visual flight guide

V E RS I O N 3 O C TO B E R 2 0 0 9
CASA Aviation Safety Communications
Tel 131 757
The Visual Flight Guide aims to help VFR pilots fly safely anywhere in
Australia. The information contained in the Guide has been carefully collected
and presented in an easy to understand and use format. The information
contained in the Guide is likely to be subject to change without notice over
time. It should therefore be seen as an educational tool only.

You can find a more regularly updated version of the VFR Flight Guide on the
CASA website at [Link]
 pilot recency check iii

Medical Certificate
Due:

Flight Review
Due:

TO CARRY PASSENGERS
3 Take-offs and Landings in past 90 days
Due:

NIGHT VFR
1 Flight of 1 Hour Duration in 12 Mths.
Due:

1 Take-off and Landing in 6 Months

Due:

3 Take-offs and Landings at Night in past 90 days

Due:

(TO CARRY PASSENGERS)

iv
pilot recency check
CURRENT page number

Medical? NO Do not fly solo

5
YES

NO Complete before
Flight review?
flying in command
8
YES

Obtain before
Maps and charts? NO
flight planning
10,118
YES

Obtain forecast
Website [Link]
Weather forecast and NOTAM NO
Briefing 1800 805 150
89,123 95 PC Access 0198 304 767
YES
Direct dial
Helpdesk 1800 801 960

THEN

FLIGHT PLAN

88,91 • Choose suitable 116 • Last light
route and complete
calculations 98 • Weight and balance
calculations
212 • Appropriate height
98 • Take-off and landing

76,121 • Avoiding Controlled ­performance.
Airspace
152
• Survival equipment.
104,107
• Flight fuel

Check CTA and restricted area boundaries.

 pilot recency check v

SARTIME flight or CTA NO Leave flight note with

a responsible person
YES
THEN

Submit SARTIME notification if

OCTA Submit Domestic/CAO
notification if in CTA/CTR
YES

Fax 1800 805 150

Briefing 1800 805 150
PC Access 0198 304 767
Direct Dial
Helpdesk 1800 801 960
Radio to ATS on appropriate frequency
YES

CHECK AIRCRAFT AND PERSONAL DOCUMENTS 14

RequiredDocuments
Required Documents
• Pilot’s licence • Aircraft flight manual
• Medical • Aircraft maintenance release

YES

PLAN FOR CONTINGENCIES 91

• Deteriorating weather • D
 eparture procedures
(eg. “Clearance not available,
• Radio failure
remain OCTA”)
• Diversions

YES

AIRCRAFT PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION 158

• D
 aily inspection or • Maintenance release signed
pre-flight inspection as per
ACFT system of maintenance • FUEL: Check for correct grade,
or pilot operating handbook. quantity, and contamination.
vi
safety promotion products
Please refer to the CASA online store
for all the latest product materials
available.

[Link]/onlinestore
 contents vii

section 1 – general
INTRODUCTION 2 Starting and Initial Clearance
Issue 52
Taxi Procedure 53
THE RULES STRUCTURE 3 Aerodrome Movements 55
Runway Operations 55
LICENSING 5 After Take-Off 57
Medical Certificate 5 Arrival at Aerodrome 58
Student Pilot Licence (SPL) 6 Radar Phraseologies General 60
Private Pilot Licence (PPL) 7 Radar Communication and
Navigation 61
Radar Manoeuvres 62
PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES 9
Speed Control 63
Pilot in Command 9 Traffic Information 63
Classification of Operations 11 Secondary Surveillance
Carriage of Persons 12 Radar (SSR) 64
Documents to be Carried 14 Call Signs 65
Carriage of Animals 15
Firearms 16 CONVERSIONS 67
Refuelling 16 Conversions – Navigation 67
Engine Ground Operation 21 Conversions – Mass and
Seating 24 Volume 68
Pre-Takeoff 25
In-Flight 27 RULES FOR PREVENTION
Accidents and Incidents 31 OF COLLISION 69
Overtaking (CAR 160) 69
RADIO TELEPHONY Right of Way (CAR 161) 69
PROCEDURES 34
See and Avoid (CAR 163A) 72
General 34
Words and Phrases 35 AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT 72
Sartime and Sarwatch 42
Day VFR Equipment 72
General Phrases 43
Night VFR Equipment 73
Frequency Management 45
Traffic Information 46
RULES OF THE AIR 74
Meteorological Information 47
Reports and Information 47 VFR Navigation 74
Clearances 48 Formation Flying 77
Approach and Area Control Aircraft Speeds 78
Services 50 Regulation of Flight 78
Vicinity of the Aerodrome 51 Aerodromes 79

viii
contents
section 1 – general
AERODROME MARKINGS 82 Primary and Secondary Radar 85
Light and Ground Signals 82 Transponder Operation 86
Displaced Threshold 83 PREPARATION 88
RADAR TRANSPONDERS 85 Pre-flight Information 88

section 2 – pre-flight planning

Responsibilities of Pilot 90 FLIGHTS OVER WATER 151
Alternates Due to Weather Pre-Flight 151
Condition 91 Safety Equipment 152
Alternatives Due to Facilities 94
Notice to Airmen 95 DESIGNATED REMOTE AREAS 154
Take-off and Landing of
Aircraft 98 Maps 154
Declared Density Chart 100
Airframe Icing 103 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 157
Carburettor Icing 103 Passengers 157
Fuel Requirements 104 Pre-Flight 158
Fuel Planning 105 Daily Inspection 161
Time 108 ELT 163
Daylight and Darkness 110
Charts 118 BRIEFING AND NOTIFICATION 165
Prohibited, Restricted Notification General 165
and Danger Areas 121 Briefing Services 168
NAIPS 169
METEOROLOGY 121 Internet Briefings 188
Services 121 AVFAX 189
Forecasts 123 DECTALK 190
Area Forecasts 127 Domestic Flight
Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) 128 Notification Form 190
Trend Type Forecast (TTF) 135 Flight Note 200
Meteorological Reports 139
Meteorological Advices 144 FLIGHT INFORMATION
AIREP 150 SERVICE 202
In-flight Information 202
 contents ix

section 3 – operations
GENERAL INFORMATION 212 CONTROLLED AIRSPACE 268
Classes of Airspace 212 Controlled Airspace – General 268
Pre-flight Altimeter Check 213 Clearances 269
Altimeter Setting Rules 214 Separation in Controlled
Visual Flight Rules 216 Airspace 273
VMC 218 Enroute 276
ATC Radar Services 225 Taxi 279
T-VASIS 229 Take-off 282
PAPI 230 After Take-off 285
Arrival 287
COMMUNICATIONS 231 Holding 290
Communications – OCTA 231 Landing 291
SARTIME 236
VFR Operations in Class CLASS E AIRSPACE 296
E & G Airspace 236 Services 296

Non-controlled AERODROMES 237 CRUISING OCTA 299

General 237 Prohibited, Restricted, and
Circuit Procedures 239 Danger Areas 299
Arrival and Transiting 241 Selection of Levels 302
Landing 241 Radio Requirements 303
Navigation Position Fixing 304
GAAP PROCEDURES 246
General 246 AERIAL SPORTING &
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES 308
Pilot Responsibilities 251
Outbound 252 Gliding 308
Inbound 260 Parachuting Operations 311
Ballooning 314

AIR DEFENCE IDENTIFICATION

ZONE 317
Procedures for Aircraft Operating
in an Air Defence Identification
Zone 317
Visual Signals 321
x
contents
section 3 – helicopter operations
NIGHT VFR 324 Recent Experience
Checklist 324 Requirements (CAR 5.92) 349
General 326 Hot Refuelling 350
Radio Navigation Systems 330 Instruments Required for
Private VFR Operations
Lowest Safe Altitude 331 (CAO 20.18) 351
Aircraft Equipment for Special VFR 351
Night VFR Flight 338
Alternate Requirements
Alternates 343 (Helicopters) 352
CAAP 5.13 346 VMC - Outside Controlled
Airspace 353
HELICOPTER 347 Aerodromes 354
Flight Reviews Private Low Flying (CAR 157) 359
Helicopter Pilot 348 Over Water Flights 361

section 4 – emergency procedures

GENERAL 364 FORCED LANDINGS 378
Planning 364 Initial Action 378
Hints 379
DISTRESS BEACONS 367
Background 367 RADIO FAILURE 384
Care and storage of Procedures 384
distress beacons 371
Emergency Activation 372 MERCY FLIGHTS 389
Signals 376 General 389

section 5 – index
DEFINITIONS 396 SUBJECT AND PAGE 433
ABBREVIATIONS 411 APPENDIX – QUICK REFERENCE 447
 1

section 1 – general
 g e n e ra l
2
introduction
This VFR Flight Guide (VFG) has been designed primarily for VFR pilots in
domestic operations. Material relating to commercial operations has therefore
been omitted unless it contributes to the understanding of a particular topic.
For ease of understanding, the wording has been modified considerably from
that of the source documents. Since the precise wording of a regulation
may be required by some readers, appropriate references to the source
documents have been provided throughout the text where appropriate.
A section is included for helicopter pilots that explains differences between
fixed wing and rotary wing operations. A Night Visual Flight Rules (NVFR)
section is also included for appropriately rated pilots.
Much new information has been added to this version of the Guide
particularly in the area of electronic flight planning, and much of the material
has been rewritten and relocated. The index has been considerably expanded.

1 — INTRODUCTION
 t h e r u l e s str u c t u r e

the rules structure 3

The following is the structure of the various rules, regulations and guidance
material.

Civil Aviation Act

Civil Aviation Regulations Civil Aviation Safety

CAR 1998 Regulations CASR 1998

Civil Aviation Orders Manual of Standards (MoS)

Civil Aviation Advisory

Advisory Circulars (AC)
Publications (CAAP)

Airworthiness Advisory Acceptable Means of

Circulars (AAC) Compliance (AMC)

Guidance Material (GM)

Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)

Enroute Supplement Australia (ERSA)
Departure and Approach Procedures (DAP)
AIP Supplements (SUPS)
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)
Terminal Area Charts (TAC)
Enroute Charts (ERC) High and Low
Planning Chart Australia (PCA)
Visual Navigation Charts (VNC)
Visual Terminal Charts (VTC)
Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH)
Runway Distance Supplement (RDS)
World Aeronautical Charts (WAC)

The Civil Aviation Act is the act which established the Civil Aviation Safety
Authority (CASA) with functions relating to civil aviation, in particular the
safety of civil aviation.
The Civil Aviation Regulations 1988 (CARs) are the regulations made under
the above Act and which are currently in transition to the Civil Aviation Safety
Regulations 1998.

1 — THE RULES STRUCTURE

4
the rules structure
The Civil Aviation Safety Regulations 1998 (CASRs) are currently being
rewritten and will ultimately incorporate the 1988 regulations. The numbering
system for the“Parts” of these regulations generally follows the U.S. Federal
Aviation Regulations.
The Civil Aviation Orders are the second tier legislation.
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) is a publication containing
aeronautical information of a lasting nature. The AIP book is the basic document
and this is supplemented by:
• Enroute
 Supplement Australia (ERSA) containing aerodrome and other
operational data.
• Departure and Approach Procedures (DAP EAST & DAP WEST) primarily
for IFR operations.
• AIP Supplement (SUP) temporary changes to the information contained in
the AIP which are published by means of special pages.
• Notice to Airman (NOTAM) a notice distributed by means of
telecommunication containing information concerning the establishment,
condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard,
the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with
flight operations.
• Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) a notice containing information
that does not qualify for the origination of a NOTAM, or for inclusion in the
AIP, but which relates to flight safety, air navigation, technical, administrative
or legislative matters.
• Terminal Area Chart (TAC)
• En Route Chart (high and low) (ERC-H & ERC-L)
• Planning Chart Australia (PCA)
• Visual Navigation Chart (VNC) 1:500,000 with airspace detail
• Visual Terminal Chart (VTC) 1:250,000 with airspace detail
• Designated Airspace Handbook (DAH)
World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) are charts to a 1 : 1 000 000 scale which
show topographical details but not details of airspace organization.
Civil Aviation Publications (CAAPs) are numbered in accordance with the
regulations to which they refer. They describe methods, but not necessarily the
only method of complying with the particular regulation.

1 — THE RULES STRUCTURE

 L I CEN S I NG

the rules of structure 5

Manual of Standards (MOS) a document for CASA internal use in

interpretation of various regulations.

medical certificate
FLIGHT CREW LICENCE (CAR 5.04)
Generally speaking, unless you have obtained permission from CASA, you
must not perform any duty authorised by your licence unless you hold a
current medical certificate (CAR 5.04 - CAR 5.07).
For private operations the minimum requirement is a class 2 medical
certificate.
The period in which a medical certificate remains in force is dependent on the
age of the pilot but may be varied for other reasons (CASR 62.205).

OBLIGATION TO TELL CASA OF CHANGES IN MEDICAL CONDITION

(CASR 67.265 - CASR 62.270)
If your ability to act efficiently is, or is likely to be impaired, due to illness or
injury, no matter how minor, you must not fly.
Additionally, if you hold a student licence , a private pilot licence or
radiotelephone operator licence and the impairment lasts for 30 days or more,
you must not fly until a designated aviation medical examiner (DAME) certifies
that the impairment no longer exists. (The above period is reduced to 7 days
for commercial pilots).
Suspension of medical certificate due to pregnancy is contained in CASR
67.235.

CAUTION: OVER THE COUNTER OR PRESCRIBED MEDICATION/DRUGS

MAY REDUCE YOUR ABILITY TO FUNCTION PROPERLY WHILE FLYING.

1 — LICENSING
6
student pilot licence
DURATION OF LICENCE
Student and private licences remain in force until suspended or cancelled.
(CAR 269)

LICENCE REQUIREMENTS
WHAT DOES A STUDENT PILOT LICENCE AUTHORISE A PERSON TO DO?
(CAR 5.66)
A student pilot licence authorises you to fly a training aircraft as pilot in
command and to operate the aircraft’s radio for the purposes of the flight. The
permission of an authorised instructor is required for all student flights and
the student must conduct the flight in accordance with any conditions

WHERE MAY AN INSTRUCTOR PERMIT A STUDENT TO FLY AS PILOT IN

COMMAND? (CAR 5.69)
An authorised flight instructor must not permit a student pilot to fly an aircraft
as pilot in command except:
• in a traffic pattern (circuit); or
• w
 ithin the student pilot area limit provided that the student has flown 2
hours solo in the traffic pattern in an aircraft of the same category (CAR
5.67 aeroplane, helicopter, gyroplane or airship); or
• a long a route specified by the instructor for the purpose of solo cross
country training.

MAXIMUM CONSECUTIVE SOLO HOURS THAT A STUDENT MAY FLY

(CAR 5.70)
A student who has not passed the general flying progress flight test (GFPT)
is not permitted to fly solo for more than 3 consecutive hours without
undertaking dual flying. If the GFPT has been passed, a maximum of 15 solo
hours is permitted without further dual flying.
All of the flights specified above apply to only one category of aircraft
(meaning CAR 5.67 aeroplane, helicopter, gyroplane or airship)

1 — LICENSING
 student pilot licence 7

RECENT EXPERIENCE REQUIRED BEFORE A STUDENT CONDUCTS A

SOLO FLIGHT (CAR 5.71)
A student who has not passed the GFPT is not permitted to conduct a solo
flight unless the student has flown solo or undertaken dual flying in the
previous 30 days in an aircraft of that category.
A student who has passed the GFPT is not permitted to conduct a flight as
pilot in command unless the student has flown solo or undertaken dual flying
in the previous 90 days in an aircraft of that category.

CARRYING OF PASSENGERS BY A STUDENT WHILE FLYING AS PILOT

INCOMMAND (CAR 5.72)
A student is not permitted to fly as pilot in command in an aircraft in which a
passengers is carried unless
• the flight takes place solely within the student pilot area limit; and
• t he student pilot has passed a general flying progress flight test, and a
basic aeronautical knowledge examination, for aircraft of the category
used for the flight.

private pilot licence

WHAT DOES A PRIVATE LICENCE (AEROPLANE) AUTHORISE A PERSON
TO DO ? (CAR 5.78)
As the holder of a private licence (aeroplane) you are authorised to fly an
aeroplane as pilot in command or co-pilot while the aeroplane is engaged in
private operation (page 10) or in as pilot in command in flying training operations.

1 — LICENSING
8
private pilot licence
REGULAR FLIGHT REVIEW REQUIREMENT (CAR 5.81)
As the holder of a private licence (aeroplane) you must not fly as pilot in
command unless, within the period of two years immediately preceding the
day of the proposed flight, you have:
• s atisfactorily completed an aeroplane flight review and the person
conducting the review has made an appropriate entry in your pilot log
book; or
• passed a flight test for the issue of an aeroplane pilot licence; or
• passed a flight test for issue or renewal of an aeroplane pilot rating; or
• satisfactorily completed an aeroplane proficiency check; or
• s atisfactorily completed aeroplane conversion training provided it is given
by an instructor or person qualified to conduct aeroplane flight reviews

RECENT EXPERIENCE REQUIREMENTS (CAR 5.82)

As a private pilot, you must not act as pilot in command carrying passengers
by day unless you have carried out 3 take-offs and landings either dual or solo
in the previous 90 days.
If the above flight is to be undertaken at night the above 3 take-offs and
landings must be at night.

PERSONAL LOG BOOKS (CAR 5.51 - CAR 5.53)

You must have a personal log book that is suitable:
• f or the entry of flight crew ratings, aircraft endorsements and any other
privilege; and
• f or recording the matters required by regulation 5.52 (see below) to be
recorded in a personal log book; and
• for
 recording any other matter that CASA directs must be recorded in a
personal log book.
Your personal log book must contain:
• Y
 our full name and address, date of birth and aviation reference number;
and
• Details of each flight; and

1 — LICENSING
 p i l o t r e s p o n si b i l iti e s

private pilot licence 9

• Time spent practicing simulated flight in an approved simulator; and

• A
 ny other details such as endorsements, renewal of ratings, completion of
tests and any other matter directed by CASA.
The above requirements apply to holders of a all flight crew licences, special
pilot licences or certificates of validation.
It is an offence to make a false or misleading statement in your personal log
book. (CAR 283)
You must retain your personal log book for as long as you hold a flight crew
licence. (CAR 5.53)

PRODUCTION OF LICENCE ETC. (CAR 5.56)

CASA may request you to produce your licence, logbook or medical certificate
and if so, you must produce it without delay. If you do not have immediate
access to the document, you must produce it at a place nominated by CASA
within 7 days.

pilot in command
RESPONSIBILITY OF PILOT IN COMMAND BEFORE FLIGHT (CAR 233)
 n aircraft shall not commence a flight unless evidence has been furnished to
A
the pilot in command and the pilot has taken such action as is necessary to
ensure that:
• t he instruments and equipment required for the particular type of
operation to be undertaken are installed in the aircraft and are functioning
properly;
• t he gross weight of the aircraft does not exceed the limitations fixed by or
under CAR 235 and is such that flight performance in accordance with the
standards specified by CASA for the type of operation to be undertaken is
possible under the prevailing conditions;
• a ny directions of CASA for loading of the aircraft given under CAR 235
have been complied with;

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
10
pilot in command
• the fuel supplies are sufficient for the particular flight;
• t he required operating and other crew members are on board and in a fit
state to perform their duties;
• if applicable the air traffic control instructions have been complied with;
• the aircraft is safe for flight in all respects;
• t he latest of the aeronautical maps, charts and other aeronautical
information and instructions, are carried in the aircraft and are readily
accessible to the pilot.

DESIGNATION OF A PILOT IN COMMAND (CAR 224)

For each flight the operator (owner, flying school, or hire organization) must
designate one pilot to act as pilot in command.
The pilot in command is responsible for:
• the start, continuation, diversion and end of the flight; and
• the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight; and
• the safety of persons and cargo carried on the aircraft; and
• the conduct and safety of members of the crew.
As pilot in command you must discharge these responsibilities in accordance with:
• a ny information, instructions or directions issued under the Civil Aviation
Act or Regulations; and
• the operations manual provided by the aircraft operator if applicable.
You also have final authority as to the disposition of the aircraft while you are
in command and for the maintenance of discipline by all persons on board.

POWERS OF PILOT IN COMMAND (CAR 309)

The pilot in command of an aircraft, with such assistance as is necessary and
reasonable, may:
• t ake such action, including the removal of a person from the aircraft or
the placing of a person under restraint or in custody, by force, as the pilot
considers reasonably necessary to ensure compliance with the Act or
these Regulations in or in relation to the aircraft; and

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 pilot in command 11

• d
 etain the passengers, crew and cargo for such period as the pilot
onsiders reasonably necessary to ensure compliance with the Act or
these Regulations in or in relation to the aircraft.
A person who, on an aircraft in flight, whether within or outside Australian
territory, is found committing, or is reasonably suspected of having
committed, or having attempted to commit, or of being about to commit, an
offence against the Act or these Regulations may be arrested without warrant
by a member of the crew of the aircraft in the same manner as a person who
is found committing a felony may, at common law, be arrested by a constable
and shall be dealt with in the same manner as a person so arrested by a
constable.

RESTRICTION OF ADVERTISING OF COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS (CAR 210)

A person shall not give any public notice, by newspaper advertisement,
broadcast statement or any other means of public announcement to the
effect that a person is willing to undertake by use of an Australian aircraft any
commercial operations unless the last-mentioned person has obtained an Air
Operator’s Certificate authorising the conduct of those operations.

classification of operations
PRIVATE OPERATIONS CAR 2 (7) (D)
The following are regarded as private operations:
• the personal transportation of the owner of the aircraft;
• a erial spotting where no remuneration is received by the pilot or the
owner of the aircraft or by any person or organisation on whose behalf the
spotting is conducted;
• a gricultural operations on land owned and occupied by the owner of the
aircraft;
• a erial photography where no remuneration is received by the pilot or the
owner of the aircraft or by any person or organisation on whose behalf the
photography is conducted;

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
12
classification of operations
• the
 carriage of persons or the carriage of goods without a charge for the
carriage being made other than the carriage, for the purposes of trade, of
goods being the property of the pilot, the owner or the hirer of the aircraft;
• the
 carriage of persons, but not in accordance with a fixed schedule
between terminals, provided that:
– public notice of the flight has not been given by any form of public
advertisement or announcement; and
– the number of persons on the flight, including the operating crew,
does not exceed 6; and
– no payment is made for the services of the operating crew; and
– the persons on the flight, including the operating crew, share equally in
the costs of the flight; and
– no payment is required for a person on the flight other than a the cost
sharing payment above;
• the carriage of goods otherwise than for the purposes of trade;
• conversion
 training for the purpose of endorsement of an additional type
or category of aircraft in a pilot licence; or
• a ny other activity of a kind substantially similar to any of those specified in
subparagraphs (i) to (viii) (inclusive).

carriage of persons
CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS IN SEATS AT WHICH DUAL CONTROLS ARE
FITTED (CAO 20.16.3)
In all aircraft for which the Certificate of Airworthiness specifies a minimum
crew of one pilot, a person may occupy a seat at which fully or partially
functioning dual controls are fitted, if the pilot gives adequate instruction to
that person to ensure that the controls are not interfered with in flight and
there is satisfactory communication available at all times between the pilot
and that person.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 carriage of persons 13

PROHIBITION OF CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS ON CERTAIN FLIGHTS

(CAR 249)
 n aircraft (aeroplane, helicopter, gyroplane or airship) that carries a passenger
A
shall not engage in any of the following types of flying:
• flying
 training given to a person who has not passed a general flying
progress flight test for aircraft of the category concerned;
• practice of emergency procedures in the aircraft;
• low flying practice;
• testing an aircraft or its components, power plant or equipment.
An aircraft while engaged in paragraph (D) may carry engineering and
maintenance personnel who are required, as part of their duties, to be
present in the aircraft during the flight for the purpose of flight observation or
of maintenance of the aircraft, including any aircraft component installed in
the aircraft.

INTOXICATED PERSONS NOT TO ACT AS PILOTS ETC. OR TO BE

CARRIED ON AIRCRAFT (CAR 256)
A person shall not, while in a state of intoxication, enter any aircraft.
 person shall not act as a member of an operating crew or be carried
A
for that purpose if his or her capacity to act is in any way impaired by the
consumption or use of any alcoholic liquor, drug, pharmaceutical or medicinal
preparation or other substance. (CAR 256)
 person shall not act as, or perform any duties or functions preparatory to
A
acting as, a member of the operating crew of an aircraft if the person has,
during the period of 8 hours immediately preceding the departure of the
aircraft consumed any alcoholic liquor.
 person who is on board an aircraft as a member of the operating crew, or as
A
a person carried in the aircraft for the purpose of acting as a member of the
operating crew, shall not consume any alcoholic liquor.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
14
carriage of persons
SMOKING IN AIRCRAFT (CAR 255)
A person must not smoke:
•  in a part of an aircraft in which a notice is permanently displayed indicating
that smoking is prohibited at all times or without specifying a period
during which smoking is prohibited;
• a nywhere in an aircraft during take-off, landing or refuelling or during a
period:
– in which a notice is temporarily displayed indicating that smoking is
prohibited; or
– which is specified in a permanently displayed notice as a period during
which smoking is prohibited.

OFFENSIVE AND DISORDERLY BEHAVIOUR (CAR 256AA)

A person in an aircraft must not behave in an offensive and disorderly manner.

UNAUTHORISED PERSONS NOT TO MANIPULATE CONTROLS (CAR 228)

A person shall not manipulate the controls of an aircraft in flight unless the
person is:
• the pilot assigned for duty in the aircraft; or
• a student pilot assigned for instruction in the aircraft.

documents to be carried
An Australian aircraft shall, when flying in Australian airspace, carry:
• u
 nless CASA otherwise approves, its maintenance release and any other
document approved for use as an alternative to the maintenance release;
• u
 nless CASA otherwise approves, the licences and medical certificates of
the operating crew;
• the flight manual (if any) for the aircraft;

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 carriage of animals 15

 ubject to paragraph (8) below, the operator of an aircraft must not permit a
S
live animal to be in the aircraft unless:
• t he animal is in a container and is carried in accordance with this
regulation; or
• t he animal is carried with the written permission of CASA and in
accordance with any conditions specified in the permission.
 equirement 1 does not apply to a dog accompanying a visually impaired or
R
hearing impaired person as a guide or an assistant if the dog is:
• carried in the passenger cabin of the aircraft; and
• p
 laced on a moisture-absorbent mat as near to the person as practicable;
and
• restrained in a way that will prevent the dog from moving from the mat.
 ore than one animal must not be kept in the same container if doing so
M
would be likely to affect adversely the safety of the aircraft.
A container must be so constructed that:
• an animal kept in the container cannot escape from the container; and
• a ny water or excreta in the container is not likely to escape from the
container in normal flying conditions; and
• t he container will withstand being damaged in a way that may allow an
animal, or water or excreta, in the container to escape.
A container in which an animal is kept must not be in the passenger cabin of
an aircraft.
If:
• an animal is carried in an aircraft in a container; and
• if the animal is not restrained it could move around inside the container in
a way that may alter the distribution of the load of the aircraft; and
• t he safety of the aircraft may be affected adversely by that movement; the
animal must be restrained in the container to prevent that movement.
 he means of restraint must be strong enough to withstand being damaged
T
in a way that may allow the animal to escape.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
16
carriage of animals
 n animal must not be carried on an aircraft if carrying the animal would be
A
likely to affect a person on the aircraft in a way that may affect adversely the
safety of the aircraft.
In this regulation, animal means any member of the animal kingdom other
than man.

firearms
CARRIAGE OF FIREARMS (CAR 143)
A person, including a flight crew member, shall not, except with the
permission of CASA, carry a firearm in, or have a firearm in his or her
possession in, an aircraft other than an aircraft engaged in charter operations
or regular public transport operations.

