OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Related Literatures

2.1.1 Eggshells as an Alternative Ingredient

West (2012) analyzed that chalk was first formed into sticks for the convenience

of artists. The method was to grind natural chalk to a fine powder, then add water, clay as

a binder, and various dry colors. The resultant putty was then rolled into cylinders and

dried. But instead of this natural chalk, what is now being used in the making modern

commercial chalk is calcium sulphate (CaSO4) in its dehydrate form, which is gypsum

with the chemical formula [Link] (2017), indicated that there are three

main types of natural chalk: black chalk (made from stones such as carbonaceous shale);

red chalk, also called sanguine (made from red ochre or other red earths); and white chalk

(made from various limestones). Aside from this, producing chalk continuously has no

assurance because making chalk came from poriferous aqueous rock, a form of limestone

composed of the mineral calcite, an atomic number 20 carbonate, or CaCO3 which can be

found for over 4% of the Earth that were currently found. This is the reason why some

people wanted to figure out other alternatives for making chalk which could be more

convenient and less costly. (Pillans, J., 2011).

Explotarium (2017) described that an eggshell is made almost entirely of calcium

carbonate (CaCO3) crystals. It is a semipermeable membrane, which means that air and

moisture can pass through its pores. Furthermore, an eggshell is substantial in calcium
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

and can be use to make calcium carbonate. It was alao described in their research the

physical modification and chemical modification for surface modification of calcium

carbonate. The study also discussed about using eggshells to make activated calcium

carbonate aiming to develop it more as stated in the study of Cheng et. al (2013). Rodelyn

(2010) discovered that the eggshell chalks they've produced had specific property

structure. The researchers believe that their product is comparable commercially to other

commercial chalks, in terms of quality and durability. Other studies also stated that chalk

out of eggshell processed substitutes and their impact to the environment are considered

as a view to the innovation of industrial plants. In which, used eggshells can be used for

more safer ways for the environment itself. (Castle, C. 2017).

For further information from Cordeiro (2011), he described the chicken eggshell

and its membranes are an inexpensive and abundant waste material which exhibit

interesting characteristics for many potential applications. The eggshell is formed mainly

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and is used widely as an animal feed, lime (Ca(OH)2)

substitute or a fertilizer. Moreover, the associated eggshell membranes have a high

content of bioactive components, as well as properties of moisture retention and

biodegradability which have potential use for clinical, comestic, nutraceutical and

nanotechnology applications. The eggshell membranes have been also used for

biosorption of heavy metals and dyes and as a template to synthesize metal nanoparticles.

The combination of nanosized calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) biomaterials synthesized

from eggshell and eggshell membrane show promise to develop drug delivery system and
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

nanowires for electronic devices. In addition, a derived product, the soluble eggshell

membrane protein (SEP) has applications in tissue engineering.

As scientist Joe Regenstein has studied, the cell of a chicken egg is made up of

about 94% calcium carbonate, 1%chicken egg is made up of about 94% calcium

carbonate, 1%calcium phosphate, and about 4% organic matter, mainly [Link]

phosphate, and about 4% organic matter, mainly [Link] eggshell has pores through

which air, moisture, and even the eggshell has pores through which air, moisture, and

evenbacteria ca pass. The shell represents about 11% of the weight of bacteria ca pass.

The shell represents about 11% of the weight of an egg. The shell is made up of three

parts – the mammillaryor an egg. The shell is made up of three parts – the mammillaryor

inner layer is adjacent to the shell membranes and has a “knob”inner layer is adjacent to

the shell membranes and has a “knob”like appearance. The middle layer, the bulk of the

shell is made uplike appearance. The middle layer, the bulk of the shell is made upof

small calcite crystals, mostly randomly arranged with the poresof small calcite crystals,

mostly randomly arranged with the poresrunning through it. The cuticle or top layer is

thin film of protein thatrunning through it. The cuticle or top layer is thin film of protein

that covers the egg when it is laid, but which dries up and flakes over covers the egg

when it is laid, but which dries up and flakes over time. (Penuliar, J., 2010).

Eggshells are agricultural throw away objects produced from chick hatcheries,

bakeries, fast food restaurants among others which can damage the surroundings and as a
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

result comprising ecological issues/contamination which would need appropriate

treatment. In the ever soaring tasks to change waste to wealth, the efficiency of adapting

eggshells to advantageous application constitutes a concept worthaccepting. It is

systematically acknowledged that the eggshell chiefly consists of compounds of calcium

(Sivakumar, M. &Mahendran, N., 2014). In bone metabolism and the formation

especially in bone substitution, calcium as basic module is of high importance. Different

studies have shown that the use of eggshells as a bone substitute material is a promising

and inexpensive alternative. In this in vitro study, the effects of eggshell granulate and

calcium carbonate towards primary bovine osteoblasts were investigated. Hyaluronan

(HA) was used as artificial extracellular matrix (ECM) for the used cells to facilitate

proliferation and differentiation and to mimic the physiological requirements given by the

egg in vivo. (Neunzehn, J., Szuwart, T., & Wiesmann, H., 2015)

Basically, eggshells are composed of around 95% calcium carbonate. They’re not

garbage, but can be very useful around the house and yard. They also help to save money

by replacing many expensive, toxic chemical products that individual normally used

otherwise. Most good quality eggshells from commercial layers contain approximately

2.2 grams of calcium in the form of calcium carbonate. About 95% of the dry eggshell is

calcium carbonate weighing 5.5 grams. The average eggshell contains about 0.3%

phosphorous, 0.3% magnesium, and traces of sodium, potassium, zinc, manganese, iron

and copper, which can be a good ingredient for chalk.

