CHAPTER- 2

IN TR O D U CTIO N TO BENCH M ARK ING AND LITERATURE REVIEW

[Link] TRODUCTION TO BENCHM ARKING

Benchm arking is now regarded as a vital tool in the quality toolbox and the applications o f
benchm arking continue to grow in num ber and diversity as reflected in the literature. The
last two decades have witnessed a surge in the quest for quality as the markets are shrinking
due to stiff com petition. This sustained interest on using the technique o f benchm arking to

im prove quality has resulted in a surfeit o f articles and books.

D ecision-m akers are constantly on the look out for new techniques, to enable quality
im provem ent. While benchmarking, as a technique for quality im provem ent is not new or
unknown, it has now found more subscribers, and occupies a prom inent place in the action

agenda. Quite often, the benchm arking concept is understood to be an act o f im itating or
copying. But in reality this proves to be a concept that helps in innovation rather than
im itation, as stated by Thom pson, et. al. (1997).

2.2. BEN CH M A RK ING - CONCEPTS

2.2.1. A short history o f benchm arking

Throughout history, people have developed methods and tools for setting,
m aintaining and improving standards o f performance. One can trace the desire to improve
perform ance and the actual process o f im provem ent as far back as the early civilizations; the
ancient G reeks left us with exemplary w orks o f architecture, art and design. The Romans
who built upon the achievem ents o f both Egyptians and Greeks by developing the ability to
construct bridges and roads to standardised designs. In a real sense, benchm arking is a
natural evolution from principles o f Quality M easurem ent and TQM.
The early benchm arking phase began in the late 1950s. The Japanese visited many
thousands o f com panies round the world, m ainly in Am erica and W estern Europe,
specifically to absorb ideas that they could adopt and improve upon their manufacturing

14
processes. The Japanese investigated W estern products and processes to understand their
good and bad features, and build superior alternatives at low er cost.

A ccording to Camp (1993), benchm arking originated in the late 1970s in America
when the X erox Corporation adopted a sim ilar vigorous approach in 1979. During this time,
the X erox business plum m eted due to com petition from Japan. Then, X erox felt they had no
choice. Their com petitors were able to sell products more cheaply than X erox could make
them. To understand why this was, the product features and perform ance capabilities o f

com petitive m achines were rigorously evaluated and Xerox was able to investigate the
practices o f Fuji Xerox in Japan. The im provem ent opportunities that were identified and put
into place resulted in a swift turn around for X erox’s fortunes and led to Best Practice
Benchm arking becom ing a central part o f X erox’s business strategy. In the year 1982, Xerox
benchm arked its logistics and distribution unit against retailer [Link] to improve its
warehousing and material handling operations.
In 1985, M etro Toronto Reference library in Toronto, C anada conducted the first
known library benchm arking study o f its public service department. In the year 1991, the
term “benchm ark” was added to the guidelines for the prestigious ‘M alcolm B alridge’ award
and benchm arking became a qualifying condition for com panies aim ing at this award.
Benchm arking as a research strategy em erged in the 1990s, in the business sector. The
A merican Productivity and Quality Center (APQC) opened its ‘International Benchm arking
C learinghouse’ in the year 1992.
The history o f benchm arking as described by W atson (1993) has been categorised

under five generations o f benchmarking. The first generation was reverse engineering, which

was an engineering-based approach to product com parisons that included teardow n and
analysis o f technical product characteristics. The second generation was com petitive
benchm arking which Xerox refined starting in 1976. This type o f benchm arking went
beyond product-orientation com parisons to com paring processes with com petitors. In the
1980s, the third generation o f benchm arking was process benchm arking, w hich included
searching for best practices across industry boundaries. The fourth generation benchm arking
was strategic benchm arking; where it was used to fundamentally change the business, not
ju st alter the processes. Lastly, the fifth generation was global benchm arking, where

15
international trade, cultural and business process distinctions among com panies are abridged
and their im plications for business process im provem ent are understood.

Till date, benchm arking has naturally evolved as a technique encom passing concepts
o f com petitor and market analysis, quality im provement programm es, performance

m easurem ent and, perhaps most o f all, Japanese practices.

In summary, it can be said that the origins o f benchm arking, in one sense, be traced to
the early m ethod o f exam ining products o f com petitors to see how they are made and how
they could be made, whether the same or better.

2.2.2. Benchm arking - M eaning and definitions

Benchm arking as a Verb refers to a process o f com paring agencies’ operations and
perform ance against recognised standards and improving those operations to enhance the
effectiveness.
A benchm ark as a N oun refers to the numerical target or reference point for taking
measures against.
This w ord has migrated into the business world, where it has com e to mean: “A
benchm ark is a measured best-in-class achievem ent recognised as the standard o f excellence

for that business process” .

A ccording to W ebster’s dictionary (1990), the word benchm ark has its origin from
geographic surveying, where it means “A marked point o f known or assum ed elevation from

w hich other elevations may be established” .

The International Clearinghouse for Benchm arking (1992) defined benchm arking as the
“process o f continuously com paring and m easuring an organisation w ith business leaders
anywhere in the w orld to gain inform ation that will help the organisation take action to
im prove its perform ance” .
As stated by Me N air and Leibfried (1992), “To benchm ark is to shrug o ff history and to

em brace the future.

A ndersen (1994) states the generic definition, as “Benchm arking is the process o f
com paring som ething or someone with best practice” .
Best practices are collections o f activities w ithin an organisation that are done very well and
ultimately, are recognised as such by others.

16
 A ccording to the APQC (1997), benchm arking is “the process o f identifying,
understanding and adapting outstanding practices from other organisations to help an
organisation im prove performance” .

The core o f the current benchm arking interpretation is;

■ M easurem ent o f own and the benchm arking partners’ performance level, both for
com parison and for registering im provements. Comparison, o f perform ance levels,
processes, practices etc.
■ Learning, from the benchm arking partners to introduce im provem ents in one’s own
organisation.
■ Im provem ents as the ultimate objective o f any benchm arking study. Improvements
encom pass incremental change, m ajor steps and innovations.

The concept o f benchm arking, like TQM , has the concept o f the internal business process
as one o f its central ingredients. The crucial internal processes o f the business need to be
identified, and measures and m easurem ent points have to be established. C om parisons in
processes and process performance have to be made externally, as well as internally, and
process im provem ents need to be put in place.
In a nutshell, benchm arking is an advanced quality im provem ent methodology, which
may be integrated into a TQM system. It is the m ost important contribution by the W estern

w orld to quality im provem ent methodology, since the foundations o f quality revolution were
laid by W alter A. Shewhart, Dr. W illiams Edward Dem ing and Dr. Joseph Juran.

2.2.3. The need for External Com parisons

Today, com petition is on the global level for many businesses and in many critical areas,
the only sensible goals are the ‘W orld’s best practice’. For many other companies,

com peting in sm aller arenas, the targets may m ot always be as stringent, but the need for
realistic goal setting is ju st as important. Benchm arking is a method o f m aking sure that the
targets aim ed for are relevant to m arket demands. The technique is equally applicable in
m anufacturing and service organisations.
M aking com parisons with com petitors is not a new idea. Acquiring data about how
com petitors are performing, what their product range comprises, w hat prices are they able to
com m and, and perhaps their operating methods, has always been part o f a businesses modus
operandi. Thus benchm arking is a highly - respected proactive m anagem ent tool which is

17
increasingly being used to identify and focus im provem ent activities with the goal o f
international com petitiveness.

2.2.4. Benchm arking Barriers and M isconceptions

Gift, [Link]. (1994) have reported a few reasons for not conducting benchm arking. The
barriers identified include:

• Lack o f action
• N ot involving the appropriate people (process owners)
• N ot understanding that learning can happen even without inventing it.
• Lack o f understanding the internal processes
• W eak leadership
• Inability to see opportunity to improve
• O rganisation not promoting entrepreneurial behaviors, innovation or risk taking
• Failure to see need for change

As benchm arking emerged, an organisation that conducted any type o f com parisons, such
as com paring data w ith national norms, com petitive analysis, or unstructured discussions
with counterparts in other organisations, claimed it was benchm arking, as reported by
Keehley (1997). A quantitative com parison o f performance is only a small part o f
benchm arking process. An organisation needs to define the true meaning, role, and use o f

benchm arking in its own environment, including how it uses com parative data, as stated by
Gift (1996).
Com m on misconceptions for benchm arking can be com monly grouped under the

following:

• Benchm arking leads to rating and ranking o f performance

• Participation in benchm arking is revealing trade secrets that would lead to com prom ising
com petitive advantage.
• Benchm arking leads to explicit cause-effect relationships with best practices.
• Benchm arking is a panacea.
• It is a one-tim e programme
• It is a reactive tool
• Benchm arking is ju st copying others.
In summary, benchm arking is not simply data comparison, a fad, a means for reducing
resources, a quick-fix program, or consolidation o f visits to different industrial
establishm ents. Benchm arking is a means o f doing business, a continuous and disciplined
m anagem ent process w ith a structured methodology.

18
2.3. BEN CH M A RK ING MODELS

2.3.1. R equirem ents for a successful benchm arking M odel

A benchm arking model should have logical flow o f ideas. The attributes o f the model
should be clear so that people can describe it to others and the listener can understand in
order to translate into action.

A benchm arking model should have the following requirements built in:

• A clear understanding o f benchm arking requirements

• Identification o f benchm arking team
• Use o f effective project planning tools and techniques
• The model has to create a set o f expectations regarding the inform ation; how it is to be
gathered, reported and used to review and adjust progress o f activity.
• Identification and analysis o f gaps.
• Feed back provision to take action and recycle.

2.3.2. A review o f Benchm arking M odels

Benchm arking is usually treated as a structured process. The structure is best provided by
the developm ent o f a step-by-step model. The process models provide structure so that the
user can see the benchm arking route. They provide a com m on process in a language
understandable to all, by allowing a basic framework for successful planning and execution

o f a benchm arking exercise.

The literature has frequently cited benchm arking models. A few profound m odels have
been noted for review. It is also true that every organisation will approach the benchm arking
process from its own perspective and will need to custom ise the generic benchm arking model

accordingly. A few o f the models reviewed are:

• The Cam p M odel

• M eta-m odel developed by International Benchm arking Clearinghouse
• Baxter Benchm arking Model
• Spendolini’s 5-stage Benchm arking Process
• W atson M odel
• Leibfried and M e N air Model
• Benchm arking process Model
• The A PQ C M odel

19
 Each o f these models have exhibited benchm arking as a continuous process with
successive phases being critical to the successful execution o f the process. A B rief summary
o f these m odels is given in Table. 2.1.
Table - 2.1. Sum m ary o f Benchm arking M odels

NAM E O F TH E M O DEL STEPS/STAG ES REM ARK S

a. Cam p M odel (1989) Planning Extrem ely detailed
- Also called the X erox’s 10 Analysis Leaves no flexibility
step model Integration in term s o f chosen
Action procedure__________
b. G eneric “M eta-M odel” Plan Information given in
- Depicted by Andersen Collect the model is
(1994) Analyse extrem ely limited
- Developed by Adapt/Im prove Can be structured to
International Benchm arking suit the needs o f the
C learinghouse (IBC)_______ user
c. Baxter Benchm arking Preparation Phase: M odel is based on
M odel 5 Steps the prem ise that the
- D eveloped by Baxter Analysis Phase: best ideas com e
Corporate Consulting 10 Steps from people who are
- Portrayed by Lenz, S., closest to the
[Link]. ((1994) process
- 15 Steps model_________
d. Spendoloni’s Five - Determ ine what to A C ircular model
Stage Benchm arking benchm ark M odel portrays
Process Form a concept o f
- M odel conceived by benchm arking team ‘Recycling’ to
S p en d o lo n i(1992) Identify denote the concept
- 5 Stage Model benchm arking o f continuous
partners im provem ent
Collect and analyse
benchm arking
inform ation
Take action
NAM E OF TH E M ODEL STEPS/STAG ES R EM ARK S
e. The W atson - M odel Plan It contains fewer
- D eveloped by W atson Search steps than the
(1992) Observe Cam p-model
- Six Steps Model Analyse Describes all steps
Adapt in a com plete
Improve benchm arking study

20
Sum m ary o f B enchm arking M odels jContd..]

f. The Leibfried and Identify core issues Based on a logical

M cN air - M odel Internal baseline sequence to the
- M odel put-forth by data learning process that
M cN air and LeibFried External Data is em bedded in
(1992) Collection benchm arking
Analysis It is more a system ’s
Change Implement model w ith input /
output criteria______
g. Benchm arking Process Plan Sim ilar to
M odel Search Spendoloni’s Five
- Also called the Observe State benchm arking
“Benchm arking W heel” Analyse process
- A Circular model Adapt Steps are sim ilar to
depicting 5 steps_________ the W atson M odel
h. The A PO C M odel Plan This model is
- The Benchm arking Collect sim ilar to the ‘meta-
M anagem ent Guide (1993) Analyse m odel’
published by the American Adapt/Improve Follows the ‘plan-
Productivity and Quality do-check-act’
Center (A PQ C) proposed a sequence
four-phased benchm arking
m ethodology as a generic
approach to benchmarking.

In summary, it can be said that models merely contributed structure and a common
language for a process. These models in the literature review showed benchm arking to be a

planned, formal, and structured process. Further, there should always be some flexibility
built into any process or model to accom m odate situational variation.

2.4. TY PES OF BENCHM ARKING

Literature does not suggest consensus on the types o f benchm arking. A num ber o f
authors seem to capture different categories o f benchmarking. However, in general there are

four types o f benchmarking:

• Internal Benchm arking
Internal benchm arking means com parison o f internal operations between different divisions
or sim ilar functions in different operating units within an organisation. Internal

21
benchm arking com pares similar internal functions within an organisation, and it often serves

as a pilot project for conducting external benchmarking.

• C om petitive Benchm arking

Com petitive benchm arking compares a work process with that o f the best com petitor in the
same m arket. It reveals the performance m easure levels to be surpassed. Competitive

benchm arking is basically benchm arking against external direct product com petitors.

• Functional Benchm arking

Functional benchm arking compares a w ork function to that o f the functional leader in the
same industry or cross-industry. Functional benchm arking is done w ith functional
com petitors or industry leader firms, even if the industries themselves are dissimilar.

• G eneric Benchm arking

This focuses on the best work processes. Instead o f focusing on a com pany’s business

practices, sim ilar procedures and functions are benchmarked.

Further, as reported by Zairi and Pervaiz (1999), one recent categorisation has been from
the European Com m ission initiative that proposes three levels in benchm arking:

• Com pany
• Sectorial
• Benchm arking o f framework conditions.
Table 2.2. shows the different categories o f benchm arking. It is clear that at the mom ent
several varieties o f benchm arking exist and there could be some overlapping also. However

it is pertinent here to look at the categories as suggested by different authors.