DISCHARGE OF FIREARMS IN OR FROM AN AIRCRAFT (CAR 144)

A person, including a flight crew member, shall not, except with the permission
in writing of CASA and in accordance with such conditions (if any) as are
specified in the permission, discharge a firearm while on board an aircraft.

refuelling
CHECKING FUEL AND OILS
The pilot in command of an aircraft shall ensure that the aircraft is not flown
unless the aviation fuel, aircraft engine lubricating oil, aircraft engine power
augmentation fluid and aircraft hydraulic system fluid used in connection with
the servicing or operation of the aircraft complies with the specification and
grade required or approved for the purpose by CASA. The pilot in command may
assume that the above fluids already on the aircraft comply with the required
specification and grade. All ground fuel stock shall be carefully checked for the
presence of undissolved water before the fuelling operation is commenced.
This precaution is particularly important when handling fuel from drum stocks.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 refuelling 17

Attention is drawn to the necessity of using a positive method, such as

suitable water-detecting paste or paper, in testing for the presence of free
water since sensory perceptions of colour and smell, if used alone, can
be quite misleading. In the case of turbine fuels, attention is also drawn to
the necessity of watching for signs of cloudiness or other indication of the
presence of suspended water droplets which will not necessarily be detected
by the means mentioned in Note 2.
All fuel shall be strained or filtered for the removal of free or suspended water
and other contaminating matter before entering the aircraft tanks. Attention
is drawn to the special standards of filtration which may be specified by the
manufacturers of certain types of engines. eg. turbine engines and direct-
injection piston engines.

LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT
During fuelling operations, the aircraft and ground fuelling equipment shall be
so located that no fuel tank filling points or vent outlets lie:
• within 5 metres (17 ft) of any sealed building;
• within 6 metres (20 ft) of other stationary aircraft;
• within 15 metres (50 ft) of any exposed public area;
• w
 ithin 15 metres (50 ft) of any unsealed building in the case of aircraft
with a maximum take-off weight in excess of 5700 kg (12,566 lb) and
• w
 ithin 9 metres (30 ft) of any unsealed building in the case of aircraft with
a maximum take-off weight not exceeding 5700 kg (12,566 lb).
Notwithstanding the contents of the above paragraph, limited fuelling
operations for maintenance purposes may be carried out in certain hangars
under the following conditions:

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
18
refuelling
• r efuelling or defuelling of gasoline or wide-cut gasoline type turbine fuel is
not permitted;
• overwing fuelling is not permitted;
• t hese operations shall not be permitted in hangars occupied by two or
more tenants; and
• t he operator shall obtain approval from CASA for the detailed procedures
under which these operations may be performed. These procedures
shall be described in the maintenance manual and shall include: the
circumstances under which refuelling or defuelling in hangars or
maintenance area is permitted, and the maximum volume of fuel involved.
For the above purpose, a sealed building is one which all the external part
within 15 metres (50 ft) of an aircraft’s fuel tank filling points or vent outlets or
ground fuelling equipment is of non-flammable materials and has no openings
or all openings are closed.
Where the fuelling equipment is not mobile, the aircraft shall be so placed
that it can be rapidly moved to a place of safety, and a means of ensuring that
this can be done shall be readily available.
Note: The following operations are not deemed to constitute fuelling
operations:
• the drainage of a small quantity of fuel from a fuel system drain point; and
• t he transfer of fuel from tank to tank within an aircraft making use
exclusively of lines and equipment permanently installed in the aircraft.

PASSENGERS ON BOARD DURING REFUELLING

The operator of an aircraft with a maximum seating capacity of less than 20
may allow fuel that is not:
• avgas; or
• an aviation turbine grade which does not contain an anti-static additive;
• to be loaded on to the aircraft while a passenger is on board if:
• t he passenger’s medical condition is such that he or she cannot leave the
aircraft without assistance.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 refuelling 19

If:
• fuel is being loaded onto an aircraft in accordance with the paragraphs above; and
• either:
- fuel vapour is found inside the aircraft; or
- for any other reason it is not safe to continue loading
• the aircraft’s operator must ensure that the loading of the fuel stops immediately.

AIRCRAFT SAFETY PRECAUTIONS DURING FUELLING OPERATIONS

All engines in the aircraft, including any auxiliary power units, shall be stopped
with their ignition switches in the ‘OFF’ position, except where CASA is
satisfied that the operation of such an engine or auxiliary power unit will not
present a hazard and where a statement to that effect, together with any
special conditions for operation, is included in relevant documentation.
When an external electrical supply is used, the connections between that
supply and the aircraft electrical system shall be made and securely locked
before the fuelling operation is connected and shall not be disconnected until
the operation has been completed, except that connectors, which provide
control to ensure effective engagement before external power can be supplied
to the aircraft, need not be locked.
A person shall not, and the pilot in command and the operator shall take
reasonable steps to ensure that a person does not, during fuelling operations:
• o
 perate or perform maintenance work on the aircraft’s radar equipment
except that where the fuel is kerosene, operation or maintenance may be
carried out provided the radar transmitter is de-activated, or
• e
 xcept where the fuel involved is kerosene, carry out maintenance on any
electrical, electronic or radio systems within the aircraft or operate such
equipment other than the aircraft’s interior lighting or electrical apparatus
necessary for the fuelling process.
The aircraft and all items of fuelling equipment (including drums, funnels and
other loose items of equipment, where used) shall be connected in such a way
as to ensure that they are of the same electrical potential and, where a suitable
earth point is available at the fuelling site, both the aircraft and the equipment
shall be effectively connected to that point:

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
20
refuelling
• w
 here the fuelling operation is performed by a barge to a seaplane, the
barge shall be effectively connected to the aircraft in such a way as to
ensure that the barge, the fuelling equipment and the aircraft are at the
same electrical potential.
All footwear worn by aircraft servicing personnel and persons operating fuelling
equipment shall be of a non-sparking type and such persons shall not carry any
matches, cigarette lighters or other objects which could represent an ignition hazard.
Except where automatic shut-off devices limit the capacity of an aircraft fuel
tank, the operator and the pilot in command shall ensure that sufficient airspace
remains in each fuel tank to allow for anticipated fuel expansion.
When a fuelling operation on an aircraft has been completed, the pilot in
command and the operator of the aircraft shall ensure that all fuel and oil tank
caps are securely refitted.
Aircraft oil tanks shall not be drained or filled when the aircraft is inside a hangar
or other building unless the oiling equipment used complies with the provisions
of Appendix I of CAO 20.9, if applicable.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS EXTERNAL TO AN AIRCRAFT DURING FUELLING

OPERATIONS
The area in which fuelling operations are carried out shall be clearly placarded
as a `No Smoking’ area and the limits of this area shall be a sealed building or at
least 15 metres (50 ft) from the aircraft or ground fuelling equipment.
Where mobile fuelling equipment is used, the equipment shall be so placed
that it can be rapidly moved in the event of fire.
A person shall not, and the pilot in command and the operator shall take
reasonable steps to ensure that a person does not, during fuelling operations:
• s moke or use a naked flame within 15 metres (50 ft) of the aircraft and
ground fuelling equipment;
• e
 xcept in the case of aircraft, operate an internal combustion engine or
any electrical switch, battery, generator, motor or other electrical apparatus
within 15 metres (50 ft) of the aircraft’s fuel tank filling points or vent
outlets, and ground fuelling equipment unless the engine, switch, generator,
motor or apparatus complies with the provisions of Appendix I to CAO 20.9
and has been inspected.
Two or more fire extinguishers of approved type and capacity shall be

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 refuelling 21

positioned within 15 metres (50 ft) but not less than 6 metres (20 ft) from
the aircraft and the fuelling equipment except where two or more fire
extinguishers are carried on the fuelling equipment. Where so carried the fire
extinguishers shall be fitted with quick release brackets, be readily available
from either side of the equipment and be located as far as is practicable from
the vehicle fuel tanks and fuelling points.

ACTION IN THE EVENT OF A FIRE HAZARD

A fuelling operation shall be suspended and the Airport Fire Service notified
when any fuel of a quantity likely to create a fire hazard is spilled on or within
15 metres (50 feet) of the aircraft or ground fuelling equipment, including the
bilge of a fuelling barge, and the operation shall not recommence until the fire
hazard is removed.
A fuelling operation shall be stopped as soon as it becomes apparent that
an infringement exists of any of the relevant requirements of CAO 20.9.
When any fuel of a quantity likely to create a fire hazard is spilled on or within
15 metres (50 ft) of the aircraft or ground fuelling equipment, the pilot in
command or, in his absence, the operator shall ensure that:
• p
 assengers remaining on board or in the process of embarking or
disembarking are removed to a point at least 15 metres (50 ft) from the
spilled fuel;
• m
 obile power units, vehicles and power operated loading devices
operating within 15 metres (50 ft) of the spilled fuel are shut down;
• m
 aintenance work of any nature on or within the aircraft is suspended and
not recommenced until the spilled fuel has been removed.

engine ground operation

STARTING AND RUNNING OF ENGINES (CAR 230)
A person must not:
• start the engine of an aircraft; or
• permit the engine of an aircraft to be run,

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
22
engine ground operation
except that:
the engine may be started or run if the control seat is occupied by an
approved person or by a person who may, under CAR Part V (flight crew
licencing), fly the aircraft; or if the aircraft is an aeroplane that is having
maintenance carried out on it, or that is being used for the provision of
maintenance training, the engine may be started or run if the control seat is
occupied by a person who:
• h
 olds an aircraft maintenance engineer licence, or an airworthiness
authority, covering maintenance of the aircraft’s engine; and
• h
 as sufficient knowledge of the aircraft’s controls and systems to ensure
the starting or running does not endanger any person or damage the
aircraft.
The pilot in command or in his absence any other person responsible for
starting or ground operation of an aircraft shall ensure that:
• In the case of land aircraft, passenger loading equipment to permit rapid
evacuation of passengers and crew is kept immediately available during
the starting of engines.
• In the case of seaplanes, water transport of a capacity sufficient to enable
rapid evacuation of passengers and crew is immediately available during
the starting of engines.
Where any fuel or other flammable material is spilled within 15 metres (50 ft)
of an aircraft, the aircraft engines shall not be started or operated until the fire
hazard has been removed.
An aircraft engine shall not be started or operated:
• within 5 metres (17 ft) of any sealed building;
• within 8 metres (25 ft) of other aircraft;
• within 15 metres (50 ft) of any exposed public area; and
• w
 ithin 8 metres (25 ft) of any unsealed building in the case of an aircraft
with a maximum take-off weight not exceeding 5700 kg (12,566 lb).

MANIPULATION OF PROPELLER (CAR 231)

In spite of CAR 225 (pilots at controls page 23) and CAR 230 (above) and
paragraph 2 below, the pilot in command of an aircraft which requires an
operating crew of only one pilot may manipulate the propeller of the aircraft

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 engine ground operation 23

for the purposes of starting the aircraft if:

• assistance is not readily available for that purpose;
• adequate provision is made to prevent the aircraft moving forward; and
• no person is on board the aircraft.
 person who is the holder of the certificate of registration for, or the
A
operator, hirer or pilot in command of, an Australian aircraft must not permit
a person to manipulate the propeller of the aircraft to start the engine unless
the firstmentioned person is satisfied that the person who is to manipulate
the propeller knows the correct starting procedures for the aircraft and can
manipulate the propeller safely.

AIRCRAFT NOT TO BE TAXIED - EXCEPT BY PILOT (CAR 229)

An aircraft shall not be taxied anywhere on an aerodrome by a person other
than a licensed pilot whose licence is endorsed for the particular type of
aircraft concerned or a person approved by CASA in accordance with the
terms and conditions of the approval.

PILOTS AT CONTROLS (CAR 225)

The pilot in command must ensure that 1 pilot is at the controls of an aircraft
from the time at which the engine or engines is or are started prior to a flight
until the engine or engines is or are stopped after the termination of a flight.
When 2 or more pilots are required to be on board an aircraft, the pilot in
command must ensure that 2 pilots remain at the controls at all times when
the aircraft is taking off, landing and during turbulent conditions.

DUAL CONTROLS (CAR 226)

 control seat of an aircraft equipped with fully or partially functioning dual
A
controls shall not be occupied in flight except by a person:
• w
 ho holds an appropriate pilot licence in respect of the type of aircraft and
the class of operations in which the aircraft is flown; or
• who is a student pilot assigned for instruction in the aircraft; or
• who is authorised by CASA.
SEAT BELTS AND SAFETY HARNESSES (CAO 20.16.3)

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
24
seating
 t least one pilot crew member shall wear a seat belt or harness at all times
A
during flight.
Except in the case of sick or injured persons (subsection 14) and parachutists
(subsection 16) safety harnesses, or seat belts shall be worn by all persons at
the times:
• during take-off and landing;
• during an instrument approach;
• u
 nless CASA otherwise directs—when the aircraft is flying at a height of
less than 1,000 feet above the terrain; and
• at all times in turbulent conditions.

SEAT BELTS AND SAFETY HARNESSES (CAR 251)

Seat belts and safety harnesses shall be adjusted to fit the wearer without slack.

ADJUSTMENT OF SEATS (CAO 20.16.3)

All seats (with the exception of those specified in the paragraph below) shall
be adjusted to their upright position for take-off and landing.
 hen it is desirable through illness or other incapacity that a passenger’s
W
seat remains in the reclined position during take-off or landing, that seat,
notwithstanding the provision of the above paragraph, may be left reclined
during take-off or landing if it is forward facing, there is no person occupying
the seat immediately behind, and it will not impede the egress of any person
in an emergency evacuation.

EXITS AND PASSAGEWAYS NOT TO BE OBSTRUCTED (CAR 254)

Unless CASA otherwise approves, this regulation applies to all passageways
and exits in an aircraft that are for use by passengers or crew.
When an aircraft is in flight, the pilot in command must ensure that all
passageways and exits to which this regulation applies are kept free from
obstruction.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 engine ground operation 25

 hen an aircraft is in flight, the pilot in command must ensure that all exits
W
to which this regulation applies are fastened in a way that permits their
immediate use in an emergency.

pre take off

TESTING OF RADIO APPARATUS (CAR 242)
Unless exempt, before an aircraft is taxied on the manoeuvring area of an
aerodrome for the purpose of moving to the take-off position, the pilot in
command shall check that the radio apparatus fitted to the aircraft and to be
used in flight is functioning correctly.
If the check indicates any malfunctioning of any portion of the radio apparatus
the aircraft shall not be flown until the apparatus has been certified by a
person licensed or approved for the purpose as being in proper working order.

LISTENING WATCH (CAR 243)

When an aircraft is equipped with radio apparatus for use during flight, the
pilot in command must maintain a listening watch, or must ensure that a
listening watch is maintained, at all times commencing immediately prior to
the time at which the aircraft commences to move on the manoeuvring area
prior to flight and lasting until the aircraft is brought to a stop at the apron or
other point of termination of the flight.
 here the means of communication between Air Traffic Control and an aircraft
W
under its control is a voice communication channel, the pilot in command and any
other pilot for the time being operating the controls of the aircraft shall personally
maintain a listening watch on the appropriate radio frequency.

MOVEMENT ON MANOEUVRING AREA (CAR 246)

Immediately prior to take-off, the pilot in command shall manoeuvre the
aircraft so that he or she is able to observe traffic on the manoeuvring area of
the aerodrome and incoming and outgoing traffic, in order that he or she may
avoid collision with other aircraft during the take-off.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
26
pre take off
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS BEFORE TAKE-OFF (CAR 244)
Immediately before taking-off on any flight, the pilot in command of an aircraft
shall:
• test
 the flight controls on the ground to the full limit of their travel and
make such other tests as are necessary to ensure that those controls are
functioning correctly;
• ensure
 that locking and safety devices are removed and that hatches,
doors and tank caps are secured; and
• e
 nsure that all external surfaces of the aircraft are completely free from
frost and ice.

TESTS BEFORE AND DURING THE TAKE-OFF RUN (CAR 245)

 ASA may give directions specifying the tests to be carried out by the pilot in
C
command of an aircraft before the commencement of, and during, a take-off run
in order to be satisfied that the engine and associated items of equipment are
functioning correctly within the permissible limits of performance.
 efore the commencement of, and during, a take-off run, the pilot in
B
command of an aircraft shall:
• carry
 out all tests required to be carried out in relation to the aircraft as
above;
• t est all flight instruments, and, in particular, all gyroscopic flight
instruments, that it is possible to test so as to ensure that they are
functioning correctly;
• e
 nsure that all gyroscopic flight instruments are correctly set and uncaged;
and
• p
 erform such checks and tests as are required by the flight manual or
other document for, the aircraft.
If an inspection, check or test made under the above indicates any departure
from the permissible limits or any malfunctioning in any particular (not being
a departure or malfunctioning that is a permissible unserviceability), the pilot
in command shall not commence the take-off or, if the pilot has commenced
the take-off, shall abandon the take-off or take such other action as the pilot
considers appropriate to ensure the safety of the aircraft and of persons on
board the aircraft.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 pre take off 27

PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECK (AIP ENR 1.7)

A pre-flight altimeter check is required at sites of known elevation and where
an accurate QNH is available. The VFR altimeter accuracy requirement is
±100FT or 110FT at sites above 3,300FT.
Further details are given in the ALTIMETRY section on pages 213 -214 and in
AIP ENR 1.7.

in flight
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS OBSERVED EN ROUTE (CAR 247)
The pilot in command shall report, in the approved form and at such times
as requested by a meteorological observer, the meteorological conditions
observed en route.
 hen any meteorological condition, hazardous to flight, is encountered en
W
route, the pilot in command shall report the condition as soon as possible,
giving such details as appear pertinent to the safety of other aircraft.

NAVIGATION LOGS (CAR 78)

The pilot in command of an aircraft shall keep a log of such navigational data
as is equired to enable him or her to determine the geographical position of
the aircraft at any time while the aircraft is in flight.

ACROBATIC FLIGHT (CAR 155)

An aircraft:
• shall not be flown in acrobatic flight at night;
• shall not be flown in acrobatic flight except in V.M.C.; and
• shall
 not be flown in acrobatic flight of a particular kind unless the
certificate of airworthiness of, or the flight manual for, the aircraft specifies
that the aircraft may perform that type of acrobatic flight.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
28
in flight
 or the purposes of the above, straight and steady stalls or turns in which
F
the angle of bank does not exceed 60 degrees shall be deemed NOT to be
acrobatic flight.
 xcept with the permission in writing of CASA, a person shall not engage in
E
acrobatic flight in an aircraft:
• at
 a height lower than 3000 feet above the highest point of the terrain, or
any obstacle thereon, within a radius of 600 metres of a line extending
vertically below the aircraft; or
• over
 a city, town, populous area, regatta, race meeting or meeting for
public games or sports.
 efore engaging in acrobatic flight, the pilot of an aircraft shall take such
B
action as is necessary to ensure that:
• any
 loose articles are removed from the aircraft or made secure in the
aircraft;
• all locker and compartment doors of the aircraft are fastened;
• the
 safety harness or seat belt of any vacant seat is made secure so as to
avoid the fouling of the controls of the aircraft;
• the
 dual controls (if any) of the aircraft are removed from the aircraft or
rendered inoperative, unless the control seats are occupied in accordance
with CAR 226 (page 23) or the dual control seat is vacant; and
• every
 person in the aircraft is secured with correctly adjusted safety
harness or seat belt.

FLYING OVER PUBLIC GATHERINGS (CAR 156)

 xcept with the permission, in writing, of CASA and in accordance with the
E
conditions specified in the permit, an aircraft shall not be flown over any
regatta, race meeting or public gathering.
 othing in the above shall apply to an aircraft passing over a regatta, race
N
meeting or public gathering in the process of:
• arriving
 at or departing from an aerodrome in the course of its normal
navigation for so doing; or
• passing from place to place in the ordinary course of navigation.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 in flight 29

LOW FLYING (CAR 157)

An aircraft must not fly over:
• any city, town or populous area, at a height lower than 1000 feet; or
• any other area at a height lower than 500 feet.
 height specified in the above is the height above the highest point of the
A
terrain, and any object on it, within a radius of:
• in the case of an aircraft other than a helicopter—600 metres; or
• in
 the case of a helicopter—300 metres; from a point on the terrain
vertically below the aircraft.
 aragraph 1(A) does not apply in respect of a helicopter flying at a designated
P
altitude within an access lane details of which have been published in the AIP
or NOTAMS for use by helicopters arriving at or departing from a specified
place.
Paragraph 1. (above) does not apply if:
• through
 stress of weather or any other unavoidable cause it is essential
that a lower height be maintained; or
• the
 aircraft is engaged in private operations or aerial work operations,
being operations that require low flying, and the owner or operator of the
aircraft has received from CASA either a general permit for all flights or a
specific permit for the particular flight to be made at a lower height while
engaged in such operations; or
• the
 pilot of the aircraft is engaged in flying training and flies over a part of
a flying training area in respect of which low flying is authorised by CASA
under CAR 141(1); or
• the
 pilot of the aircraft is engaged in a baulked approach procedure, or the
practice of such procedure under the supervision of a flight instructor or a
check pilot; or
• the
 aircraft is flying in the course of actually taking-off or landing at an
aerodrome; or
• the pilot of the aircraft is engaged in:
- a search; or
- a rescue; or
- dropping supplies in a search and rescue operation; or

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
30
in flight
• the aircraft is a helicopter:
- operated by, or for the purposes of, the Australian Federal Police or the
police force of a State or Territory; and
- engaged in law enforcement operations; or
• the
 pilot of the aircraft is engaged in an operation which requires the
dropping of packages or other articles or substances in accordance with
directions issued by CASA.

REPORTING OF DEFECTS (CAR 248)

 t the termination of each flight, or in any urgent case, during the currency of
A
the flight, you must report, all defects in the aircraft, aerodromes, air routes, air
route facilities or airway facilities which have come to your notice.
 here a defect in the aircraft is reported in accordance with the above
W
paragraph, the operator of the aircraft shall take such action in relation thereto
as is required under these Regulations.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 accidents and incidents 31

INTRODUCTION
The Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB), is responsible for the
investigation of all civil aircraft accidents and incidents within Australia. The
postal address for ATSB is:
PO Box 967
Civic Square,
CANBERRA ACT 2608
Tel: 1800 011 034, or
02-6230 4408 (61-2-6257 4150 if calling from overseas
Fax: 02-6247 6434 (61-2-6247 6434 if sending from overseas).
The fundamental objective of air safety investigation is the prevention of
accidents and incidents. Such investigations aim to determine all the factors
involved and to use this information as the basis for enhancing safety in
aviation.
The results of an investigation are required to be made known through a
report which may constitute:
• a formal report,
• safety action statements, or
• safety recommendations.
Publication of the report may occur on the ATSB website ([Link])
and in ATSB publications.

ACCIDENT
Broadly stated the definition of an aircraft accident is: “An occurrence
associated with the operation of an aircraft in which:
• any person suffers death or serious injury
• the aircraft incurs substantial damage or structural failure; or
• t he aircraft is missing or inaccessible.”
(Transport Safety Investigation Act 2003).

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
32
accidents and incidents
INCIDENT
An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an
aircraft that affects or could affect the safety of the operation of the aircraft
(Part 2A [S.19AC] of the Air Navigation Act 1920). In practice, this definition
is broadly interpreted and the incident reporting system accepts any reports,
requests, complaints and suggestions which relate to aviation safety.

notification of ACCIDENTS
The pilot in command, the owner, the operator and the hirer (if any) are
each responsible for ensuring the quick notification of an accident to ATSB
is furnished by the quickest means available. A further requirement is that a
written report, preferably using the Air Safety Incident Report (ASIR) format,
be submitted to ATSB as soon as practicable after the accident. The minimum
information required in the report includes:
• aircraft make, model and registration;
• names of the owner and operator;
• full name of the pilot in command;
• date and time of the accident;
• last point of departure, point of intended landing and nature of the flight;
• location of the accident;
• number of persons on board and numbers and names of the injured;
• nature and cause of the accident, as far as it is known;
• description of damage to the aircraft; and
• description of the terrain at the accident site in terms of accessibility.
Note 1: Immediate notification may be made verbally to the nearest ATS
unit or the local police, who in turn will notify ATSB. The written
report (ASIR) should be forwarded directly to the ATSB Field Office
in the state or territory in which the accident occurred.
Note 2: A standard ASIR form may be obtained by contacting ATSB
on freecall phone number 1 800 011 034 (Primary Notification
Number), or 1 800 020 616 (Information number & Secondary
Notification Number) or downloaded from the ATSB website.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 accidents and incidents 33

INCIDENTS
The pilot in command, the owner, the operator and the hirer (if any) are each
responsible for ensuring that a written notification of an incident, preferably
on an ASIR, is forwarded to ATSB within 72 hours of the incident.

BIRD STRIKE
Bird Strike is a collision between a bird, or a number of birds, and an aircraft.
All bird strikes in Australia are incidents under Part 2A (S19AC) of the Air
Navigation Act 1920. The reporting of a bird strike, including a “near miss” or
a hazardous situation, is mandatory, preferably using an ASIR.

INVESTIGATION
The investigator of an accident or incident is empowered to demand such
evidence, documents and components as is required (see para. 2A (Division
3) of the Air Navigation Act 1920).
Copies of flight plans, logs and briefing documents should be retained by the
pilot for 14 days after a flight in case they may be required by the investigator.

CUSTODY
When an accident occurs, the aircraft is deemed to come into the custody
of the Director of ATSB and it must not be removed or interfered with
except with the permission of the Director or authorised representative
(Part 2A (Division 7) (of the Air Navigation Act 1920). However, under Part 2A
(Division 7) of the Air Navigation Act, the extrication of persons, animals or
mails is permissible. Further, rescuers are permitted to take such action as is
necessary, to…’protect the wreckage from further damage, and to prevent
danger to aircraft , other transport and the public’. Goods and baggage may
only be removed from the wreckage under the supervision of the police or
other authorised officer. Additionally, on the case of an aircraft which has
come from outside Australia, the consent of a Customs Officer is required.
On completion of the investigation of an accident, the aircraft will be released
to the owner.

