diving practices and conservative behavior, What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
including:  To reduce the risk of DCI, remind and encourage
divers to practice safe diving practices:

Stay well within planned depth and time limits

a. Stay well within their planned depth and time limits.

Slowly ascend and make a safety stop
Remain hydrated

Avoid strenuous exercise
before and after the dive

b. Slowly ascend and make a safety stop for at least 3 minutes at 5
Watch air supply closely

metres/15 feet. continued. . .

c. Remain hydrated.
d. Avoid strenuous exercise before and immediately after a dive.
e. Watch their air supply closely to avoid emergency ascent
situations.
9. If you suspect that a diver has decompression illness following a Deep Diving
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What are the procedures for preventing or dealing
deep dive, follow these steps: with gas narcosis, low-on or out-of-air emergencies
and decompression illness?
 If you suspect DCI, follow these steps:
a. Begin with a primary assessment. Contact emergency care.



Begin with a primary assessment
Contact emergency care

Encourage the diver to lie down and relax

b. Encourage the diver to lie down and relax.

Have the diver breathe emergency oxygen
Manage shock
Arrange for emergency
evacuation and medical care

c. Have the diver breathe emergency oxygen.

d. Manage shock.
e. Arrange for emergency evacuation and medical care. Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
Study Objectives
1. What general equipment, concerns and procedures

V. Dive Activities
apply when supervising each of the following
activities:

Boat diving?

Altitude diving?

Drift diving?

A. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when
Shore diving when divers must enter
through surf?

Night diving?

supervising a boat dive?
Cold water diving?

Enriched air diving?

Technical diving?

1. As a divemaster, you may have the opportunity to supervise dive Specialized Skills

activities from a variety of boats ranging from a small inflatable to a Dive Activities and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a boat dive?

large liveaboard on a multiday dive trip.  You may have the opportunity to supervise dive
activities from a variety of boats
 Procedures depend on whether you’re the

a. What procedures you’ll handle may depend upon whether you’re divemaster only or part of the boat crew

Divemaster only – your functions involve
diving activities

the divemaster only, or whether you’re also part of the boat crew.
If employed as boat
crew, will also assist
with boat operations

Refer to Divemaster Slates

b. If leading a group as a divemaster only, your function involves continued. . .

the diving activities.

Presentation Notes
81
 c. If you’re employed by the dive boat, you’re usually considered
crew and will assist with boat operations, you’re usually
considered crew as well as a divemaster.

Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
2. Regardless of the boat, you should be familiar with the location of
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a boat dive? this equipment:
 Regardless of the boat, be familiar with equipment:

Lines used to guide divers,
moor or anchor the boat
Boat safety equipment
a. Lines used to guide divers in the water and those used to moor
– personal flotation devices,
fire extinguishers, life rings,
signal devices, communication
devices, etc.
or anchor the boat.

Dive safety equipment – dive flags,

b. The boat safety equipment including personal flotation devices,

emergency oxygen, first aid kit, etc.

continued. . . fire extinguishers, life rings, signal devices and communication

devices, etc.
c. Dive safety equipment including dive flags, emergency oxygen
and first aid kit, etc.
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities 3. When divers arrive for the boat dive, make sure to take care of
administrative paperwork as the first step.
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a boat dive?
 When divers arrive, take care of
administrative paperwork

Assumption of risk/liability release
Dive roster and certification
a. Have divers sign a liability release and write their name on a
information

 Help divers stow or set up equipment

Remind divers to keep
roster along with listing certification information.
equipment organized

Work in and out of bag
to reduce clutter b. Having a dive roster makes it possible to check that everyone is
continued. . .
onboard before departing and is important for calling roll, or for
small groups, visually confirming that each diver is back aboard,
after each dive.
4. Help divers stow or set up equipment depending on procedures for
the boat.
a. Space is usually limited on boats, so it’s important to remind
divers to keep their equipment organized during the trip.
b. Remind them to work in and out of gear bags to reduce deck
clutter.
Specialized Skills
and Activities
5. Orient divers to boat facilities and rules.
Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a boat dive? a. For example which areas are off-limits; dry areas; where they can
 Orient divers to boat facilities and rules

Areas off-limits, dry areas,
where to put cameras, etc. put cameras; time to the dive destination, etc.

Advise divers prone to

b. Also advise divers prone to seasickness to take seasickness

seasickness about taking
medication and staying
on deck in center of boat
Point out the leeward rail

medication prior to departure according to instructions/doctor

 Evaluate conditions – discuss with captain and crew

continued. . . recommendations. Advise staying on deck in the center of the

boat and out of the boat’s exhaust. If necessary, point out that
they should vomit over the leeward rail.
6. When you arrive at the dive site, evaluate conditions. If you have
questions, be sure to discuss what you observe with the captain and
boat crew.
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities 7. Conduct a complete dive briefing that also covers boat-specific
What general equipment, concerns and procedures


apply when supervising a boat dive?
Conduct a complete dive briefing covering boat-
entries and exits; use of swim or current lines, if any; surface signals
specific entries/exits, current lines, surface signals


and emergency recall
Observe divers as they get ready – offer assistance
to the boat and emergency recall procedures.
Monitor as divers enter the water
8. Observe divers as they get ready for the dive and offer assistance as


If supervising from the boat,
watch and be ready
If supervising in the water, be aware

necessary. Monitor as divers enter the water.

of changes in water conditions
and movement

continued. . .

Specialized Skills and Activities

82
 a. If supervising from the boat, watch for divers surfacing and be
ready to help divers should problems occur.
b. If supervising in the water, be aware of changes in water
conditions and movement, such as current.
9. After the dive, call roll and make sure that you actually see each Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities

diver. Before the boat leaves the dive site, make sure equipment is 
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a boat dive?
After the dive, call roll or make a visual check

stowed properly, and conduct a final visual roll call. for small groups

Make sure you actually see each diver
 Make sure equipment is stowed

10. Be sure to follow all local government regulations and required boat
 Follow local government
regulations and required
boating practices

diving practices for your area.

B. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
supervising an altitude dive? Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising an altitude dive?
You should have a basic understanding of
1. As a dive professional, you should have a basic understanding of

altitude diving, even if you don’t live in an
area where it’s popular
Procedures account for the fact that decompression models

altitude diving (even if you don’t live in an area where altitude diving


were developed for use at sea level
 Altitude dive is conducted
above 300 m/1000 ft
is popular), so that you can advise divers who may be traveling to an 

Maximum 3000 m/10000 ft
Proper exposure protection
is important for cooler water
area where altitude diving is possible. continued. . .

2. An altitude dive is conducted above 300 metres/1000 feet to

maximum 3000 metres/10,000 feet.
3. Because altitude dives usually occur in mountainous lakes or rivers,
it’s important for divers to have the proper exposure protection for
the cooler water. Dry suits or thick wet suits with hood, gloves and
boots are most appropriate.
4. Another equipment consideration is having a depth gauge or dive Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities

computer that can provide accurate depth measurements at altitude. What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising an altitude dive?
 Have a depth gauge or dive computer that provides

Most new depth gauges and computers are adjustable or adjust accurate measurements – some older gauges may
not
 Going from lower altitude to higher altitude – driving

automatically, but be aware that older gauges may not. up a mountain – you ascend from greater pressure
with a higher nitrogen level in your body

You can remain at the dive site altitude for 6 hours or longer to
permit body nitrogen to equilibrate

5. If you and the divers you’ll supervise go from a lower altitude to a
To dive sooner, account for nitrogen by determining a pressure
group letter for use on the RDP

Take an Altitude Diver Specialty Course

higher altitude, such as driving up a mountain to the dive site, you or refer to the PADI Adventures in Diving manual
continued. . .

have effectively ascended from greater pressure and your body has
a higher nitrogen level than the surrounding atmosphere. There are
two ways to handle this:
a. The first is to remain at the dive site altitude for six hours or
longer before diving to permit your body nitrogen to equilibrate
with the surrounding pressure from sea level.
b. To dive sooner than six hours, you account for the nitrogen by
determining a pressure group letter for use on the RDP Table
or eRDPML. To learn how to do this, take an Altitude Diver
Specialty Course or refer to the PADI Adventures in Diving
manual. Specialized Skills
and Activities
Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
6. If some divers are using depth gauges and an RDP Table or 
apply when supervising an altitude dive?
If divers use the RDP to plan dives,
they also need the Theoretical
eRDPML to plan dives, they also need to have Theoretical Depth Depth at Altitude tables

Find these in the Adventures in
Diving manual

at Altitude tables, which are used to convert depths at altitude to  Remind divers to pace themselves
because thin air will make them
tire more easily
a depth that may be used on the RDP. You find these tables in the  Recommend a dive plan that minimizes strenuous
activity at the surface

PADI Adventures in Diving manual.

Presentation Notes
83
 7. Remind divers to pace themselves, because the thin air will make
them tire more easily during entries, exits and surface swims.
Recommend a dive plan that minimizes strenuous activity at the
surface.

Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
C. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when

What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a drift dive?
Drift diving is typically conducted from a boat, but is
supervising a drift dive?
also possible from shore, in rivers and in areas with
strong tidal current
 Depending on local protocols:
1. Drift diving is typically conducted from a boat, but is also possible

You might or might not tow a surface

marker buoy or float
Remind divers of towing techniques
– not attaching buoy to equipment,
from shore in rivers and areas with strong tidal currents.
being ready to let go and
avoiding entanglement
 It’s a good idea to have divers
carry surface signaling devices 2. Depending on the dive site and local protocols, you may or may not
tow a surface marker buoy or float during a drift dive, or you may
continued. . .

have buddy teams or someone in the group tow a surface marker

buoy.
a. Remind divers of towing techniques such as not attaching the
buoy to equipment and being ready to let go if necessary as well
as avoiding entanglement in the line.
3. It’s a good idea to have each diver carry a surface signal device.
KR Specialized Skills 4. Before any drift dive, it’s important to conduct a thorough briefing
Dive Activities and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a drift dive?
based on the specific circumstances of that dive. In general the
 Before the dive, conduct a thorough briefing:




Entry techniques and descending as a group
Staying with buddy or together as a group
briefing should cover:

Monitoring depth, time and air supply

Ascent and safety stop techniques

Together – less experienced divers

Buddy teams – more experienced divers

a. Entry techniques and descending as a group, if appropriate.
Waiting on the surface and

b. Staying with a buddy or together as a group, and what to do if

communicating with the boat

Exit techniques

Take a Drift Diver Specialty Course

separated.
c. Monitoring depth, time and air supply – especially if drifting
along a wall where divers could get deeper than planned.
d. Ascents and safety stop techniques – if the group comes up
together or if buddy teams will ascend separately.
e. Waiting on the surface and communicating with the boat, if
appropriate, as well as exit techniques.
5. To gain more experience with drift diving, take a Drift Diver
Specialty Course.

Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
D. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply to
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a shore dive when divers
must enter through surf?
supervising a shore dive when divers must enter through surf?
There are many places where entering from shore
1. There are many places where entering from shore for a dive means

means going through surf

Be familiar with local dives sites to decide when surf height and
conditions are acceptable
 You need to watch wave pattern
long enough to determine
going through surf. Being familiar with the local dive sites will
how high the largest surf is


Consider the abilities of divers
Use good judgment based
help you decide when surf height and conditions are acceptable for
on diver safety
continued. . . making a dive.
a. Keep in mind that you need to watch the wave pattern long
enough to determine how high the largest surf is and when it
hits.
b. Along with evaluating conditions, you also need to consider the
abilities of the divers making the dive.
c. Use good judgment and make your decision based on diver safety.

Specialized Skills and Activities

84
2. Keep in mind that the potential for equipment loss or damage, Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
especially anything hand-carried, is greater if the surf is more than apply when supervising a shore dive when divers
must enter through surf?

mild.  Potential for equipment loss

or damage

Usually not worth bringing
anything extra – like a camera

a. It’s usually not worth bringing anything extra along, like a camera,
Some regulators are prone
to freeflowing if they get
sand in them

that you don’t want to risk losing.
Have fins you can put on and take off quickly

b. Some regulators are prone to freeflowing if they get sand in them. continued. . .

If you frequently surf dive, you may want one of the more sand-
tolerant models.
c. It’s also a good idea to have fins that you can put on and take off
quickly to speed you through the surf zone.
3. Preparation for the dive, along with a good briefing, will help entries Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
and exits go smoother. During the briefing remind divers of these steps: apply when supervising a shore dive when divers
must enter through surf?
 Preparation along with a good

a. Have all equipment on and secure (except fins, depending on entry briefing will help entries and
exits go smoother

Have equipment on and secure

technique) before heading for the water, so you can move quickly
Put fins on in water

– must do so efficiently

Put fins on before entering water

Time entry to reach surf at its smallest level

through the surf zone.

Deflate BCD, breathe from regulator and walk quickly

When wave approaches, turn sideways to face buddy, hold
mask and lean into wave or duck under

• If the technique is to put fins on in the water, divers must do so

continued. . .

efficiently, because delay increases the chance of being tumbled

by a wave.
• The alternative is to put fins on before entering the water.
Divers should choose whichever method will get them through
the surf zone the fastest.
b. Time the entry to reach the surf when waves are at the smallest
level in the pattern.
c. When approaching the surf zone, deflate the BCD, breathe from
the regulator and walk quickly backwards with fins on. When a
wave approaches, turn sideways to face your buddy, hold the mask
and lean into the waves or duck under it.
d. If towing a float, have it behind you so that it can’t get pushed into Dive Activities
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures

you by a wave. apply when supervising a shore dive when divers

must enter through surf?
 If towing a float, have it

e. Get through the surf zone as fast as possible and either submerge to 
behind you
Get through the surf zone as
fast as possible – either:

swim to deeper water on the bottom, or inflate the BCD and swim

Submerge to swim to deeper
water on the bottom
Inflate BCD and swim to deeper
water on the surface

to deeper water on the surface. If you fall, it’s generally best to stay
If you fall it’s best to stay down and crawl

down and swim, or crawl to deeper water.

continued. . .

Specialized Skills
Dive Activities and Activities

f. Save enough air to breathe from the regulator during the exit. What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a shore dive when divers
must enter through surf?

g. When preparing to exit, pause outside the surf zone, and observe 

Save enough air to breathe from regulator on exit
Pause outside the surf zone to time exit

the waves to time the exit. Aim to be walking out when the waves

Aim to walk out when waves are at smallest level
 Swim under waves to get as close as possible
 Exit quickly watching waves

are at the smallest level in the pattern.

h. Swim under waves to get as close as possible to shore, then exit continued. . .

quickly watching waves. If you fall, it’s usually easier to stay down Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures

and crawl out. apply when supervising a shore dive when divers
must enter through surf?
 If you decide to supervise from
shore, choose an elevated
4. If you decide to supervise from shore, choose an elevated vantage point vantage point

It’s a good idea to have
another divemaster on

to better see over waves. It’s a good idea to have another divemaster on shore to assist divers

shore ready to enter the water and assist divers, if necessary.

Presentation Notes
85
 Dive Activities
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities E. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when
What general equipment, concerns and procedures


apply when supervising a night dive?
Because night diving is possible virtually
supervising a night dive?
everywhere, you’ll likely have a chance to supervise


many night dives
Preparation starts with equipment
– lights
1. Because night diving is possible virtually everywhere divers dive

Surface lights before and after dive
– avoid using dive lights
Marker lights to identify exit point
during the day, it’s very likely that as a PADI Divemaster, you’ll have
the chance to supervise many night dives.

Each diver has a light, with a backup
light recommended – have spares

Chemical or personal marker lights

continued. . .

2. Preparation for a night dive starts with equipment – primarily lights.

a. Make sure surface lighting is available as divers work with gear
before and after the dive – for example, deck lights on the boat,
a well-lit parking area, or bring along a lantern or extra lights.
You want to avoid having to use dive lights for this purpose.
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
b. Have marker lights to identify the exit point. Avoid anything
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a night dive? that might be confused with navigational markers.

Underwater markers – strobes or suspended lights

on descent/ascent line
Full exposure protection c. Ensure that each diver has at least one dive light, with a backup

Audible surface signaling device

light recommended. Have spares at hand in case a diver forgets a

light, or one doesn’t work.
continued. . . d. It’s also a good idea to have chemical or personal marker lights
for each diver.
e. Underwater markers, such as strobes or a suspended light on a
descent/ascent line, can aid navigation in reasonably clear water.
f. Encourage divers to wear full exposure protection, even in warm
water, because it’s easier to bump into things in the dark.
g. Encourage divers to have audible surface signaling devices as
well as lights so they can attract attention in the dark in an
emergency.
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities 3. You need to assess all factors – for example, diver experience and
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a night dive?
 Assess factors – diver experience, comfort,
comfort, environmental conditions, etc. – to determine if the
environmental conditions – to determine if best place
to supervise dive is in the water or on surface

You can often see glow of lights from a long ways off
best place for you to supervise the dive is in the water or from the
 Have someone on the shore or
boat to tend marker lights, help
with equipment and provide
surface.
assistance

Assure that rescuers who might
enter water have lights
a. Keep in mind that you can often see the glow of dive lights from
continued. . . a long way off at night, making surface supervision an option.
b. It’s a good idea to have someone on the shore or boat to tend the
marker lights, help with equipment, and provide assistance in
case of an emergency.
c. Assure that rescuers who might enter the water have lights and
personal markers so they can be tracked in the darkness, and
having ample light to handle emergency procedures.
4. As you brief the dive, include these reminders:
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
a. Be careful not to shine a light in the eyes of other divers.
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a night dive?
 Briefing includes these reminders:
b. Check depth, time, direction, air and your buddy’s position




Be careful not to shine light in the eyes of other divers
Check depth, time, direction, air and buddy’s
position frequently
frequently.
Keep navigation simple

c. Keep navigation simple, and slow down to avoid disorientation.

and slow down

Maintain good buoyancy

If light fails, go to backup

d. Maintain good buoyancy control to avoid damaging aquatic life

light and end dive,
or end dive using
buddy’s light to surface

and to prevent accidental scrapes and scratches.

Specialized Skills and Activities

86
 e. If a light fails, go to a backup light and end the dive. If not
backup is available, end the dive using your buddy’s light to
surface and exit.
F. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when Specialized Skills
Dive Activities and Activities

supervising a dive in cold water? What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a dive in cold water?
 As a dive professional, you need to know

1. As a dive professional, you need to know about cold water diving about cold water diving, even if you live
where the water is warm
To enjoy colder water, a diver
(even if you live in an area where the water is warm), so that you

must be comfortable and warm
 Proper exposure protection
= full, thick wet suit or dry suit
can advise divers who may be traveling to an area where the water is – must be:

Adequate for environment
Properly fit

cold.



Worn before or had an orientation to suit
continued. . .

2. To enjoy diving in colder water, a diver must be comfortable and as

warm as possible. This requires proper exposure protection, which
may range from a full, thick wet suit with hood, boots and gloves to
a dry suit.
a. Whatever exposure protection a diver wears, it must be adequate
for the environment – for example, a full wet suit may be fine
for temperate waters, but not enough for water just above
freezing.
b. The exposure protection needs to properly fit the diver to
provide needed warmth.
c. The diver should have worn the exposure protection before or
have had an orientation to the suit in confined water before
going on an open water dive. This is particularly important for
dry suit use.
3. Cold water exposure suits require more weight than thinner Dive Activities
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities

exposure protection. Make sure each diver has adequate weight 

What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a dive in cold water?
Cold water exposure suits require more weight

and that weight systems can accommodate the weight. The system
Make sure divers have adequate
weight and a system that can
accommodate the weight

should allow for a quick release to attain positive buoyancy, yet not

System should allow for quick release

 Hypothermia is a concern – take precautions:

Stay warm before the dive

be prone to releasing accidentally to cause a runaway ascent.

If shivering, end the dive and seek warmth
Plan dives and surface intervals
to allow rewarming

4. Because hypothermia is a concern, divers need to take these continued. . .

precautions:
a. Stay warm before the dive if cool air temperatures are also a
factor.
b. If cold during the dive to the point of shivering, quickly end the
dive and seek warmth out of the water.
c. Plan dives and surface intervals to allow sufficient rewarming
between dives.
5. When supervising cold water dives, you need to account for water
temperature and exposure protection in emergency planning. KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
Your plan should include procedures for handling a diver with Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising a dive in cold water?

hypothermia.  Account for water temperature and exposure

protection in emergency planning

Handling a diver with hypothermia
Remind divers to plan cold water dives
6. It’s a good idea to remind divers to plan cold water dives with

as 4 m/10 ft deeper on the RDP

a depth 4 metres/10 feet deeper than actual on the RDP, or as

instructed by their computer manufacturer.

Presentation Notes
87
 Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities G. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when
What general equipment, concerns and procedures


apply when supervising an enriched air dive?
Diving using enriched air (EANx) is very popular in
supervising an enriched air dive?
many places around the world
Take an Enriched Air
Diver Specialty Course 1. Diving using enriched air is very popular in many places around the
 Enriched air cylinders
have a distinct yellow
and green band
world. If you’re in an area where enriched air is available, you’ll likely
supervise divers using enriched air.

Divers analyze and mark
their cylinders

Have an oxygen analyzer
on site
continued. . .

2. If you’re not already a PADI Enriched Air Diver, you should

consider becoming one to gain a better understanding of enriched
air diving safety procedures. This will help you answer questions
enriched air divers may have.
3. Regarding equipment, enriched air cylinders have a distinct green
and yellow band just below the cylinder shoulder with “Enriched
Air” or “Nitrox” visible on it. Local areas may have different
markings stipulated by laws or regulations.
a. Enriched air divers analyze the cylinders they will personally use,
so the cylinder is also marked with the diver’s name and analysis.
Only that diver should use that cylinder.
b. Although many divers have their own oxygen analyzers, having
one at the dive site can be good customer service if there’s
question about analysis.

Dive Activities
KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
4. General procedures you should follow when supervising enriched air
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising an enriched air dive? diving include:
 General procedures for supervising diving:

Only divers trained and certified
to use enriched air should
dive with enriched air
a. Only divers trained and certified to use enriched air should dive

Divers use their marked
cylinders and are responsible
for gas content
with enriched air.

Watch that divers don’t
take the wrong cylinders
b. Divers use marked enriched air cylinders and each diver is
continued. . . responsible for checking the gas content of their assigned
cylinder. Watch that divers don’t mistakenly grab the wrong
cylinder when preparing to get in the water.
Specialized Skills
and Activities
c. Divers plan their dives by either using their enriched air dive
Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising an enriched air dive?
computers or with the RDP, the Enriched Air RDPs, the
 General procedures for supervising diving:

Divers plan dives with dive computers
or using the RDP, the Enriched Air
Equivalent Air Depth Table and the Oxygen Exposure Table.
RDPs, the Equivalent Air Depth Table

and the Oxygen Exposure Table
Encourage divers to stay well within
accepted oxygen limits
• Encourage divers to stay well within accepted oxygen limits
to minimize the risk of oxygen toxicity. Oxygen toxicity

Remind divers to properly set dive
computers before getting in the water –
especially if doing repetitive dives

causes a diver to convulse underwater, which often results in

drowning.
d. Remind divers to properly set their enriched air dive computers
before getting in the water, especially if doing repetitive dives
with a different enriched air mixes.

Specialized Skills
H. What general equipment, concerns and procedures apply when
and Activities
Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising technical divers?
supervising technical divers?
 Technical diving uses extensive equipment and
procedures to go beyond recreational diving limits

Has higher potential risk
1. You probably are aware that technical diving uses extensive
Requires more elaborate

equipment and procedures to allow divers to go beyond the limits of

and intense training

Requires ample experience
and willingness to accept risks
 Not essential to be tec diver to
supervise tec diving activities

Divers responsible for briefing and preparing support, or
recreational diving.
assuring suitable support is there

continued. . .

Specialized Skills and Activities

88
 a. Tec diving has higher potential risk than recreational diving, so
participants require more elaborate and intense training, plus
ample experience and the willingness to accept the risks.
b. It’s not always essential to be a tec diver when supervising tec
diving activities because tec divers are responsible for briefing
and preparing surface support personnel with little or no tec
diving experience, or assuring that suitably qualified support is
there.
2. Equipment is a major part of tec diving. Tec divers will usually KR Specialized Skills
and Activities
Dive Activities

have multiple cylinders, double cylinders and/or Closed Circuit What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising technical divers?
Equipment is a major part of tec diving
Rebreathers (CCRs).

– multiple cylinders, double cylinders and CCRs

Cylinders labeled and used by a specific diver

Equipment setup and predive checks take longer

a. As with enriched air diving, cylinders are labeled and each used
CCR diving has strict setup procedures that divers will usually
have completed
before arrival, but predive
checks take longer

by a specific diver who is responsible for its contents. (more on this. . .)

b. Tec equipment setup and predive checks take longer than in continued. . .

recreational diving.
c. CCR diving has strict setup procedures that the diver will
usually have completed before arrival, but the predive check
takes longer than open circuit. (More on CCRs procedures in a
few minutes.)
3. If you are supervising technical divers, follow these general KR Specialized Skills
Dive Activities and Activities

guidelines: What general equipment, concerns and procedures

apply when supervising technical divers?
If supervising technical divers:
a. Do not touch any equipment unless asked by the diver. This



Do not touch any equipment unless asked
When boat diving, be prepared to hand equipment
into the water – cylinders are marked
includes checking to see if valves are open as the diver enters the
Be prepared to offer support
– check on divers during
decompression stops
water as you might otherwise do for recreational divers.
Explain to recreational divers
that unattended equipment
should be left alone

b. When boat diving, be prepared to hand equipment into the
Ask about deployed surface marker buoys (DSMBs)
continued. . .

water after the divers enter. Cylinders will be marked for

individual divers. It is important that divers get their own
cylinders; they are not interchangeable (unless directed by the
divers). Also, they are likely to ask for particular cylinders in
particular order.
c. Be prepared to offer support, such as having someone check
on the technical divers during decompression stops within
recreational depths.
d. If technical divers will leave stage bottles unattended within
recreational limits, explain to recreational divers that such
equipment isn’t abandoned and should be left alone.
e. Tec divers often carry deployed surface marker buoys (DSMBs)
and lift bags. Some may be deployed routinely, and others may
be a signal requesting assistance. Be sure to ask, so that you Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
know the difference if you’re not sure. apply when supervising technical divers?
CCRs have distinct characteristics for supervision:
 Immediately before diving, CCR divers

4. Closed Circuit Rebreathers (CCR) have distinct characteristics that must prebreathe their units
– typically about 5 minutes
CCRs offer tremendously long no
affect supervision.

stop times

Agree on time to be back at boat or shore
 CCR loop needs to stay dry – if assisting

a. As part of setup and immediately before diving, CCR divers a diver at the surface, leave the mouthpiece closed

If opened, gas rushes out resulting in sudden buoyancy
decrease and possibly flooding unit

must prebreathe their units – typically about 5 minutes. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
89
 b. CCRs offer divers tremendously long no stop times and
durations. You will need to agree on a time to be back at the
boat or shore because their duration capabilities are typically
substantially longer than open circuit divers.
c. The CCR “loop” (breathing system) needs to stay dry, so the
mouthpiece closes. If assisting a CCR diver at the surface in the
water in an emergency situation, leave the mouthpiece closed
because, if opened (when not in the mouth), the gas rushes out
of the counterlung. This results in a sudden buoyancy decrease
and possibly flooding the unit.
Dive Activities
Specialized Skills
and Activities d. As with other tec gear, do not adjust, activate, open or close
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising technical divers?
CCRs have distinct characteristics for supervision:
anything on a CCR unless asked to do so by the diver.
Do not adjust, activate, open or
e. CCRs have few bubbles so it will be hard to track location from

close anything
 CCRs have few bubbles, so it will be
hard to track location from surface



Discuss planned route and navigation
CCR divers carry standard cylinders
the surface. Sometimes it’s possible for divers to tow a small
for emergency purposes
 CCR divers may buddy with experienced divers, but
buddy should agree and be briefed about what to do
float, but often not. Discuss the planned route and navigation so
in an emergency
continued. . .
you know where to look should it be necessary.
f. CCR divers typically carry a standard cylinder with regulator for
emergency purposes. Be prepared to hand this into the water.
g. CCR divers may buddy with experienced open circuit divers,
but the CCR diver and buddy should agree, and the open circuit
diver should be briefed by the CCR diver about what to do in
Specialized Skills
an emergency, such as air sharing and how to establish buoyancy
and Activities
Dive Activities
What general equipment, concerns and procedures
apply when supervising technical divers?
for the CCR diver.
You make the choice
to supervise technical
5. Keep in mind that you make the choice to supervise technical divers,
divers, but you are not obliged
to if you’re not comfortable,
or qualified or feel it’s beyond
but are not obliged to if you are not comfortable, qualified or if you
your capabilities
feel it is beyond your capabilities.

Summary
Specialized Skills

I. Floats, Marker Buoys and Signaling Devices

Summary and Activities

Floats, Marker Buoys and

Signaling Devices
Mapping

II. Mapping

Search and Recovery

Deep Diving

Dive Activities

III. Search and Recovery

IV. Deep Diving

V. Dive Activities

Specialized Skills and Activities

90
The Business
of Diving and
Your Career

Presentation Notes
91
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or by reading Chapter
7 of the PADI Divemaster Manual. You may also use this presentation
for prescriptive remediation while reviewing the Chapter 7 Knowledge
Review with candidates.
Business of Diving
and Your Career
2. This presentation overviews the dive business and explains the
opportunities candidates have as PADI Divemasters to grow within the
The Business of Diving
and Your Career dive industry.

Overview
I. Dive Business Focus
Go To Knowledge Review

Overview
Business of Diving
and Your Career
• What business are you in?
Dive Business Focus
• What are the four Es of diving, and where does the dive consumer

Your Career Focus

Your PADI Membership find them?
• What functions does a PADI Divemaster have in helping dive
consumers with the four Es?
• How does a customer-centric business philosophy lead to success?

II. Your Career Focus

• What are five reasons why you should consider continuing your
training through the PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor level?
• What are six skills, outside of diver training, that can make you
more valuable in the dive industry?

III. Your PADI Membership

• What are the annual PADI Membership renewal requirements and
Business of Diving
and Your Career
benefits for PADI Divemasters?
Dive Business Focus
Study Objectives
1. What business are you in?

Outline
2. What are the four Es of diving, and where does the
dive consumer find them?
3. What functions does a PADI Divemaster have in
helping dive consumers with the four Es?
4. How does a customer-centric business philosophy
lead to success?

I. Dive Business Focus

A. What business are you in?
Business of Diving
Dive Business Focus
What business are you in?
and Your Career
[NOTE: Ask candidates this question. Encourage answers beyond taking people scuba
Think about it. . . diving. Conclude with the following concept:]
 Obvious answer – you take people diving

You’re in the transformation business

 Diving can change people’s lives 1. Although there are many ways to answer this question, one way
 No one comes up from
a scuba dive the same

For some – dramatic change
to summarize the business of diving is to say that we are in the
For others – subtle,

transformation business.


but transformational

continued. . .

a. No one comes up from a scuba dive the same. For some the
experience brings about dramatic change through which they
look at the world and their life plans differently.

Business and Career

92
 b. For others it’s subtle, but still transformational in a personal way.
2. Think about how scuba diving has transformed your life. Business of Diving
and Your Career
Dive Business Focus

a. You’ve had fun, met new people, interacted with amazing 

What business are you in?
Think about how diving has transformed your life
Had fun

aquatic creatures and have seen many beautiful scenes

Met new people

Interacted with amazing creatures

Seen beautiful scenes

underwater.
b. And, you’ve chosen to become a dive professional.
3. It’s important to understand that the value of becoming a diver is continued. . .

Business of Diving
not just receiving a card. It’s about being able to escape, explore and Dive Business Focus and Your Career
What business are you in?

experience new things. It’s knowing that every dive will hold new  Value

Not just receiving card
It’s to escape, explore, experience new things

adventures. This is truly “priceless” to most people.

