Prepared by: ASIF IQBAL

RESEARCH METHODS
An Introduction

Research means, seeking the facts or realities, or analytical research,

scrutinize the problem. In fact research is purulent of two words “re” and
“search”, which means to search again. It is in the nature of human being to
keep him or her active in seeking the fact.

“Research is a systematic and refined technique of thinking employing

specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain more
adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means.
It starts with a problems, collects data or facts, analysis them critically and
reaches decisions based on the actual evidence”.

Types of Research

Basically there are two ends of research:

 One is to solve current problems in work setting, or any micro and macro
economics problems.
 Next one can contribute knowledge in a particular area pf research e.g. if
you want to analysis the causes of inflation. Regarding this problem if
research improves your knowledge.

However generally there are two types of research known as:

 Basic research (Basic research deals with natural thing and explain it in
careful examination).
 Applied research (when the theory is applied to attain the desired result it
is known as applied research).

Categories of Research

Basically the research may be divided into two main categories:

 Qualitative Research
 Quantitative Research

In nominal and ordinal scale qualitative research is used. It deals with the
qualitative phenomena of interest. In social research normally we use
qualitative research. In quantitative research we investigate numerical or
quantitative type of information.

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Classification of Research

Classification of Marketing Research:

a) Exploratory research
b) Conclusive research
c) Performance-monitoring research

The exploratory research has systematic way, which includes use of

secondary data sources, observations, interviews and group interviews with
knowledgeable person and case histories. When researcher use such
information which help them to use the alternative course of action to study
the problem it is called conclusive research.

To describe the characteristics of variables we use descriptive research the

parameter of system, or economic phenomena market phenomena, and
marketing prediction. Performance monitoring research provides information
regarding the monitoring of the market system.

Steps and Stages of Research Process

 Chose a topic
 Design study
 Gather the data
 Analyze the data
 Data interpretation
 Research report

THEORY AND BASIS OF RESEARCH

Importance of Research

 To improve living condition

 For improvement in business
 Research in production and distribution problems
 For economic development

Research is equally helpful for economic development of country. As in case

of Pakistan economic research require in the following fields:

a) For rural-development
b) For agricultural sector
c) For industrial sector
d) For financial problems
e) For unemployment problems

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f) For inflation problems

Research Techniques

Basically research technique follows approaches:

 Qualitative
 Quantitative

In fact all research process is base on these two techniques. Further each
category uses several specific research techniques e.g.

1) Survey
2) Interview
3) Historical Analysis
4) Managing Research
5) Internet Research

Quantitative Data

1) Experiment Research
2) Surveys
3) Content Analysis
4) Existing Statistics

Qualitative Data

Qualitative research is conducted through field research and Historical

Comparative Research. Field Research includes:

1) Gaining access to a group or site

2) Adoption of social role in setting
3) Observation

SCIENTIFIC THINKING

Nature of Scientific Method

Scientific nature reflects in two ways:

1) Static
2) Dynamic

Static view is one in which we systemize the information, that includes

connected, theories, principles and laws. The dynamic reflects as a process.

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Hall Mark or Criteria for a Good Research Problem

1) Originality
2) Importance
3) Aim of research/ purposivness
4) Level of research
5) Availability of guidance

RESEARCH DESIGN IN RESEARCH PROCESS

Research design is always necessary before conducting research. A research

design is a basic plan that guides the type of information to be collected, the
source of data and phase of analysis of the research project.

Classification of Research Design

However following are some important research designs are as following:

1) Survey method
2) Exploring study
3) Descriptive research design
4) Experimental research design
5) Time series design

Research Design

Three steps are to be noted in research design:

1) What is a research design?

2) Basic issues of a research design
3) Component of a research

Component of a Research Design

 Title of the Investigations or Research

 Purpose of the Study
 Statement of the Problem
 Scope of the Investigation
 Objective of the Study
 Variables
 Formulation of Hypothesis
 Selection of the Sample
 Data collection (Primary data, Secondary data)
 Testing the Reliability of the data
 Tabulation of the results

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 Analysis of the Data
 Interpretation of the Result
 Suggestion for further Research
 Summary of the Report
 Preparation of the Research Report

VARIABLE AND HYPOTHESIS

Types of Variable

Independent Dependent

 Income, Price. Fashion, Quantity demand

 Taste. Weather,
 Substitution goods.
 Income, previous, peak income, Consumption
 Transitory income, wealth.

Hypothesis and Propositions

Hypothesis may be defined as instrument for finding relation ships between

variable to investigate further. Thus hypothesis is proposition as statement
in which we assign variables to cases is defined as entity or thing the
hypothesis talks about.

