CELLS REVISON NOTES

Structure and function of Eukaryotic cells

 Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles and a nucleus where the DNA is enclosed
 Plants, animal, fungi, algae and protozoan are al eukaryotic

Cell membrane Nucleus

Structure- thin layer that has no strength Structure- contains genetic information such as chromosomes and protein
and contains embedded proteins bound linear DNA as well as a dense structure called the nucleolus
Function- controls what enters and exits Function- Controls the activities of the cell. The nucleolus produces ribosomes
the cell and is involved in cell signalling and ribonucleic acid which then travel out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm
communication between cells and become involved with protein synthesis

Mitochondria
Chloroplasts (plant and algae)
Structure- has a double membrane. The inner
Structure- has a double membrane and a network of folded
membrane is highly folded to form cristae. Within the
granum flattened sacs of thylakoids. Contains a fluid filled stroma
inner membrane there is the matrix which contains
as well as starch grains
proteins, lipids, mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes
Function- Responsible for photosynthesis, absorb energy from the
Function- the cristae increase the surface area to allow
sun which is light energy to make food for respiration and
ATP synthase enzymes to attach themselves. This is the
photosynthesis
site of ATP production through aerobic respiration

Golgi apparatus Lysosomes

Structure- stack of membrane bound flattened sacs Structure- no internal structure and have only a single
Function- modifies and packages proteins from the membrane, membrane bound spherical sacs
endoplasmic reticulum and packages them into vesicles Function- digests damaged and worn out organelles, they also
which are then transported around the cell release the digestive enzyme lysozyme to break down material

80s Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic

Structure- small spherical organelles Structure- membrane folded into sacs reticulum Structure-
composed of long strands of rRNA dotted called cisternae embedded with flattened membrane called
with protein chains ribosomes cisternae
Function- they are the site of protein Function- synthesises and transports Function- recombines
synthesis from amino acids proteins in the cell glycerol and fatty acids to
Microvilli make triglycerides, packages
Structure- finger like projections of cell Cell wall them into vesicles then
membrane, found in epithelial cells in Structure- made of cellulose transports them to the Golgi
small intestine Function- limits amount of water entering body. Synthesises lipids
Function- increase SA faster digestion and because of strong H2 bonds between Vacuole (plants)
absorption of food cellulose, permeable to most molecules. Structure- contains cell sap
Gaps in cell wall called plasmodesmata Function- stores water,
Centrioles
which connect cytoplasm’s together to allow nutrients and other materials
Structure- set of microtubules
movement of water soluble molecules until they are excreted
Function- form network of spindles in
mitosis to pull apart chromosomes
 Structure and function Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells- smaller than eukaryotic cells and have no nucleus and no membrane bound organelles

70s Ribosomes
Cell wall Plasma membrane
Structure- small spherical
Structure- made of cellulose Structure- thin layer that has no strength
organelles composed of
Function- limits amount of water entering and contains embedded proteins
long strands of rRNA
because of strong H2 bonds between Function- controls what enters and exits
dotted with protein chains
cellulose, permeable to most molecules. the cell and is involved in cell signalling
Function- they are the site
Gaps in cell wall called plasmodesmata communication between cells
of protein synthesis from
which connect cytoplasm’s together to allow amino acids
movement of water soluble molecules Capsule
Structure- made of polysaccharides
Flagellum Function- protects the bacterium from other Plasmid
Structure- helically shaped structure cells and helps groups of bacteria to stick Structure- small circles of
containing protein flagellin together for further protection form DNA
Function- a means locomotion allowing chemicals also used to sticks cells together Function- used to
bacteria to move exchange DNA between
Mesosome bacterial cells also
Structure- folding of plasma membrane possesses genes that may
Cytoplasm aid the survival of the
Structure- gel like substance containing Function- allows cells to carry out respiration
as prokaryotes have no mitochondria bacteria in adverse
enzymes conditions
Function- carries out metabolic reactions as
there are no organelles to do this Circular DNA
Structure- spherical shape DNA
Pili Function- possesses genetic information for replication of bacteria cells
Structure- thin rigid fibre made of proteins
Function- this attaches a bacterium to a
specific cell

PROKARYOTIC CELLS Vs EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Smaller cells Larger cells
No nucleus Always has a nucleus
No membrane bound organelles Has membrane bound organelles
Smaller 70s ribosome Larger 80s ribosome
Cell wall contains murein Cell wall contains cellulose
Has Mesosome for ATP synthesis Uses mitochondria as ATP synthesis site
Circular DNA Linear DNA
VIRUSES
 Not classed as living cells so they are acellular
 Contains genetic info which can be RNA OR DNA
 Can be 1 stranded or 2 stranded
 Surrounded by protein coat called capsid
 Outside they have attachment proteins which help it to bind to host cells
 No organelles
 Cannot replicate independently
 Needs host resource to replicate

Different ways to study cells

Microscopes

Definition of words
Magnification= zooming in and making the image bigger and more clear
Resolution= the difference between two objects that are close together

LIGHT/OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
 Illumination is caused by the light
 Focused by the objective and eyepiece lens
 It is in colour and forms a 2d image- but sometimes need to be
stained by dye to be visible
 The magnification x1500
 The shorter the wavelength of the light the better the resolution
 Resolution of 200nm
 The specimens can be living or dead
 Simple, cheap and affordable

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Illumination by a beam of electrons
 Focused using electron magnets
 Specimen must be dead
 A very thin layer of the specimen is used so the electrons pass
through it
 Also, a vacuum is used this is where the specimen is placed so
there are no other particles justifying why the specimen must be
dead
 Resolution = 1nm
 Magnification = x500,000
 A 2d image which is black, and white is produced
 Expensive piece of equipment
 Has a complex staining method?

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

 Illumination is caused by a beam of electrons
 Focused using electron magnets
 Gives a 3d image which is black and white
 Resolution = 1nm
 Magnification = x500,000
 Very expensive
 Specimens are not sliced or thin
 Can’t see internal structures
Equation

CELL FRACTIONATION
Step one
HOMOGENISATION
The tissue is placed in a blender in a solution that is
 Ice cold to stop enzyme activity which would damage organelles
 Isotonic to prevent osmosis of water so organelles don’t shrivel or burst
 Buffered to maintain a constant PH level which could denature enzymes
This breaks apart the cell membrane to release the organelles

STEP TWO
FILTERATION
The mixture is then filtered to remove large pieces of tissue and unbroken cell membrane

STEP THREE
DIFFERENTIAL CENTRIFUGATION
The supernatant is spun in a centrifuge at a low speed and the nucleus is the first pellet because it is the densest
nucleus.
Then the supernatant is spun at a higher speed for longer and the second pellet is the mitochondria and the
chloroplasts.
The speed and time is again increased, and the third pellet is now the ribosomes