2.1.2 Health-Related Issues with the Chalks Commented [I1]: Don`t disseminate the RRLs. Already okay
with this.

Abrahams, M. (2011) concluded that, real-time airborne chalk dust generation

was found to be low in this study … and did not contain toxic materials, chalk dust could

be harmful to allergic persons and may cause lacrimation and breathing troubles in the

long run and certainly is a constant nuisance in classrooms as it may soil clothes, body

parts, audiovisual aids and study materials. On the contrary, chalks could also bring

negative effects to people. The nanoparticles cause the major health risk due to high

deposition efficiency and low clearance rate by the mucociliary escalator. Therefore, the

generation of chalk dust nanoparticles near the teaching platfrom area is a serious health

concern for teachers. (Gorbunov et al., 2013). Using chalkboards in the classroom is a

traditional and effective teaching method, chalk generates a large amount of airborne

dust, and particularly submicrometer dust and nanoparticles that can penetrate into the

respiratory system.

2.1.3 Using Eggshells rather than Mining Limestones

Alwan (2012), mentioned that chalk has been used from very early on and natural

chalk rock was used to create some of the earliest cave drawings that man knows of. This

mineral is extremely abundant, and it is widely mined all over the world. In fact, chalk

made from eggshells is now being marketed by the Q.P. Corporation, the largest producer

of mayonnaise in Japan. They used 100% of the eggshells left over from eggs used in the

processes of manufacturing mayonnaise and other products. The company has expanded
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

eggshell use to school supplies, supplying them as a raw material for blackboard chalk.

(Alameda et al., 2017)

Waste eggshell was also investigated in triglyceride transesterification with a

view to determine its viability as a solid catalyst for use in biodiesel synthesis. Effect of

calcination temperature on structure and activity of eggshell catalysts was investigated.

Reusability of eggshell catalysts was also examined. It was found that high active,

reusable solid catalyst was obtained by just calcining eggshell. Utilization of eggshell as a

catalyst for biodiesel production not only provides a cost-effective and environmental

friendly way of recycling this solid eggshell waste, significantly reducing its

environmental effects, but also reduces the price of biodiesel to make biodiesel

competitive with petroleum diesel. (Wei, Z., Xu C., Li B., 2011). Under the

characterization measurements investigated, it was found that the pore structures of the

two biomaterials belong to a typical Type II, indicating that they should be basically

characteristic of nonporous materials or materials with macropores or open voids.

Further, the chemical composition of the resulting eggshell particle was strongly

associated with the presence of carbonate minerals from the Fourier transform infrared

(FTIR) spectra. In contrast to the resulting eggshell membrane particle, the presence of

functional groups of amines and amides was observable because of its chemical

composition of fibrous proteins. From the isotherm data of methylene blue at 25 °C, the

Freundlich model yielded a somewhat better fit than the Langmuir model. The adsorption

isotherms revealed the eggshell biosorbents could only uptake the basic dye of less than
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

1.0 mg/g in aqueous medium, which was attributed to their poor pore properties.(WT

Tsai, JM Yang, CW Lai, YH Cheng, CC Lin, CW Yeh, 2006).

Tests were carried out to determine the optimal quantity of lime and the optimal

percentage of lime-ESP combination; the optimal quantity of lime was gradually replaced

with suitable amount of eggshell powder. The lime stabilized and lime-ESP stabilized

mixtures were subjected to engineering tests. The optimal percentage of lime-ESP

combination was attained at a 4% ESP+ 3% lime, which served as a control. (OO Amu,

AB Fajobi, BO Oke, 2005).

Mortar and concrete are the main ingredients of the construction industry. To

produce mortar or concrete, cement is the building block. Cement is produced by using

natural limestone. When limestone is burned for the production of the cement, carbon

dioxide gas was liberated as a by-product which is recognised as a greenhouse gas and

have harmful effects on the environment. To minimize the harmful effects and to reduce

the consumption of natural materials, waste materials are incorporated in the production

of mortar and concrete. In research eggshells in the powdered form which passed through

the 90μm IS sieve has used as a partial replacement of cement for the production of

cement mortar. Eggshells are rich in CaO and have chemical composition equivalent to

that of natural limestone. Mix proportion of 1:3 is used for the production of the cement

mortar. ESP is added in the proportions of 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% by weight of

cement. The effect of ESP on the compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile

strength, weight, bulk density, water absorption and sorptivity are find out. SEM/EDS
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY – QUEZON CITY CAMPUS

analysis is done to understand the microstructural analysis to correlate the mechanical

properties. (Aman, S. & Shruti S., 2016).

2.2 Synthesis