GPS 100

Generator Sizing
 What You Will Learn

Topics Covered Estimated Time

Introduction .................................................................... 5 min
Sizing Programs & Loads ............................................ 15 min
Motor Starting .............................................................. 20 min
Harmonics ................................................................... 15 min
Soft Starters & Variable Frequency Drives ................. 15 min
UPS Sizing .................................................................. 15 min
Conclusion ..................................................................... 5 min

2
 Ten Points of Sizing Pain

1. Limitations of Traditional Sizing Programs

2. Load Uncertainty in New Construction
3. Leading Power Factor Problems
4. Managing Motor Starting Transients
5. Avoiding Reduced Voltage Surprises
6. Planning for Harmonics
7. IGBT Rectification Surprises
8. Soft Starters
9. VFDs and Regeneration – Elevators & Cranes
10. UPS Sizing

3
Typical Sizing Program Limitations
• What generator sizing programs do well
– Analyze a few discrete loads
– Analyze a transient load with given pre-load (like a motor start)

• Can generator sizing programs accurately size buildings?

– No, why:
• Entering a complete load list assumes all loads are energized
– Most programs don’t support multiple load diversity factors

• Entering too many loads in a single load step creates a “false” condition
– Most loads sequence naturally with limited concurrent starting

4
Typical Sizing Program Limitations
• Common limitations of generator sizing programs
– Most programs don’t accurately model and analyze non-linear loads
• Non-linear loads require harmonic analysis
• Simple rule of thumb multipliers are not adequate

– Soft starter sizing varies significantly based on starter configuration

• Transient conditions and harmonic content change
• Most sizing programs treat all soft starters the same

– UPS sizing needs to be based on the technology of the UPS

• UPS technology significantly varies generator sizing

• Sizing programs need to be smarter to match today’s devices

5
Load Uncertainty – New Construction
• What types of loads will be connected?
– Resistive
– Motor Loads
– Non-Linear

• What is the anticipated load level (new construction)?

– Often services are sized conservatively (actual loads of 50% are not uncommon)
– Typically, the generator is sized less robust than the service

• What circuits are going to be connected?

– End users often want a large load list initially
– What loads are essential & what are optional?

• New construction should be sized using engineering judgment

6
Load Uncertainty – Load Growth
• What is the expected load growth?
– Does the end user have an aggressive growth plan?
– How certain is the business model?
– What is the value of different capital expenditures?

• Would the end user benefit from an expandable solution?

– Is paralleled generation an option?

7
Load Uncertainty – Transient Loads
• What are the largest load steps on the generator?
– Starting large motor loads can challenge system sizing

• What are the acceptable transient limits?

– Generators are not infinite sources
– Expect voltage & frequency dips
– Size for total power and transient performance
• Size based upon largest load step while powering the building
• For general (non-dedicated) loads, limit the voltage dip to 15%
• For general (non-dedicated) loads, limit the frequency dip to 5 to
10%

8
Load Uncertainty – Existing Facilities
• Billing History
– Demand charges (capture peak kW)
• Captures seasonality & business cycles
• Peak power over 15 minute average

• Power Analyzer
– Snapshot / short history (measures transient spikes)
– Capture power quality
• Harmonic content
• Power factor

• Existing facilities should utilize historical & measurement

data

9
Leading Power Factor (PF)
• Generators are rated for .8 pf (lagging) to 1.0 pf

• Leading power factor can cause self excitation resulting in

– Voltage instability
– Over-voltage shutdowns

• Sources of leading power factor

– Power factor correction capacitors at the service
– Lightly loaded (less than 30%) UPS’s with filtering
– Capacitors in VFD Harmonic filters

• If power factor is leading

– Remove the leading power factor elements
– Add offsetting lagging power factor loads

10
Key Point Summary
• Recognize the limitations of the sizing program you utilize
– Be cautious of entering too many loads into a single load step