1 — PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
 ra d i o t e l e p h o n y p r o c e d u r e s
34
general
INTRODUCTION (AIP GEN 3.4)
Use of standard phrases for radio telephony communication between aircraft
and ground stations is essential to avoid misunderstanding the intent of
messages and to reduce the time required for communication.
Phraseologies contained in this section are generic, and, although primarily
reflecting a controlled airspace environment, pilots operating OCTA should use
these generic phrases unless specific OCTA phrases are shown.
Where circumstances warrant, and no phraseology is available, clear and
concise plain language should be used to indicate intentions.

LANGUAGE (CAR 184)

English language must be used for all air-ground RTF communications within
Australian FIRs unless use of an alternative language has been arranged with
ATS prior to any specific flight.

SYMBOL AND PARENTHESES CONVENTIONS USED

In the following radiotelephone examples, words in parentheses “()” indicate
that specific information, such as a level, a place, or a time, etc., must be
inserted to complete the phrase, or alternatively, that optional phrases may be
used. Words in square parentheses “[]” indicate optional additional words or
information that may be necessary in specific instances.
The following symbols indicate phraseologies which may differ from those used
in an international aviation environment, but are necessitated by Australian
requirements.
Unique to Australia (ICAO Silent)
Military Specific Phraseologies
Phraseologies show the text of message components without callsigns. They
are not intended to be exhaustive, and when circumstances differ, pilots,
ATS, Air Defence personnel, and other ground personnel will be expected to
use appropriate subsidiary phraseologies which should be clear, concise and
designed to avoid any possible confusion.
For convenience the phraseologies are grouped according to types of air
traffic service. However, users should be familiar with and use, as necessary,
phraseologies from groups other than those referring specifically to the type of
air traffic service being provided. All phraseologies must be used in conjunction
with callsigns (aircraft, ground vehicle, ATC or other) as appropriate.

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 general 35

Phraseologies for the movement of vehicles, other than tow-tractors on the

manoeuvring area, are not listed separately as the phraseology associated
with the movement of aircraft is applicable. The exception is for taxi
instructions, in which case the word “PROCEED” will be substituted for the
word “TAXI” when ATC communicates with vehicles.

words and phrases

TRANSMISSION FORMAT
When initiating a transmission to ATS, pilots will commence the transmission
with the callsign of the unit being addressed followed by the aircraft callsign.
A read-back of an ATS message will be terminated with the aircraft’s callsign.
When making a broadcast at a non-controlled aerodrome or in E or G airspace,
the transmission must commence with the location followed by “TRAFFIC”
eg: “BUNDABERG TRAFFIC.”

READ-BACK REQUIREMENTS
For other than a route clearance as indicated below, the key elements of
clearances, instructions or information must be read back ensuring sufficient
details as included to clearly indicate compliance.
The following clearances, instructions and information will be read back;
• an ATC route clearance in its entirety, and any amendments;
Note: as minimum, the accuracy of a route clearance read-back shall be
confirmed by ATS transmitting the aircraft’s callsign.
• en route holding instructions;
• any holding point specified in a taxi clearance;
• a ny clearances or instructions to hold short of, enter, land on, take off on,
or backtrack on any runway;
• any LAHSO instructions;
• a ssigned runway, altimeter settings directed to specific aircraft, SSR
codes,radio and radio navigation aid frequency instructions;

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36
words and phrases
Note: An “expectation” of the runway to be used is not to be read back.
• Level instructions, direction of turn, heading and speed instructions.
Note: Reported level figures of an aircraft should be preceded by the
words “FLIGHT LEVEL” when related to standard pressure and
may be followed by the word “FEET” when related to QNH.

CONDITIONAL CLEARANCES
Phrases such as “behind landing aircraft” or “after departing aircraft”, will
only be used for movements affecting the active runway(s) when the aircraft
or vehicles concerned are seen by the appropriate controller, pilot or vehicle
driver. In all cases, a conditional clearance will be given in the following order
and consist of:
• identification;
• the condition (specify); and
• t he clearance, eg:
ATS: “ (aircraft callsign) CESSNA ON SHORT FINAL, BEHIND THAT
AIRCRAFT LINE UP”
Pilot: “BEHIND THE CESSNA LINING UP (aircraft callsign)”
Note: This implies the need for the aircraft receiving the conditional
clearance to identify the aircraft or vehicle causing the conditional
clearance.

ROUTE TERMINOLOGY
The phrase “FLIGHT PLANNED ROUTE” may be used to describe any route
or portion thereof that is identical to that filed in the flight notification and
sufficient routing details are given to definitely establish the aircraft on its route.

AMENDED ROUTE OR LEVEL

Whenever a situation arises whereby an aircraft is assigned a route and/
or level other than that expected according to the flight notification and any
subsequent revisions requested by the pilot, ATS should prefix the route and/
or level information with the term “AMENDED” to alert the pilot that the
information and/or clearance are other than may be expected, eg:
• ATS: (aircraft callsign) CLIMB TO AMENDED LEVEL SIX THOUSAND,
FIVE HUNDRED”
Pilot: “CLIMB TO AMENDED LEVEL SIX THOUSAND, FIVE HUNDRED

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 words and phrases 37

(aircraft callsign).
• ATS: “
 (aircraft callsign) RECLEARED TO ADELAIDE AMENDED ROUTE
(amended route details and level)”
Pilot: “RECLEARED TO ADELAIDE AMENDED ROUTE
(amended route details and level) (aircraft callsign)”.

PHONETIC ALPHABET
Radiotelephony pronunciation of the Phonetic Alphabet shall be as follows:

NUMERALS
Radiotelephony pronunciation of numbers shall be in the phonetic form as follows:

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38
words and phrases
TRANSMISSION OF NUMBERS
All numbers used in the transmission of altitude, cloud height, visibility and
runway visual range (RVR) information, which contain whole hundreds and
whole thousands, must be transmitted by pronouncing each digit in the
numbers of hundreds or thousands followed by the word HUNDRED or
THOUSAND as appropriate, eg:
ALTITUDES
• 800 “EIGHT HUNDRED”
• 1,500 “ONE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED”
• 6,715 “SIX SEVEN ONE FIVE”
• 10,000 “ONE ZERO THOUSAND”
CLOUD HEIGHT
• 2,200 “TWO THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED”
• 4,300 “FOUR THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED”
VISIBILITY
• 200 “TWO HUNDRED”
• 1,500 “ONE THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED”
• 3,000 “THREE THOUSAND”
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
• 700 “SEVEN HUNDRED”
All other numbers must be transmitted by pronouncing each digit separately, eg:
FLIGHT LEVELS
• FL 180 “FLIGHT LEVEL ONE EIGHT ZERO”
• FL 200 “FLIGHT LEVEL TWO ZERO ZERO”
HEADINGS
• 150 “ONE FIVE ZERO”
• 080 “ZERO EIGHT ZERO”
• 300 “THREE ZERO ZERO”
WIND DIRECTION
• 020° “ZERO TWO ZERO DEGREES”
• 100° “ONE ZERO ZERO DEGREES”
• 210° “TWO ONE ZERO DEGREES”

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 words and phrases 39

WIND SPEEDS
• 70KT “SEVEN ZERO KNOTS”
• 18KT, gusting 30 “ONE EIGHT KNOTS GUSTING THREE ZERO”
MACH NUMBER
• 0.84 “DECIMAL EIGHT FOUR”
ALTIMETER SETTING
• 1000 “ONE ZERO ZERO ZERO”
• 1027 “ONE ZERO TWO SEVEN”
Note: For the transmission of numbers in aircraft callsigns, refer to
“FLIGHT NUMBER CALLSIGNS” (on page 65)

STANDARD WORDS AND PHRASES

The following words and phrases are to be used in radiotelephony
communications, as appropriate, and have the meaning given:
ACKNOWLEDGE “Let me know that you have received and understood
the message.
AFFIRM Yes.
APPROVED Permission for proposed action granted.
BREAK I hereby indicate the separation between portions
of the message (to be used where there is no clear
distinction between the text and other portions of the
message).
BREAK BREAK I hereby indicate separation between messages
transmitted to different aircraft in a very busy
environment.
CANCEL Annul the previously transmitted clearance.
CHECK Examine a system or procedure (no answer is
normally expected).
CLEARED Authorised to proceed under the conditions specified.
CONFIRM Have you correctly received the following…? or Did
you correctly receive this message?
CONTACT Establish radio contact with…
CORRECT That is correct.

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40
words and phrases
CORRECTION An error has been made in this transmission (or
message indicated) the correct version is…
DISREGARD Consider that transmission as not sent.
GO AHEAD Proceed with your message.
HOW DO YOU READ What is the readability of my transmission?
The readability scale is:
1. Unreadable
2. Readable now and then
3. Readable but with difficulty
4. Readable
5. Perfectly readable
I SAY AGAIN I repeat for clarity or emphasis.
MONITOR Listen out on (frequency).
NEGATIVE “No” or “Permission is not granted” or “That is not
correct”.
OVER My transmission is ended and I expect a response
from you (not normally used in VHF communication).
OUT My transmission is ended and I expect no response
from you (not normally used in VHF communication).
READ BACK Repeat all, or the specified part, of this message back
to me exactly as received.
RECLEARED A change has been made to your last clearance
and this new clearance supersedes your previous
clearance or part thereof.
REPORT Pass me the following information.
REQUEST I should like to know or I wish to obtain.
ROGER I have received all of your last transmission (under
NO circumstances to be used in reply to a question
requiring READ BACK or a direct answer in the
affirmative or negative).

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 words and phrases 41

SAY AGAIN Repeat all or the following part of your last

transmission.
SPEAK SLOWER Reduce your rate of speech.
STANDBY Wait and I will call you.
VERIFY Check and confirm with originator.
WILCO I understand your message and will comply with it.
WORDS TWICE As a request: Communication is difficult. Please send
every word or group of words twice.
As information: Since communication is difficult every
word or group of words in this message will be sent
twice.

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42
sartime and sarwatch

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 general phrases 43

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44
general phrases

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frequency management 45

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46
frequency management

traffic information

1 — RADIO TELEPHONY PROCEDURES

meteorological information 47

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48
clearances

1 — GENERAL
clearances 49

1 — GENERAL
50
approach and area control

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vicinity of aerodrome 51

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52
starting and initial clearance

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 taxi procedures 53

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54
taxi procedures

1 — RADIO TELEPHONY PROCEDURES

aerodrome movements 55

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56
aerodrome movements

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 after take off 57

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58
after take off

arrival at aerodrome

1 — RADIO TELEPHONY PROCEDURES

arrival at aerodrome 59

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60
arrival at aerodrome

traffic information

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 radar phraseologies 61

radar communication

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62
radar manoeuvres

1 — RADIO TELEPHONY PROCEDURES

 speed control 63

traffic information

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64
secondary surveillance radar

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 call signs 65

GROUND STATION CALL SIGNS (AIP GEN 3.4)

ATS CALL SIGNS ATS units are identified by the name of the
location followed by the service available as
follows:
CENTRE En route area control, including RIS and FIS.
APPROACH Approach control where provided as a separate
function.
DEPARTURES Departure control where provided as a separate
function.
FINAL/DIRECTOR Radar control providing vectors onto final
approach.
TOWER Aerodrome control or aerodrome and approach
control where these services are provided from
an aerodrome control tower, eg Coffs Harbour.
GROUND Surface movement control.
CLEARANCE DELIVERY Clearance delivery to departing aircraft.
RADAR RIS, where provided as a separate function in terminal
areas.
FLIGHTWATCH Flight Information Service.
The name of the location or the service may be omitted provided that
satisfactory communication has been established.

AIRCRAFT CALL SIGNS

Improper use of callsigns can result in pilots executing a clearance intended
for another aircraft. Callsigns should never be abbreviated on an initial contact
or at any time when other aircraft callsigns have similar numbers/sounds or
identical letters/numbers.
eg: CHARLIE WHISKY ZULU - WHISKY CHARLIE ZULU.
Pilots must be certain that aircraft identification is complete and clearly identified
before taking action on an ATC clearance. ATS will not abbreviate callsigns of
air carrier or other civil aircraft having authorised callsigns. ATS may initiate
abbreviated callsigns of other aircraft by using the prefix and the last three digits/
letters of the aircraft identification after communications are established.

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66
call signs
The pilot may use the abbreviated callsign in subsequent contact with ATS.
When aware of similar/ identical callsigns, ATS will take action to minimise
errors by:
• emphasising certain numbers/letters
• repeating the entire callsign
• repeating the prefix, or
• asking pilots to use a different callsign temporarily.
Pilots should use the phrase “VERIFY CLEARANCE FOR (complete callsign)”
if doubt exists concerning proper identity.
Civil aircraft pilots should state the aircraft type , model or manufacturer’s
name, followed by the digits/letters of the registration number, when using
GAAP and CTAF procedures.
Bonanza CHARLIE ALPHA ECHO.
Cherokee ALPHA BRAVO CHARLIE.
Aircraft operating within the Australian FIR will use the abbreviated form
consisting of the last three characters of the registration unless conforming
with an alternative approved format, eg:
VH-DFL DELTA FOXTROT LIMA
Foreign registered aircraft operating within the Australian FIR will use the
abbreviated form consisting of the first character and last three characters of
the registration unless conforming with an alternative approved format, eg:
N35826 NOVEMBER EIGHT TWO SIX
The prefix “HELICOPTER” before the callsign must be used by rotary wing
aircraft when first establishing contact on any frequency, eg:
VH-BFK HELICOPTER BRAVO FOXTROT KILO.

GROUND VEHICLES
Ground vehicles shall be identified by the type; eg, car, truck, tractor, tug etc
or an ATS approved format, followed by the assigned vehicle number spoken
in group form, eg:
TRUCK 12 “TRUCK TWELVE”
CAR 23 “CAR TWENTY THREE”

1 — RADIO TELEPHONY PROCEDURES

 c o n v e rsi o n s

conversions – navigation 67

CONVERSIONS - NAVIGATION (AIP ERSA GEN-CON)

100 115.2 100 185.2

210
180
30.50 110
200
1030 170
.40 90 90
190
.30 100 160
1025
180
.20 80 150
80
1020 170 90
.10
140
30.00 160
1015 70
80 70 130
.90 150

KNOTS
1010 120
.80 140 60
70 60 60
DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
INCHES OF MERCURY

.70 130 110

DEGREES CELSIUS
1005
HECTOPASCALS

STATUTE MILES

KILOMETRES
.60 50 100

NAUTICAL MILES
120
1000 60 50 50
.50
110 90
.40 995 40
100 50 80
.30 40 40
990 90 70
.20 30
40
80 60
.10 985
30
29.00 70
20 50
980 30
.90 60
40
.80 20
975 50 10
20
30
.70 40
970
.60 FREEZING 20
0 10
POINT 30 10
28.50 965 10
20
-10 0 0 0

1 — CONVERSIONS
68
conversions – navigation
TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY
DISTANCE
Metres Feet 3.281
Feet Metres 0.3048
VOLUME
Imperial Gallons Litres 4.546
Litres Imperial Gallons 0.22
WEIGHT
Kilograms Pounds 2.2046
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536

conversions – mass and volume

AVGAS
LITRES 1.58 POUNDS

3.8

7.2
6.0
0.72
4.5 2.2

US GALS

2.72
1.2

IMP GALS 3.27 KILOS

inches 25.4 mm

feet 0.304 metres

WHEN FOLLOWING THE ARROW - MULTIPLY

WHEN BACKTRACKING THE ARROW - DIVIDE

1 — CONVERSIONS
r u l e s f o r p r e v e n ti o n o f c o l l isi o n

overtaking 69

OVERTAKING (CAR 160)

An “overtaking aircraft” means an aircraft that approaches another aircraft
from the rear on a line forming an angle of less than 70° with the plane of
symmetry of the latter, that is to say, an aircraft that is in such a position with
reference to another aircraft that at night it would be unable to see either of
the forward navigation lights of the other aircraft.

o o
<70 <70

THIS AIRCRAFT
GIVES WAY

right of way
RIGHT OF WAY (CAR 161)
An aircraft that is required to keep out of the way of another aircraft shall
avoid passing over or under the other, or crossing ahead of it, unless passing
well clear.
 n aircraft that has the right of way shall maintain its heading and speed, but
A
nothing in the rules shall relieve the pilot in command of an aircraft from the
responsibility of taking such action as will best avert collision.

1 — RULES FOR PREVENTION OF COLLISION

70
right of way

THIS AIRCRAFT
GIVES WAY

When two aircraft are on converging headings at approximately the same

height, the aircraft that has the other on its right shall give way, except that:
• power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft shall give way to airships, gliders and
balloons;
• airships shall give way to gliders and balloons;
• gliders shall give way to balloons; and
• power-driven aircraft shall give way to aircraft that are seen to be towing
other aircraft or objects. (CAR 162)
When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately so and
there is danger of collision, each shall alter its heading to the right.
 n aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and the overtaking
A
aircraft, whether climbing, descending, or in horizontal flight, shall keep out
of the way of the other aircraft by altering its heading to the right, and no
subsequent change in the relative positions of the two aircraft shall absolve
the overtaking aircraft from this obligation until it is entirely past and clear.

1 — RULES FOR PREVENTION OF COLLISION

 right of way 71

ON THE APPROACH, THE LOWER AIRCRAFT HAS RIGHT OF WAY

 n overtaking aircraft shall not pass the aircraft that it is overtaking by diving
A
or climbing.
 n aircraft in flight, or operating on the ground or water, shall give way to
A
other aircraft landing or on final approach to land.
 hen two or more heavier-than-air aircraft are approaching an aerodrome for
W
the purpose of landing, aircraft at the greater height shall give way to aircraft
at the lesser height, but the latter shall not take advantage of this rule to cut-in
in front of another that is on final approach to land, or overtake that aircraft.
 otwithstanding anything contained in the paragraph above, power-driven
N
heavierthan- air aircraft shall give way to gliders.
 n aircraft that is about to take-off shall not attempt to do so until there is no
A
apparent risk of collision with other aircraft.
An aircraft that is aware that another aircraft is compelled to land shall give
way to that aircraft.

1 — RULES FOR PREVENTION OF COLLISION

 air c ra f t e q u i p m e n t
72
see and avoid
SEE AND AVOID (CAR 163A)
When weather conditions permit, the flight crew of an aircraft must, regardless
of whether an operation is conducted under the Instrument Flight Rules or the
Visual Flight Rules maintain vigilance so as to see and avoid other aircraft.

day VFR equipment

DAY VFR EQUIPMENT (CAR 174A AND CAO 20.18)
The flight and navigational instruments required for flights under the Visual
Flight Rules are:
• an airspeed indicating system;
• a n altimeter, with a readily adjustable pressure datum setting scale
graduated in millibars;
• a direct reading magnetic compass; or
- a remote indicating compass and a standby direct reading magnetic
compass; and
• a n accurate timepiece (clock or watch) indicating the time in hours,
minutes and seconds.
Note that aircraft, other than helicopters, engaged in VFR charter or aerial
work operations also require:
• a turn and slip indicator; (agricultural aeroplanes may be equipped with a
slip indicator only) and
• a n outside air temperature indicator when operating from an aerodrome
at which ambient air temperature is not available from ground-based
instruments.

1 — RULES FOR PREVENTION OF COLLISION

 night VFR equipment 73

In addition, as set out below, aircraft flown under the V.F.R. at night require:
• a landing light;
• illumination for all instruments and equipment, used by the flight crew that
is essential for the safe operation of the aircraft;
• lights in all passenger compartments;
• an electric torch for each crew member; and
• such other equipment as CASA directs in the interests of safety.
In respect of an aircraft that is not equipped as above, CASA may give
permission, subject to such conditions (if any) as are specified in the
permission, for the aircraft to be flown under the V.F.R by day or by night.

SERVICEABILITY (CAO 20.18)

All instruments and equipment fitted to an aircraft shall be serviceable prior to
takeoff unless (CAO 20.18):
• fl
 ight with unserviceable instruments or equipment has been approved by
CASA, subject to such conditions as CASA specifies; or
• t he unserviceability is permitted under the provisions of a permissible
unserviceability schedule.
Where flight is conducted with unserviceable instruments or equipment
under the provisions of paragraph 10.1 of CAO 20.18, the unserviceable
instruments or equipment shall be prominently placarded ‘UNSERVICEABLE’
or removed from the aircraft.
Note: Where an instrument or piece of equipment performs more than
one function, it is permissible to placard as unserviceable only the
function(s) which are unserviceable.
A charter, aerial work or private operator may elect to have a permissible
unserviceability schedule. In the case of charter or aerial work operators, the
permissible unserviceability schedule shall be incorporated in the operator’s
operations manual.

1 — AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
 r u l e s o f t h e air
74
VFR navigation
NAVIGATION OF AIRCRAFT ON VFR FLIGHT (CAR 174D)
The following apply in respect of flight under the VFR (AIP ENR 1.1):
• T
 he pilot in command must navigate the aircraft by visual reference to the
ground or water, or by using any of the IFR methods specified in AIP ENR
1.1, except that when operating at or below 2,000FT above the ground or
water, the pilot in command must be able to navigate by visual reference
to the ground or water.
• When
 navigating by visual reference to the ground or water, the pilot in
command must positively fix the aircraft’s position by visual reference
to features shown on topographical charts at intervals not exceeding 30
minutes. When flying over the sea, visual reference features may include
rocks and reefs and fixed man-made objects which are marked on suitable
charts and are readily identifiable from the air.
Note: Flight above more than 4/8 of cloud, or over featureless land
areas, or over the sea, may preclude visual position fixing at the
required intervals and may therefore make visual navigation
impracticable.
• When
 navigating by visual reference in controlled airspace the pilot must
notify ATC if the aircraft’s track diverges by more than one (1) nautical
mile from the track approved by ATC, or, if navigating by reference to radio
navigation aids, by more than the tolerances given in AIP ENR 1.1.
• VFR flight on top of more than 4/8 cloud is available provided that:
– VMC can be maintained during the entire flight, including climb, cruise
and descent.
– For VFR flight on top, the visual position fixing requirements of section
(B) or the other navigational requirements of AIP ENR 1.1 must be met
– Prior to conducting a VFR flight on top of more than 4/8 cloud, the
pilot in command must ensure that current forecasts and observations
(including those available in-flight observations) indicate that conditions
in the area of, and during the period of, the planned descent below the
cloud layer will permit the descent to be conducted in VMC.

1 — aircraft equipment
 VFR navigation 75

The position at which descent below cloud is planned to occur must be such
as to enable continuation of the flight to the destination and, if required, an
alternate aerodrome in VMC (see Notes 1 and 3 - below).
• When
 navigating by reference to radio navigation systems, the pilot in
command must obtain positive radio fixes at the intervals and by the
methods prescribed in AIP ENR 1.1.
• The
 pilot in command of a VFR flight wishing to navigate by means of
radio navigation systems or any other means must indicate in the flight
notification only those radio navigation aids with which the aircraft is
equipped and the pilot is qualified to use (see Note 2)
• VFR
 aeroplanes operating above FL200 must be equipped with an
altimeter calibrated to IFR standards. CASA approval is required for the
flight.
Note 1: A pilot must not undertake a VFR flight on top of more than 4/8 cloud
unless the aircraft is equipped with serviceable flight and navigation
instruments as specified in CAO 20.18 Appendix IV (IFR and Night
VFR).
Note 2: “Qualified” means the holder of an instrument rating or NVFR rating which
is endorsed for the particular navigation aid or any private or higher category
pilot who has received in-flight instruction from a qualified instructor in the
use of the radio navigation aid as the sole means of navigation, and who is
competent to navigate by use of the aid.
Note 3: Pilots are warned against initiating VFR-on-top when weather conditions are
marginal. Before committing their flight to operating VFR-on-top they should
be confident that meteorological information used is reliable and current,
and clearly indicates that the entire flight will be able to be conducted in
VMC.

TIME
During flight pilots must maintain a time reference accurate to within +- 30
seconds. (AIP ENR 1.1)

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76
VFR navigation
TRACK KEEPING (AIP ENR 1.1)
Tolerances are applied to tracks to assess containment areas for the purposes
of ensuring navigational integrity, separation from other aircraft, terrain and
obstacle clearance and avoidance of specified airspace. Although allowing for
the errors inherent in the navigation systems used, these tolerances are based
on the assumption that the pilot will maintain track as closely as possible.
The pilot in command must, at all times, take positive action to regain track as
soon as a deviation from the correct track is recognised.

AVOIDING CONTROLLED AIRSPACE (AIP ENR 1.1)

When operating VFR in E or G airspace, the following tolerances should be
applied to the planned tracks in order to avoid controlled airspace.
0-2,000 AGL ± 1NM (day) ± 2NM (night)
2,001-5,000 AGL ± 2NM (day) ± 3NM (night)
5,001-10,000 AGL ± 4NM (day) ± 5NM (night)
Gliders should apply ± 5NM
From 10,001 to FL 200 all VFR aircraft should apply ± 8NM

1 — rules of the air

 formation flying 77

OPERATING NEAR OTHER AIRCRAFT (CAR 163)

An aircraft must not be flown so close to another aircraft as to create a
collision hazard.
An aircraft must not be operated on the ground in such a manner as to create
hazard to itself or to another aircraft.

FORMATION FLYING (CAR 163AA)

Aircraft must not be flown in formation unless:
• each of the pilots in command is qualified to fly in formation; and
• the formation is pre-arranged between the pilots in command; and
• the formation flight is conducted either:
– under the Visual Flight Rules by day; or
– under an approval given by CASA.
 nless otherwise approved by CASA, a pilot in command is qualified for
U
formation flight only if:
• t he pilot has been certified by the holder of a flight instructor rating as
being competent to fly in formation, being a rating that is appropriate to
the category of aircraft to be flown in the formation; and
• the certification is entered in the pilot’s log book.
For the purposes of this regulation, two or more aircraft are flown in formation if:
• they are flown in close proximity to each other; and
• t hey operate as a single aircraft with regard to navigation, position
reporting and control.
In determining whether aircraft are in close proximity to each other, regard
is to be had to the type of aircraft in the formation and the speed of those
aircraft.
In spite of paragraph 3 above, aircraft are to be taken to be in formation:
• d
 uring any period when they are manoeuvring to achieve separation from
each other in order to effect individual control; and
• during join-up and breakaway.

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78
aircraft speeds
AIRCRAFT SPEEDS
Unless for safety reasons, civil aircraft must not be operated at indicated
airspeeds greater than the following:

Airspace Classification Flight Rules Speed

Class C IFR N/A
VFR 250KT IAS below 10,000FT AMSL
Class D IFR & VFR 250KT IAS
Class E IFR & VFR 250KT IAS below 10,000FT AMSL
GAAP CTR IFR & VFR 250KT IAS
Class G IFR & VFR 250KT IAS below 10,000FT AMSL

Speed limitations shown for VFR flights in class C and for IFR and VFR flights
in classes D, E and G airspace are not applicable to military aircraft.

regulation of flight – priorities

REGULATION OF FLIGHT - ASSESSMENT OF PRIORITIES
ATC will regulate operations to minimise the possibility of conflict and,
provided that safety is in no way jeopardised, will apply priorities as outlined in
AIP ENR 1.4.

