The study of communication and mass media has led to the formulation of many theories:

structural and functional theories believe that social structures are real and function in ways
that can be observed objectively; cognitive and behavioral theories tend to focus on psychology
of individuals; interactionist theories view social life as a process of interaction; interpretive
theories uncover the ways people actually understand their own experience; and critical theories
are concerned with the conflict of interests in society and the way communication perpetuates
domination of one group over another .

I) Normative Theories:

Normative theories were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm
in their book called “Four Theories of the Press”. At first the word “Normative Theory” was
pronounced in USA during the height of ‘cold war’ with communism and soviet. Often it called
as western theories of mass media.

A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and operated by
the government, authority, leader and public. These theories are basically different from other
communication theories because normative theories of press are not providing any scientific
explanations or prediction. At the same these “four theories of the press” were came from many
sources rather than a single source. Sometimes media practitioners, social critics and academics
also involved to develop these normative theories.

Normative theories are more focused in the relationship between Press and the Government than
press and the audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of the media and
who controls the press or media in the country.

Authoritarian Theory

According to this theory, mass media, though not under the direct control of the State, had to
follow its bidding. Under an Authoritarian approach in Western Europe, freedom of thought was
jealously guarded by a few people (ruling classes), who were concerned with the emergence of a
new middle class and were worried about the effects of printed matter on their thought process.
Steps were taken to control the freedom of expression. The result was advocacy of complete
dictatorship. The theory promoted zealous obedience to a hierarchical superior and reliance on
threat and punishment to those who did not follow the censorship rules or did not respect
authority. Censorship of the press was justified on the ground that the State always took
precedence over the individual's right to freedom of expression.

The world has been witness to authoritarian means of control over media by both dictatorial and
democratic governments.

Libertarianism or Free Press Theory

This movement is based on the right of an individual, and advocates absence of restraint. The
basis of this theory dates back to 17th century England when the printing press made it possible
to print several copies of a book or pamphlet at cheap rates. The State was thought of as a major
source of interference on the rights of an individual and his property. Libertarians regarded
taxation as institutional theft. Popular will (vox poplin) was granted precedence over the power
of State.

Social Responsibility Theory

Virulent critics of the Free Press Theory were Wilbur Schramm, Siebert and Theodore Paterson.
In their book Four Theories Of Press, they stated "pure libertarianism is antiquated, outdated and
obsolete." They advocated the need for its replacement by the Social Responsibility theory. This
theory can be said to have been initiated in the United States by the Commission of The Freedom
Of Press, 1949. The commission found that the free market approach to press freedom had only
increased the power of a single class and has not served the interests of the less well-off classes.
The emergence of radio, TV and film suggested the need for some means of accountability. Thus
the theory advocated some obligation on the part of the media to society. A judicial mix of self
regulation and state regulation and high professional standards were imperative.

Social Responsibility theory thus became the modern variation in which the duty to one"s
conscience was the primary basis of the right of free expression.

Soviet Media/Communist Theory

This theory is derived from the ideologies of Marx and Engel that "the ideas of the ruling classes
are the ruling ideas". It was thought that the entire mass media was saturated with bourgeois
ideology. Lenin thought of private ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and
that modern technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective
freedom of press.

The theory advocated that the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of
workers and not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it was
the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.

2) Cultivation Theory

Cultivation theory (sometimes referred to as the cultivation hypothesis or cultivation analysis)

Cultivation theory in its most basic form, suggests that television is responsible for shaping, or
‘cultivating’ viewers’ conceptions of social reality. The combined effect of massive television
exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social reality for individuals and,
ultimately, for our culture as a whole. Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and
values which are already present in a culture: the media maintain and propagate these values
amongst members of a culture, thus binding it together. He has argued that television tends to
cultivate middle-of-the- road political perspectives. Gerbner called this effect ‘mainstreaming’.
Cultivation theorists distinguish between ‘first order’ effects (general beliefs about the everyday
world, such as about the prevalence of violence) and ‘second order’ effects (specific attitudes,
such as to law and order or to personal safety). There is also a distinction between two groups of
television viewers: the heavy viewers and the light viewers. The focus is on ‘heavy viewers’.
People who watch a lot of television are likely to be more influenced by the ways in which the
world is framed by television programs than are individuals who watch less, especially regarding
topics of which the viewer has little first-hand experience. Light viewers may have more sources
of information than heavy viewers. ‘Resonance’ describes the intensified effect on the audience
when what people see on television is what they have experienced in life. This double dose of the
televised message tends to amplify the cultivation effect.

3) Agenda Setting Theory

History and Orientation

Agenda setting describes a very powerful influence of the media – the ability to tell us what
issues are important. As far back as 1922, the newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann was
concerned that the media had the power to present images to the public. McCombs and Shaw
investigated presidential campaigns in 1968, 1972 and 1976. In the research done in 1968 they
focused on two elements: awareness and information. Investigating the agenda-setting function
of the mass media, they attempted to assess the relationship between what voters in one
community said were important issues and the actual content of the media messages used during
the campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that the mass media exerted a significant
influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign.

Core Assumptions and Statements

Core: Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the
news media. Two basis assumptions underlie most research on agenda-setting: (1) the press and
the media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it; (2) media concentration on a few issues
and subjects leads the public to perceive those issues as more important than other issues. One of
the most critical aspects in the concept of an agenda-setting role of mass communication is the
time frame for this phenomenon. In addition, different media have different agenda-setting
potential. Agenda-setting theory seems quite appropriate to help us understand the pervasive role
of the media (for example on political communication systems).