22
 gO 13
Q
O I
C/l
O W) o r:: c
■i i W
V
gj
(5C U S -2
CO o
_ 25 ' O r. a
c3 s CO a
(U C J
0) O
\ s * \ s g -»-*
IZI
o

So ti C 03

g oq ?
B c/5
0>
2^ ^ CO
S
3 ,/5 O
Iu ^-C
(U
C

&0 CO
03

b
<D

T3 '> CO
CO ^CO w <U T 3
U
1/2 2 (L) (D CO a
3 .j=i (j
'• (J
S1
0
3 cx
v: 3 Oi : c
o>
H 0 ,^ 2 -D G . ^

I 00
O
b
c3
£3
0
•^3
^CO c
*^2

I3-° ^a'M |.S I^ •S 8 U C

I o
. a c
t3
I ' S n.B P cS
-*->
-4
D-*
II
c
5 Q i oU rrta
DXl C -s; ■S O c -« ^ Wa )
fi 't/I 75
§U-c>
o C3

2
C3 ^
•r- <U
c/3 ^ ■2 ^ 1 ) >-» <U a
h<
o
s: 05 O t/3
(D CO G :=: 32 0 - ^
h
_o
h
'I
S
«s

a
c3
&
o
c •-^ B (X 'S
I fi -g B <u
5
JS
(J o g 0 a.
G
-
l-H P 4 O X5 H (u 0 0
V
ca
CO
IM] 1)
S O o

1
o DO

fc.
a
(A
V
a
B G
(U
Is t j u
a ^
G >

e H
D ,
B o <u
JS y\
"3 M
JS
w
aV §
oq ^4-H
o
o3

CO - 5
oo
cq
o
s: 3T3 <D 00)0 ' gc3
^ 1
Xi
Cm
VI
d t3 tn S I *2 ■S Bo .
O § o o (U J-
OT O S ^ 00
a ^ e 3 .ti s .s
s ^
o
•(-» I S.2^c3 .2^ e I <L> o .
^ a B S
«

’C
o
t j
►H O
e

O O gI X o
fU u w
o
o

OX) C/3
CO
58 a
o J (U
o 1>

1
U
CO in C .S (L) J O
cV :3
a
c o CO ^ '«
c «
S ■5 .2 2
S bO sH
.4 >

-o
-s;

C
T3 cl
aS -*-»
CO - g
-s;
o
c
00 r C
c H
.2 2

•S Of)
c2
c/1

• -

611 cq g ) § g
05
^ D. O u
V
S a
c I'S 5 .2
'§1
.S

d
CO

(U
§

-P
•-^
a

£
c3 C - e l - i
B .2 B
-C -y
c
o s i
°
o
JS S.I Ia x>§B
o
. & .S 2 o
c
1»
CO
5

g .
■55 t ? TZi U
4> O
^ E .C §O1T3
Ji
s
a
H

T3
r i
r4

—
'£
O
.13
sn

§ 3S ot-
lo
R P s
ID
.2
C
OS ON
H < H-1 W w
 T3 cn -o
K “ (U <u C (L> u

bo
^1 C 0(/)> -12
c/5
(U 1)
C3
"5
c3 5cd
O C
2
0)
^
a o O ^ e

Is: T3O3 s
>
t* r-
C E S :
c/5 B- _ • *-H y—^ CC(11 O
!s « CiD cd ^ rv CL)
6 2 T »'>
D u I <U
a E
2
<U

o H .
S
(U
S 2
° I t;
S
C *-■ - G
C3 60 O
(U r “ * -^
CD’S -C 3
O

00 VI
<L) C ^ <L>
_

If
t 3 O ^ o C3 bl) C
1) C/5
I 'I §*1 §•§•?=
0

1
I cn
(U
X)
«;ri o

I - ;3
~C o '§ a . gf
o
-I ^ D a
V3

•a ^ a
i
§
&
E C
rn

C-J>
§ S 3 (U I i > ^ —
cn
^
w
c/3
n
.2
-P
,

oq 8 ^
E? g
DO O
o
o
CO
3
CJ
o
Ia cio ^ * c o
fli
13

-<-*
2 ^ D< to
Uh G ^ u a a O C
W)
a
a Vh
v< c o 00

s
« ■^i'Si
^ ^ S
Q
^>
O
g
C

J3 ' h (U =3 ^ cd
u
B l l « | 1 lB l ^ - B
u
CO 2 Si -SIS &I SoS :3
wc
c S
S 6
S h o
3 (U
r-<
<U (D
bO X )
VI Co «5
B <u
O a .U . A^ V3
(N

u
c3
00
,a
C ^ t2
&C ^
o
C/3
C/3 o
■-S "S °
CO
S ° o . s
M) I "to UI *C/3 § ‘I - c/3
13 2 S O
G i3 O
O I tC b ^
s. ^
o c 'is X) o
hi
« IS o
■ r~
>-i —>>"0
< o c/] a
c

s
u U I Ig
O O C
gC .§
rv ^ ogO s;
o
CO
C3
O

^ > -»
S ^ (U «
S
V
.o <0 oq C /3
h
U
O
O OO -C' ^U Ph
ts
c so
C X <+-i ^
O o
(U l-s 3
T3
«/3
C/3
-2
O
-§
§ 73

IZ)
e
o
• mt 00 S2
CO o
-♦-*

I Io « ^O S S to
•d o c
•SS
o
c s
&
g
!t!
O X )
u
o X 3
OD
-s: e
•M 0
c c j
o &s a ^ o

•M 03
fl
0> "q iL, (u c3
jS 1 ,o o & t :
s J->
s

•p«
"a
OD
I <u
C l.
oo .Sto2 T3 CS

o "w)
,£3 C« T3
W3 B N
§ '3
O (50 ON
Z o ON ]V h
cs s ON *c3
H < N Dh
 GO O
(U C
>
s; 2 o ^
^ a ° 3
•2
t;
c
^
I
c
11 13 -s ^ - o ^
s .s I J I
0X ^3
s p a P .t i T3
oq H 8 §,-K 3 .s I M
00
6fi CO o 00 •c
S 1 ? 00
> »-H »-• o a
"o o o § :2 5 o
K_
OS
d 00 -4-J
< D c3 3 (U u
B •t-N .s
ji t (X o
w
a<u
CQ
il o o o

<» >
a & (^o1
o
U
M)
a
-2
h.
ss
s
JS
u
e:
V
ja
•^i a I o I I I I I I I 1
1/3
s:
0
^J S c p ^ u:: .2
tn (L)*^ O V S'?? y W’z' H n
S s
rt O CX5
.2

1
•4irt (U
C I-I
o c« O
cn CO S
C|>
fl I § s ^ •d a
S I Ms
0»
§1o'ij
^ s:
(U
^ ^o Eg "
Q
.^
H CO o S .S c
CO

ip lg ll
"B a. > cd X) x> >-) :>
ec
•fi
»*
I
.£3
sn
*
(U
0> O V2
J= X>
CS
-4-f
3
(U
H <
In an interview to the journal ‘M anagem ent R eview ’ [Anonym ous-l (1994)], Juran used an
interesting anecdote to describe functional benchm arking. Early in the century, some German

generals decided to follow an American circus to learn about deployment. In those days, the

circus perform ed under tents, moved from city to city in a short period o f tim e transporting all

kinds o f people, animals, and gear, and were very efficient at it. The m ilitary had the same
problem , m oving large numbers o f horses, tents, am m unition, and food. The generals conducted
functional benchm arking with a circus, an operation not related to army.

2.5. BEN CH M A RK ING - A LITERATURE REVIEW

M any authors have contributed to the literature on benchm arking resulting in more than 350
publications as o f June 2002. Considering the growth o f publications, some attem pts have been

made in the past to review the literature. However, the present attempt as a part o f the research
work is different from the earlier reviews and more broad based in coverage. This review o f
literature, covers the following objectives:
" Arranging the publications in an orderly m anner to enable easy and quick search
" Classification o f literature
" Scrutiny o f outcom e o f publications
" Identifying gaps and providing hints for further research.
The review process first starts by providing a com parison among the earlier reviews on
benclimarking and highlights the outcome in each case. Next, a new methodology for classifying
the literature is suggested. The growth and categorisation o f publications are presented in a

graphical form for easy understanding.

[Link] R eview s o f Literature on Benchm arking

It w as found out during the current research that at least six literature reviews have been
made in the past and all but one were studied by the authors. The different reviews in

chronological order are:

1) “Roadm ap to Current Benchm arking Literature” ., Andrew [Link] Robert R. Safford
and W illiam W .Swart, 1994, Journal o f M anagem ent in Engineering., N ovem ber /

Decem ber., pp: 60-67.

26
2)a. “ A Review o f key publications on Benchmarking: Part I” ., M oham ed Zairi, and
M oham ed [Link], 1995., Benchm arking for Quality M anagem ent and Technology,
V o l.2 ,N o .l,p p : 65-72.

b. “A Review o f key publications on Benchmarking: Part 11” ., M oham ed Zairi, and

M oham ed [Link], 1996, Benchm arking for Quality M anagem ent and Technology
V ol.3, N o .l, pp: 45-49.

3) “Benchm arking: A Select Bibliography” ., [Link], 1995, [Link].36, No.3,

October-December.

4) “A review o f benchm arking literature”, Czuchry, A.J., Yasin, M .M ., and Darsch, J.J.,
1995, International Journal o f Product Technology, V o l.10., N o s.1/2, pp: 27-45.

5) “A fram ework for benchm arking in the public sector Literature review and directions for
future research” ., Jeffrey [Link] and M ahmoud M. Yasin, 1998, International Journal

o f Public Sector M anagement., V ol.l 1, No.2/3, pp: 91-115.

6) “Theory and practice o f benchmarking: then and now ”., M ahm oud M. Yasin, 2002,

Benclimarking: A n International Journal., Vol. 9, No.3., pp: 243.

O ut o f the six publications cited here, the fourth one namely ‘A review o f benchm arking

literature’, by Czuchry, [Link]. (1995) was not available to the authors at the time o f literature
survey and hence the authors could not use the valuable inform ation o f this publication for a
com parative study.
Further, a com parison am ong the earlier attem pts to review literature on benchm arking is made
using certain attributes. Outcome o f the different reviews are shown in Table - 2.3.

The attributes considered for com parisons are:

• Focus and Objectives: This refers to a b rief coverage o f the publications in term s o f the
content and the applicability.
• N um ber and Type o f Publications covered: The num ber o f publications listed and
w hether they are Text Books, Journal Papers, Conference Proceedings or Periodicals.
• Review methodology: It looks at the way in which the literature has been reviewed and
classified.

27
 ^■§ ~a
Ci,
m
S P
> S
0 .5 .2 oo
> i- ON
1 ^ ON

ll (D C/5
S .2
-a g ^p
k. C3 +-» M
■§ <5 vh o cd
(U (U <D
§ ^ .ti ^ ^
^ -Cl >-4 ^ v-i

o
W) u
a o3 U
c/0 X)
o
« tj
O
S ^ ■
IT)
ON c <3n
JS On r<-)
u
C
CQ
^ 12 bO l§4^ ia
ax)
ao o >
d 3
(U :t= 'Z 2 o u
PQ CQ c/i £ > Q
t
a
a V
u CJ
c/3
VI so
g lO
a>
NO
3
2
4> M
(U
bJ)
.. o ON
ON cS
cu) 5p
.
i Os ca
tj) 5p bo^
fN Cl
<+-, W -H ■CsQ ^ j o ■S § -2 . oo
(N
O
C -S N <3 IT) •l
_ § "o -{ ^ S Q '- ;
ON
sn
3 <D
.2 ^ -ct t 3
(U w ON <M ^ ^ ^
o c3 C . . ••
'>
> -::3
(U o ^o ^ a '
x; X! £ H CN >n
NO
a
C3
ft ^■§ I i S
Ph < a,CQ Dh o-i

IKt
B
S
IS
s
C/3
rn On
o g' On
(S o -a
3 G h c3
W c
c«
H B ^
Ch
O (U
eci cEi

'o
>
r>
. . o
V
+-
c
H-H ;z;
c
s ,o 3 H i>
T(U
JO
•p^ bO
^ —1

U4 "S '■§ JS cd c3
C/1 CL,
.2 •f“H g
_o ^ 3 13
-4—
» 3
O> 6
>
—
H < >" CL, a ,

(N
 O D
c ■>
+-* sa
-o♦-* o
13 H
(U 60
o •G^ §3
3 (/j
(U »n
P
Qh-Oo\
N c3
KS 1-H
!/l
c3
(U
>%
co ■
■s
c
(U
U
1 °l bb 2Dh (U
s
WDfO G ^ j:3
C •S d -X
■•g
« (50;
u 1 00 U

a c/2 O p i
>e T3 3
OS ^
73
w
B
(U 03 .i:3
W
a
o
(U
t3
<y> fS ON
rN
2
5
2
w
O <U
O -O
3
,o
'>
O)

CQ
a
s
3
tn

S
-2 S
§ .|
^;3 O
(u
fiH o
lo
 (N

X
a (L>
0 H
U CO
W
D O
C S2 O
1 D

Oi
CQ

s VO
JS
u Os
a
0>
n
s .2
o W)
tn c •o4-^ ’>
•—1
>>
D (D
'$ j::
c /3 U5
t o H *3 1 < I
(U O
s o O c o
•+3 bb
<L)
c/5 «s s c -4—> ,o > bb-o
e 3 «
:s CQ
0 +-* o
lu> 2
c
0) &fi N X rn

9 -♦-J
c/i eu 1 e a a
u to
2
V u VI 00
(U
§
o
ao CO
1>
g
e o
■> o CQ p o
(U o <u 3
pti JO < CQ s C / 3 s
<«
3
©
t/3
'i <L>
u -o O
8 a
m .2 a

« ^
B IC c^/3 s
B
s o^ S3 ^
c/3 c
< <u
OQ
r- S VO

I K
<u
-4-t
9 a
.£3

§
I
■K*

-O'
o
VO
 (U
o x: co
c/5

-♦-J
t+-l c s 2
o 2 a
cS •4C—> c3
T) * s
<4-1
o
O
i- t
0 g
J
o
ts G0>
1 4J d> u

T3 c/5

'o
e
o
ra fli
C /5 o
1-H a1) I 00
U
M)
B
&i II
■> o
2 "3
"S S2
o
°
<u !=
o!
C
2fa <U
2
)U
«
c^.a ^ , o
•tS ^ 00
<u
^
^ Is c/5

S X
c/3
2 H s ^3 g t S7c/57^ <U
Si <D W
u ■ ^1 c B
a
0) H .S 1 - 3 O O OJ
n
c
o
v> «
'> o
t 2i o
S lU J^
1C rs <o
o!m> ’(/2 s
c
3
-t-* (U X(L) O t3
R
O ^
-C
o s ^
^o ^"o
«!
s
o
‘> I g" ^ s
H ^ '-S ■g ° c <
Ph (u on (Jh
Oo
^ • rC S -o oI s ^
•r^ Oi o § 5^ - ^ C3 C
<u «

SII
r j

^5 .
C4
S
0 « g 3 & ao « Ph o
^I
CO J:5 G tn c/2 -^3 t/2 '■3 <U 13
•S;
ss 2 :^ 0 ^H ^f t t 3 Z o g S o
1D PL,
c« I U ^ > ■'r“3rt -S i/3 - ^ I-M
fl^
<D «—!
1 ^^ 2 X 'I S I U
S ' ! ' ? ^S ‘B c s CZ) 2 S ^
T3 1(U
^ S i ;t3 B § J D S IX , O <<U 13 < O

(=0 cl
S _o ,o
US "o '(/I
•n XJ _2
(U c
o
s u
00
Apart from these distinguishing attributes, certain com m on param eters like, the N am e o f
PubHcation, A uthor(s), Year o f publication. Journal o f publication are also used.