1 — rules of the air

 aerodromes 79

Non-controlled AERODROMES
RESPONSIBILITY FOR COMPLIANCE WITH RULES OF THIS DIVISION
(CAR 164)
When operating an aircraft on or in the vicinity of an aerodrome the pilot
in command shall be responsible for compliance by the aircraft with the
following rules.
OPERATION ON AND IN THE VICINITY OF AN AERODROME (CAR 166)
“In the vicinity” is defined as within the radius of IONM from the aerodrome.
The pilot in command of an aircraft which is being operated on or in the
vicinity of an aerodrome shall:
• observe other aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding collision;
• conform
 with or avoid the pattern of traffic formed by other aircraft in
operation;
• when
 approaching an aerodrome, other than a controlled aerodrome, for
the purpose of landing, join the pattern of traffic in use for the landing
direction in the up-wind, cross-wind or down-wind leg, as the case may
be;
• make
 all turns to the left when approaching for a landing or after taking-off,
unless:
– CASA has directed otherwise for a particular aerodrome; or
– Air Traffic Control directs otherwise, either by radio, visual signal or
signals displayed in the signal square;
• land
 and take-off, in so far as practicable, into the wind unless Air Traffic
Control directs otherwise;
• b
 efore landing, descend in a straight line commencing at such a distance
from the perimeter of an aerodrome as is common to the ordinary course
of navigation for the aircraft type concerned, the commencement of that
straight line not being nearer the perimeter of an aerodrome than 500
metres; and
• a fter take-off, not alter heading from the take-off heading at a height
less than 500 feet above the terrain unless Air Traffic Control directs the
alteration or unless the alteration is necessary due to the terrain.

1 — rules of the air

80
aerodromes
Note that the provisions of paragraph (C) do not apply to an aircraft conducting
an instrument approach in I.M.C. if the instrument approach procedure
requires the aircraft to join the pattern of traffic at any other point.
 he pilot in command of an aircraft that is being operated on or in the vicinity
T
of an aerodrome shall not take the aircraft off from, or land the aircraft on, a
part of the aerodrome outside the landing area of the aerodrome.

PROCEDURE AT CONTROLLED AERODROMES (CAR 167)

Where aerodrome control is in operation at an aerodrome, the pilot in
command of an aircraft forming part of the aerodrome traffic shall:
• m
 aintain a continuous listening watch on the radio frequency authorised
for communications with aerodrome control service, or, if this is not
possible, keep a watch for instructions which may be issued by visual
signals; and
• o
 btain, either by radio or visual signals, prior authorisation for any
manoeuvre preparatory to or associated with taxi-ing, landing or taking-off

AERODROMES AT WHICH THE OPERATION OF AIRCRAFT IS NOT

RESTRICTED TO RUNWAYS
The rules to be followed by aircraft operation at such aerodromes can be
found in CAR 168

USE OF AERODROMES (CAR 92)

An aircraft shall not land at, or take-off from, any place unless:
• the
 place is an aerodrome established under the Air Navigation
Regulations; or
• the
 use of the place as an aerodrome is authorised by a licence granted
under regulation 89C; or
• t he place is an aerodrome for which an arrangement under section 20 of
the Act is in force and the use of the aerodrome by aircraft engaged in civil
air navigation is authorised by CASA under that section; or

1 — rules of the air

 aerodromes 81

• the
 place (other than in paragraph (a), (b) or (c)) is suitable for use as an
aerodrome for the purposes of the landing and taking-off of aircraft; and,
having regard to all the circumstances of the proposed landing or take-off
(including the prevailing weather conditions), the aircraft can land at, or
take-off from, the place in safety. Guidance as to the suitability of such
aerodromes as may be found in CAAP 92-1 “Guidelines for Aeroplane
Landing Areas”.

PAVEMENT CONCESSIONS
A pilot planning a flight by an aircraft with tyre pressures and/or weight in
excess of that permitted by AGA must ensure that a pavement concession is
obtained.
Emergency Landings. When safety is involved, the nearest aerodrome which
will permit a landing without danger to the aircraft may be used, irrespective
of the damage that may be caused to the pavement.
Mercy Flights. Decisions should be made in accordance with the degree of
urgency involved. Severe overloading of pavements is acceptable if the safety
of patients, crew and aircraft is not thereby jeopardised.

CIRCUIT HEIGHT
By convention, the following circuit heights are flown;
• jets, 1500AFT AGL
• piston/turbo prop, 1000FT AGL; and
• helicopters, 800FT AGL
Circuit heights for aerodromes which have specific requirements are
published in ERSA.

1 — rules of the air

 a e r o d r o m e m ar k i n g s
82
light and ground signals

SYMBOLS NEAR WIND DIRECTION INDICATOR

AERODROME GLIDING OPERATIONS ARE CONFINED

UNSERVICEABLE OPERATIONS TO HARD SURFACE
IN PROGRESS RUNWAYS, APRONS AND
UNSERVICEABLE AREA
TAXIWAYS MARKER
ONLY

UNSERVICEABLE AREA MARKER

UNSERVICEABLE AREA
UNSERVICEABLE AREA MARKER
MARKER BOUNDARY
BOUNDARY MARKERS
MARKERS
BOUNDARY MARKERS

1 — aerodrome markings
 displaced threshold 83

CL
EA
RA
PP
RO TEMPORARILY DISPLACED
AC THRESHOLD MARKING (WHITE)
H
SU
RF
AC
E
PIANO KEY AND RUNWAY
DESIGNATION NUMBER
MARKINGS OBLITERATED

ARROWS LEADING TEMPORARILY RELOCATED

60M
TO DISPLACED RUNWAY DESIGNATION
THRESHOLD (WHITE) MARKING (WHITE)
COMMENCEMENT OF LDA

COMMENCEMENT OF TODA
MARKINGS FOR A TEMPORARILY DISPLACED THRESHOLD DUE TO
OBSTACLE INFRINGEMENT OF THE APPROACH PATH FOR A PERIOD
IN EXCESS OF 30 DAYS

UNSERVICEABILITY MARKERS
PIANO KEY, RUNWAY
(RED AND WHITE)
DESIGNATION NUMBER
AND PORTION OF WORKS LIMIT
RUNWAY EDGE MARKING MARKERS
OBLITERATED (ORANGE)
TEMPORARILY DISPLACED
THRESHOLD MARKERS
(WHITE)

TEMPORARILY RELOCATED
UNSERVICEABILITY WORKS AREA RUNWAY DESIGNATION
MARKERS MARKING (WHITE)
ARROWS LEADING TO
COMMENCEMENT OF LDA
DISPLACED THRESHOLD
(WHITE) COMMENCEMENT OF TODA

MARKINGS FOR A TEMPORARILY DISPLACED THRESHOLD DUE TO

WORKS ON THE RUNWAY FOR A PERIODS IN EXCESS OF 30 DAYS

1 — aerodrome markings
84
displaced threshold
CL
EA TEMPORARILY DISPLACED
RA
PP THRESHOLD MARKING (WHITE)
RO
AC
H
SU
RF
AC
E

60M NOTE: WHERE RUNWAY

IS NOT USED FOR RPT
SERVICES ONLY ONE VEE
COMMENCEMENT OF LDA NEED BE PROVIDED ON
EACH SIDE OF THE RUNWAY

COMMENCEMENT OF TODA
MARKINGS FOR A TEMPORARILY DISPLACED THRESHOLD DUE TO
OBSTACLE INFRINGEMENT OF APPROACH SURFACE FOR A PERIOD
OF 30 DAYS OR LESS

UNSERVICEABILITY MARKERS TEMPORARILY DISPLACED

UNSERVICEABILITY (RED AND WHITE) THRESHOLD MARKERS
MARKERS (WHITE)
WORKS LIMIT
MARKERS
(ORANGE)

WORKS AREA COMMENCEMENT OF LDA

COMMENCEMENT OF TODA

MARKINGS FOR A TEMPORARILY DISPLACED THRESHOLD DUE TO

WORKS ON THE RUNWAY FOR A PERIOD OF 30 DAYS OR LESS

1 — aerodrome markings
 ra d ar tra n s p o n d e rs

primary and secondary radar 85

Primary Radar is a system where the ground based antenna transmits a radar
pulse then listens for the small amount of return energy that is reflected from an
aircraft. The time delay between the transmission of the pulse and the receipt of
the reflected return is a measure of the range.
Secondary Radar requires an airborne transponder which responds to the receipt
of pulse from a ground based antenna by transmitting a return signal. Because the
transponder transmits a much stronger signal than that which is reflected off an
aircraft in primary radar systems, greater range and reliability can be achieved with
secondary radar and cheaper and more efficient ground equipment can be used.
Additionally, information such as altitude and a code can be added to the returned
signal from the transponder which is then displayed on the operator’s screen.
A Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) is an airborne system which
is capable of interpreting the transponder returns of nearby aircraft and displaying
the positions of these aircraft on a cockpit display. TCAS can warn the crew of
impending collisions and advise avoiding manoeuvres provided it receives the
altitude information from nearby aircraft. For this reason, mode C (the ALT selection
on a typical transponder) should always be selected by all aircraft outside controlled
airspace.
TCAS is fitted to most commuter aircraft that operate in E and G airspace and
in the non-controlled environment. It is therefore in everybody’s interest for all
transponder equipped aircraft OCTA to squawk code 1200 with ALT selected.

OUTSIDE CONTROLLED AIRSPACE SQUAWK 1200 MODE C (ALT)

VFR OCTA

ON A
Y
1 2 0 0
F STB

LT
TEST

IDENT
OF

1 — radar transponders
86
transponder operation
STANDARD TRANSPONDER CODES
• 1200 VFR OCTA.
• 2000 Civil IFR flights in G airspace.
• 3000 Civil flights in A, C & D airspace or IFR flights in G airspace.
• 6000 Military flights in G airspace.
• 7500 Unlawful interference.
• 7600 Communications failure.
• 7700 Emergency.
Some important points in transponder operation
• S
 elect standby (STBY) before changing codes otherwise there is the real
possibility of transmitting a non-authorised code during the process.
• D
 o not press the IDENT feature unless requested by ATS. “Squawk” does
not mean press the IDENT. “Squawk IDENT” is the request used for this
purpose.
• “Squawk STBY” means switch to the STBY position
• “
 Squawk 5689” for example, means select STBY, then select code 5689,
then squawk ALT.
• T
 ransponders require a warm up before being selected ON or ALT. The
STBY position is used to warm up the transponder.
• In the TEST position the reply light should come on while the selector is
held in this position.
• T
 he reply light comes on each time the transponder responds to an
interrogation. This may be from ground based secondary radar or from a
nearby TCAS equipped aircraft.
• In the ON position no altitude information is being transmitted.
• O
 n occasions transponders may require “recycling” to restore correct
encoding. To recycle, briefly select STBY then return to ALT.
Information on the operation of transponders in the ATC RADAR environment
is given in Section 3 “ATC RADAR SERVICES” on page 225.

1 — radar transponders
 87

section 2 – pre-flight planning

 p r e p arati o n
88
pre-flight information
This pre-flight planning section of the VFG has been designed to bring
together the necessary information from various documents in one place to
enable the pilot in command to safely plan a flight. Some of the information
has been repeated from other sections to enhance usability of the document.

PRE-FLIGHT INFORMATION (AIP GEN 3.3)

The pre-flight briefing service is primarily an automated service. Pilots are
encouraged to obtain pre-flight briefing, either via the self-help electronic
system or personal briefing. These services are listed in ERSA GEN, including
the contact number for ATS and BOM staff for pilots who require a personal
briefing.
Pilots must obtain an appropriate pre-flight briefing before departure from
those places where suitable facilities exist. Where suitable facilities are
not available, a briefing may be obtained from FLIGHTWATCH as soon as
practicable after the flight commences. The service provided is normally
limited to information considered essential for the safe conduct of the flight
to the first point of intended landing where additional information can be
accessed by telephone or facsimile.
Note: Pre-flight briefing will not normally be provided on ATC communication
channels.

PLANNING OF FLIGHT BY PILOT IN COMMAND (CAR 239)

Before beginning a flight, the pilot in command shall study all available
information appropriate to the intended operation, and, in the cases of flights
away from the vicinity of an aerodrome, all IFR flights shall make a careful
study of:
• current weather reports and forecasts for the route to be followed and at
aerodromes to be used;
• the airways facilities available on the route to be followed and the condition
of those facilities;
• the condition of aerodromes to be used and their suitability for the aircraft
to be used; and
•  the Air Traffic Control rules and procedures appertaining to the particular
flight

2 – preparation
 pre-flight information 89

Note: Full details on the briefing services provided are available in ERSA
GEN.
When meteorological conditions at the aerodromes of intended landing are
forecast to be less than VFR minima of a 1,500 FT ceiling and a visibility
of 8km (AIP ENR 1.1), the pilot in command shall make provision for an
alternative course of action and shall arrange for the aircraft to carry the
necessary additional fuel.
This alternate provision does not apply to day VFR flights within 50NM from
the point of departure.

WEATHER FORECAST REQUIREMENTS (CAR 239)

Weather forecasts must be either a flight forecast or an area forecast with
an aerodrome forecast for the destination and, when required, the alternate
aerodrome.
For flights for which a forecast is required and cannot be obtained, the flight
is permitted to depart provided the pilot is satisfied that the weather at the
departure point will permit the safe return of the flight within one hour of
departure. The flight is permitted to continue if a suitable forecast is obtained
for the intended destination within 30 minutes after departure.(AIP ENR 1.1)

FORECAST REQUIREMENT
M REC
FO
U
ST AS

60
RE T IS

MINS
TU R
RN EC

WEATHER MUST
IF IV

30 BE SUITABLE FOR
N ED
E
O

MINS
60 MINUTES FOR
DECISION DEPARTURE

MUST HAVE FORECAST

TO CONTINUE

An alternate must be provided for flights more than 50 NM from point of

departure when forecast conditions at the destination are below the VFR
alternate minima of 1500 FT ceiling and 8KM (AIP ENR 1.1)

2 – preparation
90
responsibilities of pilot
RADIO REQUIREMENTS (CAR 239)

 HF communications systems must be capable of communication on all VHF

V
frequencies required to meet the reporting and broadcast requirements of AIP
ENR 1.1.
The communications systems must be fitted with frequencies appropriate
to the area of operation as specified in the AIP ERSA. The frequencies
appropriate fitted must be sufficient to enable continuous communication
with ATS units for the planned duration of the flight or while operating
within the specified area, taking into account the expected radio propagation
conditions during the period of operation.
 t least one item of the required radio equipment must be capable of
A
maintaining continuous communication with ATS at all stages of the flight.
The term “all stages of flight” includes ground operations at the aerodromes
of departure and arrival, and cruising levels that could be required for any
emergency and/or abnormal operation en route.
 n Australian Communication Authority approved and licensed hand-held VHF
A
radio may be used by pilots of:
• VFR PVT and AWK aeroplanes with a MTOW not exceeding:
– in the case of an aeroplane other than a seaplane-544KG;

2 – preparation
 responsibilities of pilot 91

– in the case of a seaplane with a single seat-579KG; and

– in the case of a seaplane with two seats 614KG and 84
• gliders; and
• balloons
 dditionally, approved hand-held radios may be used by pilots of these aircraft
A
when operating in CLASS G. Pilots are responsible for ensuring that the
equipment is able to be operated without adversely affecting the safety of the
aircraft. The location of the antenna must be such that airframe shielding does
not prevent twoway communication with all aircraft operating on the CTAF.
Where the radio is not connected to the aircraft primary power supply, there
must be ready access to back-up power.
Planning Chart Australia (AUS PCA) shows the areas in which an aircraft, flying
at the altitudes indicated, could be expected to maintain continuous VHF
communications with an ATS unit.
PT, CHTR and AWK aircraft are exempt from the requirements to carry HF radio
communication with ATS when under some circumstances (AIP ENR 1.1).
 rivate aircraft without radio may be admitted to the CTRs for maintenance
P
subject to the approval of the appropriate ATC unit. Pilots must comply with
any conditions contained in the approval. (see AIP GEN 1.5)

alternatives due to weather

ALTERNATES DUE TO WEATHER CONDITIONS

GENERAL (CAR 239, 234 & CAAP 234)

A pilot in command must make provision for flight to an alternatative
aerodrome, when required, in accordance with the following paragraphs.
When a flight is required to provide for an alternate aerodrome, any
aerodrome may be so nominated for that flight provided that:
• it is suitable as a destination for that flight; and
• is not an aerodrome for which that flight would be required to provide for
an alternate aerodrome.

2 – preparation
92
alternatives due to weather
When an aerodrome forecast is “provisional”, the pilot in command must make
provision for a suitable alternate that has a firm forecast. (AIP ENR 1.1)

WEATHER CONDITIONS
Except when operating an aircraft under the VFR by day within 50NM of the
point of departure, the pilot in command must provide for a suitable alternate
aerodrome when arrival at the destination will be during the currency of, or up
to 30 minutes prior to the forecast commencement of, the following weather
conditions:
• cloud- more than SCT below the alternate minimum; or
• visibility - less than the alternate minimum; or
• v isibility - greater than the alternate minimum, but the forecast is endorsed
with a percentage probability of fog, mist, dust or any other phenomena
restricting visibility below the alternate minima; or
• w
 ind - a crosswind or downwind component more than the maximum for
the aircraft.
Note: Wind gusts must be considered. (AIP ENR 1.1)
Note: In determining requirements for alternate aerodromes, forecast amounts
of cloud below the alternate minima are cumulative. For determining
equirements, the cumulative cloud amount is interpreted as follows:
FEW plus FEW is equivalent to SCT
FEW plus SCT is equivalent to BKN
SCT plus SCT is equivalent to BKN or OVC. (AIP ENR 1.1)

ALTERNATE MINIMA
For flight by aeroplanes under the VFR (day or night) and helicopters operating
under the VFR at night, the alternate minima are a ceiling of 1,500 FT and a
visibility of 8KM. (AIP ENR 1.1)
When operating a helicopter under the VFR, and the use of the helicopter
VMC is permissible at the destination, the pilot in command must provide
for a suitable alternate aerodrome when either of the following conditions is
forecast at the destination:

2 – preparation
 alternatives due to weather 93

• cloud - more than 4/8ths below a ceiling of 1,000FT; or

• visibility - less than 3,000M (AIP ENR 1.1)
When weather conditions at the destination are forecast to be as specified
as above, but are expected to improve at a specific time, provision for an
alternate aerodrome need not be made if sufficient fuel is carried to allow the
aircraft to hold until that specified time plus 30 minutes. (AIP ENR 1.1)
When weather conditions at the destination are forecast to be above the values
specified above, but additionally, intermittent or temporary deteriorations in the
weather below those values are forecast, provision of an alternate need not be
made if sufficient additional fuel is carried to allow the aircraft to hold for:
• 30 minutes for intermittent deterioration (INTER); and
• 60 minutes for temporary deterioration (TEMPO) (AIP ENR 1.1)
When thunderstorms or their associated severe turbulence or their probability
is forecast at the destination, sufficient additional fuel must be carried to
permit the aircraft to proceed to a suitable alternate or to hold for:
• 30 minutes when the forecast is endorsed INTER; or
• 60 minutes when the forecast is endorsed TEMPO (AIP ENR 1.1)
INTER and TEMPO holding fuel requirements are not cumulative therefore,
when a forecast has a number of INTER or TEMPO deteriorations, holding
fuel is required only for the most limiting requirement (AIP ENR 1.1).
When TAFs include a FM period, during which time an operational
requirement will either become effective or be removed, the timing for the
change in operational requirement is as follows:
• w
 hen the weather during the FM period is forecast to create an
operational requirement, that operational requirement will become
effective 30 minutes before the onset of the FM period.
• w
 hen the weather during the FM period is forecast to remove an
operational requirement, that operational requirement will remain effective
until 30 minutes after the onset of the FM time stated in the forecast that
removes the operational requirement.
The additional fuel required by the above paragraphs must be carried when
the ETA of the aircraft at its destination or alternate falls within the period of
30 minutes before the forecast commencement time to 30 minutes after the
expected time of cessation of these deteriorations. (AIP ENR 1.1)

2 – preparation
94
alternatives due to weather
Due to the continuous weather watch provided by TTF, the 30 minute
buffers required by the above paragraphs do not apply. Flights which will be
completed within the time of validity of the TTF may be planned wholly with
reference to the destination TTF. (AIP ENR 1.1)
TTF may have either one visibility or two visibilities included in the report.
Operational requirements will apply when:
• the sole visibility is less than the alternate minimum; or
• the higher visibility is less than the alternate minimum. (AIP ENR 1.1)
Flights which cannot use TTF will plan the flight on the current TAF until such
time as the destination ETA falls within the validity periods of a TTF. (AIP ENR
1.1)
For flight by aeroplanes under the VFR (day or night) and helicopters operating
under the VFR at night, the alternate minima are a ceiling of 1,500 FT and a
visibility of 8KM. (AIP ENR 1.1)
For VFR helicopter operations by day, the alternate minima are the same as
for night (above) unless the additional conditions specified on page 352 are
met. When these additional conditions are met, the alternate requirements
are as shown on page 353. (AIP ENR 1.1)
A flight permitted to operate under the VFR at night (see page 326) must
provide for an alternate aerodrome within one (1) hour’s flight time of the
destination unless:
• t he destination is served by a radio navigation aid (NDB/VOR) and the
aircraft is fitted with the appropriate radio navigation system capable of
using the aid, or
• t he aircraft is fitted with an approved GNSS receiver and the pilot and
aircraft meet the rquirements of AIP GEN 1.5 (AIP ENR 1.1)

alternatives due to facilities

For night VFR operations alternates are required based on airport lighting and
navaids. Details of these requirements are given in the night VFR section on
page 338.

2 – preparation
 notice to airmen 95

NOTAM (Air Services Regulation 4.12, AIP GEN 0.1)

There are 3 types of NOTAMs available to pilots in Australia. They are Head
Office NOTAM, FIR NOTAM, and Location NOTAM.
NOTAM provide information that is of direct operational significance which
may immediately affect aircraft operations. A NOTAM is issued in a format
containing fields (A) to (G) as follows:
• L
 ocation identification, NOTAM number, subject reported, day/time
of issue. (For details of NOTAM numbering for both domestic and
international Australian NOTAM, refer to paragraphs below).
• T
 ime of commencement of information contained in Field E. or
Time of publication where prior notification is required. In this case, Field
E commences with “WEF… (date/time)…”.
• T
 his date/time will then reflect the actual commencement time of the
NOTAM information.
• Time of cessation of information.
• Times of periods of activity.
• Plain language text (ICAO codes are used in international NOTAMs).
• Lower limit.
• Upper limit.
In the domestic environment, NOTAM numbering is preceded by the letter
“C” followed by the year; eg BRISBANE (YBBN) C22/94
For each location, a separate series of numbers is issued; thus the NOTAM is
identified by both the location and the number, not the number alone.
In the international environment, Australia issues NOTAM against a series of
registers. These registers are by individual FIRs, multiple FIRs, or Australian
General. The series identifiers are as follows:
Brisbane FIR N
Melbourne FIR S
Australia General FIR G
(AIP GEN 3.1)

2 – P R E paration
96
notice to airmen
A Pre-flight information service is provided from offices located in Brisbane
and Melbourne. These offices provide NOTAM, meteorological and flight
notification service from the following number: Telephone: 1 800 805 150

NOTAM EXAMPLES
HEAD OFFICE NOTAMS
HEAD OFFICE (YSHO)
DOC From: 08 040048 To: PERM C0104/98
RAAF AIP TERMINAL PACIFIC AND AUSTRALASIA VOL 1 AND 2 (AL44)
ARE WITHDRAWN WIE. CTC RAAF AIS BY FAX (03-92826695) FOR
INFORMATION IN IAP.
MET From: 04 200548 To: PERM C0036/99
WEF 9905210000 MELBOURNE DECTALK DECOMMISSIONED.
AUSTRALIA WIDE INFO IS AVBL FM BRISBANE DECTALK ON
TEL 1800 077276
PROC From: 05 032303 To: PERM C0043/99 Review C0042/99
RPT VISUAL STRAIGHT-IN AT NON-CONTROLLED AD AMEND AIP ENR
1.1 - 61 PARA. 59.4 BY DELETING EXISTING TEXT AND INSERTING:
REGULAR PUBLIC TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT COMPLYING WITH THE
FOLLOWING CONDITIONS MAY MAKE STRAIGHT-IN VISUAL APPROACHES
TO NON-CONTROLLED AERODROMES WITH AN ASSOCIATED CTAF:
A. THE AIRCRAFT MUST BE CREWED BY TWO PILOTS.
B. THE AIRCRAFT MUST BE EQUIPPED WITH VHF RADIO AND BE ABLE TO
COMMUNICATE ON THE CTAF.
C. THE REQUIREMENTS OF SUB-PARA. 59.5 C. MUST BE MET.
FIR NOTAMS
SPA From: 07 130510 To: 10 130500 EST C1270/99
Review C0572/99
HJ Lower: SFC Upper: 10000FT AMSL
PJE WILL TAKE PLACE AT CHELMER
(.25NM S INDOOROOPILLY BRIDGE). WILL REMAIN CLR
ATS From: 07 190033 To: 10 200000 EST C1317/99 Review C0608/99
WILLIAMTOWN/TAREE AREA SSR LIMITED LOSS OF RADAR
COVERAGE MAY OCCUR BLW F200 DLA/RESTR MAY OCCUR IN CTA
RADAR INFORMATION SERVICE LIMITED

2 – preparation
 notice to airmen 97

TRANSPONDER REPLY LIGHT MAY NOT BE POSITIVE INDICATION OF

INTERROGATION BY CIVIL ATC SSR.
DOC From: 08 200345 To: PERM C1527/99 Review C1525/99
AMD AIP ERSA FAC C-55 DATED 17 JUN 1999 AND C-57
DATED 9 SEP 1999
AMD CABOOLTURE AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES FIS FLIGHTWATCH FREQ
128.15 TO READ 128.75
COM From: 08 300429 To: 10 010600 EST C1577/99 Review C1403/99
A/G FAC BRISBANE CENTRE 133.8 (SAINT GEORGE AREA) SUBJECT TO
INTERFERENCE
ALTN FREQ BRISBANE CENTRE 134.4 OR 118.95
LJR From: 09 100000 To: 09 170800 C1660/99 Review C1650/99
9909100000 TO 9909100700 9909122000 TO 9909130800 9909132000
TO 9909140800 9909142000 TO 9909150800 9909152000 TO 9909160800
9909162000 TO 9909170800
LJR S QUEENSLAND N NEW S WALES MIL F111 JET ACFT OPR BLW 3000FT
AGL ON THE FLW RTE DALBY (DESCENT) / DALBY 227042 / INGLEWOOD
010026 /INGLEWOOD 175023 / GOONDIWINDI 165030 / MOREE 040006
/ MOREE 085012 /MOREE 115030 / INVERELL 160014 / ARMIDALE
360020 / ARMIDALE 355012 /POINT LOOKOUT 360020 / NORTH
SOLITARY ISLAND / YAMBA 100011 / R622 ABRUPT VER MANOEUVRES
UP TO 7000FT AGL WI 5NM RAD MOREE 040006 UP TO 7000FT AGL WI
5NM RAD ARMIDALE 360020
ATS From: 09 041400 To: 09 181400
YMMM C1586/99
TO ASSIST TRANSITION TO THE AUSTRALIAN ADVANCED AIR TFC
SYSTEM(TAAATS) BTN SYDNEY AND ALICE SPRINGS (ATC FREQ 118.5,
133.5, 122.75 AND 128.2) PILOTS ATTENTION IS DRAWN TO AIP ENR1.1
- 11, PARAGRAPH 8.4 TO GIVE ATS NOTICE OF AN IMPENDING PSN REP
BEFORE GOING AHEAD WITH THE PSN REP
LOCATION NOTAM ARCHERFIELD (YBAF)
AD From: 09 100532 To: 09 122300 EST C0176/99
RWY 04L/22R, RWY 04R/22L AND ALL GRASS AREAS NOT AVBL DUE
SOFT WET SFC

2 – preparation
98
take-off and landing aircraft
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
CASA my give particular directions as to how estimate or determine the
weight and centre gravity of a particular aircraft and may require changes to
the published weight and centre of gravity limits.
 hese limitations are found in the aircraft flight manual or placard information
T
and must be complied with during all stages of flight.
In determining the weight and centre of gravity limits CASA may take into
consideration:
• the type of aircraft;
• the kind of operations to be carried out during the flight;
• t he performance of the aircraft in configurations in which it is likely to be
flown and with faults that are likely to occur;
• t he meteorological conditions at the aerodrome at which the aircraft is to
take off or land;
• the altitude of the aerodrome at which that aircraft is to take off or land;
• t he aerodrome dimensions in the direction in which the aircraft is to take
off or land;
• t he material of which the surface of the aerodrome in the direction in
which the aircraft is to take off or land is constituted and the condition and
slope of that surface;
• t he presence of obstacles in the vicinity of the flight path along which the
aircraft is to take off, approach or land;
• t he anticipated meteorological conditions over the intended route to be
flown by the aircraft after take-off and over planned divergencies from that
route; and
• t he altitude of the terrain along and on either side of the intended route
to be flown by the aircraft after take-off and of planned divergencies from
that route.
 n aircraft shall not take off, or attempt to take off, if its gross weight exceeds
A
its maximum take-off weight or, if a lesser weight determined in accordance
with a direction under subregulation (2) is applicable to the take-off, that
lesser weight.