“Priceless”

4. As a dive professional, always remember that people come to you to

go diving because they want to forget about their worries for a while
and have fun. You need to be upbeat and positive and help them Business of Diving
and Your Career
find the good times and happy moments underwater they’re seeking. Dive Business Focus


What business are you in?
People come to you because they want to forget
worries and have fun

B. What are the four Es of diving, and where does the dive consumer

Be upbeat
Positive
Helpful

find them?
1. The four Es of diving describe the support and structure everyone
needs to enjoy the dive adventure. These are the business ingredients KR Business of Diving

necessary to make scuba diving fulfilling and worthwhile. Dive Business Focus and Your Career
What are the 4 Es of diving, and where
does the dive consumer find them?

a. The first E is education – to dive properly initially, and to
Business ingredients necessary to make scuba
diving fulfilling and worthwhile

progress to more challenging types of dive activities, divers need Equipment Education

training.
Environment
b. The second E is equipment – without it diving is impossible. Experiences
continued. . .

Divers need access to equipment to buy or rent, plus the services

to maintain their equipment.
c. The third E is experiences – education and equipment have
no value if divers can’t do something with them. Divers need
opportunities to dive, people to dive with, and reasons to escape
and explore.
d. The final E is environment – we all need healthy dive sites to
visit and need to be a part of protecting the aquatic environment
now and into the future.
2. Full-service PADI Dive Centers or PADI Dive Resorts fulfill all four Dive Business Focus
Business of Diving
and Your Career

Es for dive consumers. What are the 4 Es of diving, and where

does the dive consumer find them?

PADI Dive Centers or Resorts fulfill all four Es

a. Other dive industry entities may meet specific diver needs, but Equipment Education

it’s at a dive center or resort where it all comes together under

one roof. Environment
Experiences

b. Dive centers and resorts are the centralized place where people
find what they need to be active divers.

Presentation Notes
93
 Dive Business Focus
KR Business of Diving

and Your Career C. What functions does a PADI Divemaster have in helping dive
What functions does a PADI Divemaster have


in helping dive consumers with the four Es?
Divers expect that you’re knowledgeable about
consumers with the four Es?
diving and will look to you for advice
 Dive center or resort will rely on you to inform
customers about dive services 1. As discussed in other sections, divers expect that, as a dive professional,

They survive through the sale of education,

equipment and travel
Income is what grows
industry and sustains
you’re knowledgeable about diving, and they will look to you for
business health

advice about the four Es.

continued. . .

2. The dive center or resort that you work with will rely on you to inform
customers about the dive services they offer to meet the four Es.
a. Keep in mind that the sale of education, equipment and travel is
the lifeblood of dive centers and resorts.
b. Income from product and service sales is what grows the dive
industry and sustains business health.
3. Your function is to be a source of information, like a counselor,
Dive Business Focus
KR Business of Diving
and Your Career
regarding the four Es.
What functions does a PADI Divemaster have


in helping dive consumers with the four Es?
Your function is to be a source of information
a. Be prepared to answer questions about PADI programs and
– a four Es counselor

Be prepared to answer questions about PADI programs and
continuing education courses
continuing education courses and make suggestions based on a
diver’s interests.

From your experience, you know that purchasing equipment is
part of the excitement

You play an important role in guiding divers to seek
assistance in purchasing what they need

b. From your own experience, you know that purchasing new

Divers will look to you for recommendations about local dive
opportunities and dive travel

continued. . .
equipment is part of the excitement of being a scuba diver. You
play an important role in guiding divers to seek assistance in
purchasing what they need from the dive center or resort.
c. Divers will look to you for recommendations for both local
Business of Diving
dive opportunities and dive travel adventures. Be ready to offer
Dive Business Focus and Your Career
What functions does a PADI Divemaster have
in helping dive consumers with the four Es?
information about local dive events, dive boats and dive club
 Your function is to be a source of information
– a four Es counselor

On every dive, you role model
activities. Also, know what trips the dive center or resort offers and
learn about diving in those locations.
and encourage environmentally
responsible diving techniques
as well as explain appropriate
behavior
Offer information about local

d. On every dive you supervise, you have a chance to encourage

volunteer opportunities and
Project AWARE programs

environmentally sound diving techniques and explain appropriate

behavior to help protect the underwater world. Also, be ready to
offer information about local volunteer opportunities and Project
AWARE environmental programs.
D. How does a customer-centric business philosophy lead to success?
Dive Business Focus
How does a customer-centric business
Business of Diving
and Your Career 1. Having a customer-centric business philosophy means that you focus

philosophy lead to success?
You focus on your customers’ wants and needs on your customers’ wants and needs, and also make sure they have an
Make sure they have an enjoyable experience

enjoyable experience from start to finish.

from start to finish
 Meet the four Es and also make
experiences as trouble-free as possible:






In dive center
In class
In confined water
a. This includes not only meeting the four Es, but also making each




In open water
During recreational dives diver’s experience as enjoyable and hassle-free as possible in the
continued. . .
dive store, in class, in confined water, in open water and during
KR Business of Diving
recreational dives.
Dive Business Focus and Your Career
How does a customer-centric business
philosophy lead to success? 2. A customer-centric approach leads to success for several reasons:
Approach leads to success for several reasons:
 When customers know you have their best interests
in mind, they choose to do business with you over a. When customers know you have their best interests in mind, they
the long term

They know you’ll provide
honest guidance and
stand behind what you sell
choose to do business with you over the long term. They know

This leads to more
business over time
you’ll provide honest guidance and stand behind what you sell.
continued. . . This leads to more business over time.

Business and Career

94
 b. When you put the customer first, you minimize negative Dive Business Focus
Business of Diving
and Your Career
How does a customer-centric business
interactions and unpleasant experiences. philosophy lead to success?
Approach leads to success for several reasons:
When you put customers first, you minimize
• Any negative aspect will be remembered and likely shared

negative interactions and unpleasant experiences

Negative aspects will be remembered and shared
– not good for business

with lots of other people, which is not good for business.

You can’t control every variable
of every situation
You can focus on providing the
best customer service possible

• Although you can’t control every variable of every situation,
This makes it easier to restore
satisfaction and trust

you can focus on providing the best customer service continued. . .

possible.
• This makes it easier to restore satisfaction and trust, because
customers recognize when you sincerely care that they’re
unhappy and want to make it right.
Business of Diving
3. Your goal is to develop long term relationships with customers by Dive Business Focus and Your Career
How does a customer-centric business

sharing your passion for scuba diving as well as your personal energy. 
philosophy lead to success?
Goal — develop long term relationships by sharing
your passion for scuba diving as well as your

When you know your customers and they know you, they’ll not 
personal energy
When you know your customers and they know you
They’ll be active divers

only be active divers who do regular business with you, but will also



They’ll refer people to you

refer people to you – thus increasing your success.

II. Your Career Focus Your Career Focus

Study Objectives
Business of Diving
and Your Career

1. What are five reasons why you should consider

A. What are five reasons why you should consider continuing your 2.
continuing your training through the PADI Open
Water Scuba Instructor level?
What are six skills, outside of diver training, that

training through the PADI Open Water Scuba Instructor level? can make you more valuable in the dive industry?

1. As you’ve learned so far, a PADI Divemaster is qualified to do many

things – lead dives, assist with training and conduct dive programs.
However, to expand your career opportunities and further your Your Career Focus
Business of Diving
and Your Career
What are five reasons why you should consider

personal development, you should consider becoming a PADI continuing your training through the PADI Open
Water Scuba Instructor level?

A PADI Divemaster is qualified to do many things. . .

Instructor.
To expand your career opportunities and further

your personal development, consider becoming a
PADI Instructor

2. Here are a few reasons: 1 — Instructors teach a wide

range of courses – more
versatile as employees
2 — Majority of boat dive
a. Instructors are fully qualified to teach a wide range of PADI professionals are instructors

continued. . .

courses, which makes them more versatile as employees.

b. Because of this versatility, the majority of dive boat professionals
supervising divers are instructors.
c. There are more opportunities for PADI Instructors than for any Your Career Focus
KR Business of Diving

and Your Career

other professional in the dive industry. What are five reasons why you should consider
continuing your training through the PADI Open
Water Scuba Instructor level?

d. Most individuals who move into other areas of the dive 3 — More opportunities for PADI Instructors than for
any other professional in the dive industry
4 — Most individuals who move into other

industry – for example, manufacturer’s representatives – begin as areas of the dive industry begin
as instructors
5 — Instructor training has credibility
instructors. beyond diving – for example,
institutions of higher learning

e. PADI Instructor training has credibility beyond diving.

Institutions of higher learning recognize the quality of training
and some credit it toward gaining qualifications in fields other
than diving.
Business of Diving
Your Career Focus and Your Career

B. What are six skills, outside of diver training, that can make you What are six skills, outside of diver training, that can
make you more valuable in the dive industry?

more valuable in the dive industry?
There are a many other activities that support
scuba diving
To better contribute, consider gaining these:
1 — Licensed boat captain
1. During the time you’ve spent in and around a dive center or resort, 2 — Retail sales and
business skills

you’ve probably noticed that there are a lot other activities occurring 3 — Equipment repair

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
95
 to support scuba diving — for example, filling cylinders, repairing
regulators, stocking shelves with merchandise, training programs,
etc.
2. To better contribute to a dive operation and make yourself more
valuable as an employee, you should consider gaining these
additional skills:
a. Become a licensed boat captain – in many areas, you must be
licensed to operate a dive boat. Any training and experience you
gain while working toward becoming a captain will also make
you more valuable as a crew member.
b. Having retail sales and basic business training is useful in
virtually any dive operation. Continuing on through business
management training is valuable for growth within a dive
operation.
c. Equipment repair technician certification for the brands carried
by the diver center or resort will help expand a dive operation’s
services.
KR Business of Diving
d. Knowing how to work on compressors and boat engines is
Your Career Focus and Your Career
What are six skills, outside of diver training, that can
make you more valuable in the dive industry?
helpful, because nearly all dive operations have compressors
To better contribute, consider gaining these skills:
4 — Compressor and boat engine repair and many have boats. These skills are especially valuable at dive
5 — Media production
6 — Aquatic conservation expertise
You also can become an EFR
resorts, particularly in remote destinations.
Instructor or Instructor Trainer
e. Having media production skills, such as being able to create the
dive center’s newsletter, brochures or other marketing materials,
or knowing how to update the dive center’s website or social
networking pages, are beneficial to have. If you add photo and
video experience to the mix, you become a valuable asset to the
dive business.
f. As previously mentioned, becoming a specialty instructor
Business of Diving
and Your Career
for digital underwater photography and emergency oxygen
Your PADI Membership

1.
Study Objective
What are the annual PADI Membership renewal
administration will allow you to contribute to a dive center’s
requirements and benefits for PADI Divemasters?
training programs. You also can become an Emergency First
Response Instructor or an Instructor Training and further
expand the nondiving training available at the facility.

III. Your PADI Membership

Your PADI Membership
Business of Diving
and Your Career • What are the annual PADI Membership renewal requirements and
What are the annual PADI Membership renewal


requirements and benefits for PADI Divemasters?
As a PADI Divemaster you become a member of the
benefits for PADI Divemasters?
PADI organization
 To renew, you agree to abide
by the PADI Membership and
License Agreement and
1. As a PADI Divemaster, you become a member of the PADI
pay annual dues




Online
By mail
organization. To remain a member, you must renew your

Automatic renewal
membership annually.
continued. . .

2. To renew, you agree to abide by the PADI Membership and License

Agreement and must also pay your annual dues.
a. You can do this online or by submitting the membership
renewal document you receive in the mail.

Business and Career

96
 b. Depending on where you live, automatic renewal may be
available, which means that you’ll receive notice that your
membership dues will be charged to the credit card you have on
file at your PADI Office. This also allows you to agree to current
membership requirements.
3. It’s important to renew each year to remain in Active status as a Business of Diving
and Your Career
Your PADI Membership

PADI Divemaster. This authorizes you to perform the duties of a What are the annual PADI Membership renewal
requirements and benefits for PADI Divemasters?
Important to renew to remain in Active status
PADI certified assistant and conduct the programs discussed in the

– authorizes you to:

Perform duties of a certified assistant
Conduct programs

presentation – Divemaster-Conducted Program.

4. Renewing your PADI membership also means that you have access
to these additional benefits: continued. . .

a. A wide range of PADI educational and marketing materials as Your PADI Membership
KR Business of Diving

and Your Career

What are the annual PADI Membership renewal

well as access to educational consulting at your PADI Office. 

requirements and benefits for PADI Divemasters?
Renewing means you have access to:

Educational and marketing materials

b. The PADI Pros’ Site, which allows you to check out what’s

Educational consulting at your PADI Office
PADI Pros’ Site
Publications and informational mailings

new, update your contact information, reduce paperwork and 

PADI-endorsed professional liability insurance
Seminars and Member Forums
If you allow your membership to lapse,

streamline activities, such as ordering PADI materials, look you lose all benefits and are no longer
qualified to act as a PADI Divemaster

for jobs on the employment board, network with other PADI

professionals, etc.
c. PADI publications and other informational mailings regarding
standards changes and dive industry news.
d. PADI-endorsed professional liability insurance and the support
of the dive industry’s most experienced legal defense team.
e. PADI seminars and member forums – conducted in-person or
online.
5. Remember that if you allow your membership to lapse, you lose all
benefits and are no longer qualified to act in the capacity of a PADI
Divemaster. If you don’t renew for an extended period, retraining
may be required before renewal to make sure you’re up to date with
standards and other changes in the PADI System.

Summary Business of Diving

and Your Career
Summary

Dive Business Focus

I. Dive Business Focus

Your Career Focus

Your PADI Membership

II. Your Career Focus

III. Your PADI Membership

Presentation Notes
97
 Business and Career
98
 Awareness
of the Dive
Environment

Presentation Notes
99
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or by reading Chapter
8 of the PADI Divemaster Manual. You may also use this presentation
Awareness of the
for prescriptive remediation while reviewing the Chapter 8 Knowledge
Dive Environment
Review with candidates.
Awareness of the
Dive Environment 2. This presentation discusses a divemaster’s role in caring for the dive
environment and explains biological and physical characteristics of the
aquatic world.
Go To Knowledge Review

Overview
I. Why Care About the Environment?
Awareness of the
Overview Dive Environment

Why Care About the Environment?

Aquatic World – Overview

• Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the biology and

Aquatic World – Biological

Aquatic World – Physical
Project AWARE
physical properties of the aquatic realm?
• How can you learn more about the aquatic realm?
• Why dive in an environmentally responsible manner?

II. Aquatic World – Overview

• What percentage of the Earth does water cover?
• What ultimately connects all the water on Earth?
• In what ways is the ocean vital to all life?

III. Aquatic World – Biological

• What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are some areas
much more productive than others?
• Why are coral reefs important, and what benefits do they provide?
• What are the major threats to coral reefs?
• Why are wetlands important, and what contributes to the
destruction of wetlands?
• Why are many marine fisheries near collapse, and how do you
support sustainable fisheries?
• What effects do organic matter, solid wastes, oil, chemicals, plastics
and heat effluent have on the aquatic environment?
• What effect does the introduction of alien species have on the
aquatic environment?
• What are eight precautions to reduce the likelihood of being injured
by an aquatic animal?

Environmental Awareness
100
IV. Aquatic World – Physical
• What is a thermocline, and how does a thermocline affect divers?
• What forces are responsible for currents?
• How do you recognize a current and plan a dive when there is a
current?
• What makes upwelling and downwelling occur, and what effects do
they have?
• What causes the tides, and what affects the range of tides in an area?
• How do you plan a dive based on the tides?
• What is a wave, and what disturbing forces cause waves?
• What makes a wave break?
• How do waves affect divers?

V. Project AWARE
• What is the Project AWARE Foundation?
• What are Project AWARE’s “Ten Ways a Diver Can Protect the
Underwater Environment?”
Awareness of the
Why Care About the Environment? Dive Environment

Outline
Study Objectives
1. Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the
biology and physical properties of the aquatic
realm?
2. How can you learn more about the aquatic realm?

I. Why Care About the Environment?

3. Why dive in an environmentally responsible
manner?

A. Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the biology and

physical properties of the aquatic realm? Awareness of the
Dive Environment
Why Care About the Environment?

1. When you see an interesting creature on a dive, you likely surface

Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the
biology and physical properties of the aquatic realm?
 When you see an interesting creature, you likely:

and do several things:
Ask your buddy or other

divers if they saw it, and
do they know what it is

Try to find the creature

a. Ask your buddy or other divers if they saw it, and do they know

in a book or look online
Ask someone more
experienced – instructor
or divemaster

what it is.  Being curious is a natural human trait

 Finding out what’s there is a primary purpose

b. Try to find the creature in a book you have in your reference continued. . .

library or look it up online.

c. Ask someone more experienced, such as an instructor or
divemaster, about the creature.
2. You do this because being curious is a natural human trait and, as an
underwater explorer, finding out what’s there is a primary purpose of
diving.
KR Awareness of the

3. As a dive professional, it’s important for you to be knowledgeable Why Care About the Environment? Dive Environment
Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the
biology and physical properties of the aquatic realm?
about the aquatic realm not just to satisfy your own curiosity, but  As a dive professional, divers may come to you with
questions about what they’ve seen

because other divers may come to you with questions about what

The more you know about the local area, the better you’ll be at
answering questions
You don’t have to know everything, but should be able to
identify common animals

they’ve seen. and plants, describe bottom

topography and discuss
water movement

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
101
 a. The more you know about the biology and physical
characteristics of your local area, the better you’ll be at answering
their questions.
b. You don’t have to know everything, but you should be able to
identify the most common animals and plants, describe the
bottom topography and discuss water movement at local dive
sites.
Why Care About the Environment?
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
4. Another reason to be knowledgeable about local sites is that during
Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the
biology and physical properties of the aquatic realm? dive briefings you need to be able to give divers as much information
 During dive briefings, you give information about
conditions and how to interact responsibly with the
local environment as they need about dive conditions and how to interact responsibly

Knowledge of water movement

Awareness of fragile aquatic life
with the local environment.
a. Your knowledge of water movement is critical to pass on so that
continued. . . divers can avoid problems with currents surge, surf, etc.
b. When divers are aware of fragile aquatic life, they’ll be more
careful to avoid bumping, kicking or touching sensitive
organisms.
c. The more familiar divers are with underwater world, the better
stewards they’ll be for the local ecosystem.

Why Care About the Environment?

Awareness of the
Dive Environment
5. Besides including information in briefings, your understanding of
Why is it important to be knowledgeable about the
biology and physical properties of the aquatic realm? the local aquatic realm is important for assessing dive conditions and
 Your understanding is important for assessing dive


conditions and emergency planning
For example:
emergency planning. For example:

If there could be jellyfish, make

divers aware and be prepared
to handle stings
If there is a strong current,
a. If you know there could be jellyfish in the area due to recent
weather, even though you don’t see any during the initial
remind divers to avoid the
area and have a plan

assessment, it may be appropriate to make divers aware of the

possibility, and be prepared to handle any stings that may occur.
b. If you know there is a strong current running down the coast
and if divers venture outside the cove they are likely to get
caught in it, you might not only remind them to avoid the area,
but would have a plan for what you would do if it happened.
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
B. How can you learn more about the aquatic realm?
Why Care About the Environment?
How can you learn more about the aquatic realm?
 Start by taking PADI and Project AWARE Specialty
Diver courses:
1. In addition to what is covered in this section, you have many

Project AWARE Program

Read AWARE - Our World, Our Water book
AWARE - Coral Reef Conservation
options for learning more about the aquatic realm. A great place to




AWARE - Fish Identification
Underwater Naturalist start is taking PADI and Project AWARE Specialty Diver courses (if
you haven’t already) including:
continued. . . a. Project AWARE program, which includes reading the book
AWARE - Our World, Our Water.
b. AWARE - Coral Reef Conservation
Awareness of the
c. AWARE - Fish Identification
Why Care About the Environment? Dive Environment

How can you learn more about the aquatic realm?
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving – Section
d. Underwater Naturalist
Two, The Ocean Planet, Our Watery World

Life on an Ocean Planet
– [Link]

Oceanography or environmental
2. In your Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, you can read Section
science courses

Seminars or lectures on Two – The Ocean Planet, Our Watery World, which takes a look
aquatic resources

Reference materials
– fish guides at the physical ocean and then details ocean ecosystems. It also

Project AWARE Foundation
– [Link]
contains information about freshwater ecosystems.

Environmental Awareness
102
 3. Another good resource is a marine science curriculum text
called Life on an Ocean Planet by Current Publishing, which
may be available through your PADI Office. You can also go to
[Link] for more information.
4. Look for oceanography or environmental science courses in your
local area or take a course online.
5. Watch for seminars or lectures by experts on topics specific to local
aquatic resources.
6. Use reference material, such as fish guides, fish identification slates
and similar references, to gain regional information.
7. Check the Project AWARE Foundation’s website – projectaware.
org – regularly for news about environmental issues, educational
opportunities and options for taking action to conserve your local
aquatic realm.
C. Why dive in an environmentally responsible manner? Why Care About the Environment?
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
Why dive in an environmentally responsible manner?

1. As a diver who has encountered amazing aquatic organisms, you  You naturally develop a sense of responsibility to
protect creatures and ecosystems
Each bump or kick can cause damage

naturally develop a sense of responsibility for protecting those

One kick may be minor – hundreds

of kicks over time may be noticeable
Every diver needs to dive responsibly
creatures and the ecosystems they depend on. So, you probably


already dive in an environmentally responsible manner to avoid

harming aquatic life. continued. . .

a. You know that each bump or kick to a fragile organism can

cause significant damage to that animal or plant.
b. Although the damage caused by one kick may be minor to the
overall ecosystem, the result of hundreds of kicks over time may
be noticeable. Every diver needs to dive responsibly.
2. As a role model, you set the example for other divers, which is Why Care About the Environment?
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

another reason to not just emphasize responsible diving, but to also Why dive in an environmentally responsible manner?
 As a role model, you set an example for other divers

practice it every time you are in or around the water.

Maintaining your buoyancy and awareness

Using proper techniques for anchoring float

Not polluting the dive site – disposing of rubbish
PADI Member Code of Practice
a. This includes not just maintaining your buoyancy and awareness

– you agree to be this role model

underwater, but using proper techniques for anchoring a float, as

discussed in the section – Specialized Skills and Activities. continued. . .

b. It also means not polluting the dive site. Always properly

disposing of rubbish, etc.
c. In the PADI Member Code of Practice, you agree to be this role
model by following a professional code of practice toward the
environment in all PADI-related activities.
3. A final reason to dive environmentally responsibly is that for divers KR Awareness of the

Why Care About the Environment? Dive Environment

to have an influential collective voice about conservation and Why dive in an environmentally responsible manner?
 For divers to have an influential, collective voice,

protection issues, we must show that we are doing our part. we must show that we are doing our part

Being careful helps to
strengthen and reinforce
the dive community’s

a. Being careful to have no or minimal negative effect on every

commitment
By being credible environmental
advocates, divers can
influence environmental

dive helps to strengthen and reinforce the dive community’s protection initiatives
and policies

widespread commitment to protect the aquatic environment.

Presentation Notes
103
 b. By being credible environmental ambassadors, divers represent
Awareness of the
Aquatic World – Overview
Study Objectives
Dive Environment
a powerful constituency that can influence environmental
1. What

2. What
percentage of the Earth does water cover?
ultimately connects all the water on Earth?
protection initiatives and policies.
3. In what ways is the ocean vital to all life?

II. Aquatic World – Overview

A. What percentage of the Earth does water cover?
KR Awareness of the 1. Water covers about 71 percent of the Earth’s surface.
Aquatic World – Overview Dive Environment
What percentage of the Earth does water cover?
 Water covers about 71% of Earth’s surface
a. Only about three percent is freshwater and three-quarters of that

3% is freshwater

3/4 of that is frozen in polar ice caps
Rest is contained in the ocean
is frozen in the polar ice caps.
80% of southern hemisphere
b. The rest is contained in the ocean.

 61% of northern hemisphere

2. Water covers about 80 percent of the southern hemisphere,

compared to 61 percent of the northern hemisphere.
KR Awareness of the
B. What ultimately connects all the water on Earth?
Aquatic World – Overview Dive Environment
What ultimately connects all the water on Earth?
 Look at Earth from an equatorial view 1. If you look at the Earth from an equatorial view, you’ll see that all
All oceans and seas are connected

the oceans and seas are connected.

 All water is connected through the hydrologic cycle

In theory, every water molecule circulates through every
ocean, sea, bay, river, lake and stream
Water moves around constantly changing its state – liquid,

2. Besides this global-view connection, all water is connected through

solid, gas

the hydrologic cycle. In theory, given enough time, every water

continued. . . molecule eventually circulates through every ocean, sea, bay, river,
lake or stream.
Awareness of the
3. Through this continuous cycle, water moves around Earth
Aquatic World – Overview Dive Environment


What ultimately connects all the water on Earth?
Cycle begins with solar heat evaporating water
constantly changing from liquid to solid to gas and back again.


Some water enters atmosphere from plants
Moisture spreads and condenses into clouds before
falling as rain or snow
a. The cycle begins with solar heat evaporating water into the air
 Runoff and ground
water eventually from the ocean, rivers, lakes, and land.
return to ocean
 If water carries
pollutants, the
potential for
• Some water vapor also enters the atmosphere from plants.
damage spreads
b. This moisture spreads over the planet and condenses into clouds
before falling as rain or snow.
c. Runoff and ground water ultimately return to the ocean,
completing the cycle.
4. Keep in mind that if water carries pollutants with it, the potential
for damage spreads. This is why water quality issues are a global,
rather than regional, concern.
KR Awareness of the
C. In what ways is the ocean vital to all life?
Aquatic World – Overview Dive Environment


In what ways is the ocean vital to all life?
Because the vast majority of planet is covered by
1. Because the vast majority of our planet is covered by ocean, humans
ocean, humans have depended on it for resources

Ocean produces large portion
of Earth’s oxygen
have always depended on it for resources that are vital to life, such as
Ocean’s ability to absorb or

food.


release heat regulates climate
and weather

Distributes heat
Without this, life would be

2. The ocean also provides a large portion of the Earth’s oxygen

difficult or nonexistent

through phytoplankton and cyanobacteria. (More on this next).

3. The ocean’s ability to absorb or release heat regulates the world’s
climate and weather. It carries heat to areas that would otherwise
be cooler, and absorbs heat in areas that would otherwise be hotter.
Without this moderating influence, life would be difficult or
nonexistent on Earth.

Environmental Awareness
104
 Awareness of the
Dive Environment

III. Aquatic World – Biological

Aquatic World – Biological
Study Objectives
1. What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are some
areas much more productive than others?
2. Why are coral reefs important, and what benefits do they
provide?

A. What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are some areas 3.
4.
What are the major threats to coral reefs?
Why are wetlands important, and what contributes to the
destruction of wetlands?
5. Why are many marine fisheries near collapse, and how do you

much more productive than others? 6.

support sustainable fisheries?
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes, oil, chemicals,
plastics and heat effluent have on the aquatic environment?
7. What effect does the introduction of alien species have on the
aquatic environment?

1. In most ecosystems, primary productivity occurs through 8. What are eight precautions to reduce the likelihood of being
injured by an aquatic animal?

photosynthesis, in which sunlight energy is converted into chemical KR Awareness of the

energy or plant food. Aquatic World – Biological Dive Environment

What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are
some areas much more productive than others?
In most ecosystems, primary productivity occurs
2. The ocean’s major source of productivity is phytoplankton – tiny,

through photosynthesis
 Ocean’s major source of productivity is

single-celled organisms. They are at the base of the marine food phytoplankton – single-celled organisms




Base of the food chain
Produce much of

chain, and without them few other life forms in the ocean could Earth’s oxygen

exist. continued. . .

a. As mentioned, phytoplankton and cyanobacteria produce much

of the Earth’s oxygen as part of photosynthesis.
3. While light is essential for productivity, nutrients are also necessary. Awareness of the
Dive Environment
Aquatic World – Biological

a. Areas where coastal upwelling occurs are highly productive, What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are
some areas much more productive than others?
Light is essential – nutrients are necessary

because deeper, nutrient-rich water rises to take the place of
Areas where coastal upwelling
occurs are highly productive,
because nutrient-rich water rises
surface water driven offshore by winds or currents.
Shallow waters of continental
shelves have high production,
because nutrients enter from

b. The shallow waters of the continental shelves generally have high land-based sources

Polar regions are moderately
productive, because currents

production, because nutrients enter from land-based sources and wind mix water
continued. . .

such as rivers and estuaries.

c. Polar regions are moderately productive, because currents and
winds mix the water bringing up nutrients from deeper water KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
Aquatic World – Biological

d. The open ocean has little production due to the lack of nutrients What is the base of the marine food chain, and why are
some areas much more productive than others?

Open ocean has little production – biological desert

– it is essentially a biological desert.
Tropical waters – although low in nutrients –

support abundant life where coral reefs are found

e. Tropical waters, although very low in nutrients and

phytoplankton, support abundant life where coral reefs are
found. (More on these habitats next.)
B. Why are coral reefs important and what benefits do they provide? KR Awareness of the

Aquatic World – Biological Dive Environment

1. Coral reefs are important, because they are storehouses of Why are coral reefs important,
and what benefits do they provide?
Coral reefs are storehouses of biodiversity
biodiversity.


Nursery grounds for 25% of all known marine species

Home to nearly 33% of all known fish species
 Coral reefs act as coastal barriers

a. They are the nursery grounds for 25 percent of all known

marine species.
b. They’re also home to nearly 33 percent of all known fish species. continued. . .

2. Coral reefs act as coastal barriers protecting islands and coastal Awareness of the
Dive Environment
communities from storms, wave damage and erosion.
Aquatic World – Biological
Why are coral reefs important,
and what benefits do they provide?

Pharmacologists have found biomedical

3. Pharmacologists have found biomedical compounds on reefs, from compounds on reefs – suspect more yet to be
discovered

Tropical nations base tourism industries on

anti-cancer agents, anti-HIV agents to antibiotics, and suspect there surrounding coral reefs

are thousands more yet to be discovered.

4. Many tropical nations base their tourism industries on the appeal
of the surrounding coral reefs. In some areas, scuba diving or
snorkeling tours are significant income sources and are foundational
to the countries’ economies.

Presentation Notes
105
 Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment C. What are the major threats to coral reefs?
What are the major threats to coral reefs?
 Coral reefs thrive within a narrow tolerance range
with respect to light, temperature and nutrition 1. Coral reefs thrive within a narrow tolerance range with respect
Rapid or large scale changes threaten reef health
to light, temperature and nutrition. Rapid or large scale changes,

 For example:

Climate change caused
by increased CO2 leads
to rising ocean
temperatures, which
causes bleaching
whether from natural causes or human-induced, can threaten a reef ’s
health.

It also causes ocean
acidification, which reduces
coral’s ability to secrete
its limestone skeleton

continued. . .
a. For example, climate change, caused by increased carbon dioxide
emissions, leads to rising ocean temperatures, which causes
coral bleaching. It also causes ocean acidification, which reduces
coral’s ability to secrete its limestone skeleton.
Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment 2. Natural processes that can damage a coral reef include:
What are the major threats to coral reefs?
Natural processes that cause damage include:

Global weather anomalies – El Niño
a. Global weather anomalies such as El Niño
Severe storms
b. Severe storms (hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, etc.)



Earthquakes and tsunamis

Freshwater inundation




Species blooms
Exposure to air during
extremely low tides
c. Earthquakes and tsunamis

Disease
c. Freshwater inundation
continued. . .

d. Species blooms
e. Exposure to air during extremely low tides
f. Diseases
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
3. Most of the major and more severe threats to coral reefs are human-
Aquatic World – Biological


What are the major threats to coral reefs?
Major and more severe threats are human-induced:
induced. Many of these actually occur on land and end up in the
ocean through runoff, for example:

Widespread clearing of coastal land,
mangroves and sea grass beds

Pollution carried by rain water

Ocean-based activities that are

a. Widespread clearing of coastal land, mangroves and sea grass

detrimental include:

Overfishing and destructive
fishing practices

Poor operational practices
by boats
Coral collection and mining
beds results in erosion and sediments pouring over the reef.
b. Pollution, both chemical and organic, carried by rain water in to
the ocean throws off the nutrient balance or simply kills marine
species.
4. Ocean-based activities that are also detrimental to coral reefs
include:
a. Overfishing and destructive fishing practices, which cause reef
decline and deplete spawning stock.
b. Poor operational practices by both large and small boats, which
causes continual abuse and damage.
c. Coral collection and mining, which destroys reef structures.