2.5.2, Pream ble to Literature review

There is a proliferation o f literature on the topic o f benchm arking in the last 15 years,

as revealed in this literature review. Considering the gamut o f publications it can be said that
the benchm arking technique has seen a steady growth and appears to be heading towards
maturity level.

As a part o f the research it was decided to classify and analyze the literature in detail. The
course o f action included the following steps:

■ U pdating the database to ensure that literature is as current as possible. The collection o f
literature has been reviewed till June 2002.

" For literature search, both hardcopy search in established libraries in India and electronic
search in W orld W ide Web were made. The w ell-known search engines available at
w w w .g o to .c o m ,[Link] and w [Link] were specifically used to

ferret the literature pertaining to benchm arking from a wide variety o f sources on the

internet. A n honest attempt has been made to include as many publications as possible,
w ithout claim ing that the listing is com plete or exhaustive in nature.
" D eveloping a classification scheme was the next step. First a bibliographical list o f all
publications was developed and a file was created in Excel spreadsheet.
" The review process in a different way and is illustrated in the subsequent sections.

2.5.3. M ethodology and Scheme o f Review

The classification scheme proposed includes a simultaneous parallel categorization that
highlights the growth o f literature from time to tim e and also the coverage o f benchm arking

specific to different groups like;

1. Benchm arking: General aspects or Fundam entals
All publications under this category deal with very general and fundamental concepts o f
benchm arking, essentially for first time readers. Fundamentals are usually covered to a large
extent particularly when the discipline is in the introduction and growth stage. This can be

32
confirm ed by the num ber o f publications, w hich appeared in the early time period o f the time
scale considered.

2. Benchm arking - Specific A pplications and Case Studies

People are m ore interested to know about applications and success stories. Therefore this

should be a useful group. Under this categorisation, all literature dealing w ith applications
specific to m anufacturing and non-manufacturing sectors are shown.
3. Benclim arking - Innovations / Extensions / N ew Approaches
When the technique reaches a saturation stage in term s o f its popularity, novel approaches
and innovations start appearing in the literature. This category is considered to recognise and
appreciate the novel approaches or paradigm shifts in benchm arking techniques or its
applications.
4. Benchm arking - Applicable to education sector

This categoiy is specially included here for the benefit o f academicians and also forms a
m ajor aspect o f the present research.
It is understandable that a very strict dem arcation in the categorisation is not possible
since there may be certain overlaps in the publications analysed.

A Pareto diagram o f the number o f publications in different categories is given in Figure -

2 . 1.

120
<0 100
c
_o
80
ra I Percent
60 --
n ■Cumilative Percent
3 40 --
Q.
5? 20
0 -
Categ Categ Categ Categ
ory-1 ory-2 ory-3 ory-4
Publication Categories

Legend:
Category-1 Benchmarking: General/Fundamentals/Models
Category-2 -> Benchmarking: Specific Applications / Case Studies
Category-3 -> Benchmarking - innovations and Extensions / N ew Approaches
Category-4 -> Benchmarking - Education
Figure - 2.1. A Pareto diagram o f the num ber o f publications in different categories

33
All the publications in the categories described earlier have further been coded based on the

chronological appearance o f the article, for the convenience o f the readers. The first code in
the form a num ber from 1 to 4, refers to the categories 1 to 4 illustrated above. Coding has
been done from 1980 onwards, since the concept o f benchm arking em erged during the

1980s. Also, the tim e interval for the first category is taken as 10 years.

This is adopted, since the number o f publications during the first ten years are not many.
Publications after 1990 have been categorised on a tim e interval o f two years. Thus, the time

periods are represented as “a” (ten years: January, 1980 - December, 1989), “b” to ‘h” (two
years each; January, 1990 to January, 2002). This tim e based coding is displayed in Table -
2.4.

Table - 2.4. The coding pattern for classification based on time o f publication

TIME FRAME
January January January January January January January January
1980 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
. - - - - - - Onwards
Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec.
1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001
Category CO DE
a b c d e f g h
1 1 -a 1 -b 1-c 1 -d 1- e 1-f 1 -g 1-h
2 2-a 2 -b 2 -c 2 -d 2 -e 2 -f 2 -g 2 -h
3 3-a 3 -b 3 -c 3 -d 3-e 3 -f 3 -g 3 -h
4 4-a 4 -b 4-c 4 -d 4-e 4 -f 4 -g 4 -h

As an exam ple, the article, ‘M easuring the U nm easurable’ by Brisley (1983) is coded under
1- a. This m eans the publication was made during January 1980-December 1989 and it deals
with Category - 1, nam ely “Fundamentals o f Benchm arking”. Similarly, a publication coded
under 4 - c m eans the publication came out during January 1992-D ecem ber 1993 and is

related to Category - 4, “Benchm arking Education Sector” .

Similarly, all the publications, based on this coding pattern, are identified in Table - 2.5, by
their serial num ber as given in the bibliographical list.

34
 Table -2 .5 . C ategorisation o f all publications

Category -1 Benchmarking: G eneral/Fundamentals/M odels

CODE ORDER IN TH E BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX
1- a Brisley (1983), Camp (1989a, b, c, d, e) Fuld (1989), Furey (1987), G uilm etle and
Carlene (1984), Johne and Snelson (1988), Pryor (1989), Tucker et al. (1987)
1-b Benson (1991), Biesada (1991), Bowers (1991), Camp (1990), Davis (1990), Dickey
(1991), Faidley and M usser (1991), Geber (1990), Linsenmeyer (1991), M artin
(1991), M aturi (1990), Meyer (1991), Tyndall (1990), W alleck et al. (1991),
W elleck et al. { \9 9 \), W hiting (1991)
1-c A ltany (1992), Atherton (1993), Biesada (1992), Bogan and English (1993),
Bookhart (1992), Brown (1992), Bruder (1992), Camp (1992, 1993), Chappie
(1992), Chung (1993a, b). Dale (1992), Day (1992), Enslow (1992), Ettorre (1993),
Fink (1993), Fitz-Enz (1992a, b, 1993), Flower (1993), Forger (1992), Foster
(1992), Gardner (1992), Hall (1992), Haserot (1993), H enricks (1993), Hequet
(1993) H iebler (1993), Hogg and Hogg (1993), H RFocus (1993), H unter and
Shearman (1992), Istvan (1992), Jennings and W estfall (1992), Julien (1993),
K harbanda (1993), Kimm erling (1993), King (1993), Kobe (1993), Lenckus
(1993b), M ain (1992), M cGonagle and Flem ing (1993), M icklewright (1993), M iller
(1992b), M ittelstaedt (1992), M onczka and M organ (1993), N andi (1993), N ew m an
(1992), Ogilvie (1993), O verm an (1993), Pansley (1993), Payne and Blackboum
(1993), Port and Smith (1992), Prestly (1993), Pryor and Katz (1993), Ransley
(1993), Richardson (1992), Ryan (1993), Sasenick (1993), Sharm an (1992a),
Sheridan (1993a, b), Shetty (1993), Sillyman (1992), Singleton-Green (1992a, b),
Soderberg and O ’Halloran (1992), Spendolini (1992), Sprow (1993), St C lair (1993),
Stratton (1993), Tuttle (1993), Vaziri (1992, 1993), Venetucci (1992), W eatherly
(1992), W eim er (1992), W eisendanger (1992, 1993)
]-d A nderson (1994a), Anderson and Pettersen (1994), A nderson and Cam p (1995),
Burgess (1995), Carris and Bartlett (1994), Czuchry et al. (1995), Fleisher and
Burton (1995), Goldwasser (1995), Grayson (1994), Hollstein (1995), Jackson et al.
(1994), Kinni (1994a, b), Lem a and Price (1995), Longowitz and Rao (1995), M alec
(1994), M oad (1994), Ottenliouse (1994), Pulat (1994a, b). Purchasing (1994),
Rigby (1995), Tutcher (1994), Vig (1995), Zairi and Y oussef (1995 a, c)
] -e Balm (1996), Bassi and Cheney (1997), Colding (1997), Dhawan (1996), Elmuti et
al. (1997), Elmuti (1998), Fow ler (1997), Harrington (1997), Lincoln and Price
(1996), M alcolm (1997), M organ (1996), Powers (1996/1997), Rogers (1997),
Schum ann (1996), Shen-Then (1996), Simm ons (1996), Singh (1997), Sm ith (1997),
Thom pson and Cox (1997), Zairi and Ahmed (1996)
1-f A m m ons (1999), Bhutta Khurrum and Huq (1999), Dorsch and Yasin (1998), Fetter
(1998), H illier et al. (1998), Holloway et al. 0 9 9 8 ), M cG onagle and Flem ing
(1998), W ah-Fond et al. (1998), Zoins (1998)
1-g B attaglia and M usar (2000), Dervitsiotis (2000), Longbottom (2000), Per and
H ollensen (2001), Prado and Prado (2001)
1-h Carpinetti and De M elo (2002), Strategic D irection (2002), Yasin (2002)

35
Categorisation o f ail publications [Contd.

C ategory 2 Benchmarking: Specific applications/case studies

2-a Cavento (1988), Drozdowski (1983), Fifer (1989), Lowis and A lbert (1985),
Subram anian (1984)
2-b Bem owski (1991), Eccles (1991), Press (1991), Quality a n d Productivity
M anagem ent A ssociation (1991)
2-c A llan (1993), Azzolini and Shillaber (1993), Bean and Gros (1992), Bracken
(1992), Bredin (1993), Brown (1992), Cecil and Ferraro (1992), Crow and Van Epps
(1992), Chung (1993c), Crespy et al. (1993), Davis and Patrick (1993), Ford (1993),
Gable et al. (1993), Gamble (1993), G off (1993), Harari (1993), Inger (1993),
Johnson (1992), Karch (1992), Krause and Liu (1993), Lenckus (1993a), M arkin
(1992), M cGaughey (1993), M iller (1992b), Owen (1992), Prairie (1993), Richman
and K oontz (1993), Roth (1992), Schefczyk (1993), Schmidt (1992), Sharman
(1992b), Shaughnessy (1993), Spitzer (1993), Verschoor (1993), W alsh (1992),
W atson (1993), W endel (1993), Zairi (1992)
2-d A dam and Vandewater (1995), Anderson (1994b), Baker (1994), Bell and Morey
(1994), Bhat (1995), Bowm an and Faulkner (1994), Bruder and Gray (1994), Chao
(1994), Chen (1994), Clayton and Luchs (1994), Cooper and K leinschm idt (1995),
Delbridge et al. (1995), Holt (1994), Lee and Howard (1994), Lorence (1994),
M aheshw ari and Zhao (1994), M atzko and W ingfield (1995), M orey and Dittman
(1995), O binata (1994), Oliver and M cDonald (1995), Petrick et al. (1994), Poirier
(1994), Sinclair and Zairi (1995), Sohal and Lu (1995), Sweeney (1994), Voss et al.
(1994), W allace (1995), Zairi and Y oussef (1995 b), Zhao et al. (1995)
2-e Bergstrom (1996), Buscaglia (1997), Chapm an and Hyland (1997), Clarke and
M anton (1997), Edgett and Snow (1996), Epperheim er (1997), Evans and Dale
(1997), Floch et al. (1997), Frederickson (1996), Fuller (1997), G oodm an et al.
(1996), Hamilton and Gibson (1996), Hiltrop and Despris (1997), Johnston and
K irch (1996), Keehley and M ac-Bride (1997), Lagoe and Aspling (1997), Le Sueur
and Dale (1997), Millen et al. (1997), M in and M in (1996), M in and M in (1997),
N acker (1997), Ogava and K etner (1997), Prior-Sm ith and Perrin (1996),
Ram abadron et al. (1997), Relihan (1997), Roche (1997), Schioeder (1996), Voss
and Blackm on (1997), Yasin and Zim m er (1996)
2-f A hm ed and Rafiq (1998), A hm ed and Zairi (1999), Badrinath et al. (1998),
Beaum ont and Sohal (1999), Beretta and Dossi (1998), Blinn (1998), Burgess
(1998), Buyukozkan and M arie (1998), Coe (1999), Colding (1998), C orbett (1998),
D avis (1998), Elmuti and K athaw ala (1997), Gilm our (1999), Glass (1998), Hsien-
Chen (1998), Jane-Davies and K um ar-K ochhar (1999), Jones (1999), Lagoe et al.
(1999), M ann et al. (1998), M ann (1998), M entzer et al. (1999), Parker (1998),
Pfohl and Ester (1999), Simpson et al. (1999), Sohal et al. (1999), Tang and Zairi
(1998a, b, c), Treadwell (1998), W hymark (1998), Zairi (1998a, b), Zairi and
A hm ed (1999)

36
C ategorisation o f all publications [Contd..]

C ategory 2 Benchmarking: Specific applications/case studies [Contd.. ]

2-g Brah et al. (2000), Chung-W oon (2000), Chung-W oon (2001), D arm ont and
Schm eider (2000), H anderson and Evans (2000), Johnson and Cham bers (2000a, b),
K um ar and Chandra (2001), Lagoe et al. (2000), M orling and Tanner (2000), M uthu
et al. (2000), N ath and M rinalini (2000), Robson and Prabhu (2001), Rodwell et al.
(2000), Sarkis (2001), Shen et al. (2000), Simpson and Kondouli (2000), Ulusoy and
Ikiz (2001), Zairi and W hym ark (2000a, b)_______________________________________
2-h D avis and Kochhar (2002), Hyland and Beckett (2002), M cAdam and Kelly (2002),
M ukherhee et al. (2002), U nderdow n and Talluri (2002)

C ategory 3 -^Benchmarking: innovations and extensions/new approaches

3-a Lewis et al. (1985)
3-b
3-c Crespy and Becker (1993), Harkleroad (1992), M cGonagle (1992)
3-d Elnathan and Kim (1995), Guim araes and Langley (1994), H utton and Zairi (1994),
Lu et al. (1994), Lucertini et al. (1995), M onkhouse (1995), Partovi (1994), W ebster
and L u(1995)_________________________________________________________________
3-e Behra and Lemmink Jos (1997), H iebeler (1997), Yun (1997)
3-f Anderson and M oen (1999), Bhattacharjee (1999), K um ar et al. (1999), M adu and
H ua (1998), M cNamee and Greenan (1999), O ’Dell et al. (1999)___________________
3-g Featherm an (2000), Fuller (2000), Razmi et al. (2000), Talluri and Sarkis (2001)
3-h Jeffcoate et al. (2002), Sharif (2002)_________________________________________

Category 4 -> Benchmarking: Education

4-a -

4-b -

4-c Shafer and Coate (1992)

4-d Brennan (1995), Houshm and et al. (1995), W illiams (1995)
4-e D ittenhofer et al. (1996), Fredenberger et al. (1996), King (1996), Parisean (1997),
W eeler(1996)
4 -f D ’M ello (1999), Epper (1999), Godfrey and Godfrey (1999), Howe and M artin
(1998), Lom as (1999), Payne and W hitfield (1999), Raghunath (1998),
4-g Fiekers et al. (2000), Jackson (2001), W an Endut et al. (2000)
4-h Laugham e (2002), Shaw and Green (2002)

2.5.4. O bservations and Comments

In this review, 384 publications in total are analysed for the purpose o f providing
insights to the growth and developm ent o f benchm arking concept. These publications
include specific papers in national/international journals, and conferences. O ther articles
such as exclusive reports in newsmagazines, newsletters, special columns and editorials are
left out as the authors feel that they deal with general inform ation in a lim ited mamier.