2 – preparation
 take-off and landing aircraft 99

 n aircraft shall not take off, or attempt to take off, if its gross weight
A
exceeds, by more than the weight of fuel that would normally be used in
flying to its next landing place or planned alternative aerodrome, its maximum
landing weight or, if a lesser weight determined in accordance with a direction
under subregulation (2) is applicable to the landing at that place or aerodrome,
that lesser weight.
 xcept in an emergency, an aircraft shall not land if its gross weight exceeds
E
its maximum landing weight or, if a lesser weight determined in accordance
with a direction under subregulation (2) is applicable to the landing, that lesser
weight.
An aircraft shall not take off, or attempt to take off, unless any directions with
respect to the loading of the aircraft given under this regulation have been
complied with.
The pilot in command must ensure that the load of an aircraft throughout a
flight shall be so distributed that the centre of gravity of the aircraft falls within
the limitations specified in its certificate of airworthiness or its flight manual.
NOTE: CAAP 235 reiterates the safety precautions that should be used to
ensure compliance with this regulation. It includes directions on
how to determine runway clearance factors.

NATIONAL LOCAL CALL NUMBER

131 757
2 – preparation
100
declared density chart
DECLARED DENSITY CHART (CAR 138, CAO 20.7.0)
115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150

2800 10
10

3000 3000
2800

15 3000 15

2800
3000

2600
3200
3400 20
20 3600 >3400

3600 >3600
3600
3400 3400
3600
3200
25 25
2400

3000
2200
2800
30 30
2600
2400
2200
2000 2400
1800 2400
1600 2200 22002000
1800 2000
2000
1800 35
35 1600
2200 2000 1800
1600
18001600

2200
40 2000 40

DECLARED DENSITY ALTITUDE CHART 2000

2200
SUMMER (DECEMBER-FEBRUARY)
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

Locate the position of the aerodrome by means of Latitude and Longitude.
To obtain the Seasonal Declared density Altitude, add the height above sea
level of the aerodrome to the value read from this chart.

2 – preparation
 declared density chart 101

115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150

2800
10 3000 10

2800 3000
3000
3200 2600
2400

15 15

2800
3000
3200 >3400
20 >3400 20
3400
3400
3200 3400 >3000
3000
3000
3200
25 2400 25

3000
2800
2200
2600 2800
2000
2400 2600
30 1800 30
2400 1600
2200 2400
2000 2200 1600
1800 2200 2000
1600 2000 1800 1800
1800 1600 2400
1600 2400
35 35
1600
1600

1600
1200 1400
1600 40
40 1000 1800
1800
DECLARED DENSITY ALTITUDE CHART 1000 1600
AUTUMN (MARCH-MAY) - SPRING (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER) 12001400

110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

Locate the position of the aerodrome by means of Latitude and Longitude.
 o obtain the Seasonal Declared density Altitude, add the height above sea
T
level of the aerodrome to the value read from this chart.

2 – preparation
102
declared density chart
115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
2600 2400 2200

10 10

1800
2000

15 2600 15

2400
2200 2200
1600
2000
20 20
1800 2000
1400
1600 1800

25 1400 25
1600

1400
1200
1200
30 1000 30
1000
800 800
1000
600 1200
600 400
800 200
600 35
35 1000
800
600

400
0
40 40
400
600
DECLARED DENSITY ALTITUDE CHART 0
600
WINTER (JUNE-AUGUST) 200 400
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

Locate the position of the aerodrome by means of Latitude and Longitude.
 o obtain the Seasonal Declared density Altitude, add the height above sea
T
level of the aerodrome to the value read from this chart.

2 – preparation
 airframe icing 103

ICING CONDITIONS AIRFRAME (CAR 238)

An aircraft shall not take-off for the purpose of making a flight during which
the aircraft may fly into known or expected icing conditions unless the aircraft
is adequately equipped with de-icing or anti-icing equipment of the type and
quantities as directed by CASA.

carburettor icing

TO USE THE CHART

• obtain the wet and dry bulb temperatures
• enter the chart with the wet and dry bulb temperatures
• refer to the shading legend (above) appropriate to the intersection of the
temperature lines
• from the intersection of the temperature lines, obtain the relative humidity
on the curved scale, and the humidity ratio from the vertical scale.

2 – preparation
104
carburettor icing
EXAMPLE SHOWN ON THE CHART
• wet bulb temperature 10°C
• dry bulb temperature 12°C
• f rom the intersection of the temperature lines the shading gives:
MODERATE ICING: cruise power; SERIOUS ICING: descent power
• relative humidity 52 per cent
• humidity ratio 8.5gm water per kg air

fuel requirements
FUEL REQUIREMENTS (CAR 234)
 he pilot in command of an aircraft must not commence a flight within
T
Australian territory, or to or from Australian territory, unless he or she has
taken reasonable steps to ensure that the aircraft carries sufficient fuel and oil
to enable the proposed flight to be undertaken in safety.
 n operator of an aircraft must take reasonable steps to ensure that an aircraft
A
does not commence a flight as part of the operator’s operations unless the
aircraft is carrying sufficient fuel and oil to enable the proposed flight to be
undertaken in safety.
For the purposes of these Regulations, in determining whether fuel and oil
carried on an aircraft in respect of a particular flight was sufficient within the
meaning of sub-regulations (1) and (2), a court must, in addition to any other
matters, take into account the following matters:
• the
 distance to be travelled by the aircraft on the flight to reach the
proposed destination;
• the
 meteorological conditions in which the aircraft is, or may be required,
to fly;
• the possibility of:
– a forced diversion to an alternative aerodrome; and
– a delay pending landing clearance; and

2 – preparation
 fuel requirements 105

– air traffic control re-routing the flight after commencement of the

flight; and
– a loss of pressurisation in the aircraft; and
– where the aircraft is a multi-engined aircraft—an engine failure;
• any
 guidelines issued from time to time by CASA for the purposes of this
regulation.

GENERAL
Guidance concerning fuel to be carried is contained in Civil Aviation Advisory
Publication (CAAP) 234-1, available from Airservices Publications Unit,
LOCKED BAG 8500,
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Telephone: 1300 306 630
Facsimile: (02) 6268 5111

fuel planning
FUEL PLANNING
PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING
CASA recommends that the following be undertaken (see CAAP 234-1)
• determine total fuel capacity and useable fuel (refer Aircraft Flight Manual)
• determine fuel consumption rates (refer Pilot’s Operating Handbook)
• familiarise yourself with the aircraft’s fuel systems
• check fuel availability enroute (note suppliers and operating hours)
• p
 lan to arrive with all fuel reserves intact - never plan to use fixed or
variable reserve fuel
• w
 eight versus fuel. Keep in mind that you may not be able to carry full
tanks
• check weather to determine holding and/or alternate fuel requirements

2 – preparation
106
fuel planning
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION
Try to refuel on level ground to avoid inaccurate fuel measurements and
unwanted fuel transfer.
 ip each tank to check the amount of fuel. If a tank cannot be dipped, fill at
D
least one tank (weight permitting) so there is a known fuel quantity.
 ross-check fuel amounts by at least two separate methods. Use the lowest
C
figure if they vary by more than 3% (mandatory for aircraft with MTOW in
excess of 5700kg)
Ensure drains and vents are working properly
If using Avgas, rock the aircraft to move trapped water over the drain
point before carrying out a fuel drain (refer aircraft manufacturer’s
recommendations)
Check for contaminants, particularly water; and correct fuel type
Ensure the fuel filler cap is secure and sealed

IN FLIGHT
 t regular intervals (at least 30 minutes and at turning points) compare fuel
A
remaining from gauges with planned figures and monitor tank selection.
Caution: Gauge readings as per aircraft’s fuel calibration card
 se planned power settings and correct mixture leaning technique
U
(at all altitudes)

POST FLIGHT
Compare usage figures with planned figures when next refuelling

FUEL RESERVE RECOMMENDATION

TYPE CATEGORY FLIGHT VARIABLE RESERVE FIXED RESERVE
PISTON Private VFR not mandatory 45 minutes
Charter VFR 15% 45 minutes
TURBINE PVT & AWK VFR NIL 30 minutes
CHTR VFR 10% 30 minutes

2 – preparation
 fuel planning 107

SCENARIO - PIPER LANCE

CATEGORY Private WIND Nil
FROM Mallacoota (YMCO) CLIMB 110 KT
TO
SCENARIO Albury
- PIPER (YMAY) ETA 0500
LANCE CRUISE 150 KT
DISTANCE
CATEGORY 160NM
Private WIND Nil
FROM Mallacoota (YMCO) CLIMB 110 KT
TO Albury (YMAY) ETA 0500 CRUISE 150 KT
DISTANCE
PIPER 160NM FUEL FLOW:
LANCE TYPICAL
PIPER94
CLIMB LANCE
litres/hrTYPICAL FUEL
CRUISE 65 FLOW:
litres/hr HOLDING 52 litres/hr
CLIMB 94 litres/hr CRUISE 65 litres/hr HOLDING 52 litres/hr

USE FIGURES FROM YOUR AEROPLANE'S PILOT OPERATING HANDBOOK

1 CLIMB
FUEL CALC. Min L/Kg?...
/Hr 19 li
94 L tres

60
12 m
ins
1 Climb 12 19
2 CRUISE 2 Cruise 55 60
60 litr
es

mins
65 L

60
/Hr
Alternate - -
67 79
55
SUB TOTAL
3 VARIABLE RESERVE

67
10 m
ins 3 Variable Reserve 10 12
10 1.5
4 Fixed Reserve 45 49
4 FIXED RESERVE

tres 65 L
/Hr
5 Holding 30 26
49 li

45 m
ins 60 6 Taxi - 10
5 HOLDING FUEL REQUIRED 152 176
52 L
26 li
tres /Hr
Margin 22 24
30 mins 60

6 TAXI 60
ENDURANCE 174 200
NB: Allow appropriate fuel for
aircraft (time calculation
FROM YMCO
not applicable).

2 – preparation
108
time
TIME (Chicago Convention on Civil Aviation)
Australia uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) for all operations.
The term “Zulu” is used when ATC procedures require a reference to UTC,
eg: 0920 UTC “ZERO NINE TWO ZERO ZULU”
0115 UTC “ZERO ONE ONE FIVE ZULU”
To convert from Standard Time to UTC:
Eastern Standard Time Subtract 10 hours
Central Standard Time Subtract 9.5 hours
Western Standard Time Subtract 8 hours.
Note: Daylight Saving is not applied universally across Australia and is not
published in the AIP.
The 24-hour clock system is used in radiotelephone transmissions. The hour is
indicated by the first two figures and the minutes by the last two figures,
eg: 0001 “ZERO ZERO ZERO ONE”
1920“ONE NINE TWO ZERO”
Time may be stated in minutes only (two figures) in radiotelephone
communications when no misunderstanding is likely to occur. Current time
in use at a station is stated to the nearest minute in order that pilots may use
this information for time checks.
Control towers will state time to the nearest half minute when issuing a taxi
clearance to a departing aircraft,
eg: 0925:10 “TIME, TWO FIVE”
0932:20 “TIME, THREE TWO AND A HALF”
2145:50 “TIME, FOUR SIX”

2 – preparation
 time 109

INATED UNIVERSAL T
O RD IME
CO 0000
2300 0100
2200 0200
1000
0900 1100
EST
2100 0800 1200 0300
0930
0830 1030
CST
0700 0730 1130 1300
0700 0800 0900
2000 0630 0600 WST 1230 0400
1000
0600 1400
0500 1100
0530 1330
1900 0400 1200 0500
0500 1500
0430 1430
0300 1300
Eastern Standard Time (EST) UTC + 10 hours

1800 0400 0330 0200 Central Standard Time (CST) UTC + 9 1/2 hours 1400 1530 1600 0600

Western Standard Time (WST) UTC + 8 hours

0100 1500
0230 1630
0300 1700
1700 1600 0700
0000
0130 1730
2300 1700
0200 1800
0030 2200 1800 1830 0800
1600
2100 2000 1900
0000
0100 2330 1930 1900
2230 2030
1500 2130 0900
0000 2000

2200 2100
1400 1000

1300 1100
1200

Date and time in civil aviation operations is indicated by a date-time group,

which is a combination of the date and time in a single 6-figure group, or
when used in the text of NOTAM and in pre-flight information bulletins,
in a 8-figure group, made up as follows -
MMDDHHMM
Time used in these operations is UTC, the day beginning at 0000hrs and
ending at 2400hrs. (AIP GEN 2.1)
Examples: Date-time group for 1630 UTC on 25 March, = 251630 March,
or 03251630

2 – preparation
110
daylight and darkness
DAYLIGHT AND DARKNESS (AIP GEN 2.7)
“Night” is that period between the end of the evening civil twilight and the
beginning of the morning civil twilight. For all intents an purposes, first light
should be construed as the beginning of civil twilight and last light as the end
of civil twilight. The terms “sunrise” and “sunset” have no relevance when
calculating day light operating times for the VFR pilot.
To compute the beginning or end of daylight using the graphs contained in
this section:
• enter the top or bottom of the scale at the appropriate date;
• m
 ove vertically up or down to the curve for the latitude of the place
concerned (interpolating for intermediate latitudes if necessary);
• m
 ove horizontally to the left or to the right and read local mean time on
the vertical scale at the side;
• t o convert to UTC, subtract (in E longitudes) from the LMT obtained, the
time increment corresponding to the longitude of the place concerned in
the “Conversion of Arc to Time” table.
• to convert to EST, add 10 hours to UTC;
• to convert to CST, add 9.5 hours to UTC;
• to convert to WST, add 8 hours to UTC.
Example: To determine the end of daylight at Echuca (S36 09.0 E144 46.0)
on 20th November. Using the graph, enter at 20th November
at the top of the page and follow downwards to latitude 36° (by
interpolation), then horizontally to the left and read off LMT =
1919. To convert to UTC, obtain the Arc of time by entering the
“Conversion of Arc to Time” table, at longitude 144° (9 hours 36
minutes). Add the increment corresponding to 46’ in the right hand
column = 3’04’ + 0936 = 0939
 ubtract this from the LMT found: 1919- 0939 = 0940UTC.
S
To find EST add 10 hours to UTC = 1940 EST.
Users of these graphs should note that the parameters used in compiling
the Daylight and Darkness Graphs do not include the nature of the terrain
surrounding a location, or the presence of other than a cloudless sky and
unlimited visibility at that location.

2 – preparation
 daylight and darkness 111

Consequently, the presence of cloud cover, poor visibility or high terrain to

the west of an aerodrome will cause daylight to end at a time earlier than that
extracted from the appropriate graph. Allowance should be made for these
factors when planning a flight having an ETA near the end of daylight.
NAIPS automatically computes first light and last light. This information can
be provided through pilot access, as part of a telephone briefing, or from
LIGHTWATCH. (AIP GEN 2.7)

LOCAL TIME
Local Time in Australia falls into three separate zones:
• E
 ST is used in the States of New South Wales (except the Broken Hill
Area), Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory.
• C
 ST is used in the State of South Australia, the Northern Territory and the
Broken Hill area; and
• WST is used in the Sate of Western Australia.
However, certain States introduce local Summer Time each year between
October of that year and March of the succeeding year, which adds an
additional hour to the local time applicable in that State.
NOTAM or AIP Supplements will be issued detailing revised hours of
operation for those aeronautical facilities affected by local time changes
during periods of States Summer Time and which do not have such hours
promulgated in AIP.

2 – preparation
112
daylight and darkness
BEGINNING OF DAYLIGHT (AIP GEN 2.7)

15 06 29 Location: Launceston
- 09 49 Date: 15th August
= 14 20 40 Lat/Long: S41 32.7
E147 12.9

WORKED EXAMPLE - BEGINNING OF DAYLIGHT

 nter at 15 August and follow downward until reaching latitude 41 32.7. (41
E
will do) then straight across to read the Local Mean Time (LMT) = 06 29
Technically 15 06 29 (date added).
 n the Arc to Time table find Longitude 147 = 9 hours 48 minutes.
O
Add the increment corresponding to 13’ (rounding up) = 0’ 52’ = 09 48 + 001
01 (rounding up) = 09 49.
 ubtract the Arc to Time from the LMT to give the Beginning of Daylight in
S
UTC. = (15) 06 29 - 09 49 = (14) 20 40 on the 14th.

2 – preparation
 daylight and darkness 113

END OF DAYLIGHT (AIP GEN 2.7)

2 – preparation
114
daylight and darkness
BEGINNING OF DAYLIGHT (AIP GEN 2.7)

2 – P R E PA R AT I O N
 daylight and darkness 115

END OF DAYLIGHT (AIP GEN 2.7)

2 – P R E PA R AT I O N
116
daylight and darkness

2 – P R E PA R AT I O N
 daylight and darkness 117

ARC TO TIME CONVERSION (AIP GEN 2.7)

DEGREES MINUTES
TIME TIME TIME TIME
LONG HOURS LONG HOURS LONG LONG
MIN SEC MIN SEC
DEG MIN DEG MIN MIN MIN
110 7 20 140 9 20 0 0 00 30 2 00
111 7 24 141 9 24 1 0 04 31 2 04
112 7 28 142 9 28 2 0 08 32 2 08
113 7 32 143 9 32 3 0 12 33 2 12
114 7 36 144 9 36 4 0 16 34 2 16
115 7 40 145 9 40 5 0 20 35 2 20
116 7 44 146 9 44 6 0 24 36 2 24
117 7 48 147 9 48 7 0 28 37 2 28
118 7 52 148 9 52 8 0 32 38 2 32
119 7 56 149 9 56 9 0 36 39 2 36
120 8 00 150 10 00 10 0 40 40 2 40
121 8 04 151 10 04 11 0 44 41 2 44
122 8 08 152 10 08 12 0 48 42 2 48
123 8 12 153 10 12 13 0 52 43 2 52
124 8 16 154 10 16 14 0 56 44 2 56
125 8 20 155 10 20 15 1 00 45 3 00
126 8 24 156 10 24 16 1 04 46 3 04
127 8 28 157 10 28 17 1 08 47 3 08
128 8 32 158 10 32 18 1 12 48 3 12
129 8 36 159 10 36 19 1 16 49 3 16
130 8 40 20 1 20 50 3 20
131 8 44 21 1 24 51 3 24
132 8 48 22 1 28 52 3 28
133 8 52 23 1 32 53 3 32
134 8 56 24 1 36 54 3 36
135 9 00 25 1 40 55 3 40
136 9 04 26 1 44 56 3 44
137 9 08 27 1 48 57 3 48
138 9 12 28 1 52 58 3 52
139 9 16 29 1 56 59 3 56

2 – preparation
118
charts
CHARTS AVAILABLE
The following aeronautical charts are produced:
• Planning Chart Australia (PCA)
• World Aeronautical Chart (WAC)

VFR
AIRSERVICES
• Visual Terminal Chart (VTC) PUBLICATION UNIT
• Visual Navigational Chart (VNC)
LOCKED BAG 8500
• En Route chart - Low (ERC-L) CANBERRA ACT 2601
• En Route chart - High (ERC-H) T. 1300 306 630

IFR


• Terminal Area Chart (TAC)
• Aerodrome (AD) Chart
F. 02 6268 5111

PLANNING CHART AUSTRALIA

PCA depicts the following information:
• ARFOR boundaries,
• WAC coverage and chart titles;
• location names and abbreviations;
• estimated FIS VHF coverage at 5,000FT and 10,000FT and
• HF network boundaries.

VISUAL CHARTS
WACs (scale 1:1,000,000) are designed for pre-flight planning and pilotage. They
are constructed on Lambert’s Conformal Conic Projection. Australian coverage is
shown on the back of each chart.
VNCs (scale 1:500,000) are designed for operations under the VFR. They contain an
aeronautical overlay of controlled airspace over a topographical base, and contain
some radio communication and other navigational data appropriate for visual
navigation. Map coverage is shown on the front of each map. VNC’s are intended
for use up to and including FL180.
VTCs (scale 1:250,000) are designed for visual operations near terminal areas. They
contain some topographical detail and appropriate airspace, radio communication
and navigation aid information. VTCs are intended for use up to and including
FL180.

2 – preparation
 charts 119

Note: When planning visual navigation outside the coverage of VTCs, pilots
will need to refer to the appropriate VNC (if available) or IFR chart
ERC-L for depiction of controlled airspace and Prohibited, Restricted
and Danger areas. (AIP GEN 3.2)

EN-ROUTE CHARTS AND TERMINAL AREA CHARTS

ERCs-L, ERCs-H and TACs are presented at various scales and depict
airspace, air routes and radio navigation facilities.
ERCs-L are intended for use primarily up to and including FL180.
ERCs-L show an outline of the areas covered by TACs and VTCs.
These areas impact on the ERC-L presentation as follows:
• W
 ithin the areas covered by TACs, full details of air routes may not be
shown due to lack of space.
• A
 ir route information within these areas will usually only include the route
line and bearing. Where space permits, the route designator, distance and
LSALT may also be shown.
• W
 ithin the areas covered by TACs and VTCs, full details of airspace may
not be shown. Information may only indicate lateral boundaries. Restricted
and Danger area numbers and sport aviation symbols may not be shown.
For complete details of aeronautical data in these areas refer to the
appropriate TACs or VTCs.
ERCs-H are intended to be used for operations above FL180.
TACs show details applicable to both high and low level operations in terminal areas.
Aerodrome charts, Apron charts, Noise Abatement Procedures, SID charts,
STAR charts, DME and GPS Arrival charts and IAL charts are IFR charts and
are published in DAP East and DAP West. (AIP GEN 3.2)

RESTRICTED AND DANGER AREA

Restricted and Danger areas are depicted as follows:
• On all charts, Restricted areas are shown with a magenta verge.
• On the ERC’s and TAC’s, Danger areas are shown with a solid magenta line.

2 – preparation
120
charts
• O
 n the VTC’s, Danger areas are shown with a solid magenta line with a
magenta dot verge along the inside of its boundary.
• O
 n all charts where a Restricted and Danger area have a common lateral
boundary, only the Restricted area verge is shown. The Danger area
boundary is indicated by labels. (AIP GEN 3.2)

AIRSPACE BOUNDARY INFORMATION

Distances associated with airspace boundaries indicate the datum on which
the airspace is based, and is shown as follows:
• “NM” indicates a distance from the aerodrome reference point.
• “DME” or “TAC” indicated a distance based on that navigation aid.
• S
 ome control zones have boundaries based on a runway threshold;
eg.“7NM FM THR RWY 33” indicates a distance based on the threshold of
Runway 33 at the associated aerodrome. (AIP GEN 3.2)

FREQUENCY INFORMATION
Flight Information Area (FIA) boundaries and frequencies are depicted in
green. ATC frequencies and the associated boundaries, for use in Class E
airspace, are depicted in brown.
The prefix to a frequency indicates the provider of the service.
Where a single area is divided vertically between different frequencies, the
vertical limits applicable to each frequency will be indicated. (AIP GEN 3.2 )

DEPICTION OF COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY (CTAF)

At non-controlled aerodromes where multicom (126.7MHZ) is not the CTAF, or
non-controlled aerodromes that have an associated navaid, an entry “CTAF”
followed by the designated frequency, is annotated in a box associated with
the location. At non-controlled aerodromes where radio carriage and use is
required, an entry “CTAF<frequency>(R)” is annotated in a box asociated with
the location. ERSA should always be consulted as part of the pre-flight planning
process prior to operating at non-controlled aerodromes.
In areas where numerous aerodromes and landing sites including uncharted
aerodromes share the same frequency, a note on charts states “for operations

2 – preparation
 meteorology

prohibited, restricted, danger 121

at aerodromes and landing sites in this area use CTAF<frequency>”.

PROHIBITED, RESTRICTED AND DANGER AREAS (CAR 140)
You must not fly the aircraft over a prohibited area.
You must not fly the aircraft over a restricted area if the flight is not in
accordance with conditions specified in the notice declaring the area to be a
restricted area.
Note: See also (AIP ENR 1.4)
If you finds that the aircraft is over a prohibited area or a restricted area in
contravention of the above, you shall:
• immediately have the aircraft flown to a position where it is not over the
area;
• a s soon as possible report the circumstances to the nearest Air Traffic
Control unit; and
• land at such aerodrome as is designated by the Air Traffic Control unit and,
for that purpose, obey any instructions given by the Air Traffic Control unit
as to the movement of the aircraft.

services
WEATHER RADAR (AIP GEN 3.3)
Weather radar data derived from BoM radar sites is displayed at various ATS
working positions by means of a PC-based system known within Airservices
as METRAD and within the military as RAPIC.
METRAD/RAPIC images are not ‘real time’ but are the results of a ten minute
update cycle. The most effective range of the radars is up to 75NM.
Weather radar sites, which may be utilised by ATS, are shown in ERSA MET.
Weather radar information within 75NM of radar sites is available to pilots,
subject to ATS workload, on request.
When providing METRAD/RAPIC information to pilots, ATS will use the prefix
“MET RADAR DISPLAY INDICATES..”