Aquatic World – Biological

Awareness of the
Dive Environment D. Why are wetlands important, and what contributes to the

Why are wetlands important, and what contributes
to the destruction of wetlands?
Coastal wetlands are fertile regions where many fish
destruction of wetlands?
lay their eggs and juvenile fish develop



Crucial habitats for marine species
Mangrove root systems provide 1. Coastal wetlands, such as mangrove forests, salt marshes and
habitat for invertebrates
– mussels, sponges, tunicates,
hydroids and oysters estuaries, are fertile regions where many fish species lay their eggs
 Seagrass beds serve as hunting
and grazing grounds for reef fish
and juvenile fish develop. This makes them crucial habitats for
continued. . .
marine species and also for the production of fish as a human food
source.
a. Mangrove root systems also provide habitat for invertebrates,
such as mussels, sponges, tunicates, hydroids and oysters.

Environmental Awareness
106
 b. Seagrass beds serve as hunting and grazing grounds for reef fish
who take nutrients to the reef through their fecal pellets.
2. Wetlands are also important for maintaining water quality by Aquatic World – Biological
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
Why are wetlands important, and what contributes
trapping excess nutrients and pollutants, along with sediment.

to the destruction of wetlands?
Wetlands are important for maintaining water

Preventing sedimentation from reaching the coral reef is a vital

quality by trapping excess nutrients and pollutants

Preventing sedimentation
from reaching coral reefs

function of mangroves and seagrass beds. is a vital function

3. Because wetlands are along the coast, they’re often considered prime
real estate and many have been destroyed to build resorts, harbors, continued. . .

Awareness of the

housing or commercial enterprises. Aquatic World – Biological Dive Environment

Why are wetlands important, and what contributes
to the destruction of wetlands?

a. Poor coastal management or misguided land-use practices  Wetlands are often considered prime real estate and
many have been destroyed to build resorts, harbors,
housing and commercial enterprises

continue to lead to the destruction of wetlands.

Poor coastal management and misguided land-use practices
lead to continued destruction of wetlands
Many countries now
recognize the need

b. However, many countries now recognize the need for coastal 

for coastal protection
Another threat is conversion
of wetlands for aquaculture

protection and are taking steps toward more complete coastal or mariculture farms

zone management.
4. Another threat is the conversion of wetlands into aquaculture or
mariculture farms. Depending on the species, farms can introduce
or increase waste, toxins, disease and chemicals into the surrounding
natural environment.
E. Why are many marine fisheries near collapse, and how do you Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

support sustainable fisheries? Why are many marine fisheries near collapse,
and how do you support sustainable fisheries?
 For much of the world, fish and seafood are primary
protein sources
1. For much of the world, fish and other seafood are a primary protein  Ocean fish catches have increased to the point that
many are not sustainable and near collapse

source. Because of this need, ocean fish catches have increased to the

Fishing industry has used technology to sustain catch levels
and overfish many species
Pollution and habitat destruction further decrease

point that many are not sustainable and near collapse.

fish populations

a. As competition for fish has increased and fish populations continued. . .

decreased, the fishing industry has used technology to sustain

catch levels and overfish many species.
b. In addition to overfishing, problems such as pollution and
habitat destruction interfere with reproduction, which further
decreases fish populations. KR Awareness of the

Aquatic World – Biological Dive Environment

2. You can support sustainable fisheries by being a selective consumer Why are many marine fisheries near collapse,
and how do you support sustainable fisheries?
Support sustainable fisheries by being
and making sustainable seafood choices part of your lifestyle.

a selective consumer
 Also support sustainable fisheries by:

Supporting Marine Protected

3. You can also support sustainable fisheries by supporting Marine

Areas (MPAs)
Calling for improved fishing management
Campaigning for responsible fishing
practices in your area

Protected Areas (MPAs), calling for improved fisheries management

and campaigning for responsible fishing practices in your area.
F. What effects do organic matter, solid wastes, oil, chemicals, plastics Awareness of the
Dive Environment
Aquatic World – Biological

and heat effluent have on the aquatic environment? What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
on the aquatic environment?

1. Each year billions of tons of rubbish and waste products make their
Each year, billions
of tons of rubbish
and waste products
make their way
way into the aquatic environment. Some pollutants dissolve, some into the aquatic
environment

are ingested by aquatic organisms and some remain, like plastic,

which can take hundreds of years to start breaking down. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
107
 Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment 2. Here is a quick overview of the specific effects different kinds of
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
on the aquatic environment?
pollution have on the aquatic environment:
Here’s a quick overview of specific effects:
Excessive organic waste
causes intense bacterial
a. Excessive organic waste causes intense bacterial activity and
activity and overgrowth
of phytoplankton

Result – Depleted oxygen
overgrowth of phytoplankton, which depletes oxygen in the
and massive die-offs


of aquatic life
Too much organic material causes red tides –
blooms of dinoflagellates that contain neurotoxin
water. This can result in massive die-offs of aquatic life in the

Result – toxins accumulate in food chain
continued. . . area.
b. Nutrients added by too much organic material can cause red
tides – dense blooms of dinoflagellates (types of algae) that
contain a neurotoxin. The toxins can accumulate in the food
chain, producing illness and death.
Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
c. Human sewage entering the aquatic environment is a public
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
on the aquatic environment?
health concern, because pathogens can accumulate in seafood
 Human sewage is a public heath concern because
pathogens can accumulate in seafood

Result – disease spread
and result in disease spread, such as typhoid.
 Solid waste – dredged from ports, harbors and
rivers – contain toxic chemicals, heavy metals and
oil
d. Solid wastes, such as bottom material dredged from ports,

Spread of particles smother aquatic organisms
harbors and rivers, sometimes contain toxic chemicals, heavy
continued. . . metals and oil and spread suspended particles that smother
aquatic organisms.
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
e. Oil from runoff, sewage treatment and spills can drown seabirds,
Aquatic World – Biological
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
kill marine mammals and wipe out shellfish beds. Ingested oil is
on the aquatic environment?
 Oil – drowns seabirds, kills marine mammals and
wipes out shellfish beds
passed up the food chain, causing damage and death long after
the initial ingestion.

Ingested oil causes damage and death long
after initial ingestion
 Many chemicals do not
break down, but accumulate
in organisms to toxic levels

Result – reproductive
issues and death
f. Many chemicals, such as pesticides and industrial substances,
continued. . .
that enter the aquatic environment do not break down over
time, but accumulate in organisms to toxic levels, causing
reproductive issues and death.
Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment g. Plastics can be fatal when they are mistaken for food by aquatic
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
on the aquatic environment?
animals. As plastic breaks down into smaller pieces, it can be
 Plastics

Can be fatal when mistaken as food ingested by all kinds of aquatic creatures and passed along the

Breaks down into smaller pieces, then ingested and passed

along food chain
Often found around necks of marine mammals
Nets drift about continue to capture and kill fish, seabirds and
food chain. Plastic materials are often found around the necks of
marine mammals
marine mammals, causing infections and inhibiting breathing or
continued. . .
feeding. Lost or discarded plastic nets drift about continuing to
Aquatic World – Biological
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
capture and kill fish, seabirds and marine mammals.
h. A primary source of heat pollution is the cooling water released
What effects do organic matter, solid wastes,
oil, chemicals, plastics and heat effluent have
on the aquatic environment?
 Primary source of heat pollution is cooling water
released from coastal power stations and factories

Result – in warm water areas, additional
from coastal power stations and factories. In warm water areas
where temperatures are already near the maximum thermal
heat can be deadly

tolerance for many organisms, this additional heat can be deadly.

G. What effect does the introduction of alien species have on the
Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment aquatic environment?
What effect does the introduction of alien

1. When an alien species is introduced (purposely or by accident) into

species have on the aquatic environment?
 When an alien (invasive) species is introduced, it
may have no natural enemies






New species quickly multiplies
Sometimes it overtakes and kills off native species
Rivers, streams and lakes are especially vulnerable
an ecosystem, it may have no natural enemies. This allows the new
from the release of ships’ bilge and ballast water

Example – zebra mussel in North America species to quickly multiply, sometimes to the point that it overtakes
 Ocean ports and harbors
also have new species
introduced by visiting ships and kills off native species.
continued. . .

Environmental Awareness
108
 2. Rivers, streams and lakes are especially vulnerable to the
introduction of alien species from the release of ships’ bilge and
ballast water.
a. An example of this is the zebra mussels that was accidentally
brought to lakes and rivers in the United States and Canada in
the ballast water of vessels from Europe, likely in the mid-1980s.
These freshwater species cause damage by clogging pipes, and
they eat most of the available microscopic food supply, which
starves native species.
3. Oceans ports and harbors also have new species introduced by
visiting ships.
4. An increasing amount of human-discarded floating debris is also Aquatic World – Biological
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment

allowing some species to travel great distances across the ocean, What effect does the introduction of alien
species have on the aquatic environment?
Human-discarded floating debris allows some
which give them the opportunity to colonize new ecosystems.

species to travel great distances
 People dump nonnative plants and fish
from home aquariums

5. Alien species have also been introduced when people dump 

Example – Indo-Pacific lionfish in Caribbean
Some ecologists believe that
rapid global transportation and

nonnative plants and fish from their home freshwater aquariums resulting alien species
introduction will eventually
lead to loss of diversity

into local streams and rivers or from their saltwater aquariums into
the ocean.
a. An example of this is the Indo-Pacific lionfish that is now
spreading throughout the Caribbean and adjoining waters.
One theory is that sometime in the 1990s, these fish were
intentionally or accidentally set free from salt water aquariums.
Lionfish eat a lot of other reef fish. With no natural enemy, they
are a threat to the biological balance on many Caribbean reefs.
6. Some ecologists believe that rapid global transportation and
the resulting alien species introduction will eventually lead to a
significant loss of species’ diversity.
H. What are eight precautions to reduce the likelihood of being injured Aquatic World – Biological
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

by an aquatic animal? What are eight precautions to reduce the likelihood

of being injured by an aquatic animal?

Know how to protect yourself and the divers you
supervise from injury while interacting with the
1. Along with understanding aquatic environmental threats and how environment and aquatic animals
Eight precautions:

you can act to protect our aquatic resources, you should know how 1 — Treat all animal with respect
2 — Be cautious in extremely
murky water

to protect yourself and the divers you supervise from injury while 3 — Avoid wearing shiny,
dangling jewelry
4 — Wear gloves and an exposure suit
interacting with the environment and aquatic animals. continued. . .

2. As you learned from your previous training, here are eight

precautions a diver should take to reduce the likelihood of being
injured by an aquatic animal:
a. Treat all animals with respect. Don’t tease or intentionally
disturb them. Remain an unobtrusive observer.
b. Be cautious in extremely murky water where you may have
trouble watching where you put your hands. Potentially
aggressive animals could mistake you for prey in murky water, so
you may want to avoid diving if they’re known to be in the area.

Presentation Notes
109
 c. Avoid wearing shiny, dangling jewelry. These can resemble bait
fish or other small prey and can attract the interest of some
animals.
KR Awareness of the
d. Wear gloves and an exposure suit to avoid stings and cuts.
Aquatic World – Biological Dive Environment
What are eight precautions to reduce the likelihood
of being injured by an aquatic animal?
e. Maintain neutral buoyancy, and stay off the bottom.
Eight precautions:
5 — Maintain neutral buoyancy and stay off the
bottom
f. Move slowly and carefully.
6 — Move slowly and carefully
7 — Watch where you’re going and where you
put your hands, feet and knees
g. Watch where you’re going and where you put your hands, feet
8 — Avoid contact with
unfamiliar animals and knees.
h. Avoid contact with unfamiliar animals. If you don’t know what
Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
something is, don’t touch it.
Study Objectives
1. What is a thermocline, and how does a thermocline
affect divers?

V. Aquatic World – Physical

2. What forces are responsible for currents?
3. How do you recognize a current and plan a dive when there is a
current?
4. What makes upwelling and downwelling occur, and what effects
do they have?
5. What causes the tides, and what affects the range of tides in an

A. What is a thermocline, and how does a thermocline affect divers?

area?
6. How do you plan a dive based on the tides?
7. What is a wave, and what disturbing forces cause waves?
8. What makes a wave break?
9. How do waves affect divers?

1. Depending on where you regularly dive, you may have a lot of

Awareness of the
experience with thermoclines or may never have experienced one.
Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment


What is a thermocline, and how does
a thermocline affect divers?
Depending on where you dive, you may have lots of
2. A thermocline exists when relatively warm, low-density surface water
experience with thermoclines or may never have
experienced one is separated from cool, high-density deep water.
 Thermocline exists when warm
low-density surface water is
separated from cool,
high-density deep water
a. The change between the layers can be abrupt, with a

Change can be abrupt
– 8-11°C / 15-20°F
Sometimes see distortion
temperature difference above and below the thermocline as great
Exist both in fresh and salt water

as 8 to 11 degrees Celsius/15 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit.

continued. . .

b. Sometimes you will see distortion at the thermocline, like

the shimmering air that rises from a hot road, as the two
temperature layers mix.
Awareness of the
c. Thermoclines exist both in fresh and salt water, and may change
Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment
What is a thermocline, and how does
a thermocline affect divers?
with seasonal temperature fluctuations.

Divers need to know a themocline is present, so
they can wear an appropriate exposure suit
3. Divers need to know that a thermocline is present at a dive site, so
they can wear an appropriate exposure suit based on the temperature
at depth. Make this information part of your dive briefing, as
appropriate.

Aquatic World – Physical

Awareness of the
Dive Environment
B. What forces are responsible for currents?
What forces are responsible for currents?
 Currents are a complex topic
A few basic concepts you need to understand:
1. From a marine science perspective, currents are a complex topic.
 Large global currents are caused by surface winds
that blow over large areas, moving significant
volumes of water across the oceans
From a dive professional’s point of view, there are a few basic
 Earth’s rotation affects
major ocean currents

Northern hemisphere
concepts you need to understand including:
– deflect right

Southern hemisphere
– deflect left a. Large, global currents are caused primarily by the influence of
continued. . .
surface winds that consistently blow over large areas, moving
significant volumes of water horizontally across the oceans.
b. The Earth’s rotation also affects the major ocean currents. In the
Awareness of the
Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment
What forces are responsible for currents?
northern hemisphere, major currents deflect to the right and in
A few basic concepts you need to understand:

Currents occur in oceans, seas, large lakes and the southern hemisphere to the left.
smaller water bodies

Changing tides can
cause currents in and
out of bays, rivers,
c. Currents occur in oceans, but also in seas, large lakes and smaller
harbors and inlets
water bodies, to some extent.

continued. . .

Environmental Awareness
110
 d. Changing tides can cause local currents in and out of bays,
rivers, harbors and inlets.
e. Waves cause local currents.
KR Awareness of the

Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment

What forces are responsible for currents?

• A longshore current occurs where the waves approach the A few basic concepts you need to understand:
 Waves cause local currents
Longshore current – waves approach shore at an angle and

shore at a slight angle and push water down the shoreline.

push water down the shoreline

Rip current – waves push water over a long obstruction, and
water can’t flow out, so it funnels back to sea where there is
an opening

• A rip current occurs when waves push water over a long

obstruction such as a sand bar or reef. The water can’t flow
out through the obstruction, so it funnels back to sea where
there is an opening.
C. How do you recognize a current and plan a dive when there is a Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

current? How do you recognize a current and plan

a dive when there is a current?
 Recognize a longshore current by water moving
down the coast
1. You recognize a longshore current by observing water generally
Be prepared to either walk back up the beach
or leave a vehicle at planned exit
Best way to plan a dive where tidal currents exist is
moving down the coast, pushed by waves approaching the shore at

to know the expected high and low tides

an angle and assisted by the prevailing wind direction.

a. To dive in a longshore current, you need to be prepared to either continued. . .

walk back up the beach to your start point at the end of the
dive, or leave a vehicle at your planned exit point so you can
drive back.
2. The best way to plan a dive where tidal currents exist is to first
know the expected time of high and low tides at your dive site. We’ll
discuss this in more detail next.
3. You can usually recognize a rip current as a line of turbid, foamy Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

water moving away from shore. It may disrupt the waves where it How do you recognize a current and plan
a dive when there is a current?
 Recognize a rip current as a line of turbid water

rushes out to sea. moving away from shore

Avoid a strong rip current that will carry divers too far off
shore

a. You want to avoid a strong rip current that will carry divers too

With a mild rip current, you
may be able to carefully
choose the entry and
exit point to avoid it

far off shore. If one exists, it may be best to go to another dive

site. continued. . .

b. With a mild rip current, you may be able to carefully choose the
entry and exit point to avoid it.
4. When boat diving, you can recognize the current direction by Aquatic World – Physical
KR 16 Awareness of the
KR 17 Dive Environment

noticing the way the boat sits on the mooring or anchor. How do you recognize a current and plan
a dive when there is a current?
 When boat diving, recognize current direction by

a. If the current is mild, start the dive into the current. the way the boats sits on the mooring or anchor




If mild, start dive into current
If strong, move to more
protected site or organize

b. If the current is strong, you may want to move to a more 

as a drift dive

Most drift diving takes place

in offshore currents

protected dive site or organize the dive as a drift dive.

In areas where drift diving is popular, currents vary in
strength, but generally are consistent in direction
Always verify direction and strength

5. Most drift diving takes place from a boat in offshore currents. continued. . .

a. In areas where drift diving is popular, currents can vary in

strength, but generally are consistent in direction.
Awareness of the

b. Always verify the direction and strength and plan the dive to Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment
How do you recognize a current and plan
a dive when there is a current?
follow drift diving procedures.  Rivers are waters with a current

Make sure the river is suited for drift diving with a strong, but
calm flow – no white water

6. Rivers are, by definition, waters with a current.
Plan to have vehicles at the exit point down river

a. If diving in a river make sure it is suited for drift diving with a

strong but calm flow – no white water.

Presentation Notes
111
 b. Similar to diving in a longshore current, you’ll need to plan to
have a vehicle at the exit point down river to pick you up.

Aquatic World – Physical

Awareness of the
Dive Environment
D. What makes upwelling and downwelling occur, and what effects do

What makes upwelling and downwelling occur,
and what effects do they have?
Areas of upwelling are highly productive, because
they have?
deeper, nutrient-rich water rises to take the place of
surface water driven offshore

You can recognize when upwelling starts, because water
conditions become
1. When discussing ocean productivity, you learned that areas where
upwelling occurs are highly productive, because deeper, nutrient-
more clear and cool

A few days after an upwelling,
visibility may drop due to
increased plankton growth

rich waters rise to take the place of surface waters driven away by
continued. . .
offshore winds or currents.
a. In most areas, you can recognize when upwelling starts because
the water conditions become more clear and cool than normal.
b. A few days after an upwelling, the visibility may drop due to
increased plankton growth from the nutrients in the water.
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
Aquatic World – Physical
What makes upwelling and downwelling occur,
and what effects do they have?
2. Downwelling is a downward vertical current that pushes surface

Downwelling is a downward vertical current that
pushes surface water deeper into the ocean water deeper into the ocean. When wind moves surface waters

When wind moves surface water toward the coast

the water piles up and sinks
Downwelling removes
toward the coast, the water piles up and sinks.
nutrients, which may
result in reduced
productivity of surface
species and an increase
a. Downwelling removes organic nutrients from the surface water,
of bottom species
which may result in reduced productivity of some surface species
and an increase in the productivity of some bottom species.

Aquatic World – Physical

Awareness of the
Dive Environment E. What causes the tides, and what affects the range of tides in an area?
What causes the tides, and what affects


the range of tides in an area?
Tidal movement results from the gravitational 1. Tidal movement results from the gravitational interaction of the
interaction of the earth, moon and sun

As relative positions change
– bulge rotates earth, moon and sun, which creates two water bulges, or waves, on
As coastline rotates into

opposite sides of the earth.

bulge – tide rises

As it rotates out – tide falls

a. As the relative positions of the sun and moon change, the bulge
continued. . .
rotates around the earth.
b. As a coastline rotates into the bulge, the tide rises. As it rotates
Awareness of the
out, the tide falls.
Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment
What causes the tides, and what affects
the range of tides in an area? 2. Tide duration, number and range depend on the relative position of
 Tide duration, number and range depend on:






Relative position of earth, moon and sun
Shape and depth of ocean basin
Earth’s landmasses
the earth, moon and sun, the shape and depth of the specific ocean


Local topographical features
Some places have – daily: basin, and the local topographical features.

Single high and low tide

a. Some places have a single high and low tide daily. Other places

Two equal high
and low tides

Mixed – two unequal
high and low tides

continued. . . have two roughly equal high and low tides, and still other have
Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
mixed tides where there are two unequal high and low tides

What causes the tides, and what affects
the range of tides in an area?
Moon has twice the influence on tides as sun
daily.

Large, wide oceans basins have smaller tidal
ranges than narrow, shallow basins b. Because the moon has about twice the influence on tides as
the sun, the difference between high and low tides changes
throughout the month based on the phase of the moon.
c. Large, wide ocean basins tend to have a smaller tidal range than
Aquatic World – Physical
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment narrow, shallow basins.

How do you plan a dive based on the tides?
Know expected high and low tides
F. How do you plan a dive based on the tides?


Best to dive at high tide or slack between high and low
 High tide – visibility is better
 In restricted bays or harbors, slack tide may be best




Choose based on your dive objective
Example – drift out of a bay
on outgoing tide
1. As mentioned earlier, to plan a dive where tidal currents exist, you
 Carefully evaluate conditions to
confirm that water is moving in
direction you expect
need to first know the expected time of high and low tides at your

Adjust your dive plan accordingly
dive site.

Environmental Awareness
112
 a. Keep in mind that there are locations where the tide is not a
significant variable affecting diving. The water may be higher or
lower, but otherwise tides have little or no significant effect on
diving conditions.
2. In general, it’s best to dive at the high tide or the slack period
between high and low tides.
a. At high tide, the visibility is likely better, because clearer water
has come in from the sea.
b. If you dive in restricted bays and harbors, slack tide may be the
best choice, because there is little water movement.
c. However, the time you choose to dive can vary based on your
dive objective. For example, you may want to drift out of a bay
on an outgoing tide.
3. When you arrive at the dive site, carefully evaluate conditions to
confirm that water is moving in the direction you expect based on
the tide, and that the water movement is not stronger than you
expect. Adjust your dive plan accordingly.
G. What is a wave, and what disturbing forces cause waves? Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
What is a wave, and what disturbing
forces cause waves?

1. A wave is the transmission of energy through water.  A wave is the transmission of energy through water

As energy moves through, the water moves back and forth or
rotates – returns to original position

a. As energy moves through water, the water moves back and forth
Example – stone drops into water and waves ripple away from
splash

or rotates, but then returns to its original position.

b. For example, when a stone drops into water, waves ripple away continued. . .

from the splash. However, the water particles do not move

away, only the energy moves as a series of waves away from the
disturbance.
2. It is disturbing forces, like a stone entering the water, that create Aquatic World – Physical
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
What is a wave, and what disturbing
waves. The intensity and duration of a disturbing force helps 
forces cause waves?
Disturbing forces create waves

determine the wave size and characteristics.
Intensity and duration helps determine wave size and
characteristics

 Wind is most common

disturbing force
a. Wind is the most common disturbing force that causes ocean
Seismic activity,
undersea landslides
and volcanoes

waves, but other events such as seismic activity, undersea  Restoring forces – gravity and surface tension –
attempt to resist wave formation

landslides and volcanos can also cause waves.

3. Restoring forces, such as gravity and surface tension, attempt to
resist ocean wave formation.
H. What makes a wave break? KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
Aquatic World – Physical

1. As the wave moves toward shore, its energy starts to be affected by

What makes a wave break?
 As a wave moves toward shore, its energy starts to
be affected by the bottom

the bottom. This interaction slows the wave and packs the wave’s

Interaction slows wave and packs energy into tighter area,
causing wave height to rise
When water reaches 1.3 times the wave height, the crest

energy into a tighter area, causing the wave height to rise.

travels faster than the trough, and becomes unstable — wave
breaks

2. Closer to shore, when the water depth is 1.3 times the wave height,
the crest of the wave travels faster than its trough, and it becomes continued. . .

unstable. The instability causes the wave to break; its crest topples
forward – spilling its energy as surf.

Presentation Notes
113
 Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment 3. There are three basic types of breaking waves.
What makes a wave break?
Three basic types:

Plunging breaker – moderately steep beach
a. Plunging breakers occur on moderately steep beaches. The wave




Spilling breaker – gently sloping beach
Surging breaker – very steep beach curls as the top pitches through the air before splashing onto the
bottom.
b. Spilling breakers occur on gently sloping beaches. The top of
the wave tumbles and slides down the front of the wave as it
decelerates slowly.
c. Surging breakers occur on very steep beaches. Since there’s little
or no bottom contact, the waves don’t slow down, but surge
virtually unbroken.
Aquatic World – Physical
Awareness of the
Dive Environment I. How do waves affect divers?
How do waves affect divers?
Waves affect divers in several ways – from a boat:
 Rough seas can make trip uncomfortable –
1. Waves affect divers in several ways, such as when diving from a boat:
increasing potential for seasickness
 Getting off a rocking boat can be challenging

Have a means of support to avoid falling and time entry
a. Rough seas can make the trip to the dive site uncomfortable,
Getting back on a boat in rising and
increasing the potential for seasickness.

falling swell can be difficult

Timing is critical

Be careful not to pinch
fingers under moving ladder
b. Getting off a rocking dive boat can be challenging when
standing to do a giant stride or when doing a seated back roll.
continued. . .

Having a means of support may be necessary to avoid falling

and timing the entry to minimize the drop into the water is key.
c. Getting back on to a dive boat that is rising and falling with a
large swell can also be difficult. Timing is critical to avoid being
hit by the boat or swim step. Being careful not to pinch a finger
under a moving ladder is also important.
Awareness of the 2. If you live in an area where entering from shore means going
Aquatic World – Physical Dive Environment
How do waves affect divers?
Entering from shore may mean going through surf
through surf, you’re probably very familiar with how breaking waves

With proper technique, entering and exiting can be
accomplished affect divers.

Poor technique and bad timing can result in a
tumble, lost equipment or injury
a. With proper technique, entering and exiting through surf can be
accomplished with little difficulty (as discussed in the section on
continued. . .
Specialized Skills and Activities.)
b. Poor technique and bad timing can result in a tumble in the
sand, lost equipment or worse, injury.
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment
3. Underwater, divers may feel the waves as surge – being moved back
Aquatic World – Physical
How do waves affect divers?
Underwater, divers may feel surge
and forth as the wave passes overhead.
Mild surge can be used to move forward
a. Mild surge can be used to move forward with the water’s help.



Strong surge can be hazardous

Divers wait while the water is pushing against them, then give a
harder kick to more effectively move forward with the water.
b, However, strong surge can be hazardous, especially in shallow,
rocky areas.
4. To learn more about waves and other physical aspects of the aquatic
environment, take Dive Theory Online or read The Encyclopedia of
Recreational Diving.

Environmental Awareness
114
 Awareness of the
Project AWARE Dive Environment

V. Project AWARE
Study Objectives
1. What is the Project AWARE Foundation?
2. What are Project AWARE’s “Ten Ways a Diver Can
Protect the Underwater Environment?”

A. What is the Project AWARE Foundation?

1. What began as an environmental ethic by PADI employees in the
early 1990s led to the formation of the Project AWARE Foundation,
a nonprofit organization that involves divers and water enthusiasts Project AWARE
KR Awareness of the

Dive Environment

in projects and activities to conserve underwater environments. 

What is the Project AWARE Foundation?
What began as an environmental ethic in
the early 1990s led to the formation of the
Project AWARE Foundation
2. Through Project AWARE, each year nearly a million people
Nonprofit organization that involves divers and water
enthusiasts in projects and activities to conserve the
underwater environment

worldwide are exposed to environmental awareness through  Through Project AWARE,

each year nearly a million
people are exposed to

interactions with PADI Professionals. For up-to-date information, environmental awareness

visit Project AWARE Foundation online at [Link]

Awareness of the
B. What are Project AWARE’s “Ten Ways a Diver Can Protect the Project AWARE Dive Environment
What are Project AWARE’s “Ten Ways a Diver Can

Underwater Environment?”
Protect the Underwater Environment?”?

To encourage environmentally responsible diver
behavior – download from [Link]

[NOTE: Tell candidates that they can download these guidelines along with tips for
1. Dive carefully
2. Be aware of your body
and equipment
underwater photographers from [Link]] 3. Keep your dive skills sharp
4. Consider your actions
5. Understand and respect
1. Dive carefully to protect fragile aquatic ecosystems. underwater life

continued. . .

2. Be aware of your body and equipment placement when diving.

3. Keep your dive skills sharp through continuing education.
4. Consider how your interactions affect aquatic life.
5. Understand and respect underwater life.
6. Be an ecotourist by making informed decisions when selecting a Project AWARE
Awareness of the
Dive Environment
What are Project AWARE’s “Ten Ways a Diver Can
destination and dive operator. Protect the Underwater Environment?”?
6. Be an ecotourist
7. Respect underwater
7. Respect underwater cultural heritage and maritime history. cultural heritage
8. Report environmental
disturbances or destruction

8. Report environmental disturbances or destruction. 9. Be a role model

10. Get involved

9. Be a role model for other divers and nondivers when interacting

with the environment.
10. Get involved in local environmental activities and issues.

Summary Summary
Awareness of the
Dive Environment

Why Care About the Environment?

I. Why Care for the Environment?

Aquatic World – Overview
Aquatic World – Biological

Aquatic World – Physical

II. Aquatic World – Overview

Project AWARE

III. Aquatic World – Biological

IV. Aquatic World – Physical

V. Project AWARE

Presentation Notes
115
Environmental Awareness
116
Dive Theory
Review

Presentation Notes
117
 NOTES:
1. Use this presentation when divemaster candidates have not completed
independent study through Divemaster Online, or completed the Dive
Theory Online program, or read Chapter 9 of the PADI Divemaster
Manual. You may also use this presentation for prescriptive remediation
while reviewing the Chapter 9 Knowledge Review with candidates.
2. This presentation reviews dive theory concepts that candidates learned in
previous courses. It’s designed to reinforce the candidate’s understanding
to a level that allows the candidate to apply the principles to actual
diving circumstances and also explain the concepts to others.
Dive Theory
Review

3. Some candidates may be familiar with the RDP Table, others with the
Dive Theory Review eRDPML, and some may not be familiar with either, because they have
only used a dive computer. Use the last part of the presentation to help
candidates become comfortable using both RDP versions.
Go To Knowledge Review

Overview
Dive Theory

I. Theoretical Knowledge
Overview Review

Theoretical Knowledge
Responses to Thermal

Heat, Light, Sound and Changes
Water Responses to Pressure
• Why do you need a solid understanding of dive theory?



Relationship of Changes on Body Air
Pressure, Gas Volume, Spaces
Density and
Scuba Cylinders
Temperature
Scuba Regulators

II. Heat, Light, Sound and Water

Buoyancy
Gauges and Dive

Gases Underwater Computers

Circulatory and
Decompression Theory
Respiratory Systems
RDP Use

Responses to Nitrogen

• Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air does, and at
what rate does it do so?
• What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat have on a diver?
• What does light do when it passes from air into water, or vice-versa,
and how does this affect a diver?
• Why does sound travel faster in water than in air, and
approximately how much faster is it in water?
• How does the speed of sound in water affect hearing?

III. Relationship of Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and

Temperature
• What are meant by ambient, absolute and gauge pressure?
• What is the relationship between changes in absolute pressure and a
gas volume?
• What is the relationship between depth and gas density?
• What is the relationship of pressure, volume and temperature on a
gas?

Dive Theory
118
IV. Buoyancy
• How do you change an object’s buoyancy by increasing
displacement or adding weight to make it positively, negatively or
neutrally buoyant in both fresh and salt water?

V. Gases Underwater
• What is partial pressure?
• How does the physiological effect of breathing a given percentage of
gas at depth compare to breathing the same percentage of the gas at
the surface?
• What happens when you raise the pressure of a gas in contact with a
liquid?
• What happens when you reduce the pressure of a gas in contact
with a liquid?