37
Similarly books w ritten on benchm arking are also omitted from the review. Further, 170

publications belong to general aspects or fundam entals o f benchm arking, 166 papers pertain
to specific applications/case studies in benchm arking, 27 publications com e under
innovations/extensions/new approaches in benchm arking and finally, 21 publications fall
under the category o f benchm arking applicable to education sector.

As seen in Figure-2.1., alm ost h alf o f the publications speak about the general aspects o f
benclimarking. O ften it is mentioned in literature that the benchm arking concepts were
initiated during 1989, after Xerox publicized it. A t this point, it is worthw hile to note that
attem pts to use this concept were made first, in the year 1983-1984 as indicated by Brisley,
(1983). In term s o f its application in the industry, Guilm etle and Carlene (1984), explore the

utility o f benchm arking in employee training whereas Lowis, et. Al. (1985), illustrate this

concept as a viable tool for com puter perform ance evaluation during the year 1985. It is also
interesting to note that, as publicized by Subramanian (1984) certain interfirm com parisons
were made in the A sian region as early as in the year 1984.
Regarding the application o f benchm arking concepts to industry and service sectors,
published literature started appearing in a noticeable way only after the 1980’s.

The contributions in the form o f technical papers on general aspects o f benchm arking are
m axim um in num ber during the period 1992 - 95. This is probably due to the initial
curiosity and interest generated on the topic. Thereafter there has been a decline, as seen in
the chronological listing o f publications num ber-w ise in the line graph in Figure - 2.2.

In the sam ple o f literature collected it is seen that there are 166 papers, specific to the
category “Benchm arking - Specific application / Case studies” . Regarding Case Studies
group, it is observed that one o f the first applications, namely benchm arking o f purchasing
activities w as done in the year 1983 as reported by Drozdowski, (1983). Subsequently many
case studies have been conducted in the m anufacturing sector and also in the service sector.
Even here, the num ber o f publications during 1993 -9 9 are maxim um and there after there is

a decline.

38
 Figure. 2.2. Graph Showing C hronological A ppearance o f all publications
This suggests that the concept has been applied successfully to alm ost all functional areas.
Table - 2.6, shows the application o f benchm arking to different functional areas.

T able - 2.6. Different functional areas covered by various authors

Specific A reas o f Application o f O rder in the Bibliographical Index

Benchm arking
Accounting Processes Beretta and Dossi (1998), Sharnian (1992b),
V erschoor (1993)
Banks M ukherjee et al. (2002), W endel (1993)
Benchm arking O perations Bredin (1993), Cecil and Ferraro (1992)
Business re-engineering A dam and V andewater (1995), Rishm an and
K oontz (1993), Sim pson et al. (1999)
Career M anagem ent Epperheim er (1997)
Change M anagem ent Clarke and M anton (1997)

39
 Specific Areas o f Application o f O rder in the Bibliographical Index
Benchm arking
Core Com petencies Per and Hollensen (2001)
Credit Function Chung (1993c), Gamble (1993)
Education D ittenhofer et al. (1996), D ’M ello (1999),
Epper (1999), Godfrey and Godfrey (1999),
H owe and M artin (1998), Lomas (1999),
Laugham e (2002), Payne and W hitfield
(1999), Raghunath (1998)
Employee A ttitudes Bracken (1992)
Environm ent B hat(1995), K a rch (l9 9 2 )
Facility M anagem ent Johnson (1992)
Finance Schmidt (1992), Spitzer (1993), W hymark
(1998)
Food and D rinks Industry M ann (1998)
Health and Safety M anagem ent Fuller (1997), Inger (1993), Lorence (1994)
Hotel Services M in and M in (1996, 1997), M orey and
D ittm an (1995)
H um an Resources Ford (1993), Hiltrop and Despris (1997), Holt
(1994), Parker (1998), Prior-Sm ith and Perrin
(1996), Rodwell et al. (2000)
Information Technology Allan (1993), G off (1993), Lowis and Albert
(1985), Quality and Productivity M anagem ent
Association (1991)
Law Courts Buscaglia (1997)
Library Shaughnessy (1993)
Logistics Cavento (1988)
M anufacturing Sarkis (2001), Sweeney (1994), V oss et al.
(1994)
M arketing Gable et al. (1993)
Operational Perform ance Voss and Blackmon (1997)
Perform ance M easurem ent E ccles(1991), M iller (1992b)
Physician W orkforce Floch et al. (1997), Goodman et al. (1996),
S ch ro ed er(1996)
Pre-project Planning Ham ilton and Gibson (1996)
Preventive M aintenance Practices Chen (1994), M uthu et al. (2000)
Product D evelopm ent Ogava and Ketner (1997)
Public Sector Bruder and Gray (1994), Coe (1999), Davis
(1998), Frederickson (1996)
Purchasing D rozdowski (1983)
Research and D evelopm ent Bean and Gros (1992), K iause and Liu (1993),
N ath and M rinalini (2000), Press (1991)
Retail D istribution Strategy M atzko and W ingfield (1995)

40
 D ifferent functional areas covered by various authors (C o n td ..]:
Specific Areas o f Application of O rder in the Bibliographical Index
B enchm arking
Risk M anagem ent Blinn (1998), Lenckus (1993b)
Sales Perform ance M ann et al. (1998)
Safety M anagem ent R elihan(1997)
Sales Forecasting M entzer et al. (1999)
Small and M edium Industries B adrinath et al. (1998), M cA dam and Kelly
(2002)
Spare Parts Logistics Le Sueur and Dale (1997), Pfohl and Ester
(1999)
Supply Chain Operations Ahmed and Zairi (1999), G ilm our (1999)
T elecom m unications N acker(1997)
Travel M anagem ent Bell and M orey (1994)
Treasury Treadwell (1998), W allace (1995)
W orld Class M anufacturing Owen (1992)

It can be seen in Figure - 2.2 that under the category o f “Benchm arking Innovations and

N ew A pproaches” , the num ber o f publications increased from 4 in 1990-91 to 38 in 1992-93.

However, 1999 onw ards there appears to be a drop in the number o f publications.
Here, the paper by O ’Dell, [Link]. (1999) is worth mentioning since the paper details

the applicability o f benchm arking in analysing how organisations seek to incorporate various
knowledge m anagem ent approaches into their business. Also, the paper by Guimaraes, et. al.
(1994) speaks about the relationship between overall company innovativeness and company
performance. They also point out that benclimarking innovation involves developing a plan,
which include dim ensions o f innovation success: seeking, evaluating, using and fostering
innovation.
A nother new approach to benchm arking has been highlighted by Fuller, (2000), w here the
use o f benefit curves for benchm arking processes has been extensively discussed. Similarly,

the paper by Featherman, (2000) uses uncertainty m odeling as a com ponent o f

benclimarking, w hich is a new approach towards benchmarking.
Among the 8 papers reviewed under the "Benchm arking-New Approaches" category, it is
w orthwhile to m ention the coverage o f two papers. First one by M cNamee, [Link].{\999)
reports about the Com petitive Analysis M odel, a new approach to strategic benchm arking o f
small firms. The second one by Talluri, [Link]., (2001) describes some geom etrical equations
that will help analyse benchm arking data.

41
Finally, in the category dealing with “Benchm arking in Education” , 21 papers have been
reviewed. These papers deal with benchm arking o f m anagement education, engineering
education, schools and student relations.

2.5.5. Critical View on Review o f Literature

A scrutiny o f the publications show that several aspects o f benchm arking along with
many interesting and diversified applications, have been covered in sufficient detail. These

publications can serve a great deal towards quality improvement. Thus academicians,

practitioners and researchers have a good num ber o f sources in the form o f more than 300
articles to study, discuss and debate over many aspects o f benchmarking.
The present review o f literature on benchm arking, carried out as a part o f on-going research,
has identified certain issues which have not been satisfactorily addressed or not been

addressed at all. These issues can be regarded as inadequacies and they offer scope for
further research and exploration. The issues identified are as follows:

a. Cost aspects o f benclimarking

The overall cost incurred in carrying out a benchm arking exercise needs to be established,

say in tem is o f cost models or cost equations. This would enable the decision-m akers to

decide upon financial com m itm ent before em barking on the benclimarking exercise.
Further it would allow to estimate the return on investment, and to convince the top
management. W hile a precise model is difficult, because o f variability o f factors involved,
an approxim ate m ethod w ould be quite useful.

b. Duration o f benchm arking exercise

G uidelines regarding setting up o f a tim efram e for conducting benchm arking are not
available. If a m ethod can be described to decide upon the total tim e involved in
benclmiarking exercise, it would prove very helpful in setting targets and deadlines.

42
c. H um an Resources in benchm arking activities
Rationale behind formation o f cross-functional benchm arking teams, identification o f tasks

o f benchm arking team s, and responsibility sharing among benchm arking team s, have not
been discussed in sufficient detail. The hum an role in benchm arking activities needs to be
clarified in com plete depth to ensure better team w ork in a benchm arking project.

d. Selecting benchm arking partner

Selection o f partner or superior performer, their duties and responsibilities, legal and business

aspects are to be further elaborated.

Sometimes, the superior perform er as recognised in terms o f m arket leadership or

achievem ents/success rate, may not be w illing to disclose the business practices. This could
be a m ajor deterrent in the benchmarking process. Further best practices followed in a

certain successful organisation may not necessarily be the best when adopted by other

organisations. Eventually, success rate may also significantly differ across organisations.

43
References - Exclusive to literature survey
(Not a part o f main references which appear at the end)

1. Adam. P., and Vandewater., (1995), “Benchmarking and the bottomline: translating business re
engineering into bottomline results”, Industrial Engineering, V ol.27., N o.2., pp. 24-6.
2. Ahmed, P.K., and Rafiq, M., (1998), “Integrated benchmarking: a holistic examination o f select
techniques for benchmarking analysis”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagem ent an d Technology,
V o l.5 .,N o ,3 ., pp. 225-242.
3. Ahmed, P.K., and Zairi, M., (1999), “Supply chain partnerships - Theory and example o f best
practice”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., No. 1., pp. 78-95.
4. Allan, F.C., (1993), “Benchmarking: practical aspects for information professionals”. Special
Libraries, V ol.84., N o.3., pp. 123-30.
5. Altany, D., (1992), “Benchmarkers Unite”, Industiy week, February, 3, pp. 25.
6. Ammons, D., (1999), “A proper mentality for benchmarking”. Public Adm inistration Review, V ol.59,
N o.2, pp. 105(1).
7. Anderson, B., (1994), “A benchmarking process model - The benchmarking w heel”. Proceedings from
the 10th International conference o f the Israel society f o r quality Jerusalem , Israel.
8. Anderson, B., (1994), “Benchmarking in Norweigian industry and nationship benchmarking”,
P roceedings fro m IFIPWG5. Workshop. Benchmarking -Theory an d practice, Norway.
9. Anderson, B., and Pettersen, P.G., (1994), "The basis o f Benchmarking - What, how, when and why?"
P roceedings o f the Pacific Conference on manufacturing, Jakarta, Indonesia
10. Anderson, B., and Camp, R.C., (1995), “Current and Future Development o f Benchmarking”, The
TQM M agazine, V o l.l., N o.5., pp. 21-25.
11. Anderson, B., and Moen, R.M .,(1999), “Integrating benchmarking and poor quality cost measurement
for assisting the quality management work”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., N o.4.,
pp. 291-301.
12. Atherton, M., (1993), “Strategy implementation; closing the management gap”. Industrial
M anagement, SepI O ct, pp. 1-2.
13. A zzolini, M., and Shillaber, J., (1993), “Internal service quality: winning from the inside out”.
Q uality P rogress, November, pp. 75-78.
14. Badrinath, R., Mahesh, K., Larre, O.H., Khari, M., and Williams, C., (1998), “Benchmarking for small
enterprises: the international competitive gauge” International Trade Forum, N o.2., pp. 14-19.
15. Baker, W .H. Jr., (1994), “In pursuit o f benchmarking excellence; the Texas Instruments Story”,
N ational Productivity Review, Vol. 14., N o .l, pp. 63-72.
16. Balm, G.J., (1996), “Benchmarking and Gap analysis: what is the next milestone?” Benchmarking fo r
Q uality M anagement and Technology, V ol.3., N o.4., pp. 28-33.
17. Bassi, L.J,. and Cheney, S., (1997), “Benchmarking the best”, Training an d Developm ent, November,
pp. 60-64.
18. Battaglia, J. Jr., and Musar, R., (2000), “Picking the right benchmark”. Journal o f Accountancy.
Vol. 190, N o.2, pp. 63.
19. Bean, T.J., and Gros, J.G., (1992), “R & D Benchmarking at AT and T” Research-Technology>
M anagement, V ol.35., N o.4, pp. 32-37.
20. Beaumont, N., and Sohal, A., (1999), “Quality management in Australian service industries”
Benchmarking: an InternationalJournal, V ol.6., N o.2, pp. 107-124.
21. Behra, R., and Lemmink, Jos, G.A.M ., (1997), “Benchmarking field services using Zero defects
approach”. International Journal o f Q uality an d reliability management. V o l.14., N o.5, pp. 512-526.
22. Bell, R.A., and Morey, R.C., (1994), “The search for appropriate partners: a macroapproach and
application to corporate travel management”. O mega, V ol.22., N o.5, pp. 477-490.
23. Bem owski, K., (1991), “The Benchmarking bandwagon” Q uality Progress, Vol. 24., N o .l, pp. 19-24.
24. Benson, T., (1991), “Challenging Global myths” Industry week, October, 7, pp. 13-25.
25. Beretta, S., and D ossi, A., (1998), “Methodological strategies for benchmarking accounting
processes”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.5., N o.3, pp. 165-183.
26. Bergstrom, Robin - Yale., (1996), “Benchmarking: how it is at Deere” Autom otive Production,
September, pp. 63-65.