2 – meteorology
122
services
METEOROLOGICAL BRIEFING (AIP GEN 3.5)
A limited elaborative briefing service is available from Regional Forecasting
Centres (RFC’s) and meteorological offices on the following telephone
numbers:
Adelaide 08 8366 2617 Alice Springs 08 8952 1943
Cairns 07 4035 9777 Canberra 02 6247 0411
Brisbane 07 3229 1854 Launceston 03 6391 8377
Darwin 08 8982 2824 Port Headland 08 9140 1480
Hobart 03 6221 2000 Rockhampton 07 4922 3597
Melbourne 03 9669 4850 Townsville 07 4779 5999
Perth 08 9263 2255
Sydney 02 9296 1527

AVAILABILITY OF METEOROLOGICAL DOCUMENTATION

(AIP GEN 3.5)
Available documents include the following:
• mean sea level analysis and prognosis charts
• upper level analysis and prognosis charts
• satellite imagery
• grid point winds and temperatures
• route sector winds and temperatures and
• significant weather charts
• Domestic TAF: Domestic Area Forecasts (ARFOR); AREA QNH
• International TAF Bulletins according to major route corridors
• Selected route forecast for high density route
• SIGMET, AIRMET and VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORIES

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NOTIFICATION REQUIRED FROM OPERATORS FOR DOMESTIC

OPERATIONS
All meteorological information issued on a routine basis and held by the
briefing office concerned is available without prior notice. Eight (8) hours
notice is required for nonroutine forecasts. (AIP GEN 3.5)

FORECAST FOR FLIGHTS - VALID AREA FORECASTS NOT AVAILABLE

Route forecasts required for flights for which valid Area Forecasts are not
available will be supplied subject to the prior notification specified below.
Notification should include part or all of the following information:
• departure aerodrome and ETD
• destination and ETA
• route
• ETAs and ETDs for intermediate stopping places
• alternate aerodrome and probable ETAs
• heights for upper winds and temperatures
• aerodrome(s) at which flight documentation is required
• time briefing required (AIP GEN 3.5)

FORECAST REQUIRED AVAILABILITY NOTICE REQUIRED

A. Pre-flight 1 hour before ETD 3 hours
B. Pre-flight for multi stage 1 hour before ETD 8 hours
flights having a duration
of more than 6 hours
C. En route As arranged 3 hours

Requests for these should be made to the appropriate MET office.

Note: Every effort will be made to expedite MET documentation for Mercy
and SAR flights. (AIP GEN 3.5)

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forecasts
SIGNIFICANT FORECAST ABBREVIATIONS (AIP GEN 3.5)
In reports, terminal forecasts and low level area forecasts, the amount of
cloud will be indicated by the following abbreviations:
SKC or, if Sky Clear No cloud
appropriate , CAVOK
FEW Few 1 to 2 OKTAS
SCT Scattered 3 to 4 OKTAS
BKN Broken 5 to 7 OKTAS
OVC Overcast 8 OKTAS

The only cloud type that are included in aeronautical code format are towering
cumulus (TCU) and cumulonimbus (CB). Forecasts in narrative form, such as
ow level area forecasts, will continue to include cloud types other than CB
and TCU when appropriate.
In the case of CB cloud, the amount will be indicated as follows:
ISOL ISOLATED for individual CBs
OCNL OCCASIONAL for well-separated CBs
FREQ FREQUENT for CBs with little or no separation

GOOD is used in the visibility section of low level area forecasts to indicate
a visibility greater than 10KM over the entire area. When weather elements
are forecast to reduce the visibility below 10KM, GOOD is replaced by those
elements and their associated visibilities. Note that the visibility remains
greater than 10KM in parts of the area unaffected by those elements.

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WEATHER CODE AND TRANSLATION (AIP GEN 3.5)

CODE TRANSLATION
WEATHER DESCRIPTORS
BC Patches (or Patches of)
BL Blowing
DR Drifting
FZ Freezing
MI Shallow
SH Showers (or showers of)
TS Thunderstorms (or Thunderstorms with)
PR Aerodrome partially covered by Fog
PHENOMENA
BR Mist
DU Dust
DS Dust storm
DZ Drizzle
FC Funnel Clouds
FG Fog
FU Smoke
GR Hail
GS Small hail pellets
HZ Haze
IC Ice Crystals (very small ice crystals in suspension, also known as
diamond dust)
PL Ice Pellets
PO Dust Devils
RA Rain
SA Sand
SG Snow Grains
SN Snow
SQ Squalls
SS Sand Storm
UP Unknown Precipitation
VA Volcanic Ash

Note 1: There is an option for intensity to be described when used with

theabbreviations DZ, RA, SN, SH or TS. In these cases, the weather group
is prefixed by (-) for light, or (+) for heavy. Moderate intensity has no prefix.
Note 2:METAR/SPECI may provide an indication of weather in the vicinity.
If this is included, one or more of the weather groups above may be
used, preceded by the abbreviation “VC”

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forecasts
TEMPO AND INTER (AIP GEN 3.5)
TEMPO and INTER are used to indicate significant variations of a temporary or
intermittent nature in aerodrome and landing forecasts.
TEMPO is used to indicate changes to conditions which are expected to last for
less than 60 minutes but more than 30 minutes in each instance and where the
aggregate of the changes is expected to be less than half the total period indicated.
INTER is used to indicate changes expected to occur frequently and more or less
continuously throughout for periods of less than 30 minutes in each instance and
where the aggregate of the changes is expected to be less than half the total
period indicated.
FM is used in forecasts to indicate changes which are significantly different to
preceding information in one or more of the elements, wind direction and/or
speed, visibility, weather or cloud. The changes relate to improvements as well
as deteriorations. The forecast conditions commencing with the code “FM”
will continue until the end of the TAF validity period, or until replaced by another
significant change.
TEMPO START

60 60
MINS MINS
TAF TAF
START FINISH
INTER START

30 30
MINS MINS
TAF TAF
START FINISH
FM

TAF TAF
START FINISH

CLOUD HEIGHT DATUM

In aerodrome and trend forecasts, cloud heights are given above aerodrome
elevations. In other forecasts, heights are expressed:

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 forecasts 127

• as a flight level; or
• with reference to mean sea level

FORECAST AMENDMENTS
Amendments to forecasts are issued as necessary when changes are
expected during the period of validity of a given forecast.

area forecasts
AREA FORECASTS (ARFOR) (AIP GEN 3.5)
These forecasts are issued in narrative form for aircraft operations at or below
FL200. They comprise a statement of the general synoptic situation and the
meteorological conditions expected to prevail in the designated area. A route
forecast is issued for any part of a planned flight for which a routine area
forecast is not prepared.
These forecasts are available from the ATS automated briefing systems the
bureau of meteorology web site at [Link] and briefing offices
listed in ERSA GEN.

ARFOR AREAS
86

80
87 45
69
88
84
68 43 44
83

66 85
65
41 40
64
52
61
60
53 51 20 24
62 22
63
50 21
30

32

70
(no ARFOR asscociated with areas 24,87,88)(no ARFOR asscociated with areas 24,87,88)

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pre-flight planning
FORMAT OF AN ARFOR
The following is the format used in an area forecast:
TIME OF FORECAST (in UTC HH:MM)
VALIDITY PERIOD (in UTC DDHHMM)
APPLICABLE AREA NUMBER (can be more than one area at times)
OVERVIEW
SUBDIVISIONS (if any)
WIND
CLOUD
WEATHER
VISIBILITY
FREEZING LEVEL
ICING
TURBULENCE
CRITICAL LOCATIONS (if any)

aerodrome forecasts
AERODROME FORECASTS (TAF)
An aerodrome forecast (TAF) is a statement of meteorological conditions
expected for a specified period in the airspace within a radius of five nautical
miles of the centre of the aerodrome or runway complex.
The TAF service provided is in accordance with the airfield category, the
category of airfield being determined by the type and the amount of traffic.
(AIP GEN 3.5)

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aerodrome forecasts
TAF - AERODROME FORECAST FORMAT (AIP GEN 3.5)

AERODROME WEATHER AND FORECAST DECODE COMPOSITION

1 IDENTIFIER

The identifier METAR is used to identify all aerodrome weather reports

maderoutinely either on the hour or half hour UTC which do not meet SPECI
criteria. SPECI is used to identify all other observations and is also used to
identify observations recorded 10 minutes following an improvement above
SPECI conditions.
The identifier TTF METAR or TTF SPECI is used to identify METAR and SPECI
to which a three hour trend is appended. The use of this identifier is restricted
to those locations for which Trend-Type Forecasts are issued.
The identifier TAF or TAF AMD is used to identify an aerodrome forecast or an
amended aerodrome forecast. If the forecast is provisional, the abbreviation
PROV becomes the first element of the identifier.
2 LOCATION

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 aerodrome forecasts 131

The location is indicated by either the ICAO location indicator, the place name,
or the approved abbreviation.
3 ORIGINATION TIME

The origination time of a TAF is expressed in a six figure group, followed by

the abbreviation “Z”
4 VALIDITY PERIOD
The time of an aerodrome weather report is expressed in a four figure group
followed by the abbreviation “Z”. The period of validity of an aerodrome
forecast is expressed as a four figure hour group. UTC to hour UTC.
5 WIND INFORMATION
Wind direction is given in three figures relating to True North.
When the wind is calm, it is encoded as “00000KT”.
Wind speeds from 1 to 9KT, inclusive, are given in two figures; eg. 5KT is
given as 05KT.
Variable wind direction is given as “VRB” and is used when the reporting of a
mean wind direction is not possible, such as:
• In light windy conditions (3KT or less), or
• T
 he wind is veering or backing by 180o or more (eg, passage of a
thunderstorm, or localised wind effect)
Maximum wind speed is given only when it is 10KT or more greater than the
mean wind speed and the mean wind speed is greater than or equal to 15KT.
The term “MAX” is not included, the letter “G” followed by the maximum
wind speed is used; eg 280° mean speed 20KT, maximum speed 35KT, is
given as 28020G35KT.
6 USE OF THE TERM “CAVOK”
“CAVOK” is included in the report or forecast when the following conditions
are observed, or forecast to occur simultaneously:
• visibility 10KM or more
• n
 o cloud below 5,000FT or below the highest minimum sector altitude,
whichever is the greater, and no cumulonimbus; and
• no precipitation, thunderstorm, shallow fog, low drifting snow or dust devils.
Whenever a total of BKN (ie more than 4/8) low or middle cloud cover is
present at or above 5000FT, and CAVOK has been used, cloud amount and

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aerodrome forecasts
base are given.
7 VISIBILITY

In METAR/SPECI or TAF, the minimum visibility observed OR forecast is

always given.
In METAR/SPECI, if the minimum visibility covers more than half the
aerodrome, or when visibility is fluctuating rapidly and significant directional
variations cannot be given, the minimum visibility is the only visibility
information reported.
METAR/SPECI visibility will have a directional variation indicated when the
minimum visibility is less than 5,000M and the visibility in another direction,
covering more than half the aerodrome, is at least 50% greater. Under
these conditions, the minimum visibility will be given first, with the direction
indicated by one of the eight points of the compass, followed by the higher
visibility, without a compass point. 1000N 9999
8 WEATHER

Weather is given using the codes listed on page 125. One or more of the
codes may be grouped eg TS or TSGR, SH or SHRA.
There is an option to describe the intensity of the weather which is only used with
the precipitation codes DZ, RA, SN, SH , or TS. In these cases, the weather group is
prefixed by (-) for light, and (+) for heavy. Moderate intensity has no prefix.
METAR/SPECI may provide an indication of weather in the vicinity. If this
is included, one or more of the weather groups on page 139 may be used,
preceded by the abbreviation “VC”.
9 CLOUD

Cloud height is always given as a three figure group in hundreds of feet, with
the last two digits omitted; eg: cloud at 700 feet is shown as 007.
Cloud information is reported from the lowest to the highest layer or mass in
accordance with the following:
• t he lowest layer or mass, regardless of amount, as FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC
as appropriate
• t he next layer or mass, covering more than 2/8, as SCT, BKN or OVC as
appropriate

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aerodrome forecasts 133

• t he next higher layer or mass, covering more than 4/8, as BKN or OVC as
appropriate; and
• c umulonimbus and/or towering cumulus clouds, whenever observed, and
not reported in the above.
The cloud type will be identified only for cumulonimbus and towering cumulus
when observed at or near the aerodrome. These will be given as “CB” and
“TCU” respectively. When an individual layer (mass) or cloud is composed of
cumulonimbus and towering cumulus with a common cloud base, the type of
cloud is reported as cumulonimbus only.
Cloud details will be written as one word for each layer being reported; eg
8/8ths of stratus at 500FT will be given as “OVC005” and not “OVC 005”
Whenever cumulonimbus cloud is forecast, the degree of associated
thunderstorm activity or probability of occurrence is included.
Cloud information is not included if there is no cloud. When the sky is
obscured, the group is omitted in a report and included in a forecast only if
cloud is forecast.
Vertical visibility is never included.
10 SIGNIFICANT VARIATIONS

Aerodrome forecasts may include an indicator of significant variation if

changes in one, or more of the elements of wind, visibility, weather or cloud,
which would satisfy the amendments criteria, are expected. These relate to
improvements as well as deteriorations.
The terms TEMPO and INTER are used to indicate significant variations of a
temporary or intermittent nature. The term FM Is used to indicate changes
which are more lasting in nature. The indicator is the beginning of a self-
contained forecast or trend.
When reduced visibility due to fog, mist or dust is forecast, but the probability
is assessed at between 30% and 40%, the term PROB (percent) is used. The
term may also be attached to TEMPO and INTER conditions.
The terms WX NIL,NO SIG WX and SKC may be included following a
significant variation indicator, to indicate significant improvements expected.
If a TAF or TTF includes a forecast or turbulence, its commencement will be
indicated by the word “FM”, and its cessation within the forecast coverage
will be indicated by the word “TILL”

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aerodrome forecasts
11 TEMPERATURE

Aerodrome weather reports contain both temperature and dewpoint.

Forecasts of air temperature are given at three-hourly intervals for a maximum
of nine hours, from the time of commencement of validity of the forecast.
The temperature groups are prefixed by the letter “T”. Negative values are
indicated by the letter M before the numeral.
12 QNH

QNH is given as a whole number of hectopascals, with observed intermediate

values being rounded-off downward. QNH is always given using four figures,
prefixed by the letter “Q”, eg: Q0997

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (AIP GEN 3.5)

In METAR/SPECI, supplementary information is used to report the following:
• recent weather of operational significane, and
• wind shear information on a take-off or landing runway.

TERMINAL AERODROME FORECASTS (TAF) EXAMPLES

(AIP GEN 3.5)
• T
 AF YCOM 070635Z 0820 18015KT 9999 FEW005 BKN020 TEMPO 1014
2000 -SHSN BKN005 SCT020 T 03 00 M02 M04 Q1008 1007 1006 1006
• T
 AF YSSY 010435Z 0606 31005KT CAVOK FM14 16015KT 8000 SHRA
BKN008 SCT030 FM23 23010KT 9999 NO SIG WX SCT030 T 25 21 18 15
Q 1012 1013 1014 1014
• T
 AF YSCB 270648Z 0820 33015G28KT 3000 +RA BKN010 OVC100 FM14
16015KT 8000 SHRA FEW010 SCT040 SCT100 INTER 1015 1000 +TSRA
BKN005 SCT040CB FM08 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT TIL 15 T 14 13 13 11
Q 1016 1015 1013 1016
• T
 AF YMHB 100645Z 0820 14001KT 3500 DZ OVC005 FM12 14001KT 0300
FG T 12 11 10 10 Q 1018 1019 1020 1019

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TAF YMAY 021830Z 2008 35010KT CAVOK

FM 04 30015KT OVC100
INTER 0408 30020G40KT 3000 +TSRA BKN010 SCT040CB
T 23 24 28 33 Q 1012 1013 1014 1009
2000 0400 0800

30 30
MINS MINS
TAF TAF
START FINISH

PROVISIONAL FORECASTS (AIP GEN 3.5)

Forecasts may be prefixed PROV (to denote provisional) when considered
likely to be deficient in accuracy because origination was by a forecasting
office issuing information for a location or area not under its authority.
Note: The Director of Meteorology may, however, authorise the issue of
provisional TAF in additional circumstances Provisional aerodrome forecasts
will be confirmed or amended as soon as possible.

trend type forecast

TREND TYPE FORECAST (TTF) (AIP GEN 3.5)
TTFs are prepared for the following locations: Adelaide, Amberley, Brisbane,
Darwin, Cairns, Canberra, East Sale, Melbourne, Nowra, Oakey, Pearce, Perth,
Rockhampton, Sydney, Townsville and Williamtown.
Note: The provision of TTF at some aerodromes is limited to routine flights
only. METAR/SPECI is normally available outside these hours.
TTF is defined as an aerodrome weather report (METAR/SPECI) to which
a statement of trend is appended. The TTF relates to weather conditions
expected to affect the aerodrome of origin for three hours following the time
of the report.
The TTF supersedes the TAF for its validity period of three hours commencing
at the time of the observation and is the current forecast for pilots of aircraft
whose arrival time falls within the three-hour period. For aerodromes where
the TTF service is not 24 hour service, or the meteorological watch ceases,

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trend type forecast
the TAF will supersede the remaining portion of the TTF validity for which a
meteorological watch is not available.
The time at which the TAF supersedes the TTF will be included in the remarks
section of the TTF.
Note: For pilots whose arrival time falls outside the three-hour period, the TAF
is the current forecast. Where applicable, TTF replaces TAF and present
weather in VOLMET broadcasts.

TREND-TYPE FORECASTS - EXAMPLES (AIP GEN 3.5)

• TTF
 SPECI YPAD 2200Z 00000KT 9999 DZ OVC005 14/04 Q 1025
FM2200 00000KT 9999 NO SIG WX BKN008
FM2300 03005KT 9999 NO SIG WX SCT020
• T
 TF SPECI YMML 0200Z 05008KT 4000 DZ BKN005 OVC100 16/15 Q1017
NOSIG
• T
 TF METAR YPPH 0500Z 36015KT CAVOK 32/08 Q1014
FM0630 20825KT 9999 NO SIG WX BKN030
INTER 0530/0730 5000 SHRA BKN008
• T
 TF METAR YBTL 0730Z 35006KT 9999 FEW050TCU 31/21 Q1005
REMARKS DISTANT THUNDER NOSIG
• T
 TF SPECI YBTL 0800Z 03010KT 4000 TSRA BKN030CB SCT120 27/24
Q1008
FM0830 03005KT 9999 SHRA BKN035
INTER 0830/1100 4000 TSRA SCT010 SCT030CB
• T
 TF METAR YBAS 1400Z 02015KT 9999 SCT040 BKN120 22/08 Q1000
RMK
DISTANT LIGHTING TO NW
FM1630 34018G35KT 6000 SHRA BKN030 BKN120 INTER 1630/1700
3000 TSRA SCT010 BKN030CB RMK USE TAF FOR ARRIVALS AFTER
1500Z

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TTF - TREND-TYPE FORECASTS (AIP GEN 3.5)

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trend type forecast

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 meteorological reports 139

WIND SHEAR WARNINGS

Wind Shear Warnings provide information on observed, reported or assessed
risk of wind shear which could adversely affect aircraft on the approach or take-
off paths, during circling approach between runway level and 2,000FT above
that level and aircraft on the runway during the landing roll or take-off run.
This service is provided for Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Melbourne,
Perth, Rockhampton, Sydney and Townsville during duty hours of the MET
office.

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
AERODROME WEATHER REPORTS are observations of meteorological
conditions at aerodromes. The reports are made by approved observers, and/
or electronic recording devices called Automatic Weather Stations (AWS). The
different types of reports are detailed below.

ROUTINE REPORTS (METAR) are issued at fixed times, hourly or half hourly,
and are made available at pre-flight briefing or on request to aircraft (an example
of METAR composition is detailed on page 141 and in (AIP GEN 3.5)

SPECIAL REPORTS (SPECI)

Aerodrome weather reports issued whenever weather conditions meet or are
below specified criteria.
SPECI reports are issued whenever there is more than 4/8ths cloud (ie BKN
or OVC) at or below the alternate minimum cloud base, or whenever the
horizontal visibility is at or below the alternate minimum visibility*. Additional
SPECI may be issued when weather conditions deteriorate further.
*Note: Where no descent procedure is established, the alternate ceiling
and visibility minima are 1,500FT and 8KM respectively
SPECI will also be issued under the following conditions:
• Wind:
– w
 hen mean direction changes by 30° or more, the mean speed before
or after the change being 20KT or more; or
– when the mean speed changes by 10KT or more, the mean speed
before or after the change being 30KT or more; or

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meteorological reports
– when the variation from the mean speed gusts has increased by 10KT or
more, the mean speed before or after the change being 15KT or more.
• Other conditions
– when any of the following begins, ends or changes in intensity -
thunderstorm, hailstorm, mixed snow and rain, freezing precipitation,
drifting snow, dust storm, sandstorm, squall, fog;
– when severe turbulence, severe icing, or wind shear is reported by a
pilot to have begun or ended;
– at the passage of a front;
– at the incidence of any other phenomena likely to be significant to the
operation of an aircraft;
– when the QNH altimeter setting changes by 2HPA or more;
– when the temperature changes by 5° or more.
RAAF Special Reports (RAAF SPECI) At joint user aerodromes, Canberra,
Darwin, Newcastle/Williamtown and Townsville, aerodrome weather reports
based on a circling ceiling and visibility minima higher than those specified for
civil operations are issued for use by military pilots.

AERODROME WEATHER REPORTS - EXAMPLES

• SPECI YMML 2000Z 22012KT 6000 DZ FEW002 SCT006 15/12 Q1020
• METAR YBRK 0100Z 03012KT 9999 FEW025 SCT035TCU 26/20 Q1003
• M
 ETAR YPPH 1130Z 28012KT 9999 FEW005 SCT035TCU 26/17 Q1007
RETS
• S
 PECI YBCS 1745Z 23014G29KT 1200NE 6000 TSRA FEW030CB BKN100
26/22 Q1003
• SPECI YSSY 1900Z 26001KT 3000 HZ VCFG FEW030 18/17 Q1018

AUTOMATIC WEATHER STATIONS WITH CEILING AND VISIBILITY

INFORMATION
Automated cloud and visibility elements of an AWS will be included in the
body of METAR/SPECI when there is no human input to the message. These
fully automated messages will be indicated by inclusion of the abbreviation
AUTO in the message.

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For example:
METAR YSBK 071800Z AUTO 10015KT 9999NDV // SCT042 BKN110 14/06
Q1020 RMK RF00.0/000.8
In this example, NDV (No Directional Variation) is appended to the visibility element
to indicate that the single visibility sensor at this site does not have the capability of
detecting any spatial variation in visibility that may exist; and // is inserted in lieu of
weather to indicate that this site does not have a weather sensor.
Ceilometers (cloud sensors) will only detect cloud to 12,500FT. If there is no
cloud detected below this level, and the detected visibility is greater than
1,000M, the cloud report will be CLD: CLR BLW 125 (in the remarks [RMK]
section). If no cloud is detected and the detected visibility is less than or
equal to 1,000M the cloud report will be CLD: SKY MAY BE OBSC (in the
remarks [RMK] section).

AUTOMATED WEATHER STATIONS REPORTING OF RAINFALL

Automated cloud and visibility elements of an AWS will be included in the body
of METAR/SPECI when there is no human input to the message. These fully
automated messages will be indicated by inclusion of the abbreviation AUTO in
the message.
For example:
METAR YSBK 071800Z AUTO 10015KT 9999NDV // SCT042 BKN110
14/06 Q1020 RMK RF00.00/000.8
In this example, NDV (No Direct Variation) is appended to the visibility element to
indicate that the single visibility sensor at this site does not have the capability of
detecting any special variation in visibility that may exist; and // is inserted in lieu
of weather to indicate that this site does not have a weather sensor.
Ceilometers (cloud sensors) will only detect cloud to 12, 500 FT. If there is no cloud
detected below this level, and the detected visibility is greater than 1,000M, the
cloud report will be CLD: CLR BLW 125 (in the remarks [RMK] section). If no cloud
is detected and the detected visibility is less than or equal to 1,000M the cloud
report will be CLD: SKY MAY BE OBSC (in the remarks [RMK] section).
The remarks section of the report may include figures to indicate rainfall
recorded by an automatic rain gauge.
The information is in the form RF00.0/000.0 where the first three digits after
the letters RF will indicate the rainfall recorded in the ten minutes prior to the
observation time, and the next four digits indicate the total rainfall recorded

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meteorological reports
since 0900 local mean time of the observation time. Both amounts are
expressed in millimetres to the nearest 0.2mm.
Note: In situations of fine droplet precipitation, such as very light drizzle or
fine mist situations, there may not be sufficient precipitation recorded to
indicate any rainfall in the last ten minutes. Pilots should, therefore, regard
automated reports of rainfall as guidance material only.

ELEMENTS OF REPORT NOT AVAILABLE

In cases where some elements of a report are not available; eg, visibility or
cloud in an automatic weather station report, the indicator “II” will be used.

TAKE-OFF AND LANDING REPORTS

Are provided at aerodromes where a control tower is established. This service
may also be provided by UNICOM, details of which can be obtained in ERSA.
Take-off and landing reports are included on ATIS, where available, or passed
to aircraft reporting taxiing or inbound. Take-off and landing reports contain, as
available, the following:
• wind velocity, with direction in degrees magnetic
• altimeter setting
• air temperature (if appropriate to the type of aircraft)
• low cloud, if significant
• v isibility, if significant - in metres up to and including 5,000M, above
this value in KM. A visibility greater than 10KM is given as “VISIBILITY
GREATER THAN 10KM”
• a dditional items, ie extent of cloud below the main ceiling, disposition and
intensity of rain, reported turbulence area, etc;
• C
 AVOK- when the following conditions are observed to occur
simultaneously:
visibility of 10KM or more;
no cloud below 5,000FT or below the highest minimum sector altitude,
whichever is the greater, and no cumulonimbus;

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no precipitation, thunderstorm, shallow fog, low drifting snow or dust

devils. When the term, CAVOK is used, the elements low cloud, visibility
and additional items will not be advised.
The meteorological information provided by AIR Traffic Controllers may be
obtained by observation of the whole horizon or only the area that will contain
the probable flight path of an aircraft. Reports based on AWS data will be
limited to wind direction and velocity, QNH and temperature, except when a
qualified observer at the aerodrome provides visually observed information.