• When sizing a building

– Matching the service size will often oversize the generator
– Use billing history & actual data (when available)
– Consider expandable, paralleled solutions if load growth is uncertain

• Leading power factor can cause generator voltage issues

11
 Motor Starting

12
Motor Starting Transients

Engine Alternator
- Starting kW - Starting kVA
- Frequency dip - Voltage dip

13
Motor Starting Transients (starting kVA)
• Starting KVA is a function of motor speed

14
Motor Starting Transients (starting kVA)
• What happens when a contactor closes to start an electric
motor?
– Immediate inrush of current
– Inrush is referenced as:
• Locked rotor current
• Inrush current
• Motor starting current
• Start kVA

Note: “s” indicates the motors starting period

“r” indicates the motors running period

15
Motor Starting Transients (starting kVA)

• Starting codes
– Determines skVA
– NEMA standard
• Always check motor plate for NEMA Code

• Example:
– 100hp x 6.0 skVA/hp = 600 skVA
(Code G Motor)

16
Motor Starting Transients (starting kVA)

• Starting codes
– Three phase
• Typically have a NEMA starting code
– Single phase
• May not have a NEMA starting code
• Starting kVAs vary broadly
– IEC vs. NEMA
• European motors (IEC) typically have higher starting currents
– High efficiency
• High efficiency motors have higher starting currents

17
Motor Starting Transients (alternator response)
• Each line is the response for successively larger motors
– Point B represents the suggested alternator maximum capability limit

18
Motor Starting Transients (alternator response)
• Operating beyond 35% voltage dips
– Typically results in collapsing the alternator output voltage
– Often resulting in application issues (motor contactors dropping out)

35% Instantaneous
90% Sustained
100% Recovery

Recovery
Voltage Safe Zone

35% 50%

skVA
19
Motor Starting Transients (alternator response)
• Why does the alternator voltage dip?
– Ohm’s law : V = IR

• How do we minimize the voltage dip?

20
Motor Starting Transients (alternator
response)
• Improve motor starting
– Minimize X “d (generator reactance)

Upsize the Alternator

Rule of Thumb Formula
100hp x 6.0 skVA /hp = 600 skVA

Vdip 35% 25% 20% 10%

Alternator
Model
200 230 275 750
Minimize voltage dip by upsizing alternator

21
Motor Starting Transients (engine
response)
• How does the engine respond to motor starting?
– Frequency dips
• Level of dip is engine size, type, and technology dependant

22
Motor Starting Transients (engine response)
• Why does the engine speed dip during a motor start?
– PF = kW/kVA
• skW = skVA x sPF

– Example of skW (Start kW)

• 100 hp x 6.0 (skVA/hp) = 600 skVA
• 600 skVA x .3 sPF = 180 skW

– Starting PF
• Function of motor size & design
• Typical three phase 1000hp~5hp (.25 to .45)
• Increases when kVA decreases

23
Motor Starting Transients (engine response)
• Engine speed (frequency)
– Frequency will dip
– kWstarting = 2 x motor hp (conservative estimate for across line starting)

• Engine performance
– 10 hertz dip @ 100% load step (average diesel performance)

• Load acceptance
– Most loads are tolerant of frequency dips
– Some loads are not
• Be careful with some UPS technologies (more on UPS systems later in
presentation)

24
Motor Starting Transients (rules of thumb)
• Alternator
– skVA =̃̃̃̃ hp x 6.0
– rkVA =̃̃̃̃ hp

• Engine
– skW =̃̃̃̃ hp x 2
– rkW =̃̃̃̃ hp x .85

EXCEPTIONS: SPECIALTY MOTORS

Submersible Pumps

25
Motor Starting Transients (exercise)
• If these three motors are at a pump station, which would you
start first?
– 50hp, 100hp, 200hp

• Exercise 1 (start sequence 200hp, 100hp, 50hp)

• Exercise 2 (start sequence 50hp, 100hp, 200hp)