VI. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

• What are the organs, structure and functions of the circulatory and
respiratory systems?
• What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by
it?
• How does the body respond when breath-hold diving, and how can
you extend breath-hold time?
• Why should you avoid a wet suit hood or dry suit collar that
excessively restricts the neck, and what are the two physiological
explanations for the concern?
• What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving,
and how do you avoid them?
• What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and how do you avoid
them?
• What is the primary first aid for a near drowning accident?
• How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured diver and to a
nonbreathing injured diver?

VII. Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas

• What causes gas narcosis, at approximately what depth is it likely
using air/enriched air, and what are common signs/symptoms of it?
• What are the physiological mechanisms by which the body absorbs
and releases nitrogen (or other inert gases) while diving?
• What causes decompression sickness (DCS), and what are the two
types?
Presentation Notes
119
 • What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
• What are the recommendations for DCS first aid and treatment?
• What is the difference between DCI and DCS?

VIII. Responses to Thermal Changes

• How does the body respond to excess heat?
• How does the body respond to insufficient heat?

IX. Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

• How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing pressure?
• What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear and sinus
squeezes or reverse blocks?
• What are the causes and physiologies of mask and dry suit squeezes?
• How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?
• What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?
• What are the recommendations for lung overexpansion injury first
aid and treatment?

X. Scuba Cylinders
• How do you identify, and what are the meanings of, the following
scuba cylinder marks: hydrostatic test date and working pressure?
• What are the different types of cylinder valves?
• What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder from exploding,
and how does it work?
• Why should a cylinder receive an annual visual inspection?
• What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic test?
• What functional problems can occur with cylinders and valves?

XI. Scuba Regulators

• How does a scuba regulator work?
• What is meant by “fail-safe” with respect to regulators, and how
does it work?
• What is the purpose of a regulator environmental seal?
• What functional problems can occur with regulators?

Dive Theory
120
XII. Dive Computers and Gauges
• What are the different operating principles and designs for depth
gauges, SPGs and compasses?
• What are the procedures for using dive computers appropriately?
• What special equipment requirements and considerations do you
have when diving with enriched air?
• What functional problems can occur with gauges and dive
computers?

XIII. Decompression Theory

• What is the basic structure and operation of the Haldanean
decompression model?
• For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner developed, and how
was it tested?
• Why do you need to know your approximate altitude when diving?
• How do dive computers apply decompression models to provide
more no stop dive time?

XIV. RDP Use

• What are the general rules and recommendations for diving with
the Recreational Dive Planner, including those for flying after
diving and emergency decompression?
• How do you find a no decompression limit for a first and repetitive
dive using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
• How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
• How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?
Dive Theory

Outline
Theoretical Knowledge Review
Study Objective
1. Why do you need a solid understanding
of dive theory?

I. Theoretical Knowledge
A. Why do you need a solid understanding of dive theory?
1. In the presentation – The Role and Characteristics of a PADI
Divemaster – you learn that professionals are people who have a
high level of knowledge and skill in a particular area. Theoretical Knowledge
Dive Theory
Review
Why do you need a solid understanding of dive
a. This broad knowledge and skill base is what allows professionals theory?
 Professionals are people who have a high level of
knowledge and skill in a particular area
to be better at solving problems specific to their area of expertise.
Broad knowledge and skill base allows better problem solving
in area of expertise
 Having a dive theory knowledge base makes it
easier to identify cause-an-effect relationships
b. Having a dive theory knowledge base makes it easier to identify More fluent with dive theory:
 More easily diagnose a problem

cause-and-effect relationships when dealing with problems and and underlying cause
 More tools for solving problems
 Better prepared to answer
diver’s questions
creating solutions. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
121
 c. The more fluent you are with dive theory, the more easily you
can diagnose a problem because you better grasp the underlying
causes. It gives you more tools for solving problems that aren’t
easily predicted or predefined. It prepares you to answer divers’
questions.
Dive Theory
d. By reviewing and solidifying your dive theory knowledge, you’ll
Review
Theoretical Knowledge
Why do you need a solid understanding of dive theory?
 By reviewing and solidifying dive theory,
be better prepared to apply your expertise to solve problems and
you’ll be prepared to:

Apply your expertise to solve
problems and provide answers
provide answers, both during the this course, and when acting as

Apply your knowledge to
dive situations

Using a lift bag
a dive supervisor or certified assistant.

Using a dive computer

and RDP

Act as an instructional assistant and dive leader

Divers will ask you questions
2. You’ll also apply your dive theory knowledge to a variety of dive

Apply general problem solving to a variety of situations

situations during practical application exercises and workshops

during this course.
a. For example, gas pressure and volume relationships apply when
using a lift bag during the Search and Recovery Scenario.
b. Another example is applying dive computer and RDP use as well
as decompression theory to the Deep Dive Scenario.
3. You will use dive theory knowledge when acting as an instructional
assistant or dive supervisor.
a. Student divers ask you questions about what they are learning in
the course.
b. Certified divers may also ask questions as they plan their dives
and expect that you can remind them of key concepts.
c. You’ll apply what you’re learning for general problem solving in
Heat, Light, Sound and Water
Dive Theory
Review a variety of situations.
Study Objectives
1. Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air

2.
does, and at what rate does it do so?
What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat
4. The following topics review the dive theory knowledge you’ve
have on a diver?
3. What does light do when it passes from air into
water, or vice-versa, and how does this affect a
already acquired and asks you to apply the concepts to diving.
diver?
4. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air,

II. Heat, Light, Sound and Water

and approximately how much faster is it in water?
5. How does the speed of sound in water affect
hearing?

KR Dive Theory
Review
A. Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air does, and at
Heat, Light, Sound and Water
Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air
does, and at what rate does it do so?
what rate does it do so?
 Water absorbs more heat than air






It’s denser and forms weak bonds between molecules
Conducts heat approximately 20 times faster than air
Example – hot metal spoon
1. Water absorbs more heat than air, which is why you use water to
cools off faster when placed
in a glass of water than
sitting on the table cool things. It conducts heat approximately 20 times faster than air
does. For example, a hot metal spoon cools off much faster when
continued. . . placed in a glass of water than if left sitting on the table.
KR Dive Theory
2. Heat dissipates into water, such as your body heat when scuba
Review
Heat, Light, Sound and Water
Why does water dissipate body heat faster than air
does, and at what rate does it do so?
diving,through conduction and convection.
 Heat dissipates into water – body heat when scuba
diving – through conduction and convection

Conduction is heat transmission through direct contact
a. Conduction is heat transmission through direct contact.
Convection occurs when a fluid becomes less dense when

b. Convection occurs when a fluid becomes less dense when heated

heated and rises
– cooler fluid flows,
creating a continuous
cooling cycle

and rises. As it rises, cooler fluid flows in to replace it – creating

a continuous cooling cycle.

Dive Theory
122
B. What effect does water’s ability to dissipate heat have on a diver? Heat, Light, Sound and Water
KR Dive Theory
Review
What effect does water’s ability to dissipate

1. Due to conduction and, to a lesser extent, convection, a diver needs heat have on a diver?
 A diver needs insulation to remain comfortable in all
but the warmest water

insulation to remain comfortable in all but the warmest water.  Without a wet suit or dry suit, you’ll chill quickly:




Takes away from your enjoyment
Could lead to hypothermia

2. Without the insulation of a wet suit or dry suit, a diver will chill
quickly, which not only takes away from the enjoyment, but also
could lead to hypothermia. (More on how your body responds to
insufficient heat later.)
C. What does light do when it passes from air into water, or vice-versa, KR Dive Theory
Review
Heat, Light, Sound and Water
and how does this affect a diver? What does light do when it passes from air into water,
or vice-versa, and how does this affect a diver?

You miss items when reaching for them, because

1. You may recall that as a new diver, you sometimes missed items

they appear closer — refraction
When light passes from
a medium of one density

underwater when reaching for them, because they appear closer than to a medium of a differing
density, its speed changes,
and causes it to alter direction

they actually are. This is due to refraction. slightly – to “bend” or refract

2. When light passes from a medium of one density to a medium of continued. . .

a differing density – like from air to water or vice-versa – its speed

changes, and causes it to alter direction slightly – to “bend” or
refract.
3. When you’re diving, refraction results when light passes from water Heat, Light, Sound and Water
Dive Theory
Review

through glass into the air in your mask. The effect is that objects What does light do when it passes from air into water,
or vice-versa, and how does this affect a diver?
 Refraction results when light passes from water

underwater are magnified so they appear closer by a ratio of about through glass into the air in your mask

Objects are magnified
– appear closer by a
ratio of about 4:3

4:3. This makes the object appear larger or closer, depending upon
Objects appear larger or
closer, depending upon
the circumstances

the circumstances.  Example – fish that’s four metres/yards away will

appear to be three metres/yards away

Appears 25 percent closer or 33 percent larger
Most divers learn to compensate for refraction
a. For example, a fish that’s actually four metres/yards away will


appear to be three metres/yards away.

b. This makes the fish appear to be 25 percent closer than it
actually is, or 33 percent larger than it actually is.
4. With experience, most divers learn to compensate for refraction
without even thinking about it.
D. Why does sound travel faster in water than in air, and KR Dive Theory
Review
Heat, Light, Sound and Water

approximately how much faster is it in water? Why does sound travel faster in water than in air, and
approximately how much faster is it in water?
 Sound is energy that travels in waves

1. Sound is energy that travels in waves and can only exist in and travel



Can only exist in and travel through matter
Generally travels best in dense
media such as solids and
liquids, like water

through matter.
Elasticity of a substance

determines how well sound
travels through it
Sound travels slightly more
a. It generally travels best in dense media such as solids and liquids,

than four times faster in
water than in air

like water.
b. Actually, it’s the elasticity of a substance that determines how
well sound travels through it. Most substances that are denser
have more elasticity.
2. Because of water has more elasticity than air, sound travels slightly Dive Theory
Heat, Light, Sound and Water Review
more than four times faster in water than in air. How does the speed of sound in water affect hearing?
 Often can’t tell where a sound is
coming from underwater

E. How does the speed of sound in water affect hearing?

Your brain determines direction based
on slight difference in intensity and
time when a sound reaches your ears

Underwater, it’s the same (as far
as your brain can tell), which

1. The faster speed of sound in water means that you often can’t tell 
makes it difficult to figure
out direction
Often, you perceive sound as
being directly overhead
where a sound is coming from underwater.  Sometimes you can determine general direction
based on its frequency, distance away and intensity

Presentation Notes
123
 2. Your brain determines sound direction based on the slight difference
in intensity and the time when a sound reaches each of your ears.
Underwater, the intensity and time are the same (as far as your brain can
tell), which makes it difficult to figure out direction.
3. Often, you perceive sound as being directly overhead. Sometimes
you can determine a sound’s general direction based on its frequency,
distance away and intensity.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: Water _________ body heat faster than air does because it absorbs heat
approximately _____times faster than air does.
A: dissipates, 20
Q: Due to water’s ability to dissipate heat, a diver should wear _________ to
avoid becoming quickly chilled underwater.
A: an exposure suit; a dry suit; a wet suit
Q: Light changes __________ when it passes through a substance of one
density into a substance of a different density.
A: speed and direction
Q: Refraction explains why objects appear to be _______ by a factor of about
_____ when viewed underwater.
A: closer, 4:3
Q: Sound travels approximately _____ times faster in water than it does in air
because water is denser (has more elasticity).
A: four
Q: Divers have difficulty determining the direction of sound underwater
Dive Theory
because the brain perceives that sound reaches each ear __________.
Review

A: at the same time.

Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
Study Objectives
1. What are meant by ambient, absolute and gauge
pressures?
2. What is the relationship between changes in
absolute pressure and a gas volume?
3. What is the relationship between depth
and gas density?
4. What is the relationship of the pressure, volume and
III. Relationship of Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and
Temperature
temperature of a gas?

Dive Theory
A. What are meant by ambient, absolute and gauge pressure?
Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature Review
What are meant by ambient, absolute
and gauge pressures? 1. You know from your previous training that at sea level you’re under the
 At sea level, under the pressure of the atmosphere
— 1 bar or 1 ata

Add an atmosphere for every 10 m/33 ft of seawater
pressure of the atmosphere, which results from the weight of the air.

Add an atmosphere for every 10.3 m/34 ft of fresh water

Atmospheric pressure is expressed as: 1 bar or 1 ata.

a. Due to the weight of water, you add another atmosphere of pressure
continued. . . for every 10 metres/33 feet of seawater as you descend. For fresh
water, you add 1 bar/atm every 10.3 m/34 ft.
2. Ambient pressure means “surrounding pressure.” It means the pressure
that exists around something at a defined moment and can be expressed

Dive Theory
124
 as the absolute pressure or as gauge pressure, depending upon your Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
KR 6
KR 7
Dive Theory
Review

purpose.
What are meant by ambient, absolute
and gauge pressures?
 Ambient pressure means “surrounding pressure”

Pressure that exists at a defined moment

3. Absolute pressure is the total pressure, which is what you use to 

Expressed as the absolute or gauge pressure, depending
upon purpose
Absolute pressure is the total pressure

understand the effects of pressure on gases and your body.

a. At sea level you are at 1 bar/ata. At 10 m/33 ft underwater in
continued. . .

the ocean, the absolute pressure is 2 bar/ata, because you add the
atmospheric pressure to the water pressure.
b. For seawater the pressure increases as follows:
• 20 m/66 ft – the absolute pressure is 3 bar/ata.
• 30 m/99 ft – the absolute pressure is 4 bar/ata.
• 40 m/132 ft – the absolute pressure is 5 bar/ata.
c. For fresh water the pressure increases as follows:
• 20.6 m/68 ft – the absolute pressure is 3 bar/ata.
• 30.9 m/102 ft – the absolute pressure is 4 bar/ata. Dive Theory
Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature Review

• 41.2 m/136 ft – the absolute pressure is 5 bar/ata. What are meant by ambient, absolute
and gauge pressures?
 Gauge pressure ignores the atmospheric pressure

4. Gauge pressure is a measurement that ignores the atmospheric

At sea level, gauge pressure is zero
At 10 m/33 ft in seawater, gauge pressure is 1 bar/ata

pressure. At sea level, gauge pressure is zero. At 10 m/33 ft in

seawater, the gauge pressure is 1 bar/ata.
B. What is the relationship between changes in absolute pressure and a
KR Dive Theory
gas volume? Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
What is the relationship between changes
Review

in absolute pressure and a gas volume?

1. As a new diver, you learned that as pressure increases, the volume
As pressure increases, the volume of air in a flexible
container will decrease
Decreasing volume is the reason you equalize
of air in a flexible container will decrease. Using a balloon as an

Air
Depth Pressure Volume

example, if you take it to: 0m/0f 1 bar/ata

10m/33ft 2 bar/ata
1

1/2

a. 10 m/33 ft – the volume will decrease to 1/2 its original size. 20m/66ft 3 bar/ata

30m/99ft 4 bar/ata
1/3

1/4
continued. . .

b. 20 m/66 ft – the volume will decrease to 1/3 its original size.

c. 30 m/99 ft – the volume will decrease to 1/4 its original size.
d. 40 m/132 ft – the volume will decrease by 1/5 its original size.
2. Decreasing volume on descent is the reason you need to equalize
your body air spaces, such as your ears and mask.
3. The opposite is also true – as pressure decreases on ascent, the Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
KR Dive Theory
Review

volume of air in a flexible container will increase. Again, using a What is the relationship between changes
in absolute pressure and a gas volume?

As pressure decreases on ascent, the volume of air

balloon as an example, if you take it from:

in a flexible container will increase
Reason for the most important rule in scuba diving

a. 10 m/33 ft to the surface – the volume will increase by two Depth

0m/0ft
Pressure
1 bar/ata
Air
Volume
1

times its original size. 10m/33ft 2 bar/ata

20m/66ft 3 bar/ata
1/2

1/3

b. 20 m/66 ft to the surface – the volume will increase by three continued. . .

30m/99ft 4 bar/ata 1/4

times its original size.

c. 30 m/99 ft to the surface – the volume will increase by four
times its original size.
d. 40 m/132 ft to the surface – the volume will increase by five
times its original size.

Presentation Notes
125
 4. The relationship between pressure changes and gas volume is
the reason for the most important rule in scuba diving – breathe
continuously and never hold your breath. As air expands upon
ascent, it needs to be able to escape.

Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature

Dive Theory
Review
C. What is the relationship between depth and gas density?
What is the relationship between depth
and gas density?

As pressure increases, volume of an air space
decreases and density increases
1. You learned in your initial diver training that as water pressure
Air Air
increases with depth and the volume of an air space decreases, the
Depth
0m/0ft
Pressure
1 bar/ata
Volume Density
1 x1 density of the air inside the space increases, because the molecules
10m/33ft 2 bar/ata 1/2 x2

20m/66ft 3 bar/ata 1/3 x3 are squeezed closer together.

30m/99ft 4 bar/ata 1/4 x4

2. As the depth increases and gas volume decreases, the gas density is as
continued. . .

follows for seawater:

a. At 10 m/33 ft, the density of a gas will increase by two times.
b. At 20 m/66 ft, the density of a gas will increase by three times.
c. At 30 m/99 ft, the density of a gas will increase by four times.
d. At 40 m/132 ft, the density of a gas will increase by five times.
KR Dive Theory
Review
3. This increase in gas density affects a diver’s air consumption rate,
Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
What is the relationship between depth
and gas density?
because at depth each breath the diver inhales contains more
Increases in gas density affects air consumption
molecules. The deeper the dive, the faster the diver uses air.

 Example – 2 hours to breathe full cylinder at surface

At 10 m/33 ft – 1 hour (1/2 the time)

At 30 m/99 ft – 30 minutes


(1/4 the time)
Scuba cylinder is inflexible Depth
container filled at high
Air
Density a. For example, let’s say it takes two hours for a diver to breathe
0m/0ft x1
pressure – only when air is
exposed to surrounding
pressure does pressure,
10m/33ft x2 most of the air from a full scuba cylinder at the surface.
volume and density 20m/66ft x3
relationship exist
30m/99ft x4 b. At 10 metres/33 feet in the sea, given that the diver maintains
the same breathing rate, the same full cylinder would only last
for 1 hour, which is 1/2 of the time, because the air is twice as
dense.
c. At 30 metres/99 feet in the sea, the same full cylinder would
only last for 30 minutes, which is 1/4 of the time. because the
air is four times as dense.
4. Remember that a scuba cylinder is an inflexible container filled at
high pressure, so at depth the gas inside is not affected by the water
pressure. It’s only when a diver breathes the air – exposing it to
the surrounding pressure – that this pressure, volume and density
relationship exists.

Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature

Dive Theory
Review
D. What is the relationship of pressure, volume and temperature on a
What is the relationship of pressure, volume
and temperature on a gas? gas?
 Should not leave a full cylinder in a car in
the sun on a very hot day – pressure could


increase an rupture burst disk
Raise temperature – add energy
1. You know that you should not leave a full scuba cylinder in a car in




Molecules move rapidly
Motion causes
uncontained gas
BEFORE the sun on a very hot day, because cylinder pressure could increase
to expand or
contained gas
pressure to rise to a point that it ruptures the burst disk.
continued. . . AFTER HEAT ADDED
2. The reason is that when you raise the temperature of a gas, you
add energy, which causes the molecules to move rapidly. Increased
molecular motion causes an uncontained gas to expand, or
contained gas pressure to rise.

Dive Theory
126
 3. In an inflexible container like a scuba cylinder, the volume doesn’t Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and Temperature
Dive Theory
Review

change, but increasing temperature will increase the pressure. The

What is the relationship of pressure, volume
and temperature on a gas?
Inflexible container

opposite is also true – decreasing temperature will decrease the  Increase in temperature




Volume doesn’t change
Pressure increases
Decrease in temperature
pressure.


Pressure decreases

Flexible container
 Increase in temperature

4. In a flexible container, like a balloon, as the temperature rises 

Volume increases
Decrease in temperature

Volume decreases

the molecules also move more rapidly, but instead of raising the
pressure, the balloon expands. As the temperature increases, the
volume of a flexible container increases. And, as the temperature
decreases, the volume of a flexible container will decrease.
[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: If a diver is in fresh water at 10.3 metres/34 feet, what is the ambient

pressure?
A: 2 bar/ata
Q: What is the absolute pressure at 25 metres/82.5 feet of seawater?
A: 3.5 bar/ata (half way between 20 m/66 ft and 30 m/99 ft)
Q: What is the absolute pressure at 20.6 metres/68 ft of fresh water?
A: 3 bar/ata
Q: If a 12 litre balloon is taken from the surface down to 20 m/66 ft in the
ocean, what will its volume be?
A: 4 litres
Q: If a balloon is filled with two litres of air at 30 metres/99 feet, sealed and
then released, what will its volume be when it reaches the surface (given
that it doesn’t burst)?
A: 8 litres
Q: The density of a gas will be _________ at 30 metres/99 feet what it is at
the surface.
A: 4 times
Q: If it takes a diver 45 minutes to breathe half a cylinder of air at the
surface, about how long will it take that diver to breathe the same
amount of air at 20 m/66 ft (assuming all variables remain the same)?
A: 15 minutes
Q: If a scuba cylinder is filled to capacity at room temperature, what will
you notice if you use the cylinder on a cold water dive?
A: The cylinder pressure may be lower upon entering the water – the
decrease in temperature causes a decrease in pressure.

Presentation Notes
127
 Dive Theory
Buoyancy Review
Study Objective
1. How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to make
IV. Buoyancy
it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant in both
fresh and salt water?
A. How do you change an object’s buoyancy by increasing
displacement or adding weight to make it positively, negatively or
neutrally buoyant in both fresh and salt water?
Dive Theory
Review
1. You may have heard of Archimedes principle, which states that an
Buoyancy
How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to object wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a
make it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant
in both fresh and salt water?
Archimedes principle: force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This
An object wholly or partially immersed in a fluid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object means that:
Object Water ter
Objec
t
Water
Obje
ct
Wa
a. An object that weighs less than the water it displaces will float
continued. . . and is positively buoyant.
b. An object that weighs more than the water it displaces will sink
and is negatively buoyant
c. An object that weighs exactly the same as the water it displaces
will neither float nor sink – it’s neutrally buoyant.

Buoyancy
Dive Theory
Review
2. To decrease the buoyancy of an object, you must add weight or
How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to
make it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant
decrease its displacement.
in both fresh and salt water?

To decrease buoyancy – add weight
or decrease displacement
a. For example, if you get into the water wearing a thick wet suit
Example:

If wearing a thick wet suit, hood,
gloves and boots,you’ll likely float
with a hood, gloves and boots, you will likely float very well. To

To become neutral or negative,
you must put on weight system become neutral or negatively buoyant, you must put on a weight
continued. . . system with lead weights.
Buoyancy
Dive Theory
Review 3. To increase the buoyancy of an object, you must displace more water
How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to
make it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant without adding weight, or release weight.
in both fresh and salt water?
 To increase buoyancy – displace more water
or release weight

Attach a device that can be
a. The most effective way to do this is to attach a device that can
be filled with air to the object, such as a lift bag.
filled with air – lift bag
 Displace water equal to object’s
weight – neutrally buoyant
Greater displacement
b. A lift bag filled with air increases the object volume by

– positively buoyant

displacing water.
continued. . .

c. Exactly displacing the amount of water that is equal to what the

object weighs will make the object neutrally buoyant. A greater
displacement can make the object positively buoyant.
Buoyancy
Dive Theory
Review
4. To change the buoyancy of an object that is neutral, you simply
How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to
make it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant
either add weight, decrease the volume or displacement, or increase
the volume or displacement. For example:
in both fresh and salt water?
 To change the buoyancy of object that is neutral –

Add weight
Decrease volume or displacement

a. When a diver who is neutrally buoyant picks up a heavy lead

Increase volume or displacement

Object Water
Object ter
Wa
Water
Obje
ct weight off the bottom, the diver will not be neutral anymore,
continued. . . but will become negatively buoyant.
Buoyancy
KR Dive Theory
Review
b. When a diver who is neutrally buoyant wants to kneel on the
How do you change an object’s buoyancy by
increasing displacement or adding weight to
make it positively, negatively or neutrally buoyant
bottom, the diver lets air out of the BCD and sinks slowly,
in both fresh and salt water?
 Diver who is neutrally buoyant:

Picks up heavy weight
becoming negatively buoyant.
– becomes negative

Lets air out of BCD
– becomes negative
Adds to much air to BCD
c. When a diver who is adjusting for neutral buoyancy adds too
– becomes positive
 Denser the water – greater buoyancy

Object will be more buoyant in
much air into the BCD – displacing too much water – the diver
salt water than fresh

will become positively buoyant.

Dive Theory
128
 5. You probably also recall from your previous training that the
denser (heavier) the water, the greater the buoyancy for a given
displacement. Salt water (due to its dissolved salts) weighs more than
fresh water, so an object will be more buoyant in salt water than in
fresh.
[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: If an object is neutrally buoyant, what are three ways you can change its
buoyancy?
A. Add weight, drop weight, decrease the displacement, or increase the
displacement
Q: An object will be more buoyant in _______ than it would be in
________, due to the weight of the water.
A: salt water, fresh water
Q: While scuba diving, you fine-tuning your buoyancy through breath
control. This is an example of changing buoyancy by changing
Dive Theory
___________. Gases Underwater
Study Objectives
Review

A: displacement
1. What is partial pressure?
2. How does the physiological effect of breathing a
given percent of a gas at depth compare to
breathing the same percentage of the gas at the
surface?
3. What happens when you raise the pressure of a gas

V. Gases Underwater
in contact with a liquid?
4. What happens when you reduce the pressure of a
gas in contact with a liquid?

A. What is partial pressure?

Dive Theory

1. A scuba cylinder may be filled with regular air, which contains Gases Underwater
What is partial pressure?
Review

approximately 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen, or  Air – approximately 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen




Enriched air nitrox has a higher percentage of oxygen,
Technical divers may use three gases (trimix) – oxygen,
nitrogen and helium

enriched air nitrox, which has a higher percentage of oxygen, such as  Each gas exerts its individual pressure
independently of other gases
 Independent pressure is partial pressure

a 32 percent oxygen and 68 percent nitrogen mix. Technical divers  In a cylinder filled with air, 21% of the pressure is
from oxygen, while nitrogen exerts 79%

may fill their cylinders with three gases (trimix) – oxygen, nitrogen PARTIAL
PRESSURE
OF OXYGEN
(21%)
+
PARTIAL
PRESSURE
OF NITROGEN (79%)
=
TOTAL
PRESSURE
OF AIR
(100%)

and helium.
2. No matter what is in a gas mixture, each gas exerts its individual
pressure independently of the other gases in the mixture. The
independent pressure of a gas is its partial pressure.
3. For a given pressure, each individual gas only exerts a percentage
of the pressure. For example, in a scuba cylinder filled with air, 21
percent of the pressure is from oxygen, while nitrogen exerts 79
percent.
B. How does the physiological effect of breathing a given percentage of Gases Underwater
Dive Theory
Review
How does the physiological effect of breathing a given
gas at depth compare to breathing the same percentage of the gas at percent of a gas at depth compare to breathing the
same percentage of the gas at the surface?
 Underwater, each breath has more molecules

the surface? compared to a breath of same volume at the surface

Percentage of gas remains the same

Number of molecules increases

1. From the discussion on depth and density, you know that when a  If there is an impurity, a diver would
take in more potentially harmful
molecules with each breath

diver inhales underwater, each breath has more molecules compared

Deeper the dive, more significant
the physiological effects

to a breath of the same volume at the surface. This means that continued. . .

while the percentage of each gas in a mixture remains the same, the
number of gas molecules increases with the pressure.

Presentation Notes
129
 Gases Underwater
Dive Theory
Review 2. If there is an impurity in the gas, a diver would take in more
How does the physiological effect of breathing a given
percent of a gas at depth compare to breathing the
same percentage of the gas at the surface?
potentially harmful molecules with each breath at depth. The deeper
the dive, the more significant the physiological effects. For example:
Example:
 Cylinder contains .04% carbon monoxide
 At surface – headache in 1 to 2 hours
 At 40 m/132 ft (5 bar/ata) – like breathing .2% carbon
monoxide

.04 x 5 = .2
a. Breathing from a scuba cylinder that contains .04 percent
Immediately toxic
carbon monoxide at the surface would cause a headache in one
continued. . .
to two hours, but would not be immediately life threatening.
b. However, breathing from this cylinder at 40 metres/132 feet (5
atmospheres) in the ocean would be like breathing .2 percent
carbon monoxide (.04 multiplied by 5 equals .2,) which is
KR Dive Theory
immediately toxic.
Gases Underwater Review
How does the physiological effect of breathing a given
percent of a gas at depth compare to breathing the
3. As just shown in the example, you determine partial pressure by
same percentage of the gas at the surface?
 Determine partial pressure by multiplying gas
percentage by absolute pressure
multiplying the gas percentage in the mixture by the absolute
Example:
 Dive to 30 m/99 ft, breathing air – partial pressure
of oxygen?
pressure.

4 bar/ata x .21 = .84 bar/ata
 Breathing oxygen can be toxic when the partial
pressure exceeds 1.4 bar/ata

Understanding limits and calculating gas partial pressure is
a. For example, if you’re planning a dive to 30 m/99 ft in the ocean
breathing air and want to know the partial pressure of oxygen at
crucial for enriched air diving
and technical diving

that depth, the calculation is: 4 atmospheres multiplied by .21

(21 percent oxygen) equals .84 bar/ata.
4. Besides impurities, breathing oxygen at depth can be toxic when the
partial pressure exceeds 1.4 bar/ata.
a. Although you won’t exceed this limit diving with air within
recreational limits, you can if using enriched air nitrox due to its
higher oxygen content.
b. Understanding limits and calculating gas partial pressures is
crucial for enriched air diving and technical diving, in which
divers use various gas mixes. This is one reason why you need
certification as a PADI Enriched Air Diver to use EANx.

Gases Underwater
Dive Theory
Review
C. What happens when you raise the pressure of a gas in contact with a
What happens when you raise the pressure
of a gas in contact with a liquid? liquid?
 When gas is in contact with a liquid, it dissolves in
proportionately to pressure



Pressure increases – more gas dissolves into liquid
Gas does not dissolve instantly
1. When gas is in contact with a liquid, it dissolves into the liquid
– it does so gradually
 Speed depends on:

Pressure of gas
proportionately to the pressure. If the pressure increases, more gas
dissolves into the liquid.

Amount already dissolved

Solubility of gas in liquid

Surface area of contact

continued. . .
2. Gas does not dissolve instantly into or out of a liquid when the
pressure changes. It does so gradually over a period. The speed
depends on the pressure of the gas, the amount already dissolved,
the solubility of the gas in the liquid, and the surface area where the
gas and liquid make contact.
KR Dive Theory
Review
Gases Underwater
What happens when you raise the pressure
of a gas in contact with a liquid?
3. Eventually, however, the pressure of the gas dissolved within the

Eventually, when pressure of
dissolved gas equals pressure liquid will become equal to the pressure of the gas in contact with it
of gas in contact with liquid,

no more gas will dissolve in or out
State of equilibrium is saturation
and no more gas will dissolve in or out. This equilibrium is referred
to as saturation.

Dive Theory
130
 D. What happens when you reduce the pressure of a gas in contact Gases Underwater
Dive Theory
Review
What happens when you reduce the pressure
with a liquid? of a gas in contact with a liquid?
 Carbonated beverage – good example of liquid with
high content of gas dissolved into it

1. A carbonated beverage is a good example of a liquid that has a high

Under pressure – no bubbles
– equilibrium
Pressure relieved – gas comes
out of solution

content of gas dissolved into it.  If difference between dissolved

gas and surrounding pressure is
not excessive – gas comes out slowly

a. When under pressure, a carbonated beverage has no bubbles,  If difference exceeds critical point – bubbles form

because the gas within the liquid is in equilibrium with the gas continued. . .

in contact with the liquid.

b. As soon as the pressure is relieved, the dissolved gas in the liquid
has a higher pressure than the gas in contact with the liquid and
the dissolved gas comes out of solution.
c. If the difference between the dissolved gas pressure and the
surrounding gas pressure is not excessive, gas comes out of
solution slowly through the contact area.
d. If the difference exceeds a critical point, however, then the gas
dissolves out faster than it can escape through the contact area
Dive Theory

and bubbles form within the liquid. Gases Underwater

What happens when you reduce the pressure
Review

of a gas in contact with a liquid?