APPROVED OBSERVERS
“Approved Observers” are officers of the BoM, Air Traffic Controllers, and other
persons on the ground approved for the purpose by the BoM and/or CASA.
For the purpose of observing visibility for take-off and landing at an aerodrome,
the pilot in command shall be deemed an approved observer for that flight.

OBSERVING POINT
The location of the observing point for the aerodrome weather reports is
such that the meteorological conditions observed within visual range, or
interpreted from instruments at that point, are representative of conditions at
the aerodrome.

AIRCRAFT WEATHER REPORTS

The pilot in command of an aircraft is required to observe and report en route
meteorological conditions as prescribed in AIP GEN 3.5-15 and 3.5-21. For this
purpose, he/she is deemed an approved observer.
In addition to requirements for special AIREP reports concerning MET
conditions likely to affect the safety of other aircraft, pilots in command
of flights, in areas where ground meteorological reports are scanty, are
encouraged to report observations of MET conditions which they consider will
assist in the provision of meteorological services.

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meteorological advices
SIGMET
SIGMET information concerns the occurrence or expected occurrence, in an
area over which meteorological watch is being maintained, of one or more of
the following:
• below FL450
- active thunderstorm area
- tropical revolving storm
- severe line squall
- heavy hail
- severe turbulence
- severe icing
- marked mountain waves
- widespread sandstorms or duststorms
- volcanic ash cloud
• above FL450
- moderate or severe turbulence
- cumulonimbus clouds
- hail
Note: Messages containing SIGMET information for aircraft in transonic and
supersonic flight are identified as SIGMET SST
Pilots in command of aircraft encountering any of the above phenomena,
not notified by SIGMET advices, must report details of the phenomena in an
AIREP SPECIAL.
SIGMET information is issued by MET forecasters and addressed by ATS as
a Hazard Alert to aircraft operating on routes or in areas likely to be affected.
This information will normally relate the phenomena reported to designated
reporting points, and where possible, will indicate the area in which the
phenomena exist.

2 – meteorology
 meteorological advices 145

AIRMET
AIRMET information concerns the occurrence or expected occurrence
affecting the levels below FL120 in an area over which meteorological watch
is being maintained, of one or more of the following phenomena:
• hail
• moderate icing
• m
 oderate turbulence, when this is expected to occur in an area, or at a
time, where or when it is not a normal seasonal feature
• t he initial onset of phenomena producing extensive areas of visibility of
less than 8KM, or of cloud coverage of more than 4/8ths below 1,500FT
above ground level
• winds of 40Kt or more within 2,000FT above ground level
and also includes phenomena covered by SIGMET advices.
Note: When SIGMET phenomena only are concerned, a separate AIRMET
advice is not issued.
AIRMET information, which concerns phenomena of a lesser degree of
severity than SIGMET information, is given to aircraft operating at or below
10,000FT.
AIRMET Information is issued by MET forecasters and addressed by ATS as a
Hazard Alert to aircraft operating on routes or in areas likely to be affected. It
will indicate the locality or area in which the phenomena exist or are expected
to exist.
AIRMET information will not be issued on phenomena which are included in
a current area forecast. Pilots in command who encounter any of the above
phenomena, which have not been notified by a forecast or an AIRMET advice,
should report the details by SHORT AIREP.
Note: AIRMET information is additional to SIGMET information which is
issued to all aircraft types.

2 – meteorology
146
meteorological advices
HAZARDOUS WEATHER
RESPONSIBILITY
Cooperative and concerted action is required by pilots, meteorologists and
ATS to ensure the most accurate information is promulgated to assist pilots in
the avoidance of hazardous weather, particularly those phenomena associated
with thunderstorms - icing, hail and turbulence.
Meteorologists are responsible for the observation of weather phenomena
and forecasting their occurrence, development and movement, in terms
applicable to aircraft operations. These forecasts need to be produced in
sufficient time for avoiding action to be taken.
ATS is responsible for distributing reports of hazardous meteorological
conditions to pilots as a part of the Hazard Alert service. ATS also makes
visual and limited radar weather observations for the information of
meteorologists and pilots and is responsible for relaying pilot weather reports
to the BoM. At some locations, ATS is provided with METRAD or RAPIC
which may supplement weather advice by the ATS. Details are given in AIP
GEN 3.3.
Whilst manoeuvring in hazardous weather situations, pilots are responsible for
the safety of their own aircraft using advices and clearances passed by ATS
and information obtained from their own visual or airborne radar observations.
They are also responsible for passing visual and airborne radar observations of
hazardous weather to ATS.

PILOT ACTION
Outside controlled airspace all hazardous weather avoidance action is the
sole responsibility of the pilot in command. However, in order to preserve the
safety of the aircraft and other air traffic, the pilot in command is requested to
advise ATS of intended actions.
The pilot in command, both inside and outside controlled airspace, must
advise ATS promptly of any hazardous weather encountered, or observed
either visually or by radar. Whenever practicable, those observations should
include as much detail as possible, including location and severity. Hazardous
weather includes, in particular, thunderstorms, severe turbulence, hail, icing
and line squalls.

2 – meteorology
 meteorological advices 147

WIND SHEAR - PILOT REPORTING

Wind shear encountered by aircraft must be reported by pilots as follows:
• light - shear causing minor excursions from flight path and/or airspeed
• moderate - shear causing significant effect on control of the aircraft
• s trong - shear causing difficulty in keeping the aircraft to desired flight
path and/or airspeed
• severe - shear causing hazardous effects to aircraft controllability
Pilots encountering wind shear of intensity “moderate”, “strong” or “severe”
should immediately report the degree, type of shear and the altitude at which
the greatest adverse effect was experienced. At non-controlled aerodromes,
the report should also be broadcast to all aircraft on the CTAF and should
include the name of the aerodrome (AIP GEN 3.5).
The responsibility to continue an approach to land, or to take off following
notification of low level wind shear rests with the pilot in command.

AUTOMATIC METEOROLOGICAL BROADCASTS

Routine broadcasts of selected operational meteorological information for use
by aircraft in flight are made from suitable locations using discrete ground-to-
air frequencies.

AUTOMATIC EN ROUTE INFORMATION SERVICES (AERIS)

The AERIS continuously broadcasts METAR from a network of VHF
transmitters installed around Australia. Details of transmitter sites,
frequencies and locations for which METAR are provided are at ERSA GEN.

2 – meteorology
148
meteorological advices
DARWIN GOVE

KUNUNURRA
BELLENDEN KERR
GOOCHEGOOCHERA CAIRNS
DERBY
BROOME
TENNANT CREEK TOWNSVILLE
KARRATHA MOUNT ISA
LEARMONTH Mt BLACKWOOD
TELFER
ALICE SPRINGS ROCKHAMPTON
AYERS ROCK
PARABURDOO
MEEKATHARRA Mt MOWBULLAN
CARNARVON
BROKEN HILL BRISBANE
CEDUNA POINT LOOKOUT
GERALDTON KALGOORLIE Mt CANOBOLAS SYDNEY
PERTH MILDURA DUBBO
ESPERANCE CANBERRA
ALBANY Mt WILLIAM
Mt GININI
Mt GAMBIER MELBOURNE

LAUNCESTON
HOBART

VHF AUTOMATIC EN ROUTE INFORMATION SERVICE (AERIS) NETWORK

(COVERAGE AT 20,000 FT)

VHF AUTOMATIC EN ROUTE INFORMATION SERVICE (AERIS) NETWORK

(COVERAGE AT 20,000 FT)
OUTLET VHF METAR MENU
Mt. WILLIAM 119.75 Adelaide, Hobart, Launceston, Melbourne,
Perth, Mildura
Mt. GININI 119.95 Adelaide, Canberra, Hobart, Melbourne,
Wagga Wagga
Mt. CANOBOLAS 119.85 Adelaide, Alice Springs, Brisbane,
Melbourne, Perth, Sydney
POINT LOOKOUT 119.75 Brisbane, Canberra, Coolangatta,
Melbourne, Rockhampton, Sydney
Mt. MOWBULLAN 119.95 Brisbane, Coolangatta, Mackay,
Maroochydore, Rockhampton, Sydney
Mt. BLACKWOOD 119.85 Brisbane, Cairns, Hamilton Island, Mackay,
Kalgoorlie, Townsville
BELLENDEN KERR
2 – meteorology
119.75 Brisbane, Cairns, Hamilton Island, Mackay,
Rockhampton, Townsville
Mt. ISA 128.45 Alice Springs, Brisbane, Cairns, Mt. Isa,
 VHF AUTOMATIC EN ROUTE INFORMATION SERVICE (AERIS) NETWORK
(COVERAGE AT 20,000 FT)

meteorological advices 149

VHF AUTOMATIC EN ROUTE INFORMATION SERVICE (AERIS) NETWORK

(COVERAGE AT 20,000 FT)
OUTLET VHF METAR MENU
Mt. WILLIAM 119.75 Adelaide, Hobart, Launceston, Melbourne,
Perth, Mildura
Mt. GININI 119.95 Adelaide, Canberra, Hobart, Melbourne,
Wagga Wagga
Mt. CANOBOLAS 119.85 Adelaide, Alice Springs, Brisbane,
Melbourne, Perth, Sydney
POINT LOOKOUT 119.75 Brisbane, Canberra, Coolangatta,
Melbourne, Rockhampton, Sydney
Mt. MOWBULLAN 119.95 Brisbane, Coolangatta, Mackay,
Maroochydore, Rockhampton, Sydney
Mt. BLACKWOOD 119.85 Brisbane, Cairns, Hamilton Island, Mackay,
Kalgoorlie, Townsville
BELLENDEN KERR 119.75 Brisbane, Cairns, Hamilton Island, Mackay,
Rockhampton, Townsville
Mt. ISA 128.45 Alice Springs, Brisbane, Cairns, Mt. Isa,
Tindal, Townsville
GOOCHEGOOCHERA 128.45 Alice Springs, Cairns, Darwin,
Tennant Creek, Tindal, Townsville
DERBY 128.45 Broome, Darwin, Kununurra, Meekatharra,
Perth, Port Hedland
MEEKATHARRA 128.45 Broome, Kalgoorlie, Karratha,
Meekatharra, Perth, Port Hedland
CEDUNA 128.45 Adelaide, Alice Springs, Kalgoorlie,
Melbourne, Perth, Sydney
KALGOORLIE 128.25 Adelaide, Alice Springs, Ceduna,
Kalgoorlie, Laverton, Perth
BROKEN HILL 128.25 Adelaide, Alice Springs, Brisbane,
Darwin, Melbourne, Sydney

2 – meteorology
150
AIREP
AIREP SPECIAL
A pilot in command should make a special report (see ERSA Flight Planning)
when requested, or as soon as practicable after encountering any SIGMET
condition which has not been notified, or any other MET condition which is
likely to affect the safety or markedly effect the efficiency of other aircraft.
The estimate of next position may be omitted from an AIREP SPECIAL report
except where the report is made at a planned position reporting point.
In the climb-out and approach phases, a pilot in command must report
meteorological conditions, not previously advised, which are likely to affect
the safety of aircraft operations. The preferred format of the report is detailed
in ERSA Flight Planning.

SHORT AIREP
Short AIREP should be provided by pilots when requested.
ATS should be advised when a pilot encounters:
• C
 loud-unexpected significant variations to amount, base or tops (by
reference to QNH);
• V
 isibility- reduced due to fog, mist, hail, rain, snow or dust, or
improvement observed;
• Wind- significant variation to forecast;
• Other
 phenomena - incidence of severe or moderate turbulence,
thunderstorms, moderate or severe icing, hail, line squalls, standing
waves or winds of 40KT or more within 2,000FT of ground level.
The report comprises:
• callsign of the ground station;
• callsign of the aircraft;
• short AIREP;
• position and time;
• EN ROUTE (departure point ) TO (destination);
• weather report.

2 – meteorology
 f l i g h ts o v e r w at e r

pre-flight 151

FLIGHTS OVER WATER (CAR 258)

An aircraft shall not fly over water at a distance from land greater than the
distance from which the aircraft could reach land if the engine, or, in the case of
a multi-engined aircraft, the critical engine (being the engine the non-operation
of which when the other engines are in operation gives the highest minimum
speed at which the aircraft can be controlled) were inoperative, except:
• in accordance with directions issued by CASA; or
• in the course of departing from or landing at an aerodrome in accordance
with a normal navigational procedure for departing from or landing at that
aerodrome.
Aircraft engaged in PVT, AWK or CHTR operations, and which are normally
prohibited by CAR 258 from over-water flights because of their inability
to reach land in the event of engine failure, may fly over water subject to
compliance with the following conditions. These conditions are additional to
the requirements for flight over land (AIP ENR 1.1).
There is no limitation for PVT, AWK or freight-only CHTR operations.
 ach occupant of the aircraft must wear a life jacket during the flight over
E
water unless exempted from doing so under the terms of CAO 20.11.
A meteorological forecast must be obtained.
 FR flights are required to submit a SARTIME flight notification to ATS or
V
leave a Flight Note with a responsible person.
SAR Alerting
• V
 FR flights may choose to operate on reporting schedules for the over-water
stages of a flight. Schedules may be arranged before commencing the
overwater stage and terminate on completion of the crossing.
• V
 FR aircraft not equipped with radio which will enable continuous
communication, or not radio equipped, must carry a survival beacon as
prescribed in CAO 20.11, for the over-water stages of the flight.

2 – flights over water

152
safety equipment
LIFE JACKETS
Aircraft shall be equipped with one life jacket that complies with the standards
specified in CAO 103.13 for each occupant when the aircraft is over water and
at a distance from land:
• in the case of a single engine aircraft – greater than that which would
allow the aircraft to reach land with the engine inoperative; and
• in the case of multi-engine aircraft – greater than 50 miles.
Note 1: For the purposes of this paragraph ‘land’ shall mean land suitable
for an emergency landing.
Note 2: Except as specified in 5.1.2 below, the provisions of this paragraph
need not apply to land aircraft departing from or landing at an
aerodrome in accordance with a normal navigational procedure for
departing from or landing at that aerodrome.
Where required by 5.1.1 or 5.1.2, a life jacket or individual flotation device shall
be stowed at or immediately adjacent to each seat. In addition, sufficient
additional life jackets or individual flotation devices shall be carried in easily
accessible positions for use by infants or children for whom a life jacket or
individual flotation device is not available at or adjacent to their seated position.
Life jackets shall be so stowed in the aircraft that one life jacket is readily accessible
to each occupant and, in the case of passengers, within easy reach of their seats.
Where life jackets are required to be carried in accordance with sub-paragraph
5.1.1(a) each occupant shall wear a life jacket during flight over water.
However, occupants of aeroplanes need not wear life jackets during flight
above 2000 feet above the water.
Where life jackets are required to be carried in accordance with paragraph
5.1.4 each occupant of a single engine aircraft shall wear a life jacket during
flight over water when the aircraft is operated beyond gliding distance from
land or water, as appropriate, suitable for an emergency landing. However,
occupants need not wear life jackets when the aircraft is taking-off or landing
at an aerodrome in accordance with a normal navigational procedure for
departing from or arriving at that aerodrome, and occupants of aeroplanes
need not wear life jackets during flight above 2000 feet above the water.

2 – flights over water

 safety equipment 153

LIFE RAFTS (CAO 20.11)

An aircraft that is flown over water at a distance from land greater than the
permitted distance, (a distance equal to 30 minutes at normal cruising speed,
or 100 miles, whichever is the less) must carry, as part of its emergency and
lifesaving equipment, sufficient life rafts to provide a place in a life raft for
each person on board the aircraft.
Life rafts shall be in addition to the life jackets that are required for the flight. Life
rafts carried in accordance with this section shall be stowed so as to be readily
accessible in the event of a ditching without appreciable time for preparatory
procedures. When life rafts are stowed in compartments or containers, such
compartments or containers shall be appropriately and conspicuously marked.
Life rafts shall comply with the standards specified in CAO 103.15.

SIGNALLING EQUIPMENT (CAO 20.11)

Aircraft or flights where the carriage of life rafts is required by CAO 20.11,
or on such other overwater flights as the Authority specifies, shall carry
approved types of the following signalling equipment:
• o
 ne survival radio beacon when one life raft is carried and at least two beacons
when more than one raft is carried. The beacons shall operate on frequencies
of 121.5 MHz and 243 MHz, shall meet the standards specified in CAO 103.40
and shall be stowed so as to facilitate their ready use in an emergency; and
• a supply of pyrotechnic distress signals.
Single engine aircraft on flights over water, which are not equipped with radio
communication equipment or are not capable of continuous air – ground
communication and which are not required to carry a life raft, shall be required
to carry a survival radio beacon. The beacon shall operate on frequencies of
121.5 MHz and 243 MHz, shall meet the standards specified in CAO 103.40
and shall be stowed so as to facilitate its ready use in an emergency.

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT(CAO 20.11)

An aircraft shall carry survival equipment for sustaining life appropriate to the
area being overflown on the following flights:
• where the carriage of life rafts are required; and
• d
 uring operations within or through the remote areas specified by the
remote area maps; and
• on such other flights as may be directed by the Authority.

2 – flights over water

 d e si g n at e d r e m o t e ar e as
154
maps
DARWIN
KATHERINE
DALY WATERS
CAIRNS
TENANT CREEK TOWNSVILLE
TALGARNO
MT ISA

ALICE SPRINGS

BRISBANE
WILUNA
LAVERTON BOURKE
KALGOORLIE LEIGH CREEK
PERTH SYDNEY
ADELAIDE

MELBOURNE

DESIGNATED REMOTE AREAS

NOTE 1 - Flight through corridors shall be made within sight of the highway
concerned but in no case more than five miles therefrom.
NOTE 2 - Australian administered islands adjacent to the remote Area between
Talgarno and Cairns are part of the Designated Remote Area.
NOTE 3 - Mainland within 50NM of Darwin excluded from Designated Remote
Area.

2 – designated remote areas

 maps 155

CANBERRA
MT FRANKLIN THARWA

ALBURY
KHANCOBAN
BERRIDALE
EA
BENALLA AR
E
OT
R EM
D
TE DELEGATE
JAMIESON NA
S IG
DE
MELBOURNE

MT BAW BAW

WEST POINT

DEVONPORT
BLACK LAUNCESTON
BLUFF
DE

15NM
SIG
ATN
ED
REM
O
TE
ARE

HOBART
A

15NM
CAPE BRUNY

2 – designated remote areas

156
maps
REMOTE AREAS (CAO 20.11)
Aircraft operating within or through the remote areas designated in the
above maps shall carry an approved type of one of the following signalling
equipment:
• H
 F radio communication such that continuous communication can be
maintained throughout all phases of flight;
• a survival radio beacon stowed so as to facilitate its ready use in an
emergency and having its stowage position appropriately placarded. The
beacon shall operate on a frequency of 121.5 MHz and meet the standards
in CAO part 103 section 103.40 or section 103.41;
• a crash locator beacon which meets the standards set out in CAO 103.42;
• a n emergency locator transmitter identified as complying with the
requirements of FAA TSO-C91 for Automatic Fixed (ELT(AF)) or
Automatic Deployable (ELT(AD)) type equipment and meeting additional
requirements specified in CAO section 103.43.

2 – designated remote areas

 sa f e t y p r e c a u ti o n s

passengers 157

BRIEFING OF PASSENGERS (CAO 20.11)

The operator of an aircraft shall ensure that all passengers are orally briefed
before each take-off on:
• smoking, including the prohibition of smoking in toilets;
• the use and adjustment of seat belts;
• the location of emergency exits;
• the use of oxygen where applicable;
• stowage of hand luggage; and
• the presence on board of special survival equipment where applicable.
A typical passenger briefing on a private flight could go something like this:

 The law requires that you refrain from smoking on the tarmac and in
“
the terminal as well as during take-off, landing, and refuelling.
Your seatbelts are similar to your car’s and I would ask you to keep
them fastened comfortably during take-off, landing and any other
time I feel it is necessary for your safety.
The exits operate like this… and will only be opened on the ground.
Please stow your hand luggage under the seat or I can secure it in
the baggage compartment.
If you feel uncomfortable in any way, please let me know and I’ll do
everything I can to improve the situation.”
Passenger briefings such as this can instill confidence in your passengers and
start the flight off well.
The operator of an aircraft shall ensure that a handicapped person, and the
person assisting the handicapped person, if any, is given individual briefing
appropriate to the needs of that person in the procedures to be followed in the
event of emergency evacuation of the aircraft. The briefing should include which
emergency exit to use and when to move to the exit. The person giving the
briefing should also enquire as to the most appropriate manner of assisting the
handicapped person so as to prevent pain or injury to that person.

2 – safety precautions
158
pre-flight
REMOVAL OF LOCKING AND SAFETY DEVICES (CAO 20.2)
Prior to take-off, the pilot in command of an aircraft shall ensure that all
control surface locks, undercarriage pins and locks, and any other devices
used for restricting movement or preventing operation of any part of an
aircraft or its equipment when not in flight or taxi-ing are removed.
Where external control surface locks, undercarriage pins and locks, or other
external locking or restricting devices have been fitted, they shall, except
where otherwise approved by CASA, be removed prior to commencement
of taxi-ing for the purpose of taking off. They shall be removed only by the
pilot in command or the co-pilot, or by a person instructed in this function
and authorised to perform it by the owner, hirer, operator or pilot in
command.
Where external control surface locks, undercarriage pins and locks, or other
external locking or restricting devices are removed by a person other than
the pilot in command or co-pilot:
• removal shall only be effected as directed by the pilot in command.
• t he locks, pins and other external devices shall be exhibited to the pilot
in command from a position which will enable him to readily determine
that all pins, locks and devices are being displayed.
• d
 uring the hours of darkness the owner, hirer, operator or pilot in
command shall ensure that adequate lighting is provided to enable the
pilot in command to see the articles displayed.
• w
 hen the pilot in command is satisfied that all locking devices have
been removed and displayed he or she shall give an agreed form of
acknowledgement to the person effecting removal.
When an aircraft has been parked, taxied or towed in winds exceeding
35 knots and the control systems and surfaces have not been effectively
restrained either by a person in the cockpit or by approved control surface
gust locks, the pilot in command or an appropriately licensed maintenance
engineer shall, before flight, inspect the control systems and control surface
attachments for damage.
Where external control surface locks or restricting devices have been
removed or where an aircraft is to be flown for the first time following
maintenance work involving the aircraft’s control surfaces or control surface
systems, the pilot in command shall, immediately before taxi-ing for the
purpose of taking off, test the flight controls to the full limit of their travel

2 – safety precautions
 pre-flight 159

and make such other tests as are necessary to ensure that those controls
are functioning correctly.
Note: Civil Aviation Regulation 244 (1)(a) requires that immediately before
taking-off on any flight, the pilot in command of an aircraft shall test
the flight controls on the ground to the full limit of their travel and
make such other tests as are necessary to ensure that those controls
are functioning correctly.

SECURITY OF DOORS AND HATCHES (CAO 20.2)

Immediately before taxi-ing for the purpose of taking off on any flight, the pilot
in command shall ensure that all doors, escape hatches and loading hatches
are properly secured.

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE SOLO FLIGHT IN AIRCRAFT FITTED WITH DUAL

CONTROLS (CAO 20.2)
The pilot in command of an aircraft fitted with dual controls, which is to
be flown solo, shall ensure that safety harness and any other articles or
equipment which may foul the controls are safely secured; if the second
control column is readily detachable, it shall be removed.

FUEL SYSTEM INSPECTION (CAO 20.2)

The operator and pilot in command shall ensure that the following inspections
and tests for the presence of water in the fuel system of the aircraft are made:
• either:
- if the aircraft manufacturer’s data specifies the manner in which
inspections and tests for the presence of water in the aircraft’s
fuel system are to be made and the data has been approved under
regulation 42M as part of the aircraft’s system of maintenance an
inspection and test in accordance with the approved data; or
- in any other case, before the start of each day’s flying, and after each
refuelling, with the aircraft standing on a reasonably level surface, drain
a small quantity of fuel from each fuel tank into a clear transparent
container and check by an approved method for the presence of water.

2 – safety precautions
160
pre-flight
• o
 n such aircraft types which may be specified by CASA, extend the
foregoing inspection to fuel system filters and collector boxes. It is
recommended that all aircraft fuel system filters and collector boxes be
checked for water contamination at frequent intervals.
Note: It is important that checks for water contamination of fuel drainage
samples be positive in nature and do not rely solely on sensory
perceptions of colour and smell, both of which can be highly deceptive.
The following methods are acceptable:
• p
 lace a small quantity of fuel into the container before taking samples
from tank or filter drain points. The presence of water will then be
revealed by a visible surface of demarcation between the two fluids in the
container.
• c heck the drainage samples by chemical means such as water detecting
paper or paste, where a change in colour of the detecting medium will
give clear indication of the presence of water.
• in the case of turbine fuel samples, tests should also include inspection
for persistent cloudiness or other evidence of the presence of suspended
water droplets, which will not necessarily be detected by methods
mentioned in notes 1 and 2. Should any doubt exist of the suitability of the
fuel, the checks specified in the aircraft Operators Maintenance Manual
should be followed. It is advisable to allow turbine fuel a reasonable period
of stagnation before drawing test samples from fuel drain points; this
allows settling of suspended water which is a slower process in turbine
fuel than in aviation gasoline.
The paragraph above does not apply to helicopters that are being hot refuelled
in accordance with section 20.10.
If, at any time, a significant quantity of water is found to be present in an
aircraft fuel system, the operator and pilot in command shall ensure that all
traces of it are removed from the fuel system, including the fuel filters, before
further flight.

2 – safety precautions
 pre-flight 161

Note: In eliminating water from an aircraft fuel system, it is important that
consideration be given to the possibility of water lying in portions of
the tanks or fuel lines where, because of the design of the system or
the existing attitude of the aircraft, it is not immediately accessible to a
drain point.
The operator and pilot in command shall ensure that, before the
commencement of each day’s flying, all external fuel tank vents are inspected
for freedom from obstruction.

daily inspection
An inspection (called a daily inspection) must be carried out on the aircraft
before the aircraft’s first flight on each day on which the aircraft is flown.
A daily inspection must consist of the making of such of the checks set out in the
aircraft flight manual (AFM) or the following table as applicable to the aircraft.

TABLE OF CHECKS INCLUDED IN A DAILY INSPECTION

• c heck that the ignition switches are off, the mixture control is lean or cut
off, the throttle is closed and the fuel selector is on.
• c heck that the propeller blades are free from cracks, bends and
detrimental nicks, that the propeller spinner is secure and free from
cracks, that there is no evidence of oil or grease leakage from the
propeller hub or actuating cylinder and that the propeller hub, where
visible, has no evidence of any defect which would prevent safe operation.
• c heck that the induction system and all cooling air inlets are free from
obstruction.
• c heck that the engine, where visible, has no fuel or oil leaks and that the
exhaust system is secure and free from cracks.
• c heck that the oil quantity is within the limits specified by the
manufacturer for safe operation and that the oil filler cap, dipstick and
inspection panels are secure.