• Exercise 3 (start all the motors simultaneously)

26
Motor Starting Transients (exercise)
Example 1 Start sequence – 200hp 1st, 100hp 2nd,
50hp 3rd
Start 200hp x 2 = 400 skW (need 400 kW genset minimum)
Run 200hp x .85 = 170 rkW (preload for next load step)
Start 100hp x 2 = 200 skW + 170 rkW = 370 skW (400 kW genset is still enough)
Run 300hp total x .85 = 255 rkW (preload for next step)
Start 50hp x 2 = 100 skW + 255 rkW = 355 skW (400 kW engine)
To determine alternator size for voltage dip
assume skVA = 6 x hp = 6 x 200hp = 1200 skVA
To determine voltage dip, use alternator motor starting table / specs

Recommended Size 400 kW

27
Motor Starting Transients (exercise)

Example 2 Start sequence – 50hp 1st, 100hp 2nd, 200hp 3rd

Preload of 150hp x .85 = 130 rkW (approximately)

Start 200hp x 2 = 400 skW + 130 rkW = 530 skW (500 or 600 kW genset)

Recommended Size 500-600 kW

28
Motor Starting Transients (exercise)

Example 3 Start sequence - all three instantaneously

Start 350hp x 2 = 700 skW

Recommended Size 700 kW

Load sequence impacts generator sizing!!

29
Reduced Voltage Starting
• Electro-Mechanical reduced voltage starters
– Reduce voltage & current
– Significantly reduce skVA & skW
– Also reduce starting torque

Starting % volts at
% skVA % LR Torque
Method motor
Full Voltage 100 100 100
Autotrans.
80% tap 80 64 64
65% tap 65 42 42
50% tap 50 25 25
Star-Delta 57 33 33

30
Reduced Voltage Starting
• What happened at 75% speed? (motor switches to full voltage -- early)
– What will happen to the alternator?
– What is the assumption inside most sizing programs?
– This effect is typically problematic only in single motor load applications.

31
Key Point Summary
• Starting motors cause significant transients
– Voltage and frequency dips
– The generator is not an infinite source, like the utility

• Reduced voltage starters may significantly reduce transients

– Motor must reach full speed before transitioning to full voltage
– If transition occurs early, size for across the line motor start

32
 Harmonics

33
Harmonics
• A non-linear load is often one of the following:
– Computers, UPS, VFD, battery chargers
– AC converting to DC

34
Harmonics
• How does a non-linear load affect a generator?
– It causes harmonic voltage distortion (THVD)
– This is 8% voltage distortion – maximum limit of IEEE 519

35
Harmonics
• Why are generators affected?
– Load generates harmonic currents
• Harmonic currents flow through the alternator’s source impedance
• Ohm’s Law: V = I x R or THVD  XIId x IH

36
Harmonics
• How to minimize harmonics to acceptable levels?
– Active or passive filtering
– Upsizing the alternator (minimize the source impedance – x”d)

– Rules of thumb for typical 6 pulse, unfiltered loads (35% THID)

• Upsize the alternator (2 to 2.5 x non-linear load @ 480V)
• Upsize the alternator (3 to 3.5 x non-linear load @ 208V)
• Upsize the alternator (5 x for small single phase units)

– Rules of thumb for typical 6 pulse, filtered loads (10% THID)

• No upsized alternator required

– Rules of thumb vary significantly based on:

• The device’s harmonic current level
• Size & voltage of the alternator

37
Harmonics
• Don’t rely heavily on “Rules of Thumb” for harmonic loads
• Rely on harmonic analysis
– Inputs are harmonic current spectrum and alternator reactance
– Output is an estimated voltage distortion

38
IGBT Rectifiers
• A new type of rectifier is appearing in drives &
UPSs
– IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) technology
– Active power factor correction (.99 pf)
– Spec’d as very low distortion