Types of Hypothesis

1) Null Hypothesis
2) Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis explains the exact relationship between two variables. In

other words the difference in the means of two groups in the population is
equal to zero. Opposite to null hypothesis or any hypothesis that is different
from null hypothesis.

The role of Hypothesis

In research a hypothesis serves important function:

 It guides the direction of the study.

 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
 It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusion that result.

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Characteristics of Hypothesis or Good Hypothesis

A good hypothesis should fulfill five conditions:

 Adequacy for its purpose

 Clear
 Testable
 Prediction
 Better than its rivals

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Measurement means assignments of number to characteristics of objects or

study. Measurement is fundamental aspect for any research. In social
research to study the behavior of people, nominal and ordinal scales are used
for investigation of problems. A scale is infect a toll or phenomena by which
individual are distinguished on the variable of interest to our study in one
way or another way.

Scales are classified in four ways but there are basically two kinds of scales:

1) Quantitative
2) Qualitative

Classification or Types of Scales

Qualitative scales study the qualitative phenomena like, age, religion,

attitude, opinion, diseases etc.

Qualitative scales have two types:

1) Nominal scales
2) Ordinal scales

For classifying or separating the properties into different classes, nominal

scale is being used. Ordinal scale is used when variable of interest have
different categories and it is required to pull all them in natural order. It
means where the comparisons are required, like greater less or equal degree
is required.

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DATA COLLECTION AND SURVEY RESEARCH

For data collection there are several sources are available for data collection
like, face-to-face interview. Telephone interview, computer assisted
interviews.

Data are basically of two kinds:

 Primary data
 Secondary data

In primary data, it simply means to attain the material initially for research.
In other words we utilize this data for applying statistical techniques in order
to get result.

Secondary data already passed from statistical process and it is published in

any source in a systematic way. e.g. In Pakistan e often use in economics
different secondary data from official sources and authenticated sources
like.

1) Economic Survey of Pakistan

2) Federal Bureau of Statistics
3) Agriculture Statistics of Pakistan

Sources of Secondary Data and Primary Data

1) Government Publications
2) Researcher Compiling
3) Interviews
4) Questionnaire
5) Internet
6) Survey
7) Annual Report

Principle and Techniques of Interviewing

 Understanding the Responsibility of Interviews

 Comfortable Situation for Interview
 Gaining Acceptance
 Purpose
 Asking Questions
 Getting Proper Answers
 Probing the Respondent
 Repeating the Question
 Recording

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 Closing the Interview

Open Ended Versus Closed Questions

Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they

choose. A closed question, in contrast, would ask the responds to make
choices among a set of alternatives gives by the researcher.

FIELD RESEARCH

Steps and Stages in Field Research

1) Prepare one self and defocuses

2) Selection of field site
3) Strategy for Entering
4) Learning the Ropes
5) Watching and Listening
6) Analyze the Data
7) Focusing and Sampling
8) Field Interview
9) Leaving the Field
10) Publish the Field Reports

SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling= Process of drawing a sample from population.

“Sampling is a selection hopefully representative of the total population of

universe that one series to study.”

Types of Sampling

There are basically two types of sampling:

1) Probability Sampling
2) Non-Probability Sampling

A simplest form of probability sampling is un-restricted simple random

sample, stratified sample, cluster sample, double sample.

According to researchers there are four kinds of non-probability sampling:

 Convenience Sampling
 Quota Sampling
 Purposive Sampling

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 Snowball Sampling

Steps and Stages of Sample Design

1) Relevant Population
2) Parameters of Interest
3) Sampling Frame
4) Type of Sample
5) Sample size
6) Cost Analysis

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Basic Objectives in Data Analysis

After the data editing and coding researcher has to focus on three core
objectives:

 The feel for data

 Testing goodness of data
 Hypothesis

Regression and Discriminant Analysis

This technique is used for mixed scale problems by the dummy variable
techniques. This approach gives new equation, which is used in nominal and
internally scales variables.

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The proposal is similar to research report but it is written before the

research project begins. Proposal always contains how research will be
conducted, picture of detailed methods and its importance.

Following are the main steps in the writing research proposal:

1) Title and Title Page

2) Introduction
3) Statement of problem
4) Review of literature
5) Objectives
6) Data sources
7) Methodology
8) Hypothesis
9) Model

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10) Reference

The Written Research Report

It normally seems unfair that poor final report can destroy whole study
analysis. Researcher can appreciate the results even with badly reported,
but non-researcher always influenced by quality of the reporting. The
researcher report contains the following contents:

 Findings or Result
 Analysis of Findings
 Interpretation
 Conclusion
 Recommendations

Research Section

 Introduction
 Problem Statement
 Research Objectives
 Background

Methodology Section

 Sampling Design
 Research Design
 Data Collection

Conclusion Section

 Summary and Conclusion

 Recommendation
 Appendixes
 Bibliography

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