2. Because the human body is comprised mainly of water, this is the  Human body is comprised mainly of water

Principle underlying decompression sickness and reason for
dive tables
Reason to slowly ascend from every dive

principle underlying decompression sickness and the reason for dive

tables. It’s also the reason that you slowly ascend from every dive,
avoiding rapid ascents and quick reduction of pressure.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The independent pressure of a gas in a mixture is called __________.

A: partial pressure
Q: Breathing from a scuba cylinder that contains .03 percent carbon
monoxide at the surface is like breathing _______ percent carbon
monoxide at a depth of 20 m/66 ft, which is potentially harmful.
A: .09 (.03 multiplied by 3 atmospheres equals .09)
Q: If an enriched air diver plans to dive to 30 m/99 ft in the ocean using
a gas mixture that contains 32 percent oxygen, will the diver reach the
point where the partial pressure of oxygen may be toxic?
A: No (4 atmospheres multiplied by .32 equals 1.28 bar/ata)
Q: If a glass of water has been placed in a chamber pressured at 1 ata, what
will happen if the pressure is raised to 2 ata?
A: The gas dissolved within the liquid will increase.
Q: If the pressure surrounding a liquid-filled container is quickly decreased,
such as when opening a soda can, the amount of gas dissolved in the
liquid will _________ and __________.
A: decrease, gas bubbles may form

Presentation Notes
131
 Dive Theory
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review

1.

2.
Study Objectives
What are the organs, structure and functions of the circulatory
and respiratory systems?
What is dead air space and how do you avoid problems
VI. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
caused by it?
3. How does the body respond when breath-hold diving, and how

4.
you can extend breath-hold time?
Why should you avoid a wet suit hood or dry suit collar that
excessively restricts the neck, and what are the two physiological
A. What are the organs, structure and functions of the circulatory and
explanations for the concern?
5.

6.
What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while
diving, and how do you avoid them?
What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and how do you avoid
respiratory systems?
them?
What is the primary first aid for a near drowning accident?

1. In your initial dive training, you learned the rules that allow you to
7.
8. How do you administer oxygen to breathing injured diver, and to
a nonbreathing injured diver?

Dive Theory
dive safely and avoid problems with your circulatory and respiratory
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
circulatory and respiratory systems?
systems. These included never hold your breath; ascend slowly from
 Rules allow you to dive safely and avoid problems
with your circulatory and respiratory systems

Never hold your breath
every dive, etc. Besides knowing the rules, it’s important for you,


Ascend slowly from every dive
Besides rules, it’s important
to understand how diving
as a dive professional, to understand how diving affects your body’s
affects your systems
circulatory and respiratory systems.
continued. . .
2. The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to provide gas
Dive Theory
Review
and nutrients to the body and to eliminate waste.
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
circulatory and respiratory systems?
 Systems work together to provide gas and nutrients
3. Through blood, oxygen gets to body tissues via hemoglobin, a
to the body and eliminate waste
 Through blood, oxygen gets to tissues via
hemoglobin (protein that carries and releases
protein that readily carries and releases oxygen.
oxygen)
 After hemoglobin releases
oxygen, it binds with carbon
CO2 a. After hemoglobin releases oxygen, it binds with carbon dioxide
dioxide and carries it to the
lungs for elimination

Another process – a reversible
bicarbonate reaction – also carries O2
and carries it to the lungs for elimination.
carbon dioxide back to the lungs
continued. . .
b. Another process – a reversible bicarbonate reaction – also carries
carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
KR Dive Theory
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
4. Blood is moved around by the cardiovascular system – the heart,
circulatory and respiratory systems?
 Blood is moved around by cardiovascular system –
heart, arteries, veins and capillaries
arteries, veins and capillaries.
The heart – a four chambered

a. The heart – a four chambered pump – circulates blood.

pump – circulates blood

Arteries carry blood away from heart

Veins carry blood toward the heart

b. Arteries carry blood away from the heart.

Capillaries are vessels
between arteries and veins

Gas exchange occurs in the capillaries

continued. . .
c. Veins carry blood toward the heart.
d. Capillaries are microscopic vessels between arteries and veins.
Gas exchange occurs in the capillaries.
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review 5. The cycle starts as oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
circulatory and respiratory systems?

Cycle starts as oxygen-rich blood from lungs enters
side of the heart and is pumped into the aorta, the body’s largest
left side of heart and is pumped into the aorta

Aorta branches into smaller arteries
that branch in to even smaller arteries, artery.
until reaching capillaries

Blood gives up oxygen, picks up
carbon dioxide, then flows into
the venous system
a. The aorta branches into smaller arteries that branch in to

Veins branch into larger veins until
a single vein returns oxygen-poor
blood to right side of heart
even smaller arteries throughout the body, until reaching the
continued. . .
capillaries.
b. Blood gives up oxygen, picks up carbon dioxide, then flows into
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review the venous system.
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
circulatory and respiratory systems?

Heart pumps blood to lungs
c. Veins branch into larger veins until a single vein returns oxygen-
where it releases carbon

dioxide into alveoli
Blood picks up oxygen
poor blood to the right side of the heart.
and returns to heart

d. The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs where

it releases carbon dioxide into alveoli, which are air sacs
continued. . .
surrounded by the pulmonary capillaries. The blood then picks
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review
What are the organs, structure and functions of the
up oxygen and returns to the left side of the heart to begin
circulatory and respiratory systems?
 Regarding the respiratory cycle – key point:

Reflex respiratory centers in brain monitor carbon dioxide
another cycle.
levels in body

When carbon dioxide level rises, brain signals diaphragm to
flex downward, resulting in an inhalation
Carbon dioxide level,
6. Regarding the respiratory cycle, one key point is knowing what
not oxygen level,
primarily triggers
breathing cycle
CO 2
actually triggers the breathing cycle and keeps the whole system
O2 functioning effectively.

Dive Theory
132
 a. The reflex respiratory centers in the brain monitor the carbon
dioxide levels in the body.
b. When the carbon dioxide level rises, the brain signals the
diaphragm – the large muscle below the lungs – to flex
downward, resulting in an inhalation.
c. So, it’s the carbon dioxide level, not the oxygen level, that
primarily triggers the breathing cycle.
B. What is dead air space, and how do you avoid problems caused by KR

Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

Dive Theory
Review

it? What is dead air space and how do you

avoid problems caused by it?

You breathe slowly and deeply
for a good air exchange
1. You breathe slowly and deeply while diving for a good air exchange.
Natural dead air space –
sinuses, trachea and bronchi

Scuba regulator and snorkel

2. As you recall, natural dead-air space consists of your sinuses, trachea add volume to dead air space

and bronchi where no direct gas exchange occurs. Your scuba

regulator and snorkel add additional volume to your dead-air space. continued. . .

3. Slow, deep breathing helps you compensate for the additional dead Dive Theory
Review
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

air space and avoid a build up of carbon dioxide through a good air What is dead air space and how do you
avoid problems caused by it?

Slow, deep breathing helps

exchange. compensate for additional

dead air space and avoid build
up of carbon dioxide

4. Shallow breathing raises carbon dioxide levels, which increases
Shallow breathing raises
carbon dioxide levels –
increases breathing rate and

the breathing rate, and can lead to a feeling of air starvation or can lead to overexertion

To avoid overexertion, always
breathe slowly and deeply,

overexertion. and stop to get your breath

back under control

5. To avoid overexertion, always breathe slowly and deeply, and stop

to get your breath back under control if you feel your breathing rate
increase.
C. How does the body respond when breath-hold diving, and how can Dive Theory
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review

you extend breath-hold time? How does the body respond when breath-hold diving,
and how you can extend breath-hold time?

As breath-hold diving grows in popularity, people

1. As breath-hold diving or free diving grows in popularity, people dive deeper and stay down longer on a single breath

During a breath-hold dive, circulatory system uses
oxygen stored in lungs, muscles and blood

continue to dive deeper and stay down longer on a single breath.
Underwater, pressure compresses
air in lungs, which allows blood
to use more of remaining oxygen

They do this through extensive training and by understanding how
As time goes by, carbon dioxide builds
in system, causing urge to breathe

As urge grows stronger, body consumes

the body responds during a dive. oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
continued. . .

2. During a breath-hold dive, the circulatory system uses oxygen stored

in the lungs, muscles and blood to supply tissues.
a. Underwater, the pressure compresses the air in the lungs, raising
the oxygen partial pressure, which allows the blood to use more
of the remaining oxygen than would be possible at surface
pressures.
b. As time goes by, carbon dioxide builds in the circulatory system
and causes the urge to breathe. The initial urge is weak, but the
urge grows stronger as the body consumes oxygen and produces KR Dive Theory

more carbon dioxide. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review

How does the body respond when breath-hold diving,
and how you can extend breath-hold time?
 Extend breath-hold time using voluntary
3. You can extend breath-hold time using a techniques called voluntary hyperventilation

Breathe deeply and rapidly for 3 or 4 breaths

hyperventilation. You do this by breathing deeply and rapidly for  Excessive hyperventilation depletes
carbon dioxide, delays urge to breathe
and may lead to shallow water blackout

three or four breaths. Doing this reduces circulatory carbon dioxide

Body consumes oxygen faster than
carbon dioxide accumulates to
stimulate breathing

At depth, there is no immediate problem

so it takes longer to accumulate enough to stimulate breathing.
As diver ascends and partial pressure of oxygen falls
abruptly – causes black out without warning

Presentation Notes
133
 4. However, excessive voluntary hyperventilation depletes carbon
dioxide to a point where it delays the urge to breathe and may lead
directly to a condition called shallow water blackout.
a. If a diver excessively hyperventilates, the diver’s body consumes
oxygen faster than carbon dioxide accumulates to stimulate
breathing.
b. At depth, there is no immediate problem because increased
pressure keeps the partial pressure of oxygen high enough to meet
the body’s needs.
c. When carbon dioxide levels finally rise enough to stimulate
breathing, the diver ascends and the partial pressure of oxygen
falls abruptly. This causes the diver to black out without warning
because the oxygen partial pressure is insufficient to meet the
body’s needs. This could lead to drowning and can also damage
tissue.

Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

Dive Theory
Review
D. Why should you avoid a wet suit hood or dry suit collar that
Why should you avoid a wet suit hood or dry suit
collar that excessively restricts the neck, and what are
the two physiological explanations for the concern?
excessively restricts the neck, and what are the two physiological
 If a wet suit hood or dry suit collar is too tight, it
constricts carotid arteries and jugular veins explanations for the concern?

Blocked jugular venous return and
carotid sinus reflex reduce fresh


blood flow to brain
Blocking jugular veins reduces flow
to brain, because oxygen-poor blood
1. If a wet suit hood or dry suit collar is too tight, it constricts the
can’t exit to make room for fresh blood

Raises blood pressure because the heart
tries to push against restriction
carotid arteries, which supply blood to the brain, and the jugular
continued. . . veins, which carry blood from the brain back to the heart.
2. The two possible concerns are called the carotid sinus reflex and
blocked jugular venous return. Both can reduce fresh blood flow to
the brain.
3. Blocking jugular return reduces flow to the brain, because the oxygen-
poor blood can’t exit fast enough to make room for fresh blood.
This raises blood pressure because the heart tries to push against the
restriction.
Dive Theory
4. Carotid sinus reflex results if pressure on the carotid arteries is
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review
Why should you avoid a wet suit hood or dry suit
collar that excessively restricts the neck, and what are
perceived by the body as elevated blood pressure. This causes the heart
the two physiological explanations for the concern?
 Carotid sinus reflex results if pressure on the
carotid arteries is perceived as elevated blood
to slow, but when the perceived high blood pressure doesn’t decline,
pressure

Causes heart to slow, but when pressure
doesn’t decline, the heart slows further
the heart slows further.
 Signs and symptoms include extreme
discomfort, headache, light-headedness,


a feeling of choking and fainting
Avoid by wearing properly fitting wet
5. Signs and symptoms of this constriction include extreme discomfort,
suit hoods and dry suit neck seals
headache, light-headedness, a feeling of choking and eventually
fainting.
6. Physiologists debate which of these two mechanisms is the primary
concern. Both can be avoided by wearing properly fitting wet suit
Dive Theory
hoods and dry suit neck seals.
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Review
What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide
while diving, and how do you avoid them?
 Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning happens most
E. What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide while diving,

often outside of diving
Breathing CO under pressure can be dangerous: and how do you avoid them?

Hemoglobin bonds with CO more than 200 times more readily
than with oxygen – does not unbond as easily




Result – blood carries less and less oxygen
If left unchecked, blood may become incapable of carrying
sufficient oxygen to tissues
1. Although carbon monoxide poisoning happens most often outside of
diving, breathing carbon monoxide under pressure while diving can
continued. . .
be dangerous – as discussed earlier in the topic, Gases Underwater.

Dive Theory
134
 a. The reason it’s dangerous is that hemoglobin bonds with carbon
monoxide more than 200 times more readily than with oxygen,
but does not unbond as easily.
b. This results in the blood carrying less and less oxygen. If left
unchecked, the blood may become incapable of carrying
sufficient oxygen to the tissues.
2. When blood bonds with carbon monoxide, it appears even redder Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review
What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide
than usual. A diver’s lips and nail beds may turn bright red after while diving, and how do you avoid them?
 When blood bonds with CO, it appears even
redder than usual
breathing air contaminated with carbon monoxide (though this may
Diver’s lips and nail beds
may turn bright red
 Other signs and symptoms

be difficult to see underwater). include headache, confusion

and narrow vision

Mild symptoms subside after
several hours of fresh air

a. Other signs and symptoms include headache, confusion and
In severe cases, give the diver pure oxygen and contact
emergency medical care

narrow vision. continued. . .

b. Mild symptoms subside after several hours of fresh air.

c. In severe cases, give the diver pure oxygen and contact
emergency medical care.
3. Although carbon monoxide rarely contaminates a diver’s air supply, Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review

it can originate from a compressor system problem. Excess carbon What are the physiological effects of carbon monoxide
while diving, and how do you avoid them?
 Carbon monoxide can originate from a compressor

monoxide can go unnoticed at first because carbon monoxide lacks system problem

Excess CO can go unnoticed at first
because it lacks both odor and taste

both odor and taste. Only fill your cylinder at a reputable fill station. 


Fill your cylinder at a reputable
fill station
Smoking before a dive raises
normal CO levels

4. Smoking before a dive raises normal carbon monoxide levels in
Avoid risk by not smoking

the blood three to 12 times. Avoid risking this cause of carbon

monoxide poisoning by simply not smoking before diving.
F. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity, and how do you avoid Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review

them? What are the two types of oxygen toxicity,

and how do you avoid them?
 Oxygen (O2) may become toxic when the partial
pressure exceeds 1.4 bar/ata

1. You learned earlier in the topic – Gases Underwater – that oxygen

Technical divers may use a higher limit of 1.6 bar/ata during
decompression only
Close circuit rebreather divers use a limit of 1.3 bar/ata.

may become toxic when the partial pressure exceeds 1.4 bar/ata.  You don’t reach this partial pressure when
breathing compressed air within the recreational
diving limits
It’s possible with enriched air nitrox

a. Note that technical divers may use a slightly higher limit of 1.6



It’s a concern for technical divers using high oxygen mixes
and pure oxygen for decompression

ata/bar during decompression only. Close circuit rebreather continued. . .

divers generally use a limit of 1.3 bar/ata.

2. You don’t reach this partial pressure when breathing compressed air
within the recreational diving limits. However, it is possible when
divers use enriched air nitrox, and it is a concern for technical divers
using high oxygen mixes and pure oxygen for decompression.
3. The two types of oxygen toxicity are central nervous system (CNS) KR

Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

Dive Theory
Review

toxicity and pulmonary toxicity. What are the two types of oxygen toxicity,
and how do you avoid them?
 Two types of oxygen toxicity – central nervous
system (CNS) and pulmonary
4. CNS can occur when the oxygen partial pressure is greater than the  CNS can occur when the oxygen partial pressure is
greater than limits for type of diving

threshold limits for the type of diving.  Signs and symptoms include visual disturbances,
ear ringing, nausea, twitching muscles, irritability,
dizziness and convulsion

a. Signs and symptoms include visual disturbances, ear ringing,  Most serious sign – convulsion



Underwater, the diver is highly likely to drown
Avoid CNS toxicity by being properly trained

nausea, twitching muscles, irritability, dizziness and convulsion. continued. . .

b. The most serious sign is a convulsion – usually without warning.

A convulsion is not usually fatal in itself, but if it happens
underwater, the diver is highly likely to drown.

Presentation Notes
135
 c. You avoid CNS toxicity by being properly trained to use enriched
air and not exceeding an oxygen partial pressure of 1.4 bar/ata.
5. Pulmonary toxicity is caused by continuous exposure to elevated
Dive Theory
Review
oxygen partial pressure – above approximately .5 bar/ata – making it
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
What are the two types of oxygen toxicity,
and how do you avoid them? unlikely in recreational diving.
 Pulmonary toxicity is caused by continuous
exposure to elevated oxygen partial pressure –
above .5 bar/ata – unlikely in recreational diving

Could occur following multiple
a. It could occur following multiple dives using enriched air or in
technical diving where long decompressions stops require using
dives using enriched air or
in technical diving
 Symptoms and signs include
burning in the chest and
irritated cough
 Prevent it by following established
pure oxygen.
oxygen exposure time limits

b. Symptoms and signs include burning in the chest and an irritated

cough.
c. You prevent it by following established oxygen exposure time
limits.
G. What is the primary first aid for a near drowning accident?
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review 1. Near drowning is defined as when an individual suffers asphyxiation
What is the primary first aid for a
near drowning accident?
 Near drowning – when an individual suffers
in water but is revived.
asphyxiation in water but is revived
 To revive a nonbreathing diver,
the primary first aid is immediate
rescue breathing
2. To revive a nonbreathing diver who had drowned – turning a
drowning into a near drowning – the primary first aid is immediate

CPR may be the next step
 Be prepared to turn diver to the side
if vomiting occurs – keep the airway clear
 Give breathing diver emergency oxygen, keep diver
lying down and treat for shock
 Contact local EMS
rescue breathing.
continued. . .

a. CPR may be the next step if the diver has no heartbeat.

b. Be prepared to turn the diver to the side if vomiting occurs when
breathing resumes, to keep the airway clear.
c. Give the breathing diver emergency oxygen, keep the diver lying
down and treat for shock.
d. Contact the local EMS.
3. A near drowning patient may quickly seem fully recovered. However,
KR Dive Theory
the patient should seek medical care, because in nearly all cases, water
Review
enters the patient’s lungs.
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
What is the primary first aid for a
near drowning accident?
 Near drowning patient may seem fully recovered
 Should seek medical care, because in nearly all
cases, water enters the lungs
a. Over a period of hours, the water causes physiological

Water causes physiological complications that interfere with
the lung’s ability to exchange gases
Can cause secondary drowning, which is fatal
complications that interfere with the lung’s ability to exchange
gases. This can cause secondary drowning, which is fatal.
H. How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured diver and to a
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Dive Theory
Review
nonbreathing injured diver?
How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured
diver and to a nonbreathing injured diver?
 Administering emergency oxygen may provide 1. From your rescue diver training, you know that administering
significant benefit to a diver
 For a breathing injured diver, provide highest
oxygen concentration possible by using a emergency oxygen is accepted practice for most diving injuries, such
nonresuscitator demand valve – steps:

Slowly open valve and test unit by inhaling from the mask – do
not exhale into the mask
Offer diver the mask – either place it on diver’s face or allow
as decompression illness and near drowning, because it may provide
significant benefit to the diver.
diver to hold the mask

Instruct diver to breath normally

Monitor oxygen pressure gauge

continued. . .

2. For a breathing injured diver, you want to provide the highest oxygen
concentration possible by using the nonresuscitator demand valve on
the oxygen unit. Follow these steps:
a. With the oxygen kit set up, slowly open the valve and test the
unit by inhaling from the mask. Do not exhale into the mask (for
sanitation reasons).

Dive Theory
136
 b. Offer the diver the oxygen mask – either place it on the diver’s
face or allow the diver to hold the mask in place.
c. Instruct the diver to breath normally.
d. Monitor the oxygen pressure gauge so that it doesn’t run empty
with the mask still on the diver.
3. If the diver is not breathing, you can still provide oxygen while Dive Theory
Review
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
giving rescue breaths by using a pocket mask with an oxygen inlet How do you administer oxygen to a breathing injured
diver and to a nonbreathing injured diver?
 If diver is not breathing, provide oxygen while

valve. Follow these steps: giving rescue breaths by using a pocket mask –
steps:

Attach oxygen tube from continuous flow outlet to pocket

a. Have someone attach the oxygen tube from the continuous flow



mask
Slowly open valve and set flow rate at 15 litres/min
Give rescue breaths through the pocket mask

outlet to the pocket mask while you continue rescue breaths. Emergency Oxygen Provider course
has option for learning how to use a
manually triggered resuscitator

b. Slowly open the valve and set the flow rate at 15 litres per
minute.
c. Give rescue breaths through the pocket mask as usual.
4. In the Emergency Oxygen Provider course there is an option for
learning how to use a manually triggered resuscitator.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from heart and ________ carry
oxygen-poor blood toward heart.
A. veins
Q: The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs where it releases
__________ into alveoli and then picks up oxygen.
A. carbon dioxide.
Q: You can compensate for the increased _________ space resulting from
breathing through the snorkel or regulator by breathing ________ and
_______.
A: dead-air, slowly, deeply
Q: The reflex respiratory centers in the brain trigger the breathing cycle
based on the body’s __________ level, not the _______ level.
A: carbon dioxide, oxygen
Q: To extend a breath-hold dive, the diver should take no more
than____________ rapid, deep breaths before submerging.
A: three or four
Q: A wet suit hood or dry suit collar that is too tight can reduce fresh
_______ flow to the brain and raises blood ______.
A: blood, pressure
Q: Carbon monoxide bonds with blood more than _____________ times
more readily than oxygen and may turn a diver’s lips and nail beds bright
_________.

Presentation Notes
137
 A: 200, red
Q: The most serious sign of Central Nervous System (CNS) toxicity is
__________ .
A: convulsion
Q: The primary first aid for near drowning is _________.
A: rescue breathing

Dive Theory
Q: For a breathing diver, you’d likely administer oxygen using a
Review
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
Study Objectives
1. What causes gas narcosis, at approximately what
_______________, and for a nonbreathing diver you’d use
depth is it likely using air/enriched air, and what are
common signs/symptoms of it?
2. What are the physiological mechanisms by which
_______________ .
A: nonresuscitator demand valve, continuous flow with a pocket mask
the body absorbs and releases nitrogen (or other
inert gases) while diving?
3. What causes decompression sickness (DCS), and
what are the two types?
4. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
5. What are the recommendations for DCS first aid and

VII. Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas

treatment?
6. What is the difference between DCI and DCS?

Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas

Dive Theory
Review A. What causes gas narcosis, at approximately what depth is it likely
What causes gas narcosis, at approximately
what depth is it likely using air/enriched air,
and what are common signs/symptoms of it?
using air/enriched air, and what are common signs/symptoms of it?

You learned about nitrogen narcosis – more

correctly gas narcosis – early in your training
Different gases cause a narcotic effect when 1. You learned about nitrogen narcosis, or more correctly, gas narcosis,
breathed under sufficient pressure – nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.

Exact mechanism (form of
early in your diver training.
anesthesia) isn’t fully
understood – appears related
to nerve impulse blockage a. Different gases can cause a narcotic effect when breathed under
continued. . .
sufficient pressure. This includes nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide among others.
b. The exact mechanism causing gas narcosis – which is a form of
anesthesia – isn’t full understood, but it appears related to nerve
impulse blockage due to gas dissolved in nerve cells.
KR Dive Theory
Review
2. Most divers begin to feel the effects of gas narcosis at about 30
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
What causes gas narcosis, at approximately
what depth is it likely using air/enriched air,
metres/100 feet, though this varies not only from person to person,
and what are common signs/symptoms of it?
 Using air or EANx, feel effects at about 30 m/100 ft

Varies from person to person and day to day
but within one individual from day to day. As you know, ascending
Ascending to shallower depth relieves systems

to a shallower depth quickly relieves the symptoms.

 Subtle symptoms include slowed thinking, mild
sense of euphoria or well being
 Deeper – thinking slows
and motor skills deteriorate
 Judgment becomes impaired
with ability to observe
3. Subtle symptoms include slowed thinking, and some divers get a

Delays ability to recognize
and solve problems
mild sense of euphoria or well being.
a. At deeper depths, thinking slows further and motor skills begin
to deteriorate.
b. The diver’s judgment may become impaired, along with the
ability to accurately observe what’s occurring, which may delay a
diver’s ability to recognize and solve problems.
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
Dive Theory
Review B. What are the physiological mechanisms by which the body absorbs
What are the physiological mechanisms
by which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen
(or other inert gases) while diving?
and releases nitrogen (or other inert gases) while diving?
 Gases dissolve into liquids

1. In the topic – Gases Underwater – you may recall that gases dissolve
proportionally to pressure
 Human body is primarily water
– when exposed to pressure,
gases dissolve into body tissues

Oxygen used by body, but nitrogen
(and any other inert gas) is not
into liquids proportionately to the pressure. Because the human
Nitrogen is primary concern for recreational divers

body is primarily water, when it is exposed to pressure, gasses

 Nitrogen pressure in lungs is greater than in blood

nitrogen dissolves into blood, then into tissues
continued. . .
dissolve into body tissues.
2. Oxygen is used by the body, but nitrogen (and any other inert gas) is
not. Nitrogen is the gas that primarily concerns recreational divers.

Dive Theory
138
 3. At depth, nitrogen pressure in the lungs is greater than in the blood,
so nitrogen dissolves into blood, then from the blood into the
tissues.
4. The amount of nitrogen absorbed relates directly to the depth and Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
KR Dive Theory
Review
What are the physiological mechanisms

duration of the dive. by which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen
(or other inert gases) while diving?
 Amount absorbed related directly
to depth and duration of dive
5. Dissolved gas still exerts pressure within the body tissues.
Stay long enough, all tissues would
saturate with nitrogen
 Dissolved gas still exert pressure

a. The body does not absorb and release nitrogen on a single time within tissues

Body does not absorb and release
nitrogen on single time scale
Some tissues absorb gases more

scale. Some tissues are thought to absorb gases more slowly than


slowly than others

Some dissolve more gas than others

continued. . .

others; some are thought to be able to dissolve more gas than

others.
Dive Theory

b. Calculating different absorption and release of inert gases from Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
What are the physiological mechanisms
Review

by which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen

theoretical tissues is the foundation of decompression theory (or other inert gases) while diving?

Calculating different absorption and release rates
from theoretical tissues is foundation of
models and dive tables. decompression theory models and dive tables

6. On ascent from a dive, nitrogen pressure in tissues is higher than the

surrounding pressure. Nitrogen pressure in blood exceeds pressure
continued. . .

in the lungs, so the nitrogen dissolves from the blood into the Dive Theory
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas Review
lungs and is exhaled. This lowers blood tissue pressure, so nitrogen What are the physiological mechanisms
by which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen

dissolves from body tissues into blood.

(or other inert gases) while diving?
 On ascent, nitrogen pressure in tissues
is higher than surrounding pressure

Pressure in blood exceeds

7. If the difference between surrounding pressure and tissue pressure is

pressure in lungs – nitrogen
dissolves from blood into alveoli
in the lungs and is exhaled
Lower blood tissue pressure

within limits, the nitrogen dissolves harmlessly into the blood and 
– nitrogen dissolves from tissues into blood
If difference is within limits, nitrogen dissolves
harmlessly into blood and then slowly out

then slowly out of the body through exhalations. through exhalations

continued. . .

8. If the body has absorbed so much excess nitrogen that it can’t Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
Dive Theory
Review

eliminate it as fast as it comes out of solution, the excess nitrogen What are the physiological mechanisms
by which the body absorbs and releases nitrogen
(or other inert gases) while diving?

forms bubbles in the blood vessels and tissues, resulting in  If body has excess nitrogen that it can’t eliminate as
fast as it comes out of solution – bubbles form in
the blood and tissues

decompression sickness. Result – decompression sickness

 On many dives, some degree of bubbling does
occur without causing decompression sickness

a. Note that on many dives, physiologists think some degree of
Asymptomatic bubbles called silent bubbles

More on the Haldanean model and decompression theory later

bubbling does occur in the body without causing decompression

sickness.
b. These asymptomatic bubbles are called silent bubbles.
9. We’ll look at the Haldanean model and decompression theory in
more detail later in this presentation.
C. What causes decompression sickness (DCS), and what are the two Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
Dive Theory
Review

types? What causes decompression sickness (DCS),

and what are the two types?
 DCS occurs when bubbles form in
tissues with limited blood flow or on
1. Decompression sickness occurs when bubbles form in tissues with arterial side of circulatory system

In many types, the exact injury mechanism
is still a mystery

limited blood flow or on the arterial side of the circulatory system.  DCS


tends to be delayed
In about half the cases, it appears within
an hour.

In many types of DCS, the exact injury mechanism is still a mystery,

Some take up to 36 hours
Often worsens during first few hours

because the interaction between bubbles and tissues is complex. continued. . .

2. DCS tends to be delayed after a dive, though in about half the

cases it appears within an hour. Some take up to 36 hours. It often
worsens during the first few hours after onset.

Presentation Notes
139
 KR

Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas

Dive Theory
Review 3. DCS cases are generally categorized into two types:
What causes decompression sickness (DCS),
and what are the two types?
Two types:
a. Type I is pain-only that presents signs and symptoms that are
 Type I – pain-only

Not immediately life-threatening or likely
to cause long-term disability
“Skin bends” – a rash
not immediately life-threatening or likely to cause immediate
 Type II – affects nervous system

May be immediately life-threatening or
debilitating
long-term disabilities.

Signs and symptoms – tingling,
numbness, paralysis, stroke-like
symptoms, unconsciousness and cardiac
or respiratory arrest
• “Skin bends” – cutaneous decompression sickness that forms
continued. . .
a rash – is also considered Type I if it occurs by itself.
b. Type II has symptoms that affect the nervous system and may be
immediately life-threatening or debilitating.
• Signs and symptoms include tingling, numbness, paralysis,
stroke-like signs/symptoms, unconsciousness and cardiac or
respiratory arrest.
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
Dive Theory
Review • Pulmonary DCS is a rare form that occurs when bubbles
What causes decompression sickness (DCS),
and what are the two types?
 Pulmonary DCS is a rare firm – occurs when
accumulate rapidly in the pulmonary capillaries, interfering
bubbles accumulate rapidly in the pulmonary
capillaries, interfering with blood flow and gas
exchange
with blood flow and gas exchange.
Cerebral DCS – occurs when bubbles travel to the
• Cerebral DCS occurs when bubbles travel to the brain

brain and cause arterial gas embolism.

Signs and symptoms include blurred vision, confusion,
headache, unconsciousness and death

via the carotid arteries and cause arterial gas embolism.

Symptoms and signs include blurred vision, confusion,
headache, unconsciousness and death.

Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas

Dive Theory
Review
D. What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?

Because everyone has a different physiology, the
predisposition to DCS varies from person to person 1. Because everyone has a slightly different physiology, the
predisposition to DCS varies from person to person. However, the
Factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:

Fat tissue – Nitrogen is more soluble in fat

Age – Circulatory systems become less efficient;
increased percentage of fat and reduced fitness
level, could decrease nitrogen elimination following are a few factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:

Dehydration – Reduced quantity of blood in
circulation slows nitrogen elimination
a. Fat tissue – Nitrogen is more soluble in fat than in water. A diver
continued. . .
with a disproportionate amount of body fat may have more
nitrogen in solution after a dive.
b. Age – As we age, our circulatory systems become less efficient.
This, along with increased percentage of fat and a reduced
fitness level, could decrease the speed of nitrogen elimination.
c. Dehydration – Dehydration reduces the quantity of blood in
circulation, which slows nitrogen elimination.
Dive Theory
Review
d. Injuries or illness – Injured areas could alter or restrict
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
Factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:
circulation leading to localized areas where nitrogen isn’t
 Injuries or illness –

Injured areas alter or restrict circulation leading to areas
where nitrogen isn’t eliminated quickly
eliminated quickly. Any illness that affects the efficiency of the
circulatory system predisposes the diver.