44
27. Bhat, V .N ., (1995), “Benchmarking for environmental excellence” Industrial M anagement, V ol.37.,
N o .l,p p . 9-11.
28. Bhattacharjee, Pallavi., (1999), “Sharing Excellence”, Business World, July, pp. 56-57.
29. Bhutta, Khurrum, S., and Huq, F., (1999), “Benchmarking - Best practices, an integrated approach",
Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., N o .3, pp. 254-268
30. Biesada, A., (1991), “Benchmarking: as competition is heating up, so is the search for world class
performers”. Financial World, September, 17, pp. 28-32
31. Biesada, A., (1992), “Strategic Benchmarking” Financial World, September, 29, pp. 30-36
32. Blinn, James, D., (1998), “Benchmarking can help control o f risk” N ational U nderwriter, October,
S24, 25, 32
33. Bogan, C.E., and English, M.J., (1993), “Benchmarking; a wakeup call for board members (and CEOs
Too)”, Planning review, V ol.21., N o.4, pp. 28-33
34. Bookhart, S., (1992), “Benchmarking companies focus outward”. Industrial Engineering, February,
pp. 30-31
35. Bowers, F., (1991), “Benchmarking against the best”. Proceedings o f the International Research
institute Conference on Benchmarking, May.
36. Bowman, C. and Faulkner, D., (1994), “Measuring product advantage using competitive benchmarking
and customer perceptions”. Long Range Planning, V ol.27, No. 1, pp. 119-132
37. Bracken, D., (1992), “Benchmarking em ployee attitudes”. Training a n d D evelopm ent, June, pp.
49-53
38. Brah, Shaukat, A., Ong, Ai-lin., and Rao, Madhu, B., (2000), “Understanding the benchmarking
process in Singapore”, Benchmarking: an InternationalJournal, V ol. 17., N o.3, pp. 259-275
39. Bredin, A., (1993), “Benchmarking: Is it right for your operation?”. Com puter World, V ol.27., N o.40,
pp. 123
40. Brennan, J., (1995), “Benchmarking an alternative to OFSTED - lessons for higher education”. Q uality
Assurance in Education, V ol.3., N o .l, pp. 36-38
41. Brisley, C., (1983), “Measuring the Unmeasurable” Fall Industrial' Engineering Conference
proceedings, pp. 22-28
42. Brown, J., (1992), “Identifying and measuring customer focused performance measures” P roceedings
o f benchm arking an d com puter analysis in fin an cial service, December, pp, 8.
43. Brown, P., (1992), “Drawing a roadmap”, Financial World, September, 29, pp. 38
44. Bruder, K. A., (1992), “International benchmarking”. Com petitive Intelligence Review, Summer 1992,
pp.5-11
45. Bruder, K.A., Jr., and Gray, E.M., (1994), “Public sector benchmarking: a practical approach” Public
M anagement, V ol.76, N o.9, pp. S9-S14
46. Burgess, K., (1995), “Prospering in a global econom y”, Journal o f the operations Research Society,
V o l.4 6 ,N o .5 , pp. 553-561
47. Burgess, T.F., (1998), “Competitive priorities, process innovations and time-based competition in the
manufacturing sectors o f industrialising econom ies” Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and
Technology, V ol.5., N o.4, pp. 304-316
48. Buscaglia, Edgardo., (1997), “Benchmarking procedural times; a quality control approach to court
delays”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.4., N o.2, pp. 84-95
49. Buyukozkan, Gulcin., and Marie, Jean-Luc., (1998), “Benchmarking process formulation and a case
study”. Benchmarking f o r Quality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.5., N o.2, pp. 101-125
50. Camp, R.C., (1989), “Benchmarking: the search for best practices that lead to superior performance;
Part - I”, Q uality progress, January, pp. 61 -68
51. Camp, R.C., (1989), “Benchmarking: the search for best practices that lead to superior performance;
Part - II, Q uality Progress, February, pp. 70-75
52. Camp, R.C., (1989), “Benchmarking: the search for best practices that lead to superior performance;
Part - HI”, Q uality Progress, March, pp. 76-82
53. Camp, R.C., (1989), “Benchmarking: the search for best practices that lead to superior performance;
Part - IV”, Q uality Progress, April, pp. 62-69
54. Camp, R.C., (1989), “Benchmarking: the search for best practices that lead to superior perfromance;
Part - V”, Q uality P rogress, May, 66-68
55. Camp, R.C., (1990), “Competitive benchmarking: Xerox's powerful quality tool”. Conference B oard
Research Report, 937, pp. 35-42

45
56. Camp, R.C., (1992), “Learning from the best leads to superior performance”, Journal o f Business
Strategy, V o l.13., N o.3, pp. 3-6
57. Camp, R.C., (1993), "A bible for benchmarking, by xerox". Financial Executive, V ol.9., N o.4, pp. 23-
27
58. Carpinetti, Luiz, C.R., and De M elo, Alexandre, M., (2002), “What to benchmark?; A systematic
approach and cases”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol. 9 N o. 3, pp. 244 - 255
59. Carris, R., and Bartlett, B., (1994), “Benchmarking claims performance”. Risk M anagement, V ol.41.,
N o. 12, pp. 30-38
60. Cavenato, J., (1988), “How to benchmark logistics operations”, Distribution, V ol.87., N o.8, 93-96.
61. Cecil, R., and Ferraro, R., (1992), “I Es fill facilitator role in benchmarking operations to improve
performance”. Industrial Engineering, April, pp. 30-33
62. Chao, J.L., (1994), “Benchmarking Service laboratories”. Quality, V ol.33., N o.5, pp. 24-27
63. Chapman, R.L., and Hyland, P.W., (1997), “Continuous improvement strategies across selected
Australian Manufacturing sectors”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.4.,
N o.3, pp. 175-188
64. Chappie, A., (1992), “Benchmarking pits industry against World's best in class”, Engineering Times,
Vol. 14., N o.4, pp 1-6
65. Chen, F„ (1994), “Benchmarking preventive maintenance practices at Japanese Transplants”,
International Journal o f Q uality and reliability management, V o l.l., N o .6, pp. 19-26
66. Chung, R., (1993), “TQM: a commitment to corporate excellence”, Business Credit, March, pp. 18-19
67. Chung, R., (1993b), “TQM: internal client satisfaction”. Business Credit, April, pp. 26-28
68. Chung, R., (1993c), “TQM: benclimarking performance in credit fiinction”. Business C redit, May, pp.
19-21.
69. Chung-Woon, Kin., (2000), “Assessment o f TQM implementation: Benchmarking Singapore's
productivity leaders”, Business Process M anagement Journal, Vol.6., N o.4, pp. 314-330
70. Chung-Woon, Kin., (2001), “Benchmarking Singapore's high - TQM maturity organisations”.
Benchmarking: an International Journal, V o l.8., N o .l, pp. 8-34
71. Clarke, Angela and Manton, Stan., (1997), “A benchmarking tool for change management”. Business
P rocess M anagement Journal, V ol.3., N o.3, pp. 248-255
72. Clayton, T., and Luchs, B., (1994), “Strategic benchmarking at ICl fibers”, Long Range Planning,
V ol.27., N o.3, pp. 54-63
73. Coe, C., (1999), “Local government benchmarking: lessons from two major m ultigovemment efforts”.
Public Adm inistration Review, V ol.59, N o.2, pp. 110 (1)
74. Colding, B.S., (1997), “Dynamics o f best practice - a multi dimensional perspective”. Benchmarking
f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, Vol.4., N o.2, pp. 96-103
75. Colding, B.S., (1998), “Benchgrafting: a model for successful implementation o f the conclusions o f
benchmarking studies”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V o l.5., N o.3, pp.
158-164
76. Cooper, R.G., and Kleinschmidt, Elko, J., (1995), “Benchmarking Firms' N ew product performance
and practices, EMR - Fall, pp. 112-120
77. Corbett, L.M., (1998), “Benchmarking Manufacturing Performance in Australia and Newzealand”,
Benchm arking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.5., N o.4, pp. 271-282
78. Crespy, C., Miller, V., and Becker, T., (1993), “Export Benchmarking: export practices associated with
superior performance”, Journal o f Business an d Industrial Marketing, V ol.8., N o. 1, pp. 36-44
79. Crespy, C.M .V. and Becker, T., (1993), “Export benchmarking: export practices associated with
superior performance”, Journal o f Business & Industrial M arketing, V ol.8, No. 1, pp. 36-44
80. Crow, S.M. and Van, Epps, P.D., (1992), “An exercise in benchmarking”, HR Focus, V ol.69., N o .l 1,
pp. 3-4
81. Czuchry, A.J., Yasin, M.M., and Darsch, J.J., (1995), “A review o f benchmarking literature”,
International Journal o f Product Technology, Vol. 10., Nos. 1/2, pp. 27-45
82. Dale, B., (1992), “Code o f conduct’ helps to improve benchmarking visits”, Total Q uality, May, 6
83. Dannont, J., and Schneider, M., (2000), “Benchmarking OODBs with a generic tool”. Journal o f
D atabase M anagement, Vol. 11, N o.3, pp. 16
84. Davies, A.J. and Kochhar, Ashok, K., (2002), “Manufacturing best practice and perfonnance studies: a
critique”. International Journal o f O perations & Production M anagement, Vol. 22 N o. 3, pp. 289 -
305

46
85. Davis, P., (1990), “Perspective Benchmarking”, Total Q uality Management, December, pp. 309-310
86. Davis, P., (1998), "The burgeoning o f benchmaricing in British local Government - The value o f
""Learning by looking"" in the public services". Benchmarking f o r quality m anagem ent and
technology. V ol.5., N o.4, pp. 260-270
87. Davis, T.R.V., and Patrick, M.S., (1993), “Benchmarking at Sun Heath A lliance’, Planning Review,
V o l.2 1 .,N o .l,p p .2 8 - 3 1 ,5 6
88. Day, C., (1992^ “Benchmarking's first law: know th y self’, Industry week, February, 17, pp. 70
89. Delbridge, R., Lowe, J., and Oliver, N., (1995), “The process o f benchmarking: a study from the
automotive industry”. International Journal o f O perations an d Production M anagement, Vol. 15.,
N o.4, pp. 50-62
90. Dervitsiotis, K., (2000), “Benchmarking and business paradigm shifts”. Total Q uality Management,
pp.S641
91. Dhawan, Radhika., (1996), “Benchmarking”, Business Today, July 7-21, pp. 92-103
92. Dickey, J., (1991), “How Benchmarking contributes to total quality m anagem enf’. M aterial Handling
Engineering, November, 26
93. Dittenhofer, M .A., Scheiner, J.H., and Gavin, T.A., (1996), “An examination o f internal auditing
programmes at lAA endorsed schools”. M anagerial Auditing Journal, V o l.l 1., N o.5, pp. 14-20
94. D'mello, Bernard., (1999), “Management Education - A critical appraisal”. Econom ic an d P olitical
Weekly, Novem ber 27, pp. 111-129
95. Dorsch, J.J., and Yasin, M.M., (1998), “A framework for benchmarking in the public sector- Literature
review and directions for future research”, International Journal o f Public Sector M anagement, Vol.
ll.,N o .2 /3 , pp. 91-115
96. Drozdowski, T.E., (1983), “GTE uses benchmarking to measure purchasing”, Purchasing, V ol.94.,
N o.6, pp. 21-24
97. Eccles, R.G., (1991), “The performance measurement manifesto”, H arw ard Business Review, Jan-Feb,
pp. 131-137
98. Edgett, S., and Snow, K., (1996), “Benchmarking measures o f customer satisfaction. Quality and
performance o f new financial service products” Journal o f Services Marketing, V o l.10., N o.6, pp 6-17
99. Elmuti, D., and Kathawala, Y., (1997), “An overview o f the benchmarking process: A tool for
continuous improvement and competitive advantage”, Benchmarking fo r Q uality M anagement and
Technology, V ol.4., N o.4, pp. 229-243
[Link], D., Kathawala, Y., and Lloyed, S., (1997), “The Benchmarking Process; assessing its value
and Limitations”, Industrial M anagement, July/August, pp. 12-19
10 1 .Elmuti, D., (1998), “The percieved impact o f the benchmarking process on organisational
effectiveness”. Production and Inventory M anagement Journal, Third Quarter, pp 6-11
[Link], D., and Kim, O., (1995), “Partner selection and group fomiation in cooperative
benchmarking”. Journal o f Accounting an d Economics, Vol. 19., Nos. 2/3, pp. 345-364
[Link], B., (1992), “The benchmarking bonanza”. A cross the Board, April, pp. 16-22
[Link], R., (1999), “Applying benchmarking to higher education: some lessons from experience”,
Change, V ol.31, N o.6, pp. 24
[Link], J., (1997), “Benchmarking Career Management”, HR Focus, pp 9-10
[Link], B., (1993), “Benchmarking: the N ext Generation”, M anagement Review, June, pp 10-16
107. Evans, S., and Dale, B.G., (1997), “Benchmarking the engineer availability process - A case study”,
Benchm arking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, Vol.4., N o .l, pp. 7-17
[Link], R.A., and Musser, S., (1991), “Benchmarking”, The Executive Educator, V o l.13., N o.9, pp.
46-47
[Link], D.W ., 2000, “Using influence diagrams as a benchmarking tool”, available at:
[Link]
[Link], M., (1998), “Benchmarking - sharing our success and failure”, M edSurg Nursing, V ol.7, N o .l,
pp. 6(2)
111 .Fiekers, T., Dale, B.G., Littler, D.A., and Vob, W., (2000), “Benchmarking the postgraduate admission
process”. Q uality M anagement Journal, V ol.7., N o.4, pp. 45-57
[Link], R.M., (1989), “Cost benchmarking functions in the value chain”. Planning Review, V o l.17.,
N o.3, pp. 18-27
[Link], R., (1993), “Group Therapy”, Financial World, V ol.162., N o .l9 , pp. 42-48