6 Pulse

12 Pulse

IGBT

39
IGBT Rectifiers
• Noise problem when IGBT is the only load on generator
– Connecting other loads solves the problem (15 – 20% of device rating)
– We have seen this with multiple suppliers (UPS & Drives)

IGBT UPS with Same UPS with

no other load on generator additional load on generator

40
Key Point Summary
• Generators must be sized based on harmonic content
– Sizing impacted by alternator size & voltage
– Sizing impacted by the characteristics of non-linear load
– Harmonic analysis approach is better than rules of thumb

• IGBT technology adds a new concern to harmonic sizing

– Other loads may be necessary

41
 Soft Starters &
Variable Frequency
Drives (VFD)

42
Soft Starters

• SCR’s limit the applied voltage

43
Soft Starters

• Harmonics (alternator sizing)

– At 300% current limit, estimated distortion is 30 % THID
• The minimum alternator size is 2 to 3 times the largest motor being started
• Higher current limit settings will require a larger alternator
• Harmonic analysis is preferred to using “rules of thumb”

– Sequence start when possible

• Harmonics are only present during the starting phase

44
Soft Starters
• Soft starters can ramp-up voltage or step voltage
– To avoid voltage & frequency dips always enable voltage ramping
– Voltage ramping creates a soft loading of the generator
– If no voltage ramping is utilized, expect transients as listed below

Current Limit skVA skW

200% 2 x Hp .12 x Hp

300% 3 x Hp .45 x Hp

400% 4 x Hp .8 x Hp

500% 5 x Hp 1.25 x Hp

45
VFDs & Regeneration
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
– VFD is seen as a rectifier by the generator

• Generator sizing for VFDs

– Voltage & frequency transients are not an issue
– Harmonics are an issue
• Harmonics are always present
• Size as if a non-linear load
• Limit system voltage dips to 15%

46
VFDs & Regeneration

• Cable elevators and cranes regenerate

– When the load is going down, the drive is a break
– Regeneration kW = hp x .8
– How is the power dissipated?
• Breaking Resistor
• Put other loads on the generator
• Unit mounted load bank
• Don’t rely on the generator as a brake

47
Key Point Summary
• Soft Starters
– Sequence start to minimize harmonic content
– Limit harmonics by limiting current limit setting
– Limit transients by using voltage ramp feature

• VFDs
– Size as non-linear load
– Plan for regeneration with cable elevators and cranes

48
 UPS Sizing

49
UPS Sizing
• Three main UPS classifications
– Passive Standby (formerly off-line)
– Line – Interactive
– Double Conversion

• Issues & sizing varies by type

50
UPS Sizing

• Passive UPS
– Simple design, low cost and small size
– Typically single phase, desktop UPS

• Sizing concerns
– Harmonics (multiple units, high THID)
– Size to control voltage distortion
– Load is stepped onto generator (not issue, small size)

• Generator kW rating is UPS x 5 (typically)

51
UPS Sizing
• Line-Interactive
– Provides some output voltage regulation & no frequency regulation
– Small power applications not utilizing a generator

• Sizing concerns
– UPS sensitive to frequency variations (.5 Hz factory default)
– Load steps from UPS itself are often the main issue
– Open UPS frequency window to allowable limits
– Size based on frequency transient
– Harmonics may also be extensive (if not filtered)

• Generator kW rating of UPS x 5 (minimal)

– Assumes 2 hertz frequency window

52
UPS Sizing
• Double conversion
– Output voltage & frequency regulation
– Market norm for critical applications & higher power ratings

• Sizing Concerns
– No UPS load step (rectifier ramps load onto generator)
– Size alternator based on harmonic content (typically filtered – non issue)
– Consider battery recharge
– Consider HVAC requirements

• Generator kW rating is UPS x (2 to 2.5)

– Assumes HVAC on generator

53
Key Point Summary
• Passive – Harmonics

• Line-Interactive – Harmonics & Frequency Tolerance

• Double Conversion – Filtering, Recharge, & HVAC requirements

54
Questions?