Illness that affects the efficiency of the circulatory system
predisposes the diver
 Alcohol – Drinking alcohol before or after diving
accelerates circulation, dilates capillaries and


promotes dehydration – alters nitrogen elimination
Excess carbon dioxide – Increased levels can alter
e. Alcohol – Drinking alcohol before or after diving accelerates
circulation and gas exchange

continued. . .
circulation, dilates capillaries and promotes dehydration, all of
which can alter nitrogen elimination and bubble formation.
KR Dive Theory
f. Excess carbon dioxide – Increased carbon dioxide levels can alter
Review
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
What factors may predispose a diver to DCS? circulation and gas exchange.
Factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:
 Cold water – A diver starts a dive warm with normal
circulation, but cools and circulation to the g. Cold water – If a diver starts a dive warm with normal
extremities is reduced – slowing nitrogen
elimination
 Heavy exercise –
circulation, but cools during the dive, circulation to the
Working hard during a dive accelerates circulation – more

extremities is reduced, thus slowing nitrogen elimination from

nitrogen than normal dissolves into the body

After or immediately before a dive, heavy exercise accelerates
circulation, altering nitrogen elimination, and stimulating the

those areas.
production of microbubbles

continued. . .

Dive Theory
140
 h. Heavy exercise – Working hard during a dive accelerates
circulation so more nitrogen than normal dissolves into the
body. Immediately after a dive, heavy exercise accelerates
circulation, altering nitrogen elimination, and stimulating the
production of microbubbles that can grow into larger DCS
causing bubbles.
i. Altitude or flying after diving – Dive tables and computers are Dive Theory
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas Review

based on surfacing at sea level, thus exposure to lower pressure What factors may predispose a diver to DCS?
Factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:

increases the tissue pressure gradient and may increase bubble
Altitude or flying after diving – Dive tables and
computers are based on surfacing at sea level –
exposure to lower pressure increases tissue

formation. pressure gradient and may increase bubble

formation

History of DCS – Studies of divers suggest that

j. History of DCS – Studies of divers as well as other people someone who has had DCS will be more
predisposed to it in the future

working under pressure suggest that someone who has had DCS
will be more predisposed to it in the future.
E. What are the recommendations for DCS first aid and treatment? Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas
What are the recommendations for
1. If you suspect a diver has DCS, start by providing oxygen – DCS first aid and treatment?

Provide oxygen – preferably 100 percent

preferably 100 percent.
Keep a breathing patient lying level

Lie a nonbreathing patient on the back for rescue
breathing and CPR
Advise patient not to sit up, even during
2. Keep a breathing patient lying level.


transport or if feeling better

Monitor airway, breathing
and circulation, and contact

a. Lay a nonbreathing patient on the back for rescue breathing and emergency medical services

CPR.
b. Advise patient not to sit up, even during transport or if feeling
better.
3. Monitor airway, breathing and circulation, and contact emergency
medical services.
F. What is the difference between DCI and DCS? Dive Theory
Responses to Nitrogen and Inert Gas Review

1. Decompression illness (DCI) is an overall term for DCS and lung What is the difference between DCI and DCS?
 Decompression illness (DCI) is an overall term for
DCS and lung overexpansion injuries
overexpansion injuries used in describing first aid and treatment,
Describes first aid and treatment – identical for both
conditions
In the field, don’t try to diagnose conditions –
which is identical for both conditions.

immediately offer first aid and get diver to
professional medical care
 If discussing conditions caused by dissolved

a. In the field, divers are discouraged from trying to diagnose the 

nitrogen coming out of solution, use DCS
If talking about any dive injury that will likely require
hyperbaric treatment, use DCI

two different conditions, but are encouraged to immediately

offer first aid to an injured diver and get the diver to professional
medical care.
2. If discussing the conditions caused by dissolved nitrogen coming out
of solution, use the term DCS.
3. If talking about any dive injury that will likely require hyperbaric
treatment, use DCI.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The signs and symptoms of gas narcosis usually begin to occur at around
_______metres/ _______ feet.
A. 30, 100

Presentation Notes
141
 Q: Nitrogen dissolved in the body after a dive comes out harmlessly and
slowly if the difference between __________ pressure and _________
pressure is within limits.
A: surrounding, tissue
Q. Type I DCS is characterized by ______, which is not immediately life-
threatening, and Type II DCS has symptoms that affect the _______
system and may be immediately life-threatening or debilitating.
A: pain only, nervous
Q: List factors that may predispose a diver to DCS:
A: Fat tissue, age, dehydration, injury, illness, alcohol, excess carbon
dioxide, cold water, heavy exercise, altitude or flying after diving, and
history of DCS.
Q: What is the first step you should take in providing aid to a diver
suspected of having DCS?
A: Provide 100% oxygen

Responses to Thermal Changes

Dive Theory
Review
Q: Decompression illness (DCI) is an overall term for _________ and
Study Objectives
1. How does the body respond to excess heat? _____________.
2. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?

A. DCS, lung overexpansion injuries

VIII. Responses to Thermal Changes

Dive Theory
A. How does the body respond to excess heat?
Responses to Thermal Changes Review
How does the body respond to excess heat?
 Overheating (hyperthermia) is a potential problem
for divers when fully suited on a hot day
1. Overheating (hyperthermia) is a potential problem for divers when
 Body responds to excess heat progressively by first
dilating the skin capillaries to promote cooling

If this doesn’t help, perspiration
fully suited in wet suits or dry suits on a hot day, and there is a delay


starts to cool skin through
evaporation
Next step is to accelerate the
in getting in to the water.
pulse to circulate blood faster
for cooling
 These processes continue until
the body cools 2. The body responds to excess heat progressively by first dilating the
continued. . .
skin capillaries to promote cooling.
a. If this doesn’t help, perspiration starts in an attempt to cool the
skin through evaporation.
b. The next step the body takes is to accelerate the pulse to
circulate blood faster for cooling.
3. These processes continue until the body cools. For example, the hot
diver gets in to the water.
Dive Theory
4. If cooling doesn’t occur, the process continues until the body reaches
Responses to Thermal Changes Review
How does the body respond to excess heat?
 If cooling doesn’t occur, process continues until the
its physical limit, which may mean heat exhaustion or heat stroke.
body reaches its physical limit – heat exhaustion or


heat stroke
Heat exhaustion occurs when the body works at full
capacity to cool
5. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body works at full capacity to

Signs and symptoms are a weak
and rapid pulse, profuse
perspiration, cool and clammy
cool.
skin, nausea and weakness

Person needs to cool off
– remove heavy exposure suit
or cool in the water a. Signs and symptoms are a weak and rapid pulse, profuse
continued. . .
perspiration, cool and clammy skin, nausea and weakness.
b. Someone with heat exhaustion needs to cool off, which may
means removing a heavy exposure suit or cooling in the water.

Dive Theory
142
 6. Heat stroke results if the body reaches its limits and fails to cool. Responses to Thermal Changes
KR Dive Theory
Review
How does the body respond to excess heat?

a. Perspiration ceases and the person’s skin is hot and flushed. The  Heat stroke results if the body reaches its
limits and fails to cool
Perspiration ceases, person’s skin is hot and flushed, and

pulse is strong but rapid.

pulse is strong but rapid

Emergency medical condition that can cause serious damage
to the brain and body systems

b. This is an emergency medical condition that can cause serious

damage to the brain and body systems.
B. How does the body respond to insufficient heat? Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Thermal Changes
How does the body respond to insufficient heat?
1. In the topic – Heat, Light, Sound and Water – you learned that  Water conducts heat 20 times faster than air, which
is why we chill faster in even relatively warm water

water conducts heat 20 times faster than air, which is why we chill  As the body loses heat, it responds progressively:

Reducing blood flow to the extremities
– fingers and toes go numb
Shivering to generate heat

faster in even relatively warm water.

through muscle activity
– signals you are losing
the battle against cold

2. As the body loses heat, it responds progressively, first reducing blood

flow to the extremities. For example, your fingers and toes may start continued. . .

to go numb.
3. The next step is shivering to generate heat through muscle activity.
In the water, shivering signals that you are losing the battle against
the cold.
4. Uncontrollable shivering precedes the core body temperature KR Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Thermal Changes

dropping, which is hypothermia. How does the body respond to insufficient heat?
 Uncontrollable shivering precedes the core body
temperature dropping – hypothermia

a. Mental processes slow and the diver becomes drowsy,  As protective responses fail, shivering stops
and diver feels warm, but core temperature
continues to drop
uncoordinated and forgetful.

Mental processes slow and the diver becomes drowsy,
uncoordinated and forgetful
Advanced hypothermia is a medical emergency requiring
emergency care

b. Advanced hypothermia is a medical emergency requiring

emergency care.
[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The body responds to excess heat by first dilating the ________ , then
beginning ___________, and finally accelerating the _________ to
circulate blood faster for cooling.
A. skin capillaries, perspiration, pulse
Q: The body responds to cold by reducing blood flow to the _________,
Dive Theory
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces Review
Study Objectives

and then by ___________ to generate heat through muscle activity.

1. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing pressure?
2. What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear and sinus
squeezes or reverse blocks?
3. What are the causes and physiologies of mask and dry suit

A. extremities, shivering
squeezes?
4. How do your lungs respond to changing pressure?
5. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema
and subcutaneous emphysema?
6. What are the recommendations for lung overexpansion injury

IX. Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

first aid and treatment?

A. How do the ears and sinuses respond to changing pressure? Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

1. One of the first things you experience when going underwater is

How do the ears and sinuses respond
to changing pressure?

One of the first things you
experience is pressure in
pressure in your ears, and as a new diver, you quickly learned to your ears – you quickly learn
to equalize pressure

Your sinuses usually equalize

equalize that pressure. with normal breathing

– unless congested

Knowing the structure and
function of ears and sinuses
2. You may not have ever felt any pressure in your sinuses while diving, will help you understand how
they respond to changing pressure

because they usually equalize with normal breathing – that is unless continued. . .

they are congested, which is why you know not to dive with a cold.
3. Knowing more about the structure and function of the ears and
sinuses, will help you better understand how they respond to
changing pressure.

Presentation Notes
143
 Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review 4. The ear is divided into three areas – the outer, middle, and inner ear.
How do the ears and sinuses respond
to changing pressure?
 Ear – three areas
a. The outer ear consists of the external ear and the ear canal,
Outer

which channels sound to the eardrum.

Middle

Inner
 Outer ear – external
ear and ear canal,
which channels b. The middle ear is an air space that is connected to the throat
sound to eardrum

by the eustachian tube. The middle ear is separated from outer

continued. . .
ear by the eardrum. Sound waves hit the eardrum and are
Dive Theory
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
How do the ears and sinuses respond
Review
transmitted through small bones, called ossicles, to the inner ear.
to changing pressure?
 Middle ear – air space
connected to throat
by eustachian tube
c. The inner ear turns vibrations from the ossicles into nerve

Separated from
outer ear by
eardrum
Sound waves hit
impulses that are sent to the brain – allowing you to hear.
eardrum and are

5. During descent, water fills the outer ear, putting pressure on the
transmitted through
small bones, called
ossicles, to inner ear
 Inner ear turns vibrations from ossicles into nerve
impulses – allowing you to hear
continued. . .
eardrum.
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review a. Equalization occurs by adding air through the eustachian tubes
How do the ears and sinuses respond
to changing pressure?
 During descent, water fills outer
to each middle ear.
ear, putting pressure on eardrum
 Equalization occurs by adding
air through eustachian tubes b. As you know, failure to add air or a blockage that prevents air
 Failure to add air or a blockage
causes a squeeze
 During ascent, expanding air normally exits easily
from getting to the middle ear causes a squeeze.

If a blockage prevents air from exiting,
a reverse block occurs

continued. . .
6. During ascent, expanding air normally exits easily without the diver
even being aware of it. However, if a blockage prevents air from
exiting, a reverse block occurs, which we’ll discuss in a few minutes.

Dive Theory
7. The sinuses are divided into four chambers that are connected to the
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
How do the ears and sinuses respond
Review
nose.
to changing pressure?

Sinuses are divided into four chambers
– connected to the nose a. As mentioned, healthy sinuses have free air flow and normally

Healthy sinuses have free air flow

and normally equalize naturally
Congested sinuses may
equalize naturally on descent and ascent.
experience a sinus squeeze
on descent

If congestion occurs during b. Congested sinuses, however, may experience a sinus squeeze on
dive, then a reverse block
could result on ascent
descent.
c. If congestion occurs during the dive, then a reverse block could
result on ascent.
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review B. What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear and sinus
What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?
 If a squeeze or reverse block
squeezes or reverse blocks?
is not corrected quickly,
a pressure-related injury,
– barotrauma – could occur 1. If a squeeze or reverse block is not corrected quickly, a pressure-
 Middle ear squeeze results in blood
and fluid filling the middle ear until
equilibrium is restored

Ears feel full and hearing is reduced
related injury, called a barotrauma, could occur.

Injury needs proper treatment to heal

Failure to receive medical care can mean permanent hearing
impairment 2. A middle ear squeeze that is not equalized results in blood and fluid
continued. . .

filling the middle ear until equilibrium is restored.

a. The ears feel full and hearing is reduced.
b. This injury needs proper treatment to heal. Failure to receive
medical care can mean permanent hearing impairment.
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review
3. Eardrum rupture occurs when a diver descends rapidly without
What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?

Eardrum rupture occurs when
equalizing, and the eardrum flexes inward until it ruptures.
a diver descends rapidly without
equalizing – eardrum flexes
inward until it ruptures
a. Water enters the air space through the ruptured eardrum to

Water enters the air space
to equalize the pressure
Injury requires medical attention to prevent
equalize the pressure.
infection and permanent damage
b. This injury requires medical attention to prevent infection and
continued. . .
permanent damage due to water contaminating the middle ear.

Dive Theory
144
4. Another ear barotrauma that can occur to the inner ear is round KR

Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

Dive Theory
Review
What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
window rupture. and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?

Another ear barotrauma is round
window rupture

a. If a diver delays equalization, the round window bulges outward
If a diver delays equalization, the
round window bulges outward
in response to unequal pressure

into the middle ear in response to the unequal pressure. If at
If at the same time, the diver attempts
a long, forcefully blowing against a pinched nose,
the increase in internal pressure can rupture the

the same time, the diver attempts to equalize by using a long, round window

Serious injury needs medical treatment and can
lead to permanent hearing reduction or deafness

forcefully blowing against a pinched nose, the combined increase continued. . .

in internal pressure can rupture the round window.

b. This serious injury needs medical treatment and can lead to
permanent hearing reduction or deafness in the affected ear.
5. Vertigo, which is characterized by dizziness or a loss of sense of Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review
What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
direction, often results from ear barotrauma. and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?
 Vertigo – characterized by
dizziness or a loss of sense

a. For example, when an eardrum ruptures underwater, the rush of of direction – often results
from ear barotrauma

For example, when an eardrum

cool water hitting the inner ear will impair the diver’s balance, ruptures, the rush of cool water
hitting inner ear will impair
a diver’s balance
Round window rupture or a bad

resulting in vertigo.


squeeze can also cause vertigo

b. Round window rupture or a bad squeeze can also cause vertigo. continued. . .

6. You already know that ear plugs aren’t appropriate for scuba diving Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

because they create an air space that you can’t equalize. Be aware that What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?

tight fitting hoods or anything that can obstruct the outer ear could  Ear plugs aren’t appropriate for scuba diving

Tight fitting hoods or anything that can obstruct the outer ear
could also be a problem

also be a problem.  Obstruction creates an airspace

that can’t be equalized

During descent, eardrum flexes
toward the unequalized space,

a. When the outer ear is blocked, the obstruction creates an 

and can rupture outward

Some special ear protectors and vented ear plugs

made for scuba diving allow for equalization
airspace between the block and the eardrum that can’t be continued. . .

equalized.
b. During descent, the eardrum flexes toward the unequalized
space, and if the descent continues, the eardrum can rupture
outward.
c. There are some special ear protectors and vented ear plugs made
specifically for scuba diving that allow for pressure equalization.
7. During descent, congestion in the sinuses could result in a squeeze, Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

which is characterized by pressure or pain between the eyes, over the What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?
 During descent, congestion in sinuses

teeth or in the cheekbones. could result in a squeeze

Pressure or pain between the eyes,
over the teeth or in the cheekbones

a. Just like a middle ear squeeze, blood and fluid from surrounding 

Blood and fluid fill the sinus
to restore pressure balance
During ascent, accumulated fluids

tissues fill the sinus to restore the pressure balance. 

and blood often flow into the diver’s mask
Sinus squeeze usually heals on its own, unless
accompanied by extended pain or fever, suggesting
a sinus infection
b. During ascent, the accumulated fluids and blood often flow into continued. . .

the diver’s mask – an unpleasant sight.

c. A sinus squeeze usually heals on its own, unless accompanied by
extended pain or fever, suggesting a sinus infection.
8. A reverse block can occur in either the ears or sinuses if congestion
occurs during the dive and prevents expanding air from escaping Dive Theory
Review
during ascent. Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
What injuries or incidents may occur as a result of ear
and sinus squeezes or reverse blocks?

a. For the ears, this causes the eardrum to flex outward. If a very  Reverse block – occurs in ears
or sinuses if congestion prevents
expanding air from escaping
during ascent
slow ascent does not give the air a chance to work its way out,  For the ears – eardrum flexes outward

If air not given a chance to work its way out, eardrum could
rupture outward

the eardrum could rupture outward.  For the sinuses – slow ascent usually
gives air a chance to work its way out

Fluid and blood may flow from
diver’s nose, and extended pain
or fever suggest a sinus infection

Presentation Notes
145
 b. For the sinuses, a very slow ascent usually gives the air a chance
to work its way out. Similar to a sinus squeeze, fluid and blood
may flow from the diver’s nose, and extended pain or fever
suggest a sinus infection.

Dive Theory
C. What are the causes and physiologies of mask and dry suit squeezes?
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Review
What are the causes and physiologies of
mask and dry suit squeezes? 1. As an experienced diver, you probably equalize the air space in
 You probably equalize the air space in your mask


without even thinking about it
Mask squeeze occurs most commonly on very rapid
your mask without even thinking about it. Newer divers, however,
descents when a diver neglects to equalize the
mask

Results in swollen face tissues
sometimes need to be reminded to exhale through their noses into
and capillary rupture in

skin and eyes
Looks dramatic, but generally
clears without complications
their masks.
continued. . . 2. Mask squeeze occurs most commonly on very rapid descents when a
diver neglects to equalize the mask.
a. Failure to do so results in swollen face tissues and capillary
rupture in the skin and eyes.
b. The effect of mask squeeze looks dramatic, but generally clears
without complications.
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review
3. Dry suit squeeze occurs when a diver fails to add air to the dry suit
What are the causes and physiologies of
mask and dry suit squeezes? when descending.
 Dry suit squeeze occurs when a diver fails to add air
to the dry suit when descending

Most common cause is a rapid descent with dry suit inflator
accidentally left disconnected
a. The most common cause is a rapid descent with the dry suit
inflator accidentally left disconnected.

Causes pinching – raise welts and cause skin injury

Bad squeeze can
constrict breathing

Easily prevented using

b. The squeeze causes pinching and can raise welts and cause skin
proper technique

injury. A bad squeeze can also constrict breathing.

c. Like a mask squeeze, dry suit squeeze is easily prevented using
proper technique to equalize the dry suit during descents.
Dive Theory
D. How do the lungs respond to changing pressure?
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces Review

How do your lungs respond to changing pressure?
Breathe continuously 1. You know that the most important rule in scuba diving is to breathe
continuously, because this allows you to automatically equalize your
lungs on descent and ascent. Closing the airway off during ascent
can lead to a lung overexpansion injury – which we’ll discuss next.
2. When you skin dive, holding your breath, the pressure compressing
your lungs has no effect when diving to normal depths, because the
drop in lung volume during descent and is restored during ascent –
provided you started with a full breath.

Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

KR Dive Theory
Review
E. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?
 Most serious lung overexpansion injury is air
embolism – also called arterial gas embolism (AGE)
 When alveoli and pulmonary capillaries rupture, air
bubbles enter bloodstream and flow into arteries




Bubbles can lodge anywhere, stopping blood flow
When they flow through carotid arteries to the brain – results
in cerebral air embolism
1. From your rescue diver training, you recall that the most serious
 Signs and symptoms – dizziness, confusion,
shock, paralysis, personality change,
unconsciousness and death
lung overexpansion injury is air embolism – also called arterial gas
continued. . . embolism (AGE).
a. This occurs when alveoli and pulmonary capillaries rupture,
allowing air bubbles to enter the bloodstream and flow into the
arteries.

Dive Theory
146
 b. These bubbles can lodge anywhere, stopping blood flow to
tissues.
c. When they flow through the carotid arteries to the brain, it
results in a cerebral air embolism.
d. Signs and symptoms are similar to stroke and include dizziness,
confusion, shock, paralysis, personality change, unconsciousness
and death.
2. Pneumothorax is a serious injury that occurs when air from the Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces
Dive Theory
Review
What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion

rupture collects between the lung and chest wall, causing the lung to
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?

Pneumothorax is a serious injury
that occurs when air collects
collapse. Symptoms include chest pain and coughing up blood. between the lung and chest wall,
causing the lung to collapse

Symptoms include chest pain

3. Mediastinal emphysema occurs when air from a lung rupture

and coughing up blood

accumulates in the center of the chest over the heart.

continued. . .

a. Air can press on the heart and vessels, and interfere with KR Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

circulation. What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and
subcutaneous emphysema?
Mediastinal emphysema occurs
b. Signs and symptoms include feeling faint and having shortness

when air from a lung rupture
accumulates in center of
chest over the heart

of breath.
Air can press on heart and

vessels, and interfere
with circulation
 Signs and symptoms include

4. Subcutaneous emphysema occurs when air from the rupture feeling faint and having
shortness of breath

accumulates in soft tissues at the base of the neck. continued. . .

Dive Theory

a. This injury often happens in conjunction with a mediastinal Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces Review
What are the causes and physiologies of the lung overexpansion
injuries: air embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal emphysema and

emphysema. 
subcutaneous emphysema?
Subcutaneous emphysema occurs
when air from rupture accumulates
in soft tissues at base of neck
b. Signs and symptoms include fullness in the neck, voice change 

Often happens in conjunction
with mediastinal emphysema
Signs and symptoms include

and skin that crackles when touched. fullness in the neck, voice
change and skin that crackles
when touched
 Two or more, or all 4, injuries

5. Keep in mind that two or more, or all four, injuries could happen could happen simultaneously

simultaneously.
F. What are the recommendations for lung overexpansion injury first Dive Theory
Review
Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

aid and treatment? What are the recommendations for lung overexpansion
injury first aid and treatment?
Treatment same as for decompression sickness:

1. As discussed earlier, the treatment for lung overexpansion injuries is

Give oxygen – preferably 100 percent.
Keep a breathing patient lying level
Advise the patient not to sit up

the same as for decompression sickness – they are both considered

Lie a nonbreathing patient on
the back for CPR

Monitor airway, breathing and
circulation, and contact emergency medical services

decompression illness.  If diver has an air embolism, prompt recompression

is critical to diminish bubbles

a. Give oxygen – preferably 100 percent.

b. Keep a breathing patient lying level.
c. Advise the patient not to sit up, even during transport or if
feeling better.
d. Lie a nonbreathing patient on the back for rescue breathing and
CPR.
e. Monitor airway, breathing and circulation, and contact
emergency medical services.
2. If the diver does have an air embolism, prompt recompression is
critical to diminish bubbles in the bloodstream and force them into
solution.

Presentation Notes
147
 [NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The middle ear is most affected by changing pressure, because it is an

___________ that is connected by the eustachian tube to the throat.
A: air space
Q: If congestion occurs during the dive, then a _________ could result on
ascent in either the ears or sinuses.
A: reverse block
Q: A ruptured eardrum may immediately cause _________ underwater and
may also lead to infection due to water entering the __________.
A: vertigo, middle ear
Q: If a middle ear squeeze or sinus squeeze is not equalized, ____________
will fill the air space until equilibrium is restored.
A: blood and fluid
Q: Mask and dry suit squeeze are caused by ________ to add air during
descent.
A: failure
Q: The most important rule in scuba diving is to breathe _________ and
never hold your ________.
A: continuously, breath
Q: The most serious form of lung overexpansion injury is an
_____________, because air bubbles enter the arterial circulation.
A: air embolism
Q: ______________ emphysema occurs when the expanding air
accumulates under the skin.
A: Subcutaneous
Q: Pneumothorax is characterized by a ______________ .
A: collapsed lung.
Q: Mediastinal emphysema occurs when the expanding air becomes lodged
in the __________ between the lungs.
A: chest cavity (the mediastinum)
Q: If a diver does have an air embolism, prompt _____________ is critical
to diminish bubbles and force them into solution.
A: recompression (hyperbaric treatment)

Dive Theory
148
 Dive Theory
Scuba Cylinders Review

X. Scuba Cylinders
Study Objectives
1. How do you identify, and what are the meanings of, the following
scuba cylinder marks: alloy designation, hydrostatic test date
and working pressure?
2. What are the different types of cylinder valves?
What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder from

A. How do you identify and what are the meanings of the following
3.
exploding, and how does it work?
4. Why should a cylinder receive an annual visual inspection?
5. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic test?

scuba cylinder marks: hydrostatic test date and working pressure? 6. What functional problems can occur with cylinders and valves?

1. Scuba cylinders have various markings stamped at the neck that

provide information, such as the government agency responsible for Dive Theory
Review
Scuba Cylinders

approving compressed gas containers, the type of metal used (alloy How do you identify, and what are the meanings of, the
following scuba cylinder marks: hydrostatic test date
and working pressure?

designation), the maximum pressure, etc.  Scuba cylinders have various markings stamped at
the neck that provide information:

Government agency responsible
for approving compressed

2. As a divemaster, you need to be familiar with the cylinder markings

gas containers
Type of metal used
(alloy designation)
Maximum pressure

– specifically, you should know how to identify when the last

 Be familiar with the cylinder markings and know
how to identify when the last hydrostatic test was
completed and the working pressure

hydrostatic test was completed and the working or fill pressure of continued. . .

the cylinder.
3. A cylinder’s initial hydrostatic test date will usually appear as the Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review

last item in the last row of information originally stamped on the How do you identify, and what are the meanings of, the
following scuba cylinder marks: hydrostatic test date
and working pressure?

cylinder.  Initial hydrostatic test date

– last item in last row

Consists of numbers representing

a. The hydrostatic test date consists of numbers representing the

month and year

Numbers separated by hydrostatic
tester’s initials or tester’s special
registered symbol

month and year in which the cylinder was tested.
Subsequent hydrostatic test dates may
appear anywhere on neck

b. These numbers may be separated by either the hydrostatic continued. . .

tester’s initials or by the tester’s special registered symbol.

Dive Theory
c. Subsequent hydrostatic test dates may appear anywhere on the Scuba Cylinders Review
How do you identify, and what are the meanings of, the

cylinder’s neck. following scuba cylinder marks: hydrostatic test date

and working pressure?
 Marked with maximum pressure
Psi (pounds per square inch)

4. Cylinders are also marked with a maximum pressure or working

Bar

MP (mega-pascal)

pressure to which a cylinder may be filled for normal use. This may
be in psi (pounds-per-square-inch), bar or MP (mega-pascal)
B. What are the different types of cylinder valves? Dive Theory
Scuba Cylinders Review

1. A scuba cylinder is fitted with a standard chrome plated brass valve What are the different types of cylinder valves?
 Cylinder fitted with standard chrome plated brass
valve – either yoke system or DIN system
— either the yoke system or the DIN system valve. Yoke System
 Regulator fits down over the valve
First stage opening

2. With the yoke system, the regulator fits down over the valve where


meets valve’s high
pressure opening

Tightened in place

the its first stage opening meets the valve’s high pressure opening.
with yoke screw

Seals against
valve’s o-ring

The regulator is tightened in place with it’s yoke screw and seals continued. . .

against the valve’s o-ring.

3. DIN stands for Deutsche Industrie-Norm — a German national Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review

standards organization. What are the different types of cylinder valves?

DIN stands for Deutsche Industrie-Norm – a German
national standards organization

a. With the DIN system, the sealing o-ring mounts on the
With the DIN system, sealing o-ring mounts on
regulator, which screws into DIN valve
Five thread DIN fitting can be used for pressures up
regulator, which screws into the DIN valve.


to 200 bar/3000 psi

Seven thread DIN fitting for higher
working pressures

b. The five thread DIN fitting can be used for pressures up to

200 bar/3000 psi, and the seven thread DIN fitting for higher
working pressures. KR Dive Theory
Scuba Cylinders Review

C. What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder from exploding, What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder
from exploding, and how does it work?
 Burst disk is part of many

and how does it work? cylinder valves

– protects against damage from:

Accidental overfilling

Accidental overheating

1. A safety device called a burst disk is part of many cylinder valves to 


Not used in some countries
If cylinder pressure rises to 140%
of working pressure, disk

protect against damage that may occur from accidental overfilling, ruptures and air escapes through
vented plug

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
149
 but more often from accidental overheating. They are not used in
some countries.
2. If cylinder pressure rises to approximately 140 percent of the
Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review
working pressure, the disk ruptures, and the air escapes through the
What device prevents an over-pressurized cylinder
from exploding, and how does it work? vented plug.

Burst-disk assembly consists of a
thin copper disk held in place with
a gasket and a vented plug

Burst disks need to be replaced
3. A burst-disk assembly consists of a thin copper disk held in place
periodically – weaken over time
with a gasket and a vented plug.
4. Burst disks need to be replaced periodically, as they weaken over
time.
Dive Theory
Review
D. Why should a cylinder be visually inspected annually?
Scuba Cylinders
Why should a cylinder receive an
annual visual inspection?
 Dive community requires cylinders to be visually
1. The dive community standards is for cylinders to be visually
inspected each year

Valves are inspected and O-rings replaced as needed
Three general reasons – to detect
inspected each year, even though in most areas this is not required
 Exterior damage – severe scratches
or dents that can weaken cylinder
 Interior corrosion that can weaken
by law. At inspection time, valves are also inspected and O-rings
cylinder and clog valve
 Galvanic action between dissimilar
metals of cylinder and valve threads

Threads can seize, making it
replaced as needed and appropriate.
impossible to remove valve – makes cylinder useless

continued. . .
2. There are three general reasons:
a. First, to detect exterior damage such as severe scratches or dents.
Severe external damage can weaken the cylinder. The outside is
also inspected for cracks around the valve neck.
b. The second reason is to detect severe interior corrosion, which
can weaken the cylinder and clog the valve. In steel cylinders,
corrosion called “pitting” can weaken the cylinder structurally in
a small area, causing it to fail.
c. Lastly, the inspection is important to spot any galvanic action
between the dissimilar metals of the cylinder and valve threads.
If galvanic action progresses, the valve and cylinder threads
can seize, making it impossible to remove the valve without
destroying the threads, which makes the cylinder useless.
Dive Theory
3. A visual inspection should also occur any time:
Scuba Cylinders Review
Why should a cylinder receive an
annual visual inspection?
a. You hear loose material rolling around inside the cylinder, or
you hear sloshing water in it.
 Inspection should occur:

Hear loose material rolling around or sloshing water

Any exterior damage

Seems heavier than it should be

Burst disc fails or cylinder
completely emptied
Air inside smells unusual or
b. There is any exterior damage to the cylinder.
cylinder filled by compressor

c. The cylinder seems heavier than it should be, because it could

thought to be defectiv.

After long term storage or when
cylinder’s history is unknown

continued. . . have water in it.

d. A burst disc fails, or the cylinder is completely emptied.
e. Air inside smells unusual or the cylinder was filled by a
compressor thought to be defective.
f. After long term storage or when the cylinder’s history is
Dive Theory
Scuba Cylinders
Why should a cylinder receive an
Review
unknown.
annual visual inspection?