47
1 M .Fitz - enz, J., (1992), “Benchmarking best practices”, Cannadian Business Review, V o l.19., N o.4, pp.
28-31
[Link] - enz, J., (1992), “Value added benchmarking: a tool for getting precisely what you want”.
Em ploym ent Relations Today, Vol. 19., N o .3, pp. 259-264
[Link] - enz, J., (1993), “How to make benchmarking work for you?”, HR M agazine, V oi.38., N o .l2 , pp.
40-46
[Link], C.S., and Burton, S., (1995), “Taking stock o f corporate benchmarking practices: panacea or
Pandora's box?”, Public Relations Review, V ol.21., N o .l, pp 1-20
llB .F loch, M., Sekscenski, E., Cultice, J., Plitzer, R., Hardwick, H., and Traxler, H., (1997),
“Benchmarking the physician workforce”, JAMA, The Journal o f the Am erican M edical Association,
V ol.277, N o. 12, pp. 964(3)
[Link], J., (1993), “Benchmarking Springboard or Buzzword”, H ealthcare Forum Journal, Jan/Feb,
pp.14-15
[Link], D.J., (1993), “Benchmarking HRD”, Training an d D evelopm ent, V ol.47., N o.6, pp. 36-41
[Link], G., (1992), “Where industry stands and where it is heading?”. M odern M aterial Handling,
September, pp. 48-52
[Link], T.A., (1992), “Searching for the best”. Distribution, V ol.91., N o.3, pp. 30-36
[Link], A., (1997), “How to use benchmarking?”, P eople Management, pp. 38-40
[Link], W .B., Marshall, L.L., and Ware, F.A, Jr., (1996), “Continuous improvement: a case
study in student relations”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality Management and Technology, V ol.3., N o.2., pp.
21-31
[Link], H.G., (1996), “Comparing the reinventing Government movement with new public
administration”. P ublic A dm inistration Review, V ol.56., N o.3, pp. 263-270
[Link], L.M., (1989), “Taking the first steps on the path o f benchmarking”. M arketing News, September,
11, pp. 20
[Link], C.W ., (1997), “Key performance indicators for benchmarking health and safety management in
intra and inter-company comparisons”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement a n d Technology’,
V ol.4„ N o.3, pp. 166-174
[Link], C.W ., (2000), “M odeling continuous improvement and benchmarking process through the use
o f cost benefit curves”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol.7., N o .l, pp. 3 5 - 5 1
[Link], T.R., (1987), “Benchmarking - The key to developing competitive advantage in mature
markets”. Planning Review, Vol. 15., N o.5, pp. 30-32
[Link], M., Fairhurst, A., and Dickinson, R., (1993), “The use o f benchmarking to enhance Marketing
decision making. Journal o f consumer Marketing, Vol. 10., N o .l, pp. 52-60
[Link], R., (1993), “Benchmarking Credit”, C orporate Cash Flow, May, pp. 32-33
[Link], E., (1992), “Putting guidelines into practice”. M odern Healthcare, September, 7, pp. 24-29
[Link], B., (1990), “Benchmarking-Measuring yourself against the best”, Training, V ol.27, N o .l 1, pp.
38-42
[Link], R.G., Stoddart., T.D ., and W ilson., K.B., (1994)., “Collaborative benchmarking in a health Care
system .”. H ealthcare Financial M anagement, V ol.48, N o.9, pp: 80-88.
[Link], R.G., Kinney., C.E., (1996), “Overcoming barriers to benchmarking in healthcare organisations”.
Best p ra ctice an d benchmarking in healthcare, V o l.l, N o .l, pp: 3-9.
[Link], P., (1999), “Benchmarking supply chain operations” Benchmarking f o r quality management
a n d technology. V ol.5., N o.4, pp. 283-290
[Link], P., (1998), “A benchmarking intervention into an executive team”, Total Q uality M anagement,
V ol.9, N o.6, pp. 519
[Link], J.M., and Godfrey, P.J., (1999), “Benchmarking Quality Management - How does it apply to
the University alumni office”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., No. 1, pp. 40-59
[Link], L., (1993), “Benchmarking resources grow for IS managers”. Com puter World, V ol.27., N o.46,
pp. 136-141
[Link]., C., (1995), “Benchmarking: people make the process”. M anagement R eview, V ol.84.,
N o.6, pp. 39-43
[Link], D., Fisher, E., Bubolz, T., Mohr, J., Poage, J., and Wennberg, J., (1996), “Benchmarking
the US physician workforce: an alternative to needs-based or demand-based planning”, JAMA, The
Journal o f the Am erican M edical Association, V ol.276, N o. 18, pp. 11(7)
[Link], C.J., Jr., (1994), “Back to the basics o f benchmarking”. Quality, V ol.33, N o.5, pp. 20-22

48
[Link], H. and Carlene, R., (1984), “Competitive Benchmarking - a new concept for training
Training an d D evelopm ent Journal, V ol.,38., N o.2, pp. 70-71
[Link], Tor., and Langley, Kathryn., (1994), “Developing innovation Benchmarks: an emperical
study”, Benchmarking f o r quality management an d technology, V o l.l., N o.3, pp 3-20
[Link], L., (1992), “Fundamental changes in Corporate restructuring” Industrial Engineering, September,
16.
[Link], M.R., and Gibson, G.E., Jr., (1996), “Benchmarking pre project planning effort”. Journal o f
M anagem ent in Engineering, March/April, pp. 25-33
[Link], K.M., and Evans, James, R., (2000), “Successful implementation o f Six Sigma:
benchmarking in General Electric Company”, Benchmarking : an International Journal, V ol.7., N o.4,
pp. 260-281
[Link], O., (1993), “Internal customer R.I.P.”, M anagement Review, June, pp. 30-32
[Link], D.H., (1992), “Competitive Intelligence: a new benchmarking tool”. M anagement Review,
V o l.8 1 .,N o .lO , pp. 26-28
[Link], J.H., (1997), “The fallacy o f Universal best practices”, TQM M agazine, V ol.9., N o .l, pp.
61-75
[Link], P.W., (1993), “Benchmarking: learning from the best”. The CPA Review, V ol.63., N o. 10, pp.
81-83
[Link], M., (1993), “How do you measure up?”, Sm all Business Reports, Vol. 18., N o.6, pp. 29-39
[Link], M., (1993), “The limits o f Benchmarking”, Training, V ol.30., N o.2, pp. 36-41
[Link], R.J., (1997), “Benchmarking Knowledge” Executive Excellence, January, pp 11-12
[Link], R., (1993), “A roadmap for success”. Industry Week, July, 19, pp. 53
[Link], J., Mackenzie, N., Matthews, J., and Mitchell C., (1998), “Does Benchmarking Work”, Supply
M anagement, May, 7, pp. 22-26
[Link], J.M., and Despris, C., (1997), “Benchmarking HR practices”, W orld Executives D igest, pp.
56-58
[Link], R., and Hogg, A., (1993), “A Quality journey; observations and suggestions regarding
continuous process improvement”. Total Q uality Management, V ol.4., N o.2, pp. 195-214
[Link], J., Francis, G., Hinton, M., and Mayle, D., (1998), “Best practice benchmarking delivering
the goods?”. Total Quality M anagement, Vol.9, N o.4-5, pp. S 121(5)
[Link]., B.R., (1995), “An outline for effective Benchmarking”, Security M anagement, V ol.39.,
N o .l,p p . 23-25
[Link], B., (1994), “Benchmarking comes to HR”, P ersonnel M anagement, V ol.26., N o.6, pp. 32-35
[Link], A .A ., Papadakis, C.N., and Ghoshal, S., (1995), “Benchmarking total quality programmes
in engineering colleges”. Q uality management Journal, Summer, pp. 44^57
[Link], S.W ., and Martin, G., (1998), “Internalisation Strategies for management education”, Journal o f
M anagem ent Developm ent, Vol. 17., N o.6, pp. 447-462
[Link], (1993), “The benchmarking boom ”, HRFocus, V ol.70, N o.4, pp.5-7
[Link] - Chen, W., (1998), “Benchmarking quality goals in service systems”. Journal o f services
Marketing, Vol. 12., N o.2, pp. 113-128
[Link], D., and Shearman, J., (1992), “Benchmarking”, Public U tilities Fortnightly, December, I, pp.
25-27
[Link], R., and Zairi, M., (1994), “D2D: a quality winners approach to benchmarking”. Benchmarking
fo r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V o l.l., N o .3, pp. 21-38
[Link],P., and Beckett, R., (2002), “Learning to compete: the value o f internal benchmarking”,
Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol. 9 N o. 3, pp. 293 -304
169.1nger. M., (1993), “Healthcare: a lesson in benchmarking for educators”, lEE Brief, N o .9., pp 2-5
nO .lstvan, R.L., (1992), “A new productivity paradigm for competitive advantage”. Strategic M anagement
Jowr«a/, Vol. 13, pp. 525-537
17 [Link], A.E., Safford, R.R., and Swart, W .W., (1994), “Roadmap to Current benchmarking
literature”. Journal o f Management in Engineering, Vol. 10., N o.6., pp. 60-65
[Link], N ., (2001), “Benchmarking in UK HE: an overview”. Quality Assurance in Education, Vol.
9 .,N o . 4, pp. 2 1 8 - 2 3 5
[Link]-Davies, A., and Kumar-Kochhar, A., (1999), “Why British Companies Don't do effective
benchmarking”. Integrated Manufacturing System s, Vol. 10., N o .l, pp. 26-32

49
[Link], J., Chappell, Caroline., and Feindt, Sylvie., (2002), “Best practice in SME adoption o f e-
com m erce”. Benchmarking: an InternalionalJournal, Vol. 9, N o.2, pp. 122-132
[Link], K., and Westfall, F., (1992), “Benchmarking for strategic action”. Journal o f Business
Strategy, V o l.13., N o.3, pp. 22-25
[Link], A., and Snelson, P., (1988), “Auditing product innovation activities in manufacturing firms”, R
(& D M anagement, Vol. 18., N o.3, pp. 227-233
[Link], B., and Chambers, M., (2000a), “Expert panel identifies activities and performance measures
for food service benchmarking”. Journal o f the Am erican D ietetic Association, V o l.100 N o.6, pp. 692
[Link], B., and Chamers, M.J., (2000b), “Foodservice benchmarking: practices, attitudes, and beliefs
o f food service directors”. Journal o f the Am erican D ietetic Association, Vol. 100, N o.2, pp. 175
[Link], S.E., (1992), “Benchmarking facility management practices”. M odern Office Technology,
V ol.37., N o.6, pp. 64-66
180. Johnston, W .M., and Kirch, D.P., (1996), “Benchmarking peer reviews”. Internal Auditor, December,
pp. 42-46
[Link], R., (1999), “The role o f benchmarking within the cultural refomi journey o f an award-winning
Australian local authority”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., N o.4, pp. 338-349
[Link], F.W, (1993), “The power o f benchmarking”. Internal Auditor, Vol.50, N o.4, pp. 22-28
[Link], K.M., (1992), “Getting organisational buy in for benchmarking: environmental management at
Weyerhaeuser”, N ational P roductivity Review, Vol. 12., N o. 1, pp. 13-22
184.K eehley, Patricia., and Mac-Bride, Sue, A., (1997), “Can benchmarking for best practices work for
Government?”, Q uality Progress, March, pp. 75-80
[Link], M., (1993), “Benchmarking: making it work”, CMA M agazine, V ol.67., N o.2, pp. 30-33
[Link], G., (1993), “Benchmarking: gathering best practices”. Training an d Developm ent,
V ol.47., N o.9, pp. 28-36
18 7 .King, G.C., (1996), “Benchmarking Management Education: what the best schools are doing to insure
currency, (Unpublished Article).
[Link], J., (1993), “Benchmarking on empty”. Com puter World, V ol.27., N o.51, pp. 73-75, 78
[Link], T .B., (1994), “Best Practices Revealed”, Industry Week, V ol.243., N o.22, pp. 30-32
[Link], T.B., (1994), “Measuring up: benchmarking can be critical, but it doesn't have to be expensive”,
Industry Week, V ol.243., N o.22, pp. 27-28
191 .Kobe, G., (1993), “Better benchmarking “, Autom otive industries, Vol. 173., N o.3, pp. 45-47
[Link]. I., and Liu, J., (1993), “Benchmarking R & D productivity”, Planning Review, V ol.21., N o .l,
16-21, pp. 52-53
[Link], A., Motwani, J., Douglas, C., and Das, N., (1999), “A quality Competitiveness index for
benchmarking”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., N o .l , pp 12-21
[Link], S., and Chandra, C., (2001), “Enhancing the effectiveness o f benchmarking in manufacturing
organisations “, Industrial M anagement an d D ata Systems, Vol. 101., N o.2, pp. 80-89
[Link], R., and Aspling, D., (1997), “Benchmarking and clinical pathway implementation on a
multihospital basis”. Nursing Economics, Vol. 15, N o.3, pp. 131 (7)
[Link], R., Arnold, K., and Noetscher, C., (1999), “Benchmarking hospital lengths o f stay using
histograms”. Nursing Economics, Vol. 17, N o.2, pp. 75(1)
[Link], R.,Noetscher, C., and Murphy, M., (2000), “Combined benchmarking o f hospital outcomes and
utilization”. Nursing Economics, V o l.18, N o.2
[Link], M., (2002), “Benchmarking academic standards”. Q uality Assurance in Education, V o l.10,
N o.3, pp. 1 3 4 - 1 3 8
[Link], Sueur, M., and Dale, B.G., (1997), “Benchmarking: a study in the supply and distribution o f spare
parts in a utility”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V ol.4., N o.3, pp. 189-201
2 0 0 .Lee, H., and Howard, J.L., (1994), “Measuring the quality o f services; the use o f internal climate”.
Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V o l.l., N o.3, pp. 39-51
[Link] a, N.M ., and Price, A.D.F., (1995), “Benchmarking: performance improvement toward
competitive advantage”, Journal o f M anagement in Engineering, V o l.l 1., N o .l, pp. 28-37
[Link], D., (1993), “Does benchmarking Control costs? Uh huh”. Business Insurance, December, 6,
pp. 12-14
[Link], D., (1993), “Risk Managers warming up to benchmarking projects”. Business Insurance,
December, 6, pp. 3-6