Decal attached noting inspection date

Be familiar with decals used in your area 4. After inspection, a decal is usually attached to the cylinder noting
the inspection date. You should be familiar with the decals used
in your area, so you can tell if a cylinder is within a year of its last
inspection.

Dive Theory
150
E. What are the steps and procedures of a hydrostatic test? Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review
What are the steps and procedures of

1. To determine that a cylinder is structurally sound, many countries a hydrostatic test?

 To determine that a cylinder is structurally sound,
many countries require periodic hydrostatic testing

require periodic hydrostatic testing. As a divemaster, you should be
Test procedures vary from region to region
General steps:
 Cylinder is filled with water and placed into a

familiar with hydrostatic test requirements for your area. water-filled container
 Cylinder is pressurized to specified test pressure
for a minimum of 30 seconds
5/3 or 3/2 cylinder’s listed pressure

2. Hydrostatic test procedures vary from region to region, but follow

 At test pressure, total expansion is recorded

– amount of water displaced from container

these general steps:

continued. . .

a. The cylinder is filled with water and placed into a water-filled

container.
b. The cylinder is pressurized to the specified test pressure for a
minimum of 30 seconds.
c. At test pressure – typically 5/3 or 3/2 the cylinder’s listed
pressure – the total expansion is recorded, usually by the amount
of water displaced from the container.
d. The pressure is released, the cylinder contracts and the displaced Scuba Cylinders
KR Dive Theory
Review

water is returned to the container. What are the steps and procedures of
a hydrostatic test?
General steps:

e. Any remaining displaced water above zero (if any) represents  Pressure is released, cylinder contracts and
displaced water is returned to container
Remaining displaced water represents permanent
permanent expansion of the cylinder.

expansion of cylinder

If expansion is within specific limits – cylinder passes test and
receives new stamped test date

f. If the expansion is within specific limits, then the cylinder passes
If expansion is too high – metal has fatigued
— cylinder is condemned

the test and receives a new stamped test date. continued. . .

g. If expansion is too high, the metal has fatigued and is no longer

capable of safely holding high pressure gases. The cylinder is
condemned.
3. Beyond required intervals, you should have a cylinder hydrostatically Dive Theory
Review
Scuba Cylinders

tested if the cylinder: What are the steps and procedures of

a hydrostatic test?
Beyond required intervals, have cylinder tested if it:

a. Has sustained impact damage. 


Has sustained impact damage
Has been exposed to extreme heat
– in excess of about 82°C/180°F

b. Has been exposed to extreme heat – in excess of about – because molecular structure of
metal may have been altered

Cylinders made from some alloys

82°C/180°F – because the molecular structure of the metal 

– particularly aluminum – are
condemned after heat exposure
Has any signs of stress or weakening

may have been altered and become more brittle. Note that
cylinders made from some alloys – particularly aluminum – are
condemned immediately after heat exposure due to the high risk
of molecular damage.
c. Has any signs of stress or weakening.
F. What functional problems can occur with cylinders and valves? Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review
What functional problems can occur with
1. As a divemaster and problem solver, you need to be aware of what cylinders and valves?
 You need to be aware of what problems can occur
with cylinders and valves – to prevent or handle
problems can occur with equipment, such as cylinders and valves, so  Most common cylinder problem
– diver doesn’t properly secure
it in the BCD
you can help prevent those problems or quickly handle them when



May slip out, or it may be too high
Watch for cylinders that are not
attached or adjusted properly

they do occur.
2. The most common cylinder problem that occurs is when a diver continued. . .

doesn’t properly secure it in the BCD.

a. The cylinder may slip out, or it may be too high and bang
against the diver’s head.

Presentation Notes
151
 b. Watch for cylinders that are not attached or adjusted properly.
Be aware of cylinders that start to slip when a diver stands or
enters the water.
Scuba Cylinders
Dive Theory
Review 3. If a cylinder has internal corrosion, the flakes and debris that
What functional problems can occur with
cylinders and valves?
 Cylinder has internal corrosion
accumulate can start to clog the valve or regulator, potentially
– flakes and debris that accumulate can
start to clog the valve or regulator

This is why visual inspections are so important
causing significant damage. Again, this is why visual inspections are
so important.
4. The most common valve problem is a worn o-ring.
continued. . .

Dive Theory
a. This would normally be indicated by a small string of bubbles
Scuba Cylinders Review
What functional problems can occur with during a dive. This is not a big concern but it does indicate that
cylinders and valves?
 Most common valve problem is a worn o-ring

Indicated by a small string of bubbles
the o-ring needs to be to be replaced as soon as possible.

Not a big concern but it does indicate that the o-ring needs to

b. A major leak calls for aborting the dive due to rapid air loss.
be to be replaced

Major leak calls for aborting dive due to rapid air loss
 Make a habit of checking
and changing o-rings frequently
c. Make a habit of checking o-rings frequently, before they show
continued. . .
wear.
KR Dive Theory
Review
5. Another valve problem occurs when a diver turns the valve on to
Scuba Cylinders
What functional problems can occur with
cylinders and valves?
check the air supply and then turns it off, but doesn’t purge the
 Another problem occurs when a diver turns the
valve on and then turns it off, but doesn’t purge
pressure
pressure. The SPG will continue to show a full cylinder and the

SPG will continue to show a full cylinder and diver may enter


the water with valve off
Diver may open valve only partially, then forget to
open it completely and begin the dive
diver may enter the water with the valve off.

Identify this problem by observing

6. Similarly, a diver may open the valve only partially to check the
the diver’s SPG

Pressure will fall and rise as
diver inhales and exhales
 Encourage divers to perform
a predive safety check
pressure, then forget to open it completely, and begin the dive with
the valve barely open.
a. You can identify this problem underwater by observing the
diver’s SPG. The pressure will usually fall and rise sharply as the
diver inhales and exhales.
7. Encouraging divers to perform a predive safety check before each
dive will help prevent these problems.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The hydrostatic test date is found on the cylinder’s _________ and

consists of numbers representing the ____________ in which the
cylinder was tested.
A: neck, month and year
Q: A scuba cylinder valve is either the ________ system or the _______
system.
A: yoke, DIN
Q: If cylinder pressure rises to approximately 140 percent of the working
pressure, the ____________ will rupture, which allows air to escape.
A: burst disk

Dive Theory
152
Q: During a cylinder’s visual inspection, the inspector looks for exterior
_________, interior _________ and _________ action between the
dissimilar metals of the cylinder and valve threads.
A: damage, corrosion, galvanic
Q: During a hydrostatic test, the cylinder is pressurized to the specified test
pressure and the total _________ is recorded, usually by the amount of
________ displaced from the testing container.
A: expansion, water
Q: The most common cylinder problem that occurs is when a diver doesn’t
properly secure it in the ________.
A: BCD
Q: The most common valve problem is a worn ________.
A: o-ring Scuba Regulators
Dive Theory
Review
Study Objectives
1. How does a scuba regulator work?

XI. Scuba Regulators

2. What is meant by “fail-safe” with respect to
regulators, and how does it work?
3. What is the purpose of a regulator environmental
seal?
4. What functional problems can occur with

A. How does a scuba regulator work? regulators?

1. From your previous training, you know that a regulator delivers air
(or enriched air) to you from your cylinder at the same pressure as Dive Theory
Review
Scuba Regulators

the pressure surrounding you. How does a scuba regulator work?

 A regulator delivers air
(or enriched air) from

2. The regulator first stage reduces the high pressure delivered by the
your cylinder at same
pressure as pressure
surrounding you

cylinder to an intermediate pressure, usually about 10 to 13 bar,  First stage reduces

high pressure to an
intermediate pressure

1000-3000 kPa, or 140 to 190 psi above the ambient water pressure.

About 10 to 13 bar, 1000-3000 kPa, or 140 to 190 psi above
ambient water pressure
Intermediate pressure is what’s in the hose that leads to the
second stage

This intermediate pressure is what’s in the hose that leads to the continued. . .

regulator second stage. Scuba Regulators

Dive Theory
Review
How does a scuba regulator work?

3. When you inhale, the following action occurs: When you inhale, the following action occurs:

Water pressure pushes in second stage diaphragm
opening the downstream valve, releasing air

a. Water pressure pushes in the second stage diaphragm opening
Release causes air pressure
in first stage to drop, opening
a valve that releases air

the downstream valve, releasing air from the hose. from cylinder

b. This release causes the air pressure in the first stage to drop,
continued. . .

opening a valve that releases air from the cylinder until the diver
stops inhaling.
c. When you stop inhaling, the second stage diaphragm returns to Scuba Regulators
Dive Theory
Review
How does a scuba regulator work?

its relaxed position, and the downstream valve closes.
When you stop inhaling, second stage
diaphragm returns to its relaxed position,
and downstream valve closes

d. This allows the intermediate pressure to build back up in the
Intermediate pressure builds back up in the hose,
closing first stage valve

hose, closing the first stage valve so that air no longer flows.
4. To learn more about how different types of first and second stages
function, take Dive Theory Online or read The Encyclopedia of
Recreational Diving – Chapter 3, Dive Equipment. Scuba Regulators
Dive Theory
Review
What is meant by “fail-safe” with respect to
regulators, and how does it work?
B. What is meant by “fail-safe” with respect to regulators, and how  Second stage has a “downstream” valve design,
meaning that the valve opens with the air flow

does it work?

Because spring pressure holds
valve closed against air flow,
a valve malfunction allows
the valve to open

Releases air continuously in a freeflow

1. As just mentioned, the regulator’s second stage has a “downstream”  This is called fail-safe because a regulator failure
allows diver to get air – fails in a safe manner
Divers learn to breathe from a freeflowing regulator so they

valve design, meaning that the valve opens with the air flow.


know how to deal with the situation

Presentation Notes
153
 2. Because spring pressure holds the valve closed against the air flow,
a valve malfunction allows the valve to open. This releases air
continuously in a freeflow.
3. This is called fail-safe because a regulator failure allows the diver to
get air. That is, it fails in a safe manner.
4. Open water divers learn to breathe from a freeflowing regulator so
if this occurs, they know how to deal with the situation and breathe
from the regulator while ascending.

Scuba Regulators
Dive Theory
Review
C. What is the purpose of a regulator environmental seal?
What is the purpose of a regulator environmental seal?

Some first stages have environmental seals that
help keep regulator from freezing in cold water
1. Some regulator first stages have environmental seals that help keep
Normal air flow causes a temperature
the regulator from freezing in cold water.


drop in first stage

In extremely cold conditions, water
quickly freezes within first stage causing

valves to stick open in a freeflowing position
An environmental seal does not allow water to 2. Normal air flow causes a temperature drop in the regulator first
directly contact the first-stage valve
– substantially reducing possibility of freezing
stage. In extremely cold conditions, this can result in water quickly
freezing within the first stage causing valves to stick open in a
freeflowing position.
3. An environmental seal does not allow water to directly contact
the first-stage valve, thus substantially reducing the possibility of
freezing.
Scuba Regulators
KR Dive Theory
Review D. What functional problems can occur with regulators?
What functional problems can occur with regulators?
 Knowing how to handle regulator


problems is a key skill to have
Most functional problems occur
1. Knowing how to spot and handle regulator problems is a key skill to
due to inadequate maintenance
or servicing

Build-up of minerals and salt can
have as a divemaster.
increase breathing resistance or
keep valves from completely

seating – resulting in a constant
air leak from second stage
Regulator that has a continuous
2. Most functional problems with a regulator, including an alternate air
source, occur due to inadequate maintenance or servicing.
flow of air needs professional servicing

continued. . .

a. The build-up of minerals and salt on regulator parts can increase

breathing resistance or keep the valves from completely seating,
resulting in a constant air leak from the second stage.
b. A regulator that has a continuous flow of air needs professional
servicing.
Dive Theory
Review
3. Poor maintenance may also result in the second stage exhaust valves
Scuba Regulators
What functional problems can occur with regulators?
 Poor maintenance may also result in exhaust valves
sticking or failing to seal.
sticking or failing to seal

A stuck exhaust valve can block exhalation,
making regulator unusable
An exhaust valve that doesn’t seal makes
a. A stuck exhaust valve can block exhalation, making the regulator
regulator breathe “wet”

Regulator needs to be serviced
unusable.
b. An exhaust valve that doesn’t seal makes the regulator breathe
continued. . .
“wet,” which is very uncomfortable for a diver.
c. In both cases, the regulator needs to be serviced as soon as
possible.
Scuba Regulators
Dive Theory
Review 4. Problems with the regulator mouthpiece may include:
What functional problems can occur with regulators?
Problems with mouthpiece include:

Divers biting through the bite tabs
a. Divers biting through the bite tabs, making the mouthpiece
Small tears that allow water to drizzle in

difficult if not impossible to use.

Mouthpiece comes loose, because plastic tie breaks
 Careful inspection before
each use as well as regular
servicing can prevent most
regulator problems b. Small tears that allow water to drizzle in during a dive, which
makes it very uncomfortable for the diver.

Dive Theory
154
 c. The mouthpiece comes loose, because the plastic tie that secures
it to the second stage breaks.
5. Careful inspection of the regulator, including the alternate air
source, before each use as well as regular servicing can prevent most
regulator problems.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: A regulator first stage reduces the ______ pressure delivered by the

cylinder to an __________ pressure.
A: high, intermediate
Q: When a diver inhales, water pressure pushes in the second stage
___________, opening the __________, releasing air from the hose.
A: diaphragm, downstream valve
Q: If there is a regulator malfunction, the second stage downstream valve
will be pushed open, causing the regulator to ________, which is
referred to as a ________ design.
A: freeflow, fail-safe
Q: An environmental seal reduces the risk that a regulator will ________ in
_______ water.
A: freeze, cold
Q: Most functional problems with a regulator, such as air ______ and stuck
Dive Theory

_______, occur due to inadequate maintenance or servicing. Dive Computers and Gauges
Study Objectives
Review

1. What are the different operating principles and

A: leaks, valves designs for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?

2. What are the procedures for using dive computers
appropriately?
3. What special equipment requirements and
considerations do you have when diving with

XII. Dive Computers and Gauges

enriched air?
4. What functional problems can occur with gauges
and dive computers?

A. What are the different operating principles and designs for depth
gauges, SPGs and compasses? Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
What are the different operating principles and designs

1. As an experienced diver, you know how important the information for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?

Gauges provide information
for planning your dive

your gauges provide is for planning your dive and diving your

and diving your plan
You need to understand of
how instruments – depth

plan. As a divemaster, you need to have a broad understanding of gauges, SPGs, compasses
and dive computers – function
so you can better advise

how instruments such as depth gauges, SPGs, compasses and dive diver’s you supervise and
handle problems

computers function so that you can better advise the diver’s you continued. . .

supervise and better handle problems that may occur.

2. Although many divers invest in a dive computer as soon as possible
after certification, there are many standard depth gauges still in use.
The three basic types of depth gauges include: Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
What are the different operating principles and designs

a. Oil-filled analog gauges have a sealed tube (bourdon tube) that for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
 Although many divers invest in a dive computer,
there are many standard depth gauges still in use
coils with pressure. As depth increases, the additional pressure Three basic types:
1. Oil-filled analog gauges – sealed tube (bourdon

is transmitted through the oil and the tube coils more tightly, tube) that coils with pressure

As depth increases,
pressure is transmitted
through oil and tube

moving the depth gauge needle. coils, moving depth

gauge needle

continued. . .

Presentation Notes
155
 Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review b. Diaphragm gauges function by connecting a flexible diaphragm
What are the different operating principles and designs
for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
Three basic types:
that senses the changing pressure to a series of levers and gears
2. Diaphragm gauges – flexible
diaphragm that senses changing
pressure connected to levers
that move the display needle to the corresponding depth.
and gears that move needle
to corresponding depth
3. Digital gauges – read depth via a transducer that
c. Digital gauges read depth via a transducer that varies its
varies electricity it transmits depending on pressure




Offer a high degree of accuracy
Same technology is used in dive computers
electrical transmission depending on the pressure exerted on
continued. . .
it. These gauges offer a high degree of accuracy, and this same
technology is used in dive computers to determine depth. Today,
this by far the most common type of gauge.
KR Dive Theory
Review
3. The most common submersible pressure gauge (SPG) is one that
Dive Computers and Gauges
What are the different operating principles and designs
for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
attaches to the regulator’s high pressure port via a hose.
 Most common submersible pressure gauge (SPG) is


one that attaches to high pressure port via a hose
An analog SPG uses a sealed tube
a. An analog SPG uses a sealed tube, similar to an oil-filled depth
to sense cylinder pressure

Increasing or decreasing
pressure causes tube
to flex, which moves
gauge, to sense cylinder pressure. Increasing or decreasing
needle around dial
pressure causes the tube to flex, which moves the needle around
continued. . .
the dial.
Dive Theory
Review
b. There are hoseless SPGs that have a compact transmitter that
Dive Computers and Gauges
What are the different operating principles and designs
for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses? threads into the high pressure port. The transmitter sends
 Hoseless SPGs have a compact transmitter that
threads into the high pressure port

Transmitter sends pressure information to receiver in dive
pressure information to a receiver in a dive computer worn on
computer worn on the wrist
 SPGs can be integrated into
dive computers – either connected the wrist.
to a high pressure hose or packaged
into a hoseless unit
c. SPGs can also be integrated into dive computers – either
continued. . . connected to a high pressure hose or packaged into a hoseless
unit.
Dive Theory
4. There two basic types of dive compasses – the conventional,
Dive Computers and Gauges Review
What are the different operating principles and designs
for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses?
mechanical compass and the newer electronic compass with digital
Two basic types of dive compasses:
 Mechanical compasses are liquid filled:

Allows compass to withstand pressure at depth
readouts.
Allows needle to move smoothly within unit

a. Most mechanical compasses are liquid filled, which allows the

 Mechanical compasses
either function with direct
or indirect reading

Numbers either rotate as
bezel is moved
compass to withstand pressure at depth. The liquid also allows

Numbers are fixed and only
index marks rotate

continued. . .
the needle to move smoothly within the unit.
Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
b. Mechanical compasses either function with direct or indirect
What are the different operating principles and designs
for depth gauges, SPGs and compasses? reading – meaning that the numbers either rotate as the bezel is
Two basic types of dive compasses:

Electronic compasses are generally
integrated into dive computers
moved, or the numbers are fixed and only the index marks rotate
around.
c. Electronic compasses are generally integrated into dive
computers.

KR Dive Theory
B. What are the procedures for using dive computers?
Dive Computers and Gauges Review
What are the procedures for using
dive computers appropriately?
1. Because most of the divers you will supervise are likely to
 Most divers you supervise are likely to have dive
computers – advise them to follow the manufacturer
recommendations
have dive computers, advise them to follow the manufacturer
General guidelines when offering suggestions:
 Know how to use the computer recommendations for their particular units.
 Plan the dive by activating computer
and scrolling through the NDLs



Note NDL for next deeper depth
Each diver needs an individual 2. Use the following as general guidelines when offering suggestions for
computer, and that computer must
stay with diver for entire day
continued. . .
dive computer use:
a. First, know how to use the computer. Sometimes divers
get a new computers and need to thoroughly review the
manufacturer’s directions or get a complete orientation to a
specific dive computer before using it.

Dive Theory
156
 b. The next step is to plan the dive by activating the computer and Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
What are the procedures for using
scrolling through the NDLs. It’s a good idea to note the NDL dive computers appropriately?
General guidelines when offering suggestions:

for the planned depth, as well as for the next deeper depth.  Dive the plan

Don’t revise plan just because computer allows it – other than
if plan is more conservative
Stay well within limits and ascend to a shallower
c. Divers shouldn’t share computers. Each diver needs an

depth to avoid pushing the no stop time showing
 Follow most conservative
computer by heading shallower
individual computer, and that computer must stay with the or ending dive if a computer
nears a limit

diver for the entire dive day. Because the computer tracks depth continued. . .

closely, it’s only accurate for the diver wearing the computer.
d. In the water, dive the plan. Don’t revise your plan just because
the dive computer allows it, other than if you change the plan to
be more conservative.
e. Stay well within limits and ascend to a shallower depth to avoid
pushing the no stop time showing.
f. Follow the most conservative computer within a buddy team
or group by heading shallower or ending the dive, together, if a
computer nears a limit.
g. Watch your SPG because often air supply limits the dive – not Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review

the NDL. What are the procedures for using

dive computers appropriately?
General guidelines when offering suggestions:

h. Progress from deep to shallow and avoid large increases in depth

Watch your SPG – often air supply limits dive
– not the NDL
Progress from deep to shallow and avoid large

after ascending to a much shallower one. increases in depth after ascending shallower

Ascend slowly and make
safety stops

i. Ascend slowly and make safety stops. Use your computer’s ascent
If a dive computers fails during
a dive, ascend, make a safety
stop and end dive

rate indicators and alarms to help.

j. Although very rare, if a dive computer fails during a dive,
ascend, make a safety stop and end the dive.
C. What special equipment requirements and considerations do you KR Dive Theory
Review
Dive Computers and Gauges

have when diving with enriched air? What special equipment requirements and
considerations do you have when
diving with enriched air?
 Guideline is that standard scuba

1. The dive community guideline is that standard scuba regulators, regulators, BCDs, SPGs and alternate
air sources may be used with enriched
air blends up to 40% oxygen (O2)
BCDs, SPGs and alternate air sources may be used with enriched air
Follow manufacturer’s guidelines
and local regulations
 For technical diving with mixes more than 40% O2,

blends that have up to 40% oxygen without modification. However, scuba equipment must be cleaned to O2 service
specifications, be made of O2 compatible materials
and be lubricated with O2 compatible lubricants

follow the manufacturer’s guidelines and local regulations regarding continued. . .

using scuba equipment with enriched air.

2. For technical diving with gas mixes containing more than 40%
oxygen, scuba equipment must be cleaned to oxygen service
specifications, be made of oxygen compatible materials and be
lubricated with oxygen compatible lubricants.
3. Enriched air cylinders must be dedicated cylinders that are clearly Dive Theory
Review
Dive Computers and Gauges

marked. They may need to meet oxygen service standards based on What special equipment requirements and
considerations do you have when
diving with enriched air?

manufacturer recommendations, local law or local practice.  Enriched air cylinders must be dedicated cylinders
that are clearly marked

May need to meet oxygen service standards based on
manufacturer recommendations, local law or practice

4. Before using an enriched air cylinder, each diver must analyze the  Before using an enriched air cylinder,
each diver must analyze the contents
Divers use an oxygen analyzer – either

contents to confirm the percentage of oxygen so they can plan the

their own or one available at enriched air
fill station

Become a PADI Enriched Air Diver

dive and set their enriched air dive computers properly. To do this,
divers use an oxygen analyzer – either their own or one available at
the enriched air fill station.

Presentation Notes
157
 5. If you aren’t already a PADI Enriched Air Diver, taking this specialty
will further orient you to the equipment and procedures for
enriched air diving.

Dive Computers and Gauges

Dive Theory
Review
D. What functional problems can occur with gauges and dive
What functional problems can occur
with gauges and dive computers? computers?
 Although depth gauges and computers that are in
good shape seldom give a substantially inaccurate
depth reading, mishandling and wear can affect
gauge accuracy 1. Although depth gauges and computers that are in good shape
Periodically check depth

seldom give a substantially inaccurate depth reading, mishandling

accuracy by comparing it
to gauges of several other divers

If a gauge appears off, have it

and wear can affect gauge accuracy. Periodically check depth

checked by a qualified technician

continued. . . accuracy by comparing it to the gauges of several other divers. If a

gauge appears off, have it checked by a qualified technician.
Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
2. Regarding SPGs, the most common problems result when dangling
What functional problems can occur
with gauges and dive computers? gauges snag and become damaged during entry, or continually bang
 Regarding SPGs – most common problems result
when dangling gauges snag and become damaged

Destroys the hose and gauge over time
into things underwater, which destroys the hose and gauge over time

Harms aquatic life
 Inspect gauge and hose for
signs of wear – replace at
— plus harms aquatic life in the process.
first signs of damage
 Look at needle before turning
air on to make sure it reads zero a. Inspect the gauge and hose for signs of wear, and replace SPG

If above zero, have the SPG serviced

continued. . . hoses at the first signs of damage.

b. Also, look at the SPG needle before turning the air on to make
sure it reads zero. If it is above zero, have the SPG serviced to
Dive Computers and Gauges
Dive Theory
Review
correct its accuracy before using it.
What functional problems can occur
with gauges and dive computers?
 A mechanical SPG that consistently reads higher
c. A mechanical SPG that consistently reads higher than the actual
than actual pressure indicates metal fatigue;

Bourdon tube flexes more
easily than it should – allowing
pressure indicates metal fatigue; the bourdon tube flexes more
needle to travel farther

Gauge needs to be replaced
easily than it should because it is weak, allowing the needle to
travel farther at a given pressure. The gauge needs to be replaced.
continued. . .
3. As mentioned, computer failure has become very rare because most
Dive Computers and Gauges
KR Dive Theory
Review models self-check themselves and monitor battery power. If there’s
What functional problems can occur
with gauges and dive computers?
 Computer failure has become very rare
a problem, or the battery is low, the computer will shut down or
If there’s a problem, or battery is low,

otherwise warn you.

computer will shut down or
otherwise warn you
 If a dive computer fails between
dives, diver may continue diving if:

Diver has been diving with
a backup for every dive
a. If a dive computer fails between dives, the diver may continue
All dives have been recorded

diving if the diver has been diving with a backup for every dive.


and can be calculated on dive tables
 If neither of these options are available, diver must
wait 12 to 24 hours before diving again

b. Another option is switching to dive tables, but only if all dives

have been recorded and can be calculated on the tables.
c. If neither of these options are available, the diver must wait 12
to 24 hours before diving again using a working computer.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: An analog depth gauge or SPG uses a _________ to sense pressure

changes, and as it flexes, it moves the needle around the dial.
A: sealed tube (bourdon tube)
Q: When diving with dive computers, ________ diver needs an individual
computer, and the ________ must stay with the diver for the entire dive
day.
A: each, same dive computer

Dive Theory
158
Q: A buddy team should follow the most __________ computer and go
shallower or end the dive if a computer nears a ________.
A: conservative, limit
Q: Enriched air cylinders must be _________ marked, and before using the
cylinder, you must __________ to confirm the percentage of oxygen.
A: clearly, analyze the contents
Q: The most common problem with gauges tends to be damage caused by
___________ that snag or bump into things underwater.
A: dangling gauges or consoles
Q: If a dive computer fails between dives, the diver may continue diving
with a _________ that has been used on al previous dives, or by
switching to __________, only if all dives have been recorded. Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review

A: backup dive computer, dive tables

Study Objectives
1. What is the basic structure and operation of the
Haldanean decompression model?
2. Forwhom was the Recreational Dive Planner
developed, and how was it tested?

XIII. Decompression Theory

3. Why do you need to know your approximate altitude
when diving?
4. How do dive computers apply decompression
models to provide more no stop dive time?

A. What is the basic structure and operation of the Haldanean

decompression model? Dive Theory
Decompression Theory Review

1. Virtually all dive tables and dive computers calculate no What is the basic structure and operation of the
Haldanean decompression model?

decompression limits and decompression stops based on a
Virtually all dive tables and dive computers
calculate no decompression limits and
decompression stops based on a Haldanean
decompression model
Haldanean decompression model.
John Scott Haldane
experimented and
produced his original
a. John Scott Haldane experimented and produced his original model and tables in 1906

model and tables in 1906. continued. . .

2. Haldane structured his model based on the following concepts: Dive Theory
Decompression Theory Review

a. At depth, nitrogen pressure in breathing air is higher than in the What is the basic structure and operation of the
Haldanean decompression model?
Haldane structured model based on:
body, so nitrogen dissolves into body tissues.
At depth, nitrogen pressure in breathing air
is higher than in the body, so nitrogen dissolves
into body tissues
b. Given enough time, the body will saturate and absorb no more
Given enough time, the body will saturate and
absorb no more nitrogen at that depth

nitrogen at that depth.
During ascent, nitrogen pressure in the body is

higher than the surrounding pressure, causing
tissues to release nitrogen

c. During ascent, nitrogen pressure in the body is higher than the continued. . .

surrounding pressure, causing tissues to release nitrogen.

d. The difference between the dissolved nitrogen pressure and Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review
What is the basic structure and operation of the
the surrounding pressure (whether ascending or descending) is Haldanean decompression model?
Haldane structured model based on:

called the pressure gradient.

Difference between dissolved nitrogen pressure and
surrounding pressure is called pressure gradient
On ascent, tissues can tolerate some gradient
without causing decompression sickness (DCS)
e. On ascent, tissues can tolerate some gradient of high tissue
If gradient exceeds acceptable limits, bubbles can
form, which could result in DCS

pressure without causing decompression sickness (DCS).
DCS can be avoided by keeping gradient within
acceptable limits

f. If the gradient exceeds acceptable limits, bubbles can form, continued. . .

which could result in DCS.

g. DCS can be avoided by keeping the gradient within acceptable Decompression Theory
KR 36
KR 37
Dive Theory
Review
What is the basic structure and operation of the
limits. Haldanean decompression model?
 Haldane discovered that different body tissues
absorb and release nitrogen at different rates

3. Haldane discovered that different body tissues absorb and release

Model consisted of five different tissue compartments
(theoretical tissues)

Modern versions may have 14 or more compartments
 Each compartments was assigned a halftime in

dissolved nitrogen at different rates. To account for this, his model minutes ranging from 5 to 75 minutes

Modern models range from 3 to more than 600 minutes
Halftime – the time it takes a compartment to go

consisted of five different tissue compartments (theoretical tissues).

halfway from its present tissue pressure to
saturation at a new depth, in exponential
progression

Modern versions may have 14 or more compartments. continued. . .

Presentation Notes
159
 a. Each of his compartments was assigned a halftime in minutes
ranging from 5 to 75 minutes. Modern models range from 3 to
more than 600 minutes.
b. Halftime is the time, in minutes, it takes a compartment to go
halfway from its present tissue pressure to saturation at a new
depth, in exponential progression.
Decompression Theory
KR Dive Theory
Review
c. Each compartment also has a different M-value – the maximum
What is the basic structure and operation of the
Haldanean decompression model? tissue pressure allowed in the compartment when surfacing to
 Each compartment also has a different M-value
– the maximum tissue pressure allowed in
compartment when surfacing to prevent exceeding prevent exceeding the acceptable gradient.
acceptable gradient

Compartments with
shorter halftimes
(fast tissues) have
d. Compartments with shorter halftimes have a higher M-value, and
a higher M-value

Compartments with
longer halftimes
(slow tissues) have
compartments with longer halftimes have a lower M-value.
a lower M-value

continued. . .
4. The model works by determining how much each compartment
Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review theoretically absorbs for a given depth and time. When any
What is the basic structure and operation of the
Haldanean decompression model?
 Model works by determining how much each
compartment reaches its M-value, a no decompression dive would
compartment theoretically absorbs for a given
depth and time

When any compartment reaches its M-value – no
end and that time becomes the no decompression limit for that
decompression dive ends and time becomes the no


decompression limit (NDL) for that depth
On deeper dives, compartments
with shorter halftimes absorb
depth.
nitrogen fastest and usually
reach their M-value first

This is why deeper dives
a. On deeper dives, compartments with shorter halftimes absorb
have short NDLs
continued. . .
nitrogen the fastest and usually reach their M-value first – this is
why deeper dives have short no decompression limits.
Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review
What is the basic structure and operation of the
b. On shallower dives, the shorter halftime (fast) compartments
Haldanean decompression model?
 On shallower dives, the shorter halftime (fast) can’t reach their high M-values, thus the dive is limited by
compartments can’t reach their high M-values
– dive is limited by longer halftime (slow)
compartments = more no decompression time the longer halftime (slow) compartments, affording more no
 There is no direct relationship between a
mathematical decompression model and the body

Models are imperfect decompression time.

Rely on one as far as it has been shown to work in tests and
field experience

Even within those limits there is still risk of DCS
5. It’s important to keep in mind that there is no direct relationship
between a mathematical decompression model and the body. Models
are imperfect, and you can only rely on one as far as it has been
shown to work in tests and field experience, and even within those
limits there is still some risk of DCS.
Dive Theory
Review
B. For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner developed, and how
Decompression Theory
For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner
developed, and how was it tested?
was it tested?
 Up until mid-1980s, most scuba divers depended on


US Navy tables to plan dives – even though tables
were developed for military decompression diving
In the early 1980s, Dr. Ray Rogers reasoned that
1. Up until the mid-1980s, most scuba divers around the world
since recreational divers dive differently from navy
divers, perhaps different tables would be
appropriate
depended on the US Navy tables to plan dives – even though the

Proposed that repetitive diving could be based
on a faster halftime – 60 minutes instead of the
US Navy’s 120 minutes – because recreational
US Navy tables were developed primarily for military decompression
diving is limited to no stop diving

continued. . . diving.
2. In the early 1980s, Dr. Ray Rogers reasoned that since recreational
divers dive differently from navy divers, perhaps different tables
would be more appropriate.
KR Dive Theory
a. Specifically, Rogers proposed that repetitive diving could be based
Review
Decompression Theory
For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner
developed, and how was it tested?
on a faster halftime – 60 minutes instead of the US Navy’s 120
 Data suggested that maximum allowable nitrogen
limits for recreational divers should be somewhat
lower than those on US Navy tables
minutes – because recreational diving is limited to no stop diving.

Diving Science & Technology (DSAT), a corporate
affiliate of PADI, organized and funded a study
through the IAPM (Institute of Applied Physiology
b. Rogers also knew that data suggested that the maximum
and Medicine) in Seattle, Washington, USA to test
Roger’s hypothesis.
allowable nitrogen limits for recreational divers should be
continued. . .
somewhat lower than those on the US Navy tables.

Dive Theory
160
 3. Diving Science & Technology (DSAT), a corporate affiliate of
PADI, organized and funded a study through the IAPM (Institute of
Applied Physiology and Medicine) in Seattle, Washington, USA to
test Dr. Roger’s hypothesis.
a. The tests covered a broad demographic range including males, Decompression Theory
KR Dive Theory
Review

females, younger and older divers, and people with differing For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner
developed, and how was it tested?
 Tests covered a broad demographic range:

physical types, to better match the recreational diver population. 

Males, females, younger and older divers, and people with
differing physical types
Tests were evaluated based on Doppler
detectable silent bubbles, not just whether
b. Tests were evaluated based on Doppler detectable silent bubbles, 
a diver experienced DCS
More than 1000 dives were
made in hyperbaric chamber
not just whether a diver experienced DCS. and open water – demonstrating
validity of RDP concepts

c. More than 1000 individual dives were made in the hyperbaric

chamber and open water, successfully demonstrating the validity
of the RDP concepts.
4. In October 1987, Dr. Michael Powell of IAPM delivered the test Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review
For whom was the Recreational Dive Planner
results and based on this research, in 1988, the DSAT (Diving developed, and how was it tested?

In October 1987, Dr. Michael Powell of IAPM
delivered test results and in 1988, DSAT

Science and Technology) Recreational Dive Planner (RDP) Recreational Dive Planner (RDP) distributed by
PADI was released
RDP introduced in several formats:

distributed by PADI was released.
RDP Table – 1988

The Wheel – 1988 – first table
developed to allow multilevel
no stop diving

EANx RDPs – 1995

5. Over the years, the RDP has been introduced in several formats,
eRDP – 2005 – first electronic dive table

eRDPML – 2008 – electronic dive table
that has multilevel dive planning capabilities

some of which are no longer available.

a. RDP Table – Introduced in 1988
b. The Wheel – Introduced in 1988, this was the first table
developed to allow multilevel no stop diving. Its unique circular
format reduced unnecessary rounding with more depth and time
increments found on tables.
c. EANx RDPs – Introduced in 1995, the EANx RDPs are special
version of the RDP Table specifically calculated for use with
EANx32 and EANx36.
d. eRDP – Introduced in 2005. The world’s first electronic dive
table, the eRDP carried out all the functions of the RDP Table
in a calculator format.
e. eRDPML – Introduced in 2008 as the successor to the eRDP.
The eRDPML is an electronic dive table that duplicates
the smaller depth increments and multilevel dive planning
capabilities originally found in The Wheel.
C. Why do you need to know your approximate altitude when diving? Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review
Why do you need to know your approximate
1. Dive tables and dive computers were developed for dives starting altitude when diving?
 Dive tables and dive computers
were developed for dives starting
and ending at sea level. If diving in a high mountain lake, you start and ending at sea level

At altitude, you start and end in
air pressure less than at sea level

and end the dive in air pressure less than at sea level.  Pressure gradient between theoretical gas
dissolved in tissues and atmospheric pressure is
greater than designed into Haldanean
decompression model
2. The pressure gradient between the theoretical inert gas dissolved
To account for this difference, follow altitude
diving procedures

in the tissues and the atmospheric pressure is much greater than continued. . .

designed into the Haldanean decompression model. To account for

this difference, you follow altitude diving procedures as discussed in
the section – Specialized Skills and Activities.

Presentation Notes
161
 Decompression Theory
Dive Theory
Review 3. Knowing the approximate dive site altitude allows you to:
Why do you need to know your approximate
altitude when diving?
 Knowing the approximate altitude allows you to:
a. Find a pressure group on the RDP Table or eRDPML that
Find a pressure group on the RDP Table or eRDPML that

accounts for the higher level of nitrogen in your body, if you’ve

accounts for the higher level of nitrogen – if you ascended
from a lower altitude less than six hours before dive

Use Theoretical Depth at Altitude

ascended from a lower altitude less than six hours before the
table to convert actual depth to
theoretical depth

Set your dive computer for
correct altitude – if it doesn’t
automatically adjust
dive, such as driving up the mountain from sea level.
b. Use the Theoretical Depth at Altitude table to convert the actual
depth to theoretical depth, so you can plan dives using the RDP
Table or eRDPML.
c. Set your dive computer for the correct altitude, if the computer
doesn’t automatically adjust.

Decompression Theory
KR Dive Theory
Review
D. How do dive computers apply decompression models to provide
How do dive computers apply decompression models
to provide more no stop dive time? more no stop dive time?
 Dive computers offer maximum bottom time by
writing a custom dive table for the exact dive

Computer’s microprocessor continuously plugs information
about dive into its mathematical decompression model,
estimating how much nitrogen has gone into solution in
1. Dive computers offer the maximum bottom time essentially by
writing a custom dive table for the exact dive. This eliminates
tissues
 Different computers use differing models
(algorithms) and may vary in NDLs, time
allowed on repetitive dives and credit
for ascending to a shallower depth

Differences are not substantial
unnecessary rounding and provides more dive time.
2. The computer’s microprocessor continuously plugs information
about the dive into its mathematical decompression model,
estimating how much nitrogen has gone into solution in the diver’s
body tissues.
3. Different dive computers use somewhat differing decompression
models (algorithms) and may vary somewhat in their no
decompression limits, time allowed on repetitive dives and the credit
for ascending to a shallower depth. However, the differences are not
substantial, though you may note them if your buddy’s diving with a
different computer brand.

[NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: The Haldanean decompression model is based on the concept that

___________ can be avoided by keeping the pressure gradient between
dissolved __________ in the tissues and the surrounding pressure within
acceptable limits.
A: DCS, nitrogen
Q: According to the decompression model, on deeper dives, compartments
with _________ halftimes usually reach their M-value first – this is why
deeper dives have short no decompression limits.
A: shorter
Q: If diving at altitude without having been at the dive site altitude for six
hour, you need to know the approximate altitude so that you can find
a ____________on the RDP Table or eRDPML that accounts for the
higher level of nitrogen in your body.
A: pressure group

Dive Theory
162
Q: Using its mathematical decompression model, a dive computer
________ how much nitrogen has gone into solution in the diver’s body
and __________ a custom dive table during the dive – eliminating
unnecessary rounding and providing more dive time. Dive Theory
Review
RDP Use

A: estimates, writes Study Objectives

1. What are the general rules and recommendations
for diving with the Recreational Dive Planner,
including those for flying after diving and
emergency decompression?
2. How do you find a no decompression limit for a first

XIV. RDP Use and repetitive dive using both the RDP Table and
the eRDPML?
3. How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more
repetitive dives using both the RDP Table and the
eRDPML?

A. What are the general rules and recommendations for diving with 4. How do you plan a multilevel dive using the
eRDPML?

the Recreational Dive Planner, including those for flying after

Dive Theory
diving and emergency decompression? RDP Use Review
What are the general rules and recommendations for
diving with the Recreational Dive Planner, including
[NOTE: Have candidates open their RDP Table and eRDPML Instructions For Use those for flying after diving and emergency
decompression?

booklets to the General Rules/Guidelines pages and review each point.] Please open your RDP Table and eRDPML
Instructions For Use booklets to the
General Rules/Guidelines pages

B. How do you find a no decompression limit for a first and repetitive

dive using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
[NOTE: Ask candidates to have the RDP Table and eRDPML ready to use.] RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you find a no decompression limit
for a first and repetitive dive using both
1. You may be comfortable using both the RDP Table and eRDPML, the RDP Table and the eRDPML?

This topic walks
through basic
or this could be the first time. Either way, this topic walks through use of the RDP
Table and eRDPML
You will need to
basic use of both RDP versions. You will need to practice further by


practice further by
using the Instructions
for Use booklets
using the Instructions for Use booklets. Have your RDP Table and eRDPML ready to use

continued. . .

2. To find the no decompression limits on the RDP Table for a first Dive Theory
RDP Use Review

dive, you start on Table 1. How do you find a no decompression limit

for a first and repetitive dive using both
the RDP Table and the eRDPML?

a. Depths are shown on the top row. To find NDL on RDP Table
– start on Table 1

Depths are on top row

b. No decompression limits are in black boxes in the columns
NDLS are black boxes
in columns below depth
Example:
below the depth. NDL for 30 m/100 ft?
20 minutes

c. For example, the no decompression limit for 30 metres/ 100 feet continued. . .

is 20 minutes.
3. To find the no decompression limit for a repetitive dive on the RDP RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review

Table, you are actually looking for an adjusted no decompression How do you find a no decompression limit
for a first and repetitive dive using both
the RDP Table and the eRDPML?

limit, and you must know what your pressure group is after the
To find NDL for a repetitive dive on RDP Table, you
are looking for adjusted no decompression limit
(ANDL) – must know what pressure group (PG) is

surface interval.

after surface interval
Given that you know PG
– start at bottom of Table 2

a. Given that you know the pressure group, you’ll start at the
bottom of Table 2. Let’s say that your pressure group is L. continued. . .

Dive Theory
b Flip the table over to Table 3 and find L in the top row. RDP Use
How do you find a no decompression limit
Review

for a first and repetitive dive using both

c. Follow that column down until it intersects with the 30 the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Example – PG is L

metre/100 foot row.  Flip table over to Table 3 and

find L in top row
 Follow column until it intersects
with depth row – 30 m/100 ft
d. The box contains two numbers. The top number - 17 - is  Box contains two numbers

Top number - 17 - is residual
nitrogen time (RNT)

the residual nitrogen time. The bottom number - 3 - is your 

Bottom number - 3 - is ANDL
An L diver going to 30 m/100 ft
– maximum allowed time is 3 minutes

adjusted no decompression limit. continued. . .

e. This means that as an L diver going to 30 metres/100 feet, the

maximum allowed time is 3 minutes.

Presentation Notes
163
 RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review 4. After turning on the eRDPML, to find the no decompression limits
How do you find a no decompression limit
for a first and repetitive dive using both
the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
for a first dive, start by selecting the mode with the MODE/RESET
button:

Using the eRDPML, after turning it
on, find the NDL for first dive
– start by selecting mode
with MODE/RESET button

Choose Dive Planning
and push ENTER a. Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER.

Multilevel dive? Select NO

First dive? Select YES

Depth? Use number keys to enter depth
– shows NDL in minutes
b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive – select NO.
c. It asks if this is the first dive – select YES.
continued. . .

d. It asks for the depth – use the number keys to enter the depth,
and it shows the no decompression limit in minutes.

RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
5. Using the eRDPML, to find the adjusted no decompression limit for
How do you find a no decompression limit
for a first and repetitive dive using both
the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
a repetitive dive, you must know what your pressure group is after
 To find the ANDL for a repetitive dive
– must know PG after surface interval
 Choose Dive Planning – ENTER
the surface interval.
 Multilevel dive? NO
 First dive? NO
 PG after SI? YES
a. Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER.
 PG? Use letter keys to enter PG



Example – use L
Depth? Use number keys
b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive – select NO.

Example – 30 m/100 ft
ANDL = 3 minutes
c. It asks if this is the first dive – select NO.
d. It asks if you know the PG after the SI – select YES
e. It asks for the PG – use the letter keys to enter the PG - for this
example, use L.
f. It asks for the depth – use the number keys to enter 30
metres/100 feet - for this example.
g. It shows the no decompression limit as 3 minutes.
Dive Theory
Review
C. How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
RDP Use
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more
repetitive dives using both the RDP Table and the
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
eRDPML?

1. Let’s look at a three-dive profile that not only allows you to plan and
record dives, but also allows you to apply some of the special RDP
rules. Examples are divided into metric and imperial – choose the
METRIC IMPERIAL
continued. . . measuring system you are familiar with:
RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
METRIC
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?


Start on Table 1 – round depth up to 22 m
Go down to find 32 minutes
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes

Safety stop rule applies


Go right to find PG – P
Continue into Table 2 to find surface
interval – 56 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
 Follow column down to find PG – F

Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes

Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes

continued. . .
Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes
Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes METRIC Surface interval – 1h:02min
Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes
2. Start on Table 1 and find 22 metres along the top. You must round
up and use 22 metres.
a. Follow the 22 metres column until you find a time equal to or
greater than 31 minutes.
b. You must use 32 minutes, which puts you in a shaded box. This
means that the safety stop rule applies.
c. Follow the row to the right to find the pressure group of P.
d. Continue right along the row into Table 2 to find a surface
interval box that includes 56 minutes. You’ll see that it falls
between 52 and 59 minutes.
Dive Theory
164
 e. Follow the column down to see that after the surface interval,
you are in F pressure group.
f. Flip the RDP over to Table 3 and follow the F column down to RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review

where it meets the 20-metre row, because you must round up

How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
 Flip to Table 3, follow F column down to 20 m row

18 minutes is RNT

from 19 metres. 

27 minutes is ANDL
Add RNT 18 to actual bottom time (ABT) 26
for a total bottom time (TBT) = 44 min
 Flip to Table 1, go to 20 m column to 44 min

g. The box contains two numbers. The top number – 18 – is the 

Safety stop rule applies
PG is T
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes

residual nitrogen time (RNT). The bottom number – 27 – is the Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes

adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL).

Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes METRIC
continued. . .

h. You must add the 18 (RNT) to the actual bottom time (ABT) –
26 – for a total of 44 minutes.
i. Flip back to Table 1, go to the 20 metres column, and follow
it down to 44 minutes, which is in a shaded box – so the safety
stop rule applies. You are in pressure group T after the second
dive.
j. Continue right along the T row into Table 2 to find a surface RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review

interval box that includes 1 hour and 2 minutes. You’ll see that How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives


using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Continue along T row into Table 2 to SI – 1:02

it falls between 1:00 and 1:06. 


Follow column down to find PG – G
Flip to Table 3, follow G column down to 16 m row

25 minutes is RNT

k. Follow the column down to see that after the surface interval, 

Add RNT 25 to ABT 45 = 70 minutes
Flip to Table 1, go to 16 m column to 70 minutes

Safety stop rule applies

you are in G pressure group.  PG is W

WX rule
applies
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
METRIC
Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes Go to

l. Flip the RDP over to Table 3 and follow the G column down to Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes eRDPML

where it meets the 16-metre row.

m. The residual nitrogen time is 25 minutes. Add the RNT 25 to
the ABT 45 for a total of 70 minutes.
n. Flip back to Table 1, go to the 16 metres column, and follow
it down to 70 minutes, which is in a shaded box – so the safety
stop rule applies.
o. You are in pressure group W after the third dive. This means
that if planned to do a fourth dive the WX rule applies, and you
would need at least 1 hour surface interval between dives.
3. IMPERIAL RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives

Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes 

using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Start on Table 1 – round depth up to 70 ft
 Go down to find 35 minutes

Surface interval – 56 minutes 



Safety stop rule applies
Go right to find PG – Q
Continue into Table 2 to find surface
interval – 56 minutes

Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes  Follow column down to find PG – F

Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes

Surface interval – 56 minutes

Surface interval – 1h:02min Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes

Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL
continued. . .

Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes

a. Start on Table 1 and find 70 feet along the top. You must round
up and use 70 feet.
b. Follow the 70 foot column until you find a time equal to or
greater than 34 minutes.
c. You must use 35 minutes, which puts you in a shaded box. This
means that the safety stop rule applies.
d. Follow the row to the right to find the pressure group of Q.

Presentation Notes
165
 e. Continue right along the row into Table 2 to find a surface
interval box that includes 56 minutes. You’ll see that it falls
between 56 and 1hour and 3 minutes.
f. Follow the column down to see that after the surface interval,
you are in F pressure group.
Dive Theory
Review
g. Flip the RDP over to Table 3, and follow the F column down
RDP Use
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives


using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Flip to Table 3, follow F column down to 60 ft row
to where it meets the 60 foot row, because you must round up





19 minutes is RNT
36 minutes is ANDL
Add RNT 19 to actual bottom time (ABT) 36
from 58 feet.
for a total bottom time (TBT) = 52 min
 Flip to Table 1, go to 60 ft column to 52 min

Safety stop rule applies
h. The box contains two numbers. The top number – 19 – is the
 PG is U
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
residual nitrogen time (RNT). The bottom number – 36 – is the
continued. . .
Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL).
i. You must add the 19 (RNT) to the actual bottom time (ABT) –
33 – for a total of 52 minutes.
j. Flip back to Table 1, go to the 60 foot column, and follow it
down to 52 minutes, which is in a shaded box – so the safety
stop rule applies. You are in pressure group U after the second
dive.
Dive Theory
k. Continue right along the U row into Table 2 to find a surface
RDP Use Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML? interval box that includes 1 hour and 2 minutes. You’ll see that
 Continue along U row into Table 2 to SI – 1:02


Follow column down to find PG – G
Flip to Table 3, follow H column down to 50 ft row
it falls between 57 and 1:02.

28 minutes is RNT


Add RNT 28 to ABT 45 = 73 minutes
Flip to Table 1, go to 50 ft column to 73 minutes

Safety stop rule applies
l. Follow the column down to see that after the surface interval,
 PG is W

WX rule
applies
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
you are in H pressure group.
Surface interval – 1h:02 minutes
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL
m. Flip the RDP over to Table 3, and follow the H column down to
where it meets the 50 foot row – you need to round up from 45
feet.
n. The residual nitrogen time is 28 minutes. Add the RNT 28 to
the ABT 45 for a total of 73 minutes.
o. Flip back to Table 1, go to the 50 foot column, and follow it
down to 73 minutes, which is in a shaded box – so the safety
stop rule applies.
p. You are in pressure group W after the third dive. This means
that if you plan to do a fourth dive the WX rule applies, and you
would need at least 1 hour surface interval between dives.
Dive Theory
RDP Use Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?

4. Let’s try the same three-dive profile using the eRDPML:

Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
METRIC
Surface interval – 1h:02 min Surface interval – 1h:02 min
Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes
METRIC IMPERIAL
continued. . . Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive Theory
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
RDP Use Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives


using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER
Surface interval – 1h:02min
Multilevel dive? Select NO
Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes

 First dive? Select YES
 Depth? Use number keys to enter 21 m
NDL is 37 minutes

a. Select the mode with the MODE/RESET button, Choose Dive

 ABT? 31 minutes

Safety stop – see rule 2
 PG is P
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
Planning and push ENTER.
Surface interval – 1h:02 min

continued. . .
Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes METRIC
b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive – select NO.

Dive Theory
166
 c. It asks if this is the first dive – select YES.
d. It asks for the depth – select 21 then ENTER. It tells you
that the no decompression limit (NDL) is 37 minutes – push
ENTER
e. It asks for the ABT (actual bottom time) – select 31 then
ENTER. It displays a Safety Stop of 3 minutes and See rule 2
message.
f. It then tells you that you are in pressure group P at the end of
the dive – push ENTER.
g. It asks you to enter a surface interval – press 56 then ENTER. RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives

h. You see that your pressure group after the surface interval is F – 
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
SI? 56 minutes
 PG after SI is F

push ENTER.  Depth for Dive 2 – 19 m

ANDL is 27 minutes
 ABT? 26 minutes

i. Enter the depth for dive 2, which is 19 metres – then ENTER. 

Safety stop – see rule 2
PG is T
Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes

It tells you that your adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL) Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes
Surface interval – 1h:02 min

is 27 minutes - push ENTER. continued. . .

Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes METRIC

j. It asks for your ABT – enter 26. Again, it alerts you that rule 2
about a required safety stop applies – push ENTER.
k. It tells you that your pressure group after this dive is T.
l. It asks you to enter a surface interval – press 1:02 then ENTER. RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives

Your pressure group after the surface interval is G – push 

using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
SI? 1h:02 min
PG after SI is G
ENTER.

 Depth for Dive 3 – 16 m

ANDL is 47 minutes
ABT? 45 minutes
m. Enter the depth for dive 3, which is 16, then ENTER. It tells


Safety stop – see rule 2
 PG is W
Rule 6 Dive 1 – 21 metres for 31 minutes

you that your adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL) is 47

– WX rule Surface interval – 56 minutes
– applies Dive 2 – 19 metres for 26 minutes METRIC
Surface interval – 1h:02 min Go to

minutes - push ENTER. Dive 3 – 16 metres for 45 minutes next topic

n. It asks for your ABT - push 45 ENTER. Again, it alerts you that
rule 2 applies - push ENTER.
o. It tells you that your pressure group after this dive is again W.
When you push ENTER, it alerts you that rule 6 – the WX rule
– applies, in case you were planning a fourth dive.
5. Let’s try the same three-dive profile using the eRDPML: Dive Theory
RDP Use Review

IMPERIAL How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives


using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER
 Multilevel dive? Select NO

Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes  First dive? Select YES

 Depth? Use number keys to enter 69 ft

NDL is 40 minutes

Surface interval – 56 minutes 


ABT? 34 minutes

Safety stop – see rule 2
PG is Q
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes

Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes Surface interval – 56 minutes

Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
Surface interval – 1h:02 min
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL

Surface interval – 1h:02min

continued. . .

Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes

a. Select the mode with the MODE/RESET button. Choose Dive
Planning and push ENTER.
b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive – select NO.
c. It asks if this is the first dive – select YES.
d. It asks for the depth – select 69 then ENTER. It tells you
that the no decompression limit (NDL) is 40 minutes – push
ENTER
Presentation Notes
167
 e. It asks for the ABT (actual bottom time) – select 34 then
ENTER. It displays a Safety Stop of 3 minutes and See rule 2
message.
f. It then tells you that you are in pressure group Q at the end of
the dive – push ENTER.
Dive Theory
g. It asks you to enter a surface interval – press 56 then ENTER.
Review
RDP Use
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives
using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
h. You see that your pressure group after the surface interval is F –
SI? 56 minutes
push ENTER.

 PG after SI is F
 Depth for Dive 2 – 58 ft

i. Enter the depth for dive 2, which is 58 feet – then ENTER. It

ANDL is 27 minutes
 ABT? 26 minutes

Safety stop – see rule 2
 PG is T
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
tells you that your adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL) is
36 minutes - push ENTER.
Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
Surface interval – 1h:02 min
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL
continued. . .

j. It asks for your ABT – enter 33. Again, it alerts you that rule 2
about a required safety stop applies – push ENTER.
k. It tells you that your pressure group after this dive is U.
RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
l. It asks you to enter a surface interval – press 1:02 then ENTER.
How do you calculate dive profiles for three or more repetitive dives


using both the RDP Table and the eRDPML?
SI? 1h:02 min
Your pressure group after the surface interval is H – push


PG after SI is H
Depth for Dive 3 – 45 ft ENTER.

ANDL is 68 minutes
 ABT? 45 minutes

Safety stop – see rule 2 m. Enter the depth for dive 3, which is 45, then ENTER. It tells
 PG is U
Note different
results than
RDP Table
Dive 1 – 69 feet for 34 minutes
Surface interval – 56 minutes
Dive 2 – 58 feet for 33 minutes
you that your adjusted no decompression limit (ANDL) is 68
Surface interval – 1h:02 min
Dive 3 – 45 feet for 45 minutes IMPERIAL minutes – push ENTER.
n. It asks for your ABT – push 45 ENTER. It tells you that your
pressure group after this dive is again U.
o. Note that this is different than the results you got with the RDP
Table, because, the numbers did not have to be rounded up. The
eRDPML is able to calculate using the exact depth and time –
not several feet or minutes greater.
Dive Theory
Review
D. How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?
RDP Use
How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?
1. Calculating a multilevel dive on the eRDPML is very similar to
figuring out a three-dive profile.
Level 1 – 31 m for 6 minutes Level 1 – 105 ft for 6 minutes
Level 2 – 19 m for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 12 m for 18 minutes
Level 2 – 62 ft for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 38 ft for 18 minutes 2. Examples are divided into metric and imperial – choose the
METRIC
measuring system you are familiar with:
IMPERIAL
continued. . .
METRIC
Level 1 – 31 metres for 6 minutes
Level 2 – 19 metres for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 12 metres for 18 minutes
Dive Theory
a. Start by selecting the Dive Planning mode with the MODE/
Review
RDP Use
How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML? RESET button and push ENTER.
 Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER


Multilevel dive? Select YES
First dive? Select YES b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive - select YES.
 Depth for Level 1? 31 m



NDL is 17 minutes
ABT? 6 minutes c. It asks if this is the first dive - select YES.
 PG after Level 1 is C
 Depth for Level 2? 19 m

ML is 27 min
Level 1 – 31 m for 6 minutes
d. It asks for the depth of level 1 – select 31 then ENTER. It tells
continued. . .
Level 2 – 19 m for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 12 m for 18 minutes METRIC you that the no decompression limit (NDL) is 17 minutes –
push ENTER.

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 e. It asks for the ABT – select 6 then ENTER.
f. It then tells you that your pressure group after this level is C –
push ENTER.
g. It asks for the depth of level 2 - select 19 then ENTER. It
tells you that the multilevel limit (ML) is 27 minutes – push
ENTER.
i. It asks for the ABT – select 12 then ENTER. It tells you that RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review
How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?

your pressure group after this level is J – push ENTER.  ABT? 12 minutes
 PG after Level 2 is J
Depth for Level 3? 12 m
j. It asks for the depth of level 3 – select 12 then ENTER. It tells


ML is 87 min
 ABT? 18 minutes
Safety stop – rule 2 applies

you that the multilevel time limit is 87 minutes – push ENTER.

 PG is O

k. It asks for your ABT – select 18 then ENTER. It alerts you that Level 1 – 31 m for 6 minutes
Level 2 – 19 m for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 12 m for 18 minutes
METRIC
Go to
SUMMARY

rule 2 applies, because your deepest depth is below 30 metres.

l. Your ending pressure group is O.
3. IMPERIAL
Dive Theory
RDP Use Review

Level 1 – 105 metres for 6 minutes How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?
 Choose Dive Planning and push ENTER
 Multilevel dive? Select YES

Level 2 – 62 metres for 12 minutes 


First dive? Select YES
Depth for Level 1? 105 ft

NDL is 16 minutes

Level 3 – 38 metres for 18 minutes 


ABT? 6 minutes
PG after Level 1 is B
 Depth for Level 2? 62 ft

a. Start by selecting the Dive Planning mode with the MODE/
ML is 30 min
Level 1 – 105 ft for 6 minutes
Level 2 – 62 ft for 12 minutes
Level 3 – 38 ft for 18 minutes IMPERIAL

RESET button and push ENTER. continued. . .

b. It asks if this is a multilevel dive - select YES.

c. It asks if this is the first dive - select YES.
d. It asks for the depth of level 1 – select 105 then ENTER. It tells
you that the no decompression limit (NDL) is 16 minutes –
push ENTER.
e. It asks for the ABT – select 6 then ENTER.
f. It then tells you that your pressure group after this level is B –
push ENTER.
g. It asks for the depth of level 2 - select 62 then ENTER. It
tells you that the multilevel limit (ML) is 30 minutes – push
ENTER.
i. It asks for the ABT – select 12 then ENTER. It tells you that RDP Use
Dive Theory
Review

your pressure group after this level is H – push ENTER.

How do you plan a multilevel dive using the eRDPML?
 ABT? 12 minutes
 PG after Level 2 is H

j. It asks for the depth of level 3 – select 38 then ENTER. It tells 


Depth for Level 3? 38 ft

ML is 90 min
ABT? 18 minutes

you that the multilevel time limit is 90 minutes – push ENTER. 

Safety stop – rule 2 applies
PG is M

k. It asks for your ABT – select 18 then ENTER. It alerts you that Level 1 – 105 ft for 6 minutes
Level 2 – 62 ft for 12 minutes
IMPERIAL
rule 2 applies, because your deepest depth is below 100 feet.
Level 3 – 38 ft for 18 minutes

l. Your ending pressure group is M.

Presentation Notes
169
 [NOTE: Use the following questions to test candidate understanding. Ask candidates to
explain their answers.]

Q: When using the RDP, a safety stop is required after any dive to
______________ or deeper and any time you surface within ________
pressure groups of an NDL.
A: 30 metres/100 feet, three
Q: What is the no decompression limit for a first dive to 25 metres/90 feet –
on the RDP Table and eRDPML?
A: 29 minutes / 25 minutes
Q: What is the adjusted no decompression limit for a J diver going to 12
metres/40 feet – on the RDP Table and eRDPML?
A: 102 minutes / 96 minutes
Q: What is the ending pressure group for the following three dive profile
using the eRDPML?
METRIC
Dive 1 – 30 metres for 18 minutes
Surface interval – 35 minutes
Dive 2 – 19 metres for 25 minutes
Surface interval – 55 minutes
Dive 3 – 14 metres for 35 minutes
IMPERIAL
Dive 1 – 90 feet for 18 minutes
Surface interval – 35 minutes
Dive 2 – 64 feet for 25 minutes
Surface interval – 40 minutes
Dive 3 – 47 feet for 45 minutes
A: T / X
Q: What is the ending pressure group for the following three dive profile
using the RDP Table?
METRIC
Dive 1 – 24 metres for 20 minutes
Surface interval – 44 minutes
Dive 2 – 16 metres for 33 minutes
Surface interval – 37 minutes
Dive 3 – 11 metres for 65 minutes
IMPERIAL
Dive 1 – 82 feet for 20 minutes
Surface interval – 44 minutes
Dive 2 – 49 feet for 33 minutes
Surface interval – 37 minutes
Dive 3 – 38 feet for 55 minutes
A: W / V

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170
Q: What is the ending pressure group for the following multilevel dive using
the eRDPML?
METRIC
Level 1 – 30 metres for 10 minutes
Level 2 – 17 metres for 13 minutes
Level 3 – 11 metres for 25 minutes
IMPERIAL
Level 1 – 100 feet for 10 minutes
Level 2 – 52 feet for 13 minutes
Level 3 – 40 feet for 25 minutes
A: R / Q

Summary
Dive Theory
Summary Review

I. Theoretical Knowledge



Theoretical Knowledge
Heat, Light, Sound and Water

Responses to Thermal
Changes
Responses to Pressure

Relationship of Pressure,

Gas Volume, Density and Changes on Body Air Spaces
Temperature
Scuba Cylinders

II. Heat, Light, Sound and Water

Buoyancy
Scuba Regulators

Gases Underwater
Gauges and Dive Computers

Circulatory and Respiratory
Decompression Theory
Systems
RDP Use

Responses to Nitrogen

III. Relationship of Pressure, Gas Volume, Density and

Temperature

IV. Buoyancy

V. Gases Underwater

VI. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems

VII. Responses to Nitrogen

VIII. Responses to Thermal Changes

IX. Responses to Pressure Changes on Body Air Spaces

X. Scuba Cylinders

XI. Scuba Regulators

XII. Gauges and Dive Computers

XIII. Decompression Theory

XIV. RDP Use

Presentation Notes
171
 Dive Theory
172