50
204.L ew is, B.C., and Albert, E, Crews, E., (1985), “The Evolution o f benchmarking as a Computer
perfonnance evaluation technique”, MIS Q uarterly, V ol.9., N o .l, pp. 7-16
2 0 5 .Lincoln, S., and Price, A., (1996), “What benchmarking books don't tell you?”. Q uality Progress,
March, pp. 83-86
[Link], A., (1991), “Fad or fundamental”. Financial World, September, 17, pp. 34-35
2 0 7 .Lomas, L., (1999), “The culture and quality o f higher education institutions: examining the links”.
Q uality assurance in Education, Vol.7., N o .l, pp. 30-34
[Link] , D., (2000), “Benchmarking in the UK: an emperical study o f practitioners and
academ ics’. Benchmarking: an InternationalJournal, V ol.?., N o.2, pp. 98-117
[Link] itz, N .S., and Rao, A., (1995), “Effective benchmarking: learning fi-om host's viewpoint”.
Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V ol.2., N o.2., pp. 55-63
[Link], D., (1994), “Benchmarking quality under USA healthcare reform: the next generation”.
Q uality Progress, V ol.27., N o.4, pp. 103-107
21 l.L ow is, B.C., and Albert, C.E., (1985), “The Evolution o f benchmarking as a computer performance
evaluation technique”, MIS Quarterly, V ol.9., N o .l, pp. 7-16
[Link], M.H., Madu, C.N., Kuei, C., and Winokur, D., (1994), “Integrating QFD, AHP and benchmarking
in strategic marketing”, Journal o f Business an d Industrial Marketing, V ol.9., N o .l, pp. 41-50
[Link], M., N icolo, P., and Telmon, D., (1995), “Integration o f benchmarking and benchmarking o f
integration”, InternationalJournal o f Production Economics, V ol.38., N o .l, pp. 59-71
2 1 4 .Madu, C.N., and Hua, Kwei-Chu., (1998), “Application o f Data envelope analysis in benchmarking”.
International Journal o f Q uality Science, V ol.3., N o.4, pp. 320-327
215.M aheshwari, S.K., and Zhao, X., (1994), “Benchmarking quality practices in India”, Benchm arking f o r
Q uality M anagement an d Technology’, V o l.l., N o.2, pp. 5-23
2 1 6 .Main, J., (1992), “How to steel the best ideas around”. Fortune, V ol.126., N o.8, pp. 102-106
2 1 7 .Malcolm, I., (1997), “Benchmarking performance Gap - Real or a problem o f definition”,
M anagement Accounting, pp. 38-39
218.M alec, H.A., (1994), “Benchmarking barometers for products and processes”, Q uality an d Reliability
Engineering International, Vol. 10., N o.6, pp. 455-465
219. Mann, L., Samson, D., and Dow, D., (1998), “A field experiment on the effects o f benchmarking and
goal setting on company sales performance”. Journal o f M anagement, V ol.24, N o. 1, pp. 73(24)
2 2 0 .Mann, R., (1998), “Best Practices in food and drinks industry”. Benchmarking fo r Quality
M anagem ent an d Technology’, V ol.5., N o.3, pp. 184-199
2 2 1 .Markin, A., (1992), “How to implement competitive cost benchmarking?”. Journal o f Business
Strategy, Vol. 13., N o .3, pp. 14-20
2 2 2 .Martin, Patrica., (1991), “Benchmarking: a leg upon the learning curve”. M anage, May, pp. 30-33
[Link], Richard, J., (1990), “Benchmarking the search for quality”, The Financial Manager,
March/April, 26-31.
224.M atzko, M., and Wingfield, C., (1995), “Coming: a source o f Competitive benchmarking for retail
distribution strategy”. Journal o f R etail Banking, Vol. 17., N o.2, pp. 9-14
2 2 5 .Me Adam, R., and Kelly, M., (2002), “A business excellence approach to generic benchmarking in
SM Es”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol. 9, N o .l, pp. 7-27
2 2 6 .Me Gaughey, N ., (1993), “Customer Service: lessons from World-Class Companies”, Industrial
Engineering, March, pp. 18-20
227. Me Gonagle, John, J, Jr., (1992), “Benchmarking and Competitive intelligence”. Journal f o r quality
an d participation. Vol. 15., N o.5, pp. 30-35
2 2 8 .Me Gonagle, John, J, Jr., and Fleming, D., (1993), “N ew options inbenchmarking”.Journal fo r
quality an d participation". Vol. 16., N o.4, pp. 60-67
229. Me Gonagle, John, J, Jr., and Fleming, D., (1998), “Options in benchmarking”. Journal f o r quality and
participation, Mar/April, pp. 38-42
2 3 0 .Me Namee, P., and Greenan, K., (1999), “The Competitive analysis model. A new approach to
strategic development for small businesses”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.6., N o.2,
pp. 125-139
231.M entzer, J., Bienstock, C. and Kahn, K., (1999), “Benchmarking sales forecasting management”,
Business Horizons, V ol.42, N o.3, pp. 48(9)
2 3 2 .Meyer, R., (1991), “Preserving the WA”, Financial World, V o l.160., N o .l9 , pp. 52-54

51
233.M icklewright, M.J., (1993), “Competitive benciimarking: Large gains for small companies”, Quality
P rogress, V ol.26., N o.6, pp. 67-68
234.M illen, R., Sohal, A., Dapiran, P., Leib, R., and W assenhove, Luk, [Link]., (1997), “Benchmarking
Australian Finns' usage o f contract logistics services: a comparison with American and Western
Europian practice”, Benchmarking fo r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V ol.4., N o .l , pp. 34-46
2 3 5 .Miller, J., (1992a), “Measuring progress through benchmarking”, CMA M agazine, May, p. 37
236.M iller, J., (1992b), “Benchmarking Performance”, CMA M agazine, June, p. 23
2 3 7 .Min, H., and Min, H., (1996), “Competitive benchmarking o f Korean Luxury hotels using Analytic
Hierarchy Process and Competitive Gap Analysis”, The Journal o f Services Marketing, Vol. 10., N o.3,
pp. 58-72
2 3 8 .Min, H., and Min, H., (1997), “Benchmarking the quality o f hotel services: managerial perspectives”,
International Journal o f Q uality and R eliability Management, Vol. 14., N o.6, pp. 582-597
239.M ittelstaedt, R.E., Jr., (1992), “Benchmarking: How to learn fi'om best in class practices”, N ational
P roductivity Review, V o l.12., N o.3, pp. 301-315
240.M oad, J., (1994), “Successful benchmarking with the team approach”, Datam ation, V ol.40., N o.3, pp.
53-56
241.M onczka, R., and Morgan, J., (1993), “Benchmarking; what you need to do to make it work’.
Purchasing, V o l.l 14., N o .l, pp. 63-69
242.M onkhouse, E., (1995), “Role o f competitive benchmarking in small and medium enterprises”.
Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.2., N o.4, pp. 41-50
2 4 3 .Morey, R.C., and Dittman, D.A., (1995), “Evaluating a hotel GM's performance: a case study in
benchmarking”, C ornell H otel an d Restaurant Adm inistration Quarterly, V ol.36., N o.5, pp. 30-35
2 4 4 .Morgan, J., (1996), “Benchmarking is not an instant hit”, Purchasing, pp. 42-47
245.M orling, P. and Tanner, S., (2000), “Benchmarking a public service business management system”.
Total Q uality Management, pp. S 4 17
246.M ukherjee, A., Nath, P, and Pal, M.N., (2002), “Performance benchmarking and strategic
homogeneity o f Indian banks”. The International Journal o f Bank Marketing, Vol. 20 N o. 3, pp. 122 -
139
[Link], S., Devadasan, S.R., Ahmed, Saleem. [Link]., (2000), “Benchmarking for Strategic maintenance
quality improvement “, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7., N o.4, pp. 292-303
[Link], M., (1997), “Telecommunications; Benchmarking proven practices”. Credit World, pp. 5 ~ 17
[Link], S.N ., (1993), “Interfirm comparison for productivity improvement”, A P O P roductivity Journal,
pp. 1 5 3-180
[Link], P., and Mrinalini, M., (2000), “Benchmarking the best practices o f non-corporate R & D
organisations “, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7., N o.2, pp. 86-97
25 1 .Newman, G., (1992), “A True advance or merely a fad”. Across the board, June, pp. 9-10
252.0binata, Y., (1994), “Benchmarking: the Japanese experience”. Long Range Planning, V ol.27., N o.4,
pp. 48-53
2 5 3 .O'Dell, C., Wiig, K., and Odem, P., (1999), “Benchmarking Unveils emerging knowledge
Management Strategies”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol.6., N o.3, pp. 202-211
2 5 4 .0 g a v a , D., and Ketner, L., (1997), “Benchmarking Product Development”, Telephony, pp. 34-38
2 5 5 .0 g ilv ie , T.J., (1993), “Lost in Space: typical benchmarking problems”. M anagem ent Review, V ol.82.,
N o.9, pp. 20-22
2 5 6 .Oliver, G.A., and Me Donald, L.L., (1995), “Benchmarking the business”, M ortgauge Banking,
V ol.56., N o .l, pp. 141-152
257.0ttenhouse, D., (1994), “Making benchmarking faster. Cheaper and easier “, CMA M agazine, V ol.68.,
N o .l, pp. 23-26
25 8 .Overman, S., (1993), “In search o f best practices”, HRM agizine, V ol.38, N o .l2 , pp. 48-50
25 9 .Owen, J., (1992), “Benchmarking World-Class manufacturing”. Manufacturing Engineering, March,
pp. 29-34
[Link], D.L., (1993), “Training managers to benchmark”. Planning Review, V ol.21., N o .l, pp. 26-32
[Link], S.E., (1997), “Addressing service quality in schools o f business”. International Journal o f
Q uality an d R eliability M anagement, Vol. 14., N o.3, pp. 204-218
2 6 2 .Parker, N., (1998), “The employment service benchmarking study: internal vacancy filling”.
Benchm arking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.5., N o.3, pp. 200-224

52
[Link], F.Y., (1994), “Determining what to benchmaric: an analytic hierarchy approach”, International
Journal o f O perations an d Production M anagement, Vol. 14., N o.6, pp. 25-39
2 6 4 .Payne, J.S., and Blackboum, J.M., (1993), “Learning through Benchmarking”, Jonrnal o f Q uality and
Participation, Vol. 16., N o.5, pp. 62-65
2 6 5 .Payne, S.L., and Whitfield, M.J., (1999), “Benchmarking for Business schools/Colleges: implementing
an alternative partnership approach”, Journal o f Education fo r Business, pp. 5-9
[Link], V.F., and Hollensen, S., (2001), "The process o f benchmarking, benchleaming and benchaction",
TQM -M agazine, Vol. 13., N o .l, pp. 25-33
[Link]. J., Scherer, R., Crabtree, Wilson, J., and Westfall, P., (1994), “Benchmarking and improving
core com petencies”. Journal o f Quality an d P articipation, Vol. 17., N o.4, pp. 62-65
[Link], Hans - Christian., and Ester, B., (1999), “Benchmarking for spare parts logistics”,
Benchmarking : an International Journal, V ol.6., N o .l, pp. 22-39
2 6 9 .Poirier, C.C., (1994), “Outward looking companies benchmark to surpass current performance levels”.
P ap erboard P ackaging , V ol.79., N o.9, pp. 26-28
2 7 0 .Port, O., and Smith, G., (1992), “Beg-borrow-and benchmark”. Business Week, Novem ber, 30, pp. 74-
75
2 7 1 .Powers, V.J., (1996-97), "Benchmarking study illustrates how best-in-class achieve alignment,
communicate change". Communication World, pp. 30-33
2 7 2 .Prado, Carles., Prado, J., (2001), “Benchmarking for the development o f quality assurance systems”.
Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol.S., N o .l, pp. 62-69
2 7 3 .Prairie, P., (1993), “An American Express/IBM consortium benchmarks information technology”.
Planning Review, V ol.21., N o .l, pp. 22-27
2 7 4 .Press, G., (1991), “Benchmarking - Is your research department best?”. M arketing News, V ol.28.,
N o. 18, pp. 24
[Link], T., (1993), “Getting benchmarking right from the beginning and keeping it on track”,
P roceedings o f UR Ltd., Industrial Conference, London
[Link]-Smith, K., and Perrin, M., (1996), "Ideas on motivating people, addressing complaints and
training (IMPACT): An application o f benchmarking", Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and
7’ec/;«o/ogv, V ol.2., N o .l, pp. 7-25
2 7 7 .Pryor, L.S., (1989), “Benchmarking - A se lf improvement strategy”, Journal o f Business Strategy, Vol.
10., N o.6, pp. 28-32
2 7 8 .Pryor, L.S., and Katz, S.J., (1993), “How benchmarking goes wrong (and how to do it right)”.
Planning Review, V ol.21., N o .l, pp. 6 - 11
[Link], B.M ., (1994), “Benchmarking is more than organised tourism”. Industrial Engineering, V ol.26.,
N o.3, pp. 2-23
[Link], B .M ., (1994), “Process improvements through benchmarking”, TQM -M agazine, V ol.6., N o.2,
pp. 37-40
281 .Purchasing, (1994), “Benchmarking turns a com er”, Purchasing, V o l.l 17, N o.7, pp. 4-6
2 8 2 .Quality and Productivity Management Association”, (1991), “Benchmarking, The IBM-Rochester
way". Com mitm ent Plus, V ol.66., N o. 12, pp. 2-4
[Link], R., (1998), “Quality standards for business Schools”, Financial Express, November, 25

[Link], R., James W.D. Jr., and James, E.R., (1997), “Benchmarking and project management; a
review and organisational model”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality Management an d Technology, Vol.4.,
N o .l, pp. 47-56
[Link], D.L., (1993), “Training managers to benchmark”. Planning Review, V ol.21., N o l, pp. 32-36
[Link] i, J., Zairi, M., and Jarrar,Y.F., (2000), “The application o f Graphical techniques in evaluating
benchmarking partners”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7., N o.4, pp. 304-314
[Link], K.A., (1997), “The role o f benchmarking analysis in measuring and improving workplace
safety”, P rofessional Safety, ASSE, pp. 28-31
2 8 8 .Richardson, H.L., (1992), “Improve quality through benchmarking”. Transportation an d D istribution,
V o l.3 3 .,N o .lO , pp. 30-37
[Link], T., and Koontz, C., (1993), “How benchmarking can improve business re-engineering”.
Planning Review", V ol.21., N o.6, pp. 26-27
290.R igby, D.K., (1995), “Managing the management tools”. Engineering M anagem ent Review, Spring,
pp. 88-92

53
2 9 1 .Robson, A., and Prabhu, V.B., (2001), "What can we learn from leading service practitioners about
business excellence?", M anaging Service Quality, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 249 - 261
2 9 2 .Roche, Edward-M ozley, (1997), “Benchmarking with product life cycle analysis in semiconductor
industry”, Information Resources M anagement Journal, Fall, pp. 4-14
293.R odw ell, J.J., Lam, J., and Fastenau, M., (2000), “Benchmarking human resources and benchmarking
o f benchmarking”, Em ployee relations, V ol.22., N o.4, pp. 356-374
294.R ogers, Philip, B., (1997), “Raising the bar”. Journal o f P roperty Management, V ol.62., N o.6, pp. 48-
51
2 9 5 .Roth, M., (1992), “Improving performance with process analysis”, Risk M anagement, Novem ber, pp.
47-53
2 9 6 .Ryan, C., (1993), “Using peer group benchmarks as analytical tools”, N ational U nderwriter, August,
16, pp. S6 - S8
297. Sarkis, J., (2001), “Benchmarking for A gility”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, Vol.S., No.2,
pp. 88-107
[Link], S.M ., (1993), “Benchmarking - tales from the front”. H ealthcare Forum Journal, Jan/Feb,
pp. 37-52
[Link], M., (1993), “Industrial benchmarking: a case study o f performance analysis techniques”.
International Journal o f Production Economics, V ol.33., N o .l, pp. 1-11
30 0 .Schmidt, J.A., (1992), “The link between benchmarking and the share holder value”. Journal o f
Business Strategy, V o l.13., N o.3, pp. 7-12
[Link], S., (1996), “How can we tell whether there are too many or too physicians? The case for
benchmarking”, JAMA, The Journal o f the Am erican M edical Association, V ol.276, N o.22, pp.
1841(3)
3 0 2 .Schumann, C.A.W ., (1996), “Benchmarking: performance improvement toward competitive
advantage”. Journal o f M anagement in Engineering, pp. 59-61
3 0 3 .Shafer, B., and Coate, E., (1992), “Benchmarking in higher education”, NACUBO Business Officer,
Novem ber, pp. 27-35
3 0 4 .Sharif, A.M ., (2002), “Benchmarking performance management system s”, Benchmarking: an
International Journal, V ol.9., N o .l, pp. 62 - 85
[Link], P., (1992), “A toolkit for continuous improvement”, CM A-M agazine, May, pp. 17-20
[Link], P., (1992), “Benchmarking: opportunity for accountants”, CM A-M agazine, July/August, pp.
16-18
[Link], T.W ., (1993), “Benchmarking: total quality management and libraries”. Library
Adm inistration an d Management, V ol.7., N o .l, pp. 7-12
30 8 .Shaw, M ., and Green, H.D., (2002), “Benchmarking the Ph.D. - a tentative beginning”. Quality
Assurance in Education, Vol. 10., N o.2, pp. 116 - 124
[Link], X .X ., Tan, K.C., and X ie, M., (2000), “Benchmarking in QFD for quality improvement”.
Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7., N o.4, pp. 282-291
[Link]-Then, Danny Shiem., (1996), “Minimum Data Sets - Finding the balance in benchmarking”.
Facilities, V ol. 14., N o. 1/2, pp. 47-51
3 1 1 .Sheridan, J.H., (1993), “Lessons from the best”, Industry Week, February, 15, pp. 54-63
3 1 2 .Sheridan, J.H., (1993), “Where benchmarkers go wrong”. Industry Week, V ol.242., N o.6, pp. 28-30
[Link], Y.K ., (1993), “Aiming high! Competitive benchmarking for superior performance”. Long
Range Planning, V ol.26., N o .l, pp. 39-44
[Link] an, S., (1992), “Guide to benchmarking resources - Benchmarking is a tool to help improve
processes and thus improve end products and services”. Quality, March, pp. 17-18
3 1 5 .Simmons, Linda, C., (1996), “The Nuances o f benchmarking”. M ortgage Banking, pp. 95-96
31 6 .Simpson, M., and Kondouli, D., (2000), “A practical approach to benchmarking in three service
industries”. Total Q uality M anagement, pp. S623
3 1 7 .Simpson, M., Kondouli, D., and Wai, P., (1999), “From benchmarking to business process re­
engineering a case study”, Total Quality M anagement, pp. S717
3 1 8 .Sinclair, D., and Zairi, M., (1995), “Benchmarking best practice performance measurement within
companies using TQM”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement and Technology, V ol.2., N o.3, pp.
53-71
[Link], D.P., (1997), "Benchmarking - Swifter, higher. Stronger", Analyst, pp. 14-25

54
3 2 0 .Singleton-Green, B., (1992), “Benchmarking: compare and compete”, Accountancy, V o l.110,
N o. 1190, pp. 40-1
3 2 1 .Singleton-Green, B., (1992), “Compare and Compete”, Accountancy, October, pp. 40-41
322. Smith, S., (1997), “Benchmarking: lessons for disciplined improvement”, HE Solutions, pp. 40-45
[Link], L., and O ’Halloran, D., (1992), “Engineering beyond the stars”, M achine Design, October.
22, pp. 75-79
[Link], A .S., and Lu, Edmund., (1995), “Quest for quality at Safeway - Australia”, Benchmarking fo r
Q uality M anagem ent an d Technology, V ol.2., N o.2, pp. 37-54
[Link], A .S., Burcher, P.G., Millen, R., and Lee, Gloria., (1999), “Comparing American and British
practices in AMT adoption”, Benchmarking: an InternationalJournal, V ol.6., N o.4, pp. 310-324
[Link], M.J., (1992), “The benchmarking process”. Com pensation an d Benefits Review, V ol.24.,
N o.5, pp. 21-29
[Link]., R., (1993), “Valuing TQM through rigorous financial analysis”. Quality’ P rogress, July, pp.
49-54
[Link], E., (1993), “Benchmarking: a tool for our time”, M anufacturing Engineering, September, pp.
56-69
32 9 .[Link], G., (1993), “The fijture challenge: management and measurement”. S pecial libraries. V ol.84,
N o .3 ,p p . 151-154
[Link] Direction, (2002), “Evaluating improvement programs”. Strategic D irection, Vol. 18., N o.3,
pp. 1 0 -1 2
331 .Stratton, B., (1993), “Benchmarking; just do it”, Q uality Progress, May, pp. 5
[Link], S.K., (1984), “Interfirm Com parison - Some experiences", Asian Productivity-
organisation
3 3 3 .Sweeney, M.T., (1994), “Benchmarking for strategic manufacturing management”. International
Journal o f O perations an d Production M anagement, Vol. 14., N o.9, pp. 4-15
[Link], S., and Sarkis, J., (2001), “A computational Geometry approach for benchmarking”.
International Journal o f Operations an d Production Management, V o l.2 1., N o. 1/2, pp. 210-222
33 5 .Tang, K. and Zairi, M., (1998a), “Benchmarking quality implementation in a service context: a
comparative analysis o f financial services and institutions o f higher education: part I”, Total Q uality
M anagement, V ol.9, N o.6, pp. 406
3 3 6 .Tang, K. and Zairi, M., (1998b), “Benchmarking quality implementation in a service context: a
comparative analysis o f financial services and institutions o f higher education: part U”, Total Quality
M anagement, V ol.9, N o.7, pp. 539
[Link], K.H. and Zairi, M., (1998c), “Benchmarking quality implementation in a service context: a
comparative analysis o f financial services and institutions o f higher education: part 111”, Total Quality’
Management, V ol.9, N o.8, pp. 669
3 3 8 .Thompson, I., and Cox, A., (1997), "Don't imitate, innovate", Supply Management, pp. 40-43
[Link], B., (1998), "Benchmarking Treasury: looking for standards”, Australian CPA, pp. 49-51
[Link], F.G., Zivan, S.M., and Camp. R.C., (1987), “How to measure yourself against the best”.
H arvard Business Review, V ol.87., N o .l, pp. 2-4
[Link], G., (1994), “How successfiil companies can improve through internal benchmarking”,
M anaging Service Quality, Vol.4., N o.2, pp. 44-46
[Link], G., (1993), “Cascading quality through the training process”. Q uality Progress, April, pp. 75-78
34 3 .Tyndall, G., (1990), “How you apply benchmarks makes all the difference”. M arketing News,
November, 12, pp. 10-19
344.U lusoy, Gilnduz., and I. Kiz, [Link]. (2001), “Benchmarking best manufacturing practices; A study
into four sectors o f Turkish industry”, International Journal o f O perations & Production Management,
V ol. 21., No. 7,6, pp. 1 0 2 0 -1 0 4 3
3 4 5 .Underdown, R., and Talluri, S., (2002), “C ycle o f success: a strategy for becom ing agile through
benchmarking”. Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.9., N o. 3, pp. 278 - 292
[Link], H.K., (1992), “Using competitive benchmarking to set goals”. Q uality P rogress, V ol.25.,
N o. 10, pp. 81-85
[Link], H.K., (1993), “Questions to answer before benchmarking”. Planning Review, V ol.21., N o .l,
pp. 37
348.V enetucci, R., (1992), “Benchmarking: a reality check for strategy and performance objectives
Production and Inventory”, Management Journal, V ol.33., N o.4, pp. 32-36

55
349-Verschoor, C., (1993), “Benchmarking the audit committee”, Journal o f Accountancy, September, pp.
59-64
350. Vig, S.N ., (1995), “Benchmarking: a select Bibliography”, Productivity, \ o \ 3 6 . , N o.3, pp. 521-524
35 1 .V oss, C.A., and Blackmon, K., (1997), “Benchmarking and operational performance; som e empirical
results”. Benchmarking f o r Quality M anagement an d Technology, Vol.4., N o.4, pp. 273-285
352.V oss, C.A., Chiesa, V., and Coughlan, P., (1994), “Developing and testing benchmarking and se lf
assessment frameworks in manufacturing”, International Journal o f O perations an d Production
M anagement, V o l.14., N o.3, pp. 83-100
353.W ah-Fond, S., Cheng, E.W.L., and Ho, Danny, C.K., (1998), “Benchmarking: a general reading for
management practitioners”, M anagement Decision, V ol.36., N o.6, pp. 407-418
354. Wallace, J.B., (1995), “Treasury Benchmarking”, Journal o f working capital M anagement, Vol.2.,
N o.2, pp. 37-41
355.W alleck, A .S., O'Halloran, J.D., and Leader, C.A., (1991), “Benchmarking world-class performance”.
The M ckinsey Quarterly, N o .l, pp. 3-24
3 5 6 .Walsh, J., (1992), “The pursuit o f benchmark: how Nissan/Infiniti developed its service standard”,
M idtinational Business, N o.4, pp. 19-26
3 5 7 .Wan Endut, W., Abdullah, M., and Husain, N., (2000), “Benchmarking institutions o f higher
education”. Total Q uality M anagement, pp. S796
3 5 8 .Watson, G.H., (1993), “How process benchmarking supports Corporate strategy”. Planning Review,
V o l.2 1 .,N o .l,p p . 12-15
359. Weatherly, J.D., (1992), “Dare to compare for better productivity”, HR-M agazine, V ol.37., N o.9, pp.
42-46
360. Webster, C., and Lu, Yi-Chen, (1995), “Using IDEAS to get started on benchmarking”. M anaging
S ervice Q uality, V ol.5., N o.4, pp. 49-56
361.W eeler, D.L., (1996), “Benchmarking a paradigm for change to quality education”, TQM Magazine,
V ol.8., N o.6, pp. 24-29
362.W eim er, G.A., (1992), “Benchmarking maps the route to quality”. Industry Week, V ol.241., No. 14, pp.
54-55
363.W eisendanger, B., (1992), “Benchmarking for beginners”. Sales an d M arketing Management,
V o l.l4 4 „ N o .l4 , pp. 59-64
364.W eisendanger, B., (1993), “Benchmarking intelligence fiiels management m oves”. Public Relations
Journal, V ol49., N o .l 1, pp. 20-22
365.W elleck, A., Steven, O'Halloran, J.D., and Charles, L.A., (1991), “Benchmarking and world class
performance”, The Mckinsey Quarterly, N o .l, pp. 3-24
366.W endel, C., (1993), “4 sharp tools for measuring how your bank measures up”, Am erican Banker,
September, 27, pp. 18-19
367. Whiting, R., (1991), “Benchmarking: lessons from the best-in-class”, Electronic Business, October, 7,
pp. 128-134
3 6 8 .\^ y m a r k , J., (1998), “Benchmarking and credit risk management in financial services”.
Benchm arking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.5., N o.2, pp. 126-137
3 6 9 .Williams, G., (1995), “Academic standards in higher education: a framework for investigation and
discourse at institutional level”. Q uality Assurance in Education, Vol.3., N o.4, pp. 35-43
370.Y asin M.M ., and Zimmer T.W ., (1996), “The role o f benchmarking in achieving continuous service
quality”, International Journal o f Contem porary H ospitality Management, V ol.7., N o.4, pp. 27-32
37 1 .Vasin, M .M ., (2002), “The theory and practice o f benchmarking: then and now”. Benchmarking: An
International Journal, Vol. 9., No. 3, pp. 217 - 243
3 7 2 .Yun, Chang-Zeph., (1997), “A PC-based system for benchmarking quality management Via ISO-9000
auditing”, Benchmarking f o r Quality M anagem ent an d Technology, Vol.4., N o.3, pp. 213-220
[Link], M., (1992), “The art o f benchmarking using customer feedback to establish performance gap”.
Total Q uality Management, V ol.3., N o.2, pp. 177-188
[Link], M., and Youssef, M., (1995), “Benchmarking critical factors for TQM; Part-I: theory and
foundations”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.2., N o .l, pp. 5-20
[Link], M.,and Youssef, M., (1995), “Benchmarking Critical factors for TQM; Part-ll; Empirical results
from different regions o f the world”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technolog}’, Vol.2.,
N o.2, pp. 3-19

56
[Link], Mohamed and Youssef, Mohammed., (1995), “A review o f key publications on Benchmarking:
Part-1”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.2., N o .l, pp. 65-72
[Link], Mohamed and Youssef, Mohammed., (1996), “A review o f key publications on Benchmarking:
Part-11”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.3., N o .l, 45-49
[Link], M., (1998), “Benchmarking at TNT Express”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagem ent and
Technology, V ol.5., N o.2, pp. 138-149
[Link], M., (1998), “Benchmarking partner selection principles”. Benchmarking f o r Q uality
M anagem ent an d Technology, Vol.5., N o.2, pp. 80-92
[Link], M., and Ahmed, P.K., (1999), “Benchmarking maturity as we approach the millennium?”. Total
Q uality M anagement, July, Vol. 10, pp. 810-817
[Link], M., and Whymark, J., (2000), “Transfer o f best practices - How to build a culture o f
benchmarking and continuous learning: Part - 1”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7.,
N o .l, pp. 62-78
[Link], M., and Whymark, J., (2000), “Transfer o f best practices - How to build a culture o f
benchmarking and continuous learning: Part - II”, Benchmarking: an International Journal, V ol.7.,
N o.2, pp. 146-167
38 3 .Zhao, X., Maheshwari, S.K., and Zhang, J., (1995), “"Benchmarking quality practices in India, China
and M exico”, Benchmarking f o r Q uality M anagement an d Technology, V ol.2., N o.3, pp. 20-40
384. Zoins, B., (1998), “How benchmarking is evolving and recommendations to support these changes”.
The Q uality Network, Benchmarking exchange.

57