2 – safety precautions
162
daily inspection
• check that the engine cowlings and cowl flaps are secure.
• c heck that the landing gear tyres are free from cuts or other damage, have
no plies exposed and, by visual inspection, are adequately inflated.
• c heck that the landing gear oleo extensions are within normal static limits
and that the landing gear doors are secure.
• c heck that the wing and fuselage surfaces are free from damage and that
the inspection panels, flight control surfaces and flight control devices are
secure.
• c heck that the interplane and centre section struts are free from damage
and that the bracing wires are of the correct tension.
• c heck that the pitot heads and static ports are free from obstruction and
that the pitot cover is removed or is free to operate.
• c heck that the fuel tank filler caps, chains, vents and associated access
panels are secure and free from damage.
• c heck that the empennage surfaces are free from damage and that the
control surfaces control cables and control rods, where visible, are secure.
• c heck that the canard surfaces are free from damage and that the control
surfaces, control cables and control rods, where visible, are secure.
• c heck that the flight controls, the trim systems and the high lift devices
operable from the ground has full and free movement in the correct sense.
• c heck that the radios and antennae are secure and that where visible, radio
units and interwiring are secure.
• check that the drain holes are free from obstruction.
• c heck that there is no snow, frost or ice on the wings, tail surfaces, canards,
propeller or windscreen.
• c heck that each tank sump and fuel filter is free from water and foreign
matter by draining a suitable quantity of fuel into a clean transparent
container.
• check that the windscreen is clean and free from damage.
• check that the instruments are free from damage, legible and secure.
• c heck that the seat belts, buckles and inertia reels are free from damage,
secure and functioning correctly.

2 – safety precautions
 daily inspection 163

ADDITIONAL ITEMS FOR AGRICULTURAL AEROPLANES

• check that the agricultural equipment is secure.
• c heck that the dump and fan brake mechanisms are free from obstructions
and operate correctly.

ADDITIONAL ITEMS FOR SEAPLANES

• c heck that the hull and floats are free from damage, corrosion and water
accumulation.
• c heck that the float attachment struts, bracing wires and attachment
fittings are secure and free from damage and corrosion.
• c heck that the water rudder and its attachments are secure and free from
damage and corrosion and that the water rudder has full, free and correct travel.

ELT
ELT REQUIREMENTS (CAR 252A)
Before undertaking a flight at a greater distance than 50NM radius from
the aerodrome of departure, you must carry a serviceable ELT. If the ELT is
installed on the aircraft It must be armed before flight. If it is a portable ELT it
must be carried in a readily accessible place.
Exceptions to this requirement are:
• flights wholly within 50NM of the aerodrome of departure.
• an aerial agriculture flight
• where CASA have issued an approval (CAR 134 (1))
• t he flight is for the purpose of moving the aircraft to a place where an ELT
is to be installed, repaired or overhauled.
• t he ELT fitted to the aircraft has been removed for inspection, repair,
modification or replacement provided that
- an entry has been made in the aircraft’s log book stating the ELT make,
model and serial number together with the date it was removed and
the reason for doing so and

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ELT
- a placard stating “ELT not installed or carried” has been placed in a
position visible to the pilot and
- not more that 90 days have passed since the ELT was removed.

MONITORING OF 121.5MHZ
Pilots should monitor 121.5MHZ before engine start and after shut down (AIP
GEN 1.5 para. 3). Reception of an ELT transmission must be reported to ATS
immediately.
Transmissions from early style superseded marine style ELTs may be
identified by breaks on the modulating tone.

CHECKING ELTs
Test transmissions from ELTs should be limited to 5 seconds and it is
preferred that such tests be conducted within the first five minutes of the
hour. Before conducting operational tests operators must notify AusSAR.
If your ELT has been inadvertently activated for more than 10 seconds you
should contact AusSAR at 1800 815 257.
Activation of the test switch results in a transmission which is detected by
COSPASSARSAT satellites and by other aircraft.

ELT FREQUENCIES
In addition to 121.5MHZ, current ELTs may also radiate on frequencies of
243MHZ and 406MHZ. (Prospective purchasers of ELTs should note that from
January 2009 the satellites will not detect 121.5 MHZ and new requirements
will apply).

EMERGENCY USE OF ELTs

Information on the emergency use of ELTs is contained in section 4 of this
guide and in ERSA at EMERG-6

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notification general 165

NOTIFICATION - GENERAL (AIP ENR 1.10)

Pilots of VFR flights nominating a SARTIME to ATS, and those intending to
operate in controlled airspace (except for VFR flights in Class E airspace and in
GAAP CTRs) must submit flight details to ATS.
The preferred methods for pilots to submit comprehensive flight notification are:
• via pilot access to NAIPS
• in writing via AVFAX
• by telephone
• by radio to Flight Watch..
Pilots submitting SARTIME flight notifications by facsimile must confirm
receipt of the notification with the briefing office. Further, Airservices strongly
recommends that when any flight notification is submitted by facsimile, the
pilot or operator telephones the briefing office before departure to confirm
that the facsimile has been received.
Abbreviated details for operations in controlled airspace may be advised by radio
if the flight is to operate locally, or operations will be for a brief duration. However,
prior contact with ATC may avoid delays. Pilots may submit details by radio to ATS
when associated with a clearance request, or to nominate a SARTIME.
When submitting flight notification by radio, pilots should be mindful of the
need to minimise frequency congestion and transmit only that information
required by the ATS for the current flight stage. Acceptance is subject to ATS
workload and may be delayed.
Submission of comprehensive travel flight notification by radio is not a
preferred method of notification and should not be used when submission
by some other means is available. Flight notification by radio for travel flights
requiring the submission of comprehensive details will not be accepted at
controlled aerodromes.
Pilots of VFR flights wishing to operate in other than classes C or D airspace
and who wish to nominate a SARTIME, must submit details in the NAIPS
domestic flight notification (pilot access) format. If submitting the flight
notification by facsimile or via telephone, the only form available is the
Australian Domestic Flight Notification form.
VFR flights in the following categories are required to submit a SARTIME
flight notification to ATS, or, as an alternative, to leave a Flight Note with a
responsible person;

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notification general
• RPT and CHTR flights;
• over-water flights;
• flights in Designated Remote Areas;
• fl
 ights at night proceeding beyond 120NM from the aerodrome of
departure.
VFR flights which are required to or wish to use a SARTIME may do so by
providing ATS with the following details:
• callsign
• aircraft type
• departure point
• route to be flown
• destination
• POB and
• SARTIME
Note: only one SARTIME may be current at any time. To prevent the existence
of multiple SARTIMEs for aircraft used by more than one pilot, SARTIMES
should be nominated immediately before the start of each flight.
VFR flights may operate on reporting schedules in the following
circumstances:
• mercy flights
• flood, fire or famine relief flights
• search and rescue flights, and
• military flights.
When the pilot of a flight wishes to indicate a variation of SAR requirements,
this must be indicated in Item 8 - Flight Rules, amplified in Item 15 (Route) by
the position at which the change will occur, followed by the new Flight Rules.
Submission of flight details at least 30 minutes before ETD is
recommended.
Where notification of flight details, or changes to details, are submitted less
than 30 minutes before ETD, delays will be encountered when an ATC radar
unit requires that the data be programmed into the computerised SSR Code/
Callsign Management System.

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 notification general 167

Pilots may cancel a SARTIME via:

• Flightwatch on a FIS VHF outlet as shown in ERSA, or on HF, or
• relay through another pilot, or
• telephone to CENSAR on 1800 814 931, or
• Flight Service or ATC when telephone facilities are not available.
SARTIMEs are managed on a national basis by the central SARTIME
management database, CENSAR.
The following table identifies flight notification options for the various classes
and types of operations when flying IFR or VFR:

If advising ATS of a change of aircraft ident and/or registration, pilot of SARTIME

flights must also advise, prior to take-off, that the flight is subject to a SARTIME.
To assist in managing the airways system, pilots should always warn
ATS of any flight notification amendments by utilising appropriate alerting
phraseologies: eg
“MELBOURNE CENTRE, DELTA MIKE GOLF, IFR FLIGHT PLAN AMENDMENT”
or
“FLIGHTWATCH, DELTA MIKE GOLF, SARTIME FLIGHT PLAN AMENDMENT”

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briefing services
The briefing & notification options, in order of preference are:
NAIPS direct dial pilot access
phone 019 8304 767; user software is required; software available from
Airservices web site or by purchasing a CD-ROM from Airservices
Publications Centre; NAIPS also has flight notification facilities in either the
Domestic Flight Notification Form (for controlled airspace) or the simpler
SARTIME notification.

NAIPS from Airservices’ web site

[Link]; click on “Pilot Centre” then “Pilot Briefing”.
The user interface is different to the direct-dial NAIPS. NAIPS from the web
site also has the flight notification facilities.

AVFAX
fax 1800 805 150; A self-help system delivering MET and NOTAM information,
including charts to a nominated fax number in response to a tone generated
telephone request. Charges apply via Phone Away card; registration is via the
help desk AVFAX also accepts hard copy Flight Notification.

DECTALK
Phone 1800 805 150; it is a self-help system that delivers MET information
on the telephone using a computer generated voice, in response to a
tonegenerated telephone request. Charges apply via your Phone Away card;
No registration is required. No flight notification facility is available.

BRIEFING OFFICER
Phone 1800 805 150 and wait for operator. This is a verbal briefing but
longdistance call charges apply.

FLIGHTWATCH
Available from Area FLIGHTWATCH FREQ.; primarily intended for in-flight
updates. A 24 hour national help desk is available on 1800 801 960. A Phone
Away card is purchased from Airservices Publications centre or from pilot
shops.

WEATHER BRIEFINGS
forecasts, weather radar images, synoptic charts and other useful information
is available direct from the BoM web site at [Link]; For aviation a
user ID of : bomw0007 and a password: “aviation” have been provided.

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The National Aeronautical Information Processing System (NAIPS) is a

multifunction, computerised, internet-based aeronautical information system. It
provides pre-flight briefing information and a means of lodging flight notification.
NAIPS is accessed by
• direct dialling from a PC
• accessing via the internet
In both cases a username and password are required as described below.
Both forms of access provide the same features and format.

PRE-FLIGHT BRIEFING REQUIREMENTS

Remember that forecast and NOTAMS are mandatory for flights away from
the vicinity of an aerodrome (CAR 239) and, for VFR, an alternate must be
provided for flights more than 50 NM from point of departure when forecast
is below alternate minimum of 1500 FT ceiling and 8KM (AIP ENR 1.1 para.
73.2.13).

NAIPS ACCESS
ACCESS BY DIRECT DIALLING FROM A PC
This requires the NAIPS for Windows software to be installed on your
computer. It can be downloaded from [Link] (and click
on pilot briefing) or it is available from Airservices on CD (call 1300 306 630).
When the NAIPS for Windows software is installed on your PC it is accessed
by direct dial to 0198 304 767 or via the internet.
You need a user name and password; this will be issued immediately at the
prompt.

YOUR USER NAME

YOUR PASSWORD

The help desk number 1800 801 960

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NAIPS
ACCESS VIA THE INTERNET
Internet access to NAIPS does not require the NAIPS software to be installed
on your PC so it can be accessed from internet cafes etc.
The address is [Link] [/brief/[Link]] (note: this
supersedes their previous address [Link]). You still require
the username and password as described above.
The NAIPS for Windows software also allows for internet access.
The internet version allows you to copy and paste sections of the briefing into
a compact document for in-flight use.

NAIPS PRE-FLIGHT INFORMATION

Pre-flight briefing and briefing update included by:
• u
 se of stored personal flight files, Airservices’ stored routes for tailored
standard briefings;
• b
 riefing by location: weather and NOTAM based on locations nominated by
the pilot
• briefing by area: based on the forecast areas;
• b
 riefing by route (SPFIB): weather and NOTAM based on departure,
destination and en-route locations. Briefing material is filtered by:
- time (based on ETD and time period)
- height (“low” is below 10,000 FT) and
- wake turbulence category (“low” applies to aircraft of
7,000 KG MTOW or less).
• updates of pre-flight briefings (AVFAX and SPFIB briefings only);
• display of original briefings;
• a rea forecasts, Area QNH, METAR/SPECI, TAF, SIGMET, AIRMET, CHARTS
and ATIS;
• first and last light calculations;
• GPS RAIM predictions;
• location-specific NOTAMS;
• FIR and sub-FIR NOTAMS;
• head Office NOTAMS;
• UTC time check;
Note that SPFIB = Specific Pre-Flight Information Bulletin.

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 NAIPS 171

BRIEFING ON INDIVIDUAL LOCATIONS

This enables the user to obtain Met and Notam information for single
nominated locations.
1. Enter the aircraft ID or flight number
2. Tick either MET or NOTAM depending on what products are required
3. Tick Head office NOTAM or SIGMET if they are required
4. Enter validity time of briefing from 0 to 240 hours (default is 24 hours) only
data current within this time will be presented.
5. Enter up to 10 locations in the spaces provided
6. To get an area forecast enter the number of the forecast only
7. To get FIR NOTAM, enter the area forecast area with the prefix 7 and
ending in a zero
8. To get Restricted area Notams enter the restricted area number in full, if it
is part of an airspace group enter the group designator (R623A or AMX )

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NAIPS
9. Individual locations can be entered in the following formats:
Full name (BRISBANE),
ICAO four letter designator (YBBN),
Navaid identifier (BN)
10. The briefing request can be saved by clicking on the “SAVE” icon
11. Use location search to find location codes if not known

BRIEFING BY AREA’S

This enables the user to obtain Met and Notam briefings for nominated
briefing areas based on the area forecast areas.
A 9 series, four digit number must be entered, this number consists of
• the number 9

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 NAIPS 173

• the area forecast area for which the briefing is required

• the number 0
1. Enter the aircraft ID or flight number
2. Met and Notams can be selected depending on what products are
required for up to 5 areas
3. Tick head office NOTAM if required
4. Enter validity time of briefing from 1 to 240 hours (default is 24 hours) only
data current within this time will be presented.
5. An Area directory and map is available to help with selection of the area
and code

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NAIPS
BRIEFING BY ROUTE

The SPFIB enables Met and Notam information relevant to the departure,
destination and enroute locations to be retrieved. Wind and temperature
information relevant to the route will also be available if flying above F110.
• a maximum of 10 stages can be created

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 NAIPS 175

• the SPFIB form can be saved onto your computer

• a SPFIB saved in NAIPS as a flight file can be activated via the icon
• a ccess to the routes stored in NAIPS is available via the Route Directory,
use of the stored routes guarantees a complete briefing will be provided
• t he SPFIB will be valid for a nominated time (1 to 240 hours) and a briefing
reference number will be allocated to each briefing to enable updates to
be obtained at a later time.
• N
 otams are presented as a 1 line summary if more than 7 days old, full
text can be obtained if required
• fi
 lters are applied to SPFIB Time, height, wake turbulence, these can affect
the amount of data that is received

NAIPS FLIGHT NOTIFICATION

You can lodge the full Domestic ICAO Flight Notification or the much simpler
SARTIME notification.
• t he DOMESTIC/ICAO notification is required for flights into controlled
airspace except GAAP.
• the SARTIME notification may be used for OCTA flights.
The NAIPS printed flight notification format is not suitable for use in flight so a
separate flight plan and flight log is required for this purpose.
You can use
• data generated from the pre-flight briefing (SPFIB) via the website only;
• stored flight files or Airservices’ stored routes or you can store your own;
It is necessary to follow the required format otherwise the plan will be
rejected by the system;
All light blue fields are mandatory;
For training purposes you can lodge practice notifications under IDENT NOSEND;
Some notable requirements are:
• speed in knots is entered Nxxxx i.e. 105 knots is N0105;
• e
 ndurance and estimated elapsed time (EET) are in hours and minutes
(hhmm) so 300 minutes is 0500 (note: unfortunately this is contrary to the
common practice on flight plans and flight logs used in navigation where
times are kept in minutes).

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NAIPS
• a ircraft types are international designations i.e. a Warrior is a P28A (listed
on Airservices website and in NAIPS).
• r oute: use DCT for “direct” (this limits information to departure and
destination aerodromes) or list significant points along route.
• p
 erformance category is based on an aircraft’s speed at threshold (VAT);
Category A is up to 90 KIAS and categ ory B 120 KIAS; (AIP ENR1.[Link])
• N
 AIPS will not let you nominate multiple SARTIMEs for multistage
flights so either use “TBA” for the later stages and activate them via
FLIGHTWATCH or nominate a SARTIME only for the final stage.
A flight notification form is accessed via the NAIPS briefing menu.
Neither of the NAIPS formats are intended for use in flight. A flight plan
form is required for this purpose Since the SARTIME format may not
contain sufficient detail for search and rescue purposes, a flight note with
a responsible person plus a SARTIME notification provides the maximum
protection possible provided that the flight note details are available to AusSar.
One way to ensure this is to add these details to the RMK/: section such as :
“Flight note with Bunyip Aero Club (03) 9739 1406”.
AusSAR contact details are: tel 1-800-815 257
fax 1-800-622 153
The following details are applicable to typical light GA aircraft under VFR. More
extensive details can be found at [Link]/brief/[Link].

2 – briefing and notification

 NAIPS 177

NAIPS SARTIME FLIGHT NOTIFICATION

The SARTIME form of flight notification is the simpler alternative and only
requires basic information but it can only be used for operations wholly
outside controlled airspace (OCTA) or for GAAP.

SARTIME FLIGHT NOTIFICATION

A 2 legs with a Sartime for each leg

B Route details (not mandatory)

C Sartime for arrival YMCF (first leg)

D Indicating a Sartime is required for the second leg

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NAIPS

2 – briefing and notification

 NAIPS 179

NAIPS DOMESTIC/ICAO FLIGHT NOTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

The following is the full flight notification which is required for flights in
controlled airspace.

FLIGHT NOTIFICATION SUBMISSION

A VFR flight tracking via published routes.

B Aircraft is equipped with an approved GPS, requires Z in Nav/Com

equipment and GPSRNAV in field 18 NAV/

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NAIPS

A VFR flight notification, note the Bearing and distance and latitude/longitude
in the significant points section of the route:
A Bearing and distance is Location followed by 6 figures DDDMMM

B Latitude/longitude can be either 7 (eg. 23S1413E)

or 11 characters (eg. 2330S14320E)

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 NAIPS 181

A training flight with airwork being conducted at Coolangatta for 30 minutes

A This is indicated by DLA/CG0030 (delay GG for 30 mins) this is the location
or area that the aircraft will be operating for a specified time.

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NAIPS

VFR flight to a location that does not have a valid code.

A ZZZ is used as the destination code and expanded in field 18 DEST/

B Real place name in field 18 RMK/

C The latitude and longitude of the destination in the format DDMMS

DDDMME

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184
NAIPS

2 – briefing and notification

 NAIPS 185

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186
NAIPS

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 NAIPS 187

COMMON AIRCRAFT TYPE DESIGNATORS (ICAO) FOR NAIPS

Auster Grumman
J-1 J1 Trainer AA1
J-5 Autocar ACAR Traveller AA5
Luscombe 8 L8
Beagle
Pup PUP Mooney
Airedale AIRD Mark 20 M20
Mark 21 M21
Beechcraft Mark 22 M22
Baron 55 BE55 201 M201**
Baron 58 BE58 231 MO2K
Bonanza 33 BE33
Bonanza V tail BE35 Partenavia P68 PN68
Bonanza 36 BE36
Musketeer BE23 Piper
Sundowner BE23 J2 Cub J2
J3 Cub J3
Bellancia Citabria CH10 Colt PA22
Tripacer PA20
Cessna Super Cub PA18
150 C150 Tomahawk PA38
152 C152 Cherokee P28A
172/RG C172 Archer P28A
Cardinal C177 Cherokee 235 P28B
182/RG C182 Arrow P28R
205 C205 Cherokee 6 PA32
210 C210 Comanche PA24
310 C310 Twin ComanchePA30
337 C337 Apache PA23
Piper Aztec PA23
de Havilland Seneca PA34
DH60 Moth DH60 Seminole PA44
Tiger Moth DH82
Chipmunk DHC1

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internet briefings
MET and NOTAM briefings are available via the Internet, similar to AVFAX, for
areas and locations. This service is available via the Airservices’ home page:
[Link]
When prompted, apply for a user name and password which will be issued
immediately.

YOUR USER ID

YOUR PASSWORD

Information available via the Internet includes:

• location specific NOTAM;
• FIR and sub-FIR NOTAM;
• head Office NOTAM;
• area forecasts, Area QNH, METAR/SPECI, TAF, SIGMET, AIRMET and ATIS.

FLIGHT INFORMATION OFFICES

Briefing staff provide a flight notification acceptance service and NOTAM,
meteorological and other briefing information by telephone and facsimile in
response to requests for specific information. Long distance call charges apply.
Telephone: 1800 805 150

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 AVFAX 189

AVFAX
Fax number 1800 805 150;
Touch tone is used for requesting data which is then faxed back.
Full details of codes and designators are published in ERSA at GEN.
A phone away card is required.
Each briefing contains a reference number to facilitate updating. Registration
is via the help desk on (07) 3866 3573 or fax (07) 3866 3685.
A fast access mode is provided which is suited to auto-dialling.
Five digit product codes are used to request the required material. The first
digit is the Product Type Prefix in accordance with the following:
0 used only with a custom code (a code registered by the user which
allows up to 41 products by using one code)
1 meteorological information. For use with location or group.
2 NOTAM information only for a single location or group. Only a one-line
summary will be received for NOTAMS over seven days old.
3 en route NOTAM for overflying aircraft.
4 meteorological and NOTAM information for single location only.
5 NOTAM with full text regardless of age for single location only.
6 meteorological and NOTAM information for use with group only.
7 GPS RAIM
8 charts pictorial information and special products
9 NOTAM selected by text and number – full text will be provided.
The following four digits are the product code.
Example: 16500 is the code for Forecast Area 65.
Group codes are denote information areas coincident with ARFOR areas.
The complete code list is in ERSA GEN.

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DECTALK
Phone 1800 805 150 and when prompted, key in the access code : 1111.
The codes are listed in ERSA GEN.
Registration is not required for DECTALK and charges are made via your
Phone Away card.

domestic flight notification form

An example of the Australian Domestic Flight Notification form is shown below.
Instructions for completion of the Australian Domestic Flight notification form for
both IFR and VFR flights are contained on the following page. In a number of cases,
particularly in Item 19, completion is recommended as good practice. If mandatory
Items are left incomplete, delays may occur.
Books of flight notification forms are available from the Airservices Publications
Centre at a charge. For flights not operating along an ATS route, estimated elapsed
times should be provided for locations approximately 30 minutes or 200NM apart.
If a common name is entered into NAIPS in lieu of aerodrome abbreviation or
navigational aid/waypoint, the flight notification output will assume that the aircraft
is tracking over a navigational aid/waypoint and not the aerodrome; eg, the location
HOLBROOK will translate to HBK, not YHBK.
Pilots entering details in terms of latitude and longitude or by the use of bearing and
distance must adhere to the correct format. Location abbreviations should be the
published in AIP abbreviations.
In instances where NAVAID training is required, but diversion to an alternate
aerodrome for that training is likely, and when procedures at the alternative location
require the submission of flight notification, the pilot will be required to provide
details of both locations in Item 15 (Route), expanded in Item 18(a). For example,
for an aircraft requiring PILS at either Sydney, or alternatively Richmond:
DCT BK PEC MQD SY RIC BK DCT
Item 18(a) will show SY PILS or RIC PILS. Pilots not formally required to submit
flight notification, or leave a flight note as defined in the preceding paragraph,
are nevertheless encouraged to leave a flight note as shown on page 191.
Pilots of VFR flights must include POB when submitting flight notification
or when leaving a flight note and are encouraged to notify ATS of any
subsequent changes.

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domestic flight notification form 191

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192
domestic flight notification form
APPENDIX 3
ATS FLIGHT NOTIFICATION - USER GUIDE
ITEM 7 - AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION
Enter Aircraft registration/flight number. ZZZZ and TBA cannot
beaccepted.
Requirements For VH registered aircraft, enter the three letters after the
prefix only, eg for VH-ZFR enter ZFR.
For flight numbers, and other approved callsigns, enter a
mixture of figured and letters that do not exceed seven
characters; eg QF 611.
One callsign per flight notification.
ITEM 8 - FLIGHT RULES
Circle I for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)
V for Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
Y for IFR then VFR
Z for VFR then IFR
Requirements If Y or Z is circled, an entry in Item 15 must specify where
the change of flight rules will occur; eg YBAF VFR.
Type of flight
Circle S for scheduled air service
N for non- scheduled air service
G for general aviation
M for military
ITEM 9 - NUMBER OF AIRCRAFT
Enter Number of aircraft where there are more than one,
otherwise leave blank.
Type
Enter Aircraft type. Where more than one aircraft type is included
in a formation, enter the type of the lowest performance
aircraft. Additional details regarding the formation must be
inserted at Item 18.

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 domestic flight notification form 193

Requirements Use the two or four letter ICAO approved aircraft type
abbreviations.
For aircraft type abbreviations not approved by ICAO, enter ZZZZ and
specify the type of aircraft in Item 18 (b) preceded by TYP/
Wake Turbulence Category
Circle H for aircraft 136,000 KG or more
M for aircraft between 7,000 and 136,000KG
L for aircraft 7,000KG or less
ITEM 10 - EQUIPMENT
Circle the equipment carried by the aircraft that the pilot is qualified to use:
N for no COM/NAV/Approach Aid equipment for the route to be flown or the
equipment is unserviceable
S for standard COM/NAV/Approach Aid equipment of VHF/ADF/ILS/ VOR
D for DME
F for ADF
G for GNSS (reserved for future use)
H for HF
I for Inertial NAV
J for Data link
L for ILS
O for VOR
R for RNP type certification
T for TACAN
U for UHF
V for VHF
W for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
Z for other equipment
Note: G does NOT mean GPS. If an aircraft is fitted with an approved GPS
receiver, circle Z, and in Item 18(b) insert NAV/GPSRNAV.

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domestic flight notification form
SURVEILLANCE EQUIPMENT
Circle N for Nil
A for Transponder Mode A
C for Transponder Mode C
D for ADS equipped aircraft

ITEM 13 - DEPARTURE AERODROME

ITEM 16 - DESTINATION AERODROME
ALTERNATE AERODROME
Enter Aerodrome abbreviation in four letters.
Requirements Use the four letter authorised abbreviation.
For aerodromes without an authorised abbreviation, enter
ZZZZ. In Item 18(a) write DEP/ (or as applicable “DEST/
ALTN/”) followed by the latitude and longitude of the
aerodrome or bearing and distance from a location with an
authorised abbreviation.
In item 18(a), enter the common name of the alternate
location after RMK/
Note: F
 or bearing and distance, enter the designator of the location followed
by three figures in degrees magnetic followed by three figures in
nautical miles, eg BN270120 is a position 120NM, 270 degrees from
Brisbane.
AFIL AFIL (Flight Notification Filed in the Air) can be used instead
of the departure aerodrome abbreviations when ATS
services are only required for entry to, or to cross controlled
airspace. (Time of Departure become the estimate for the
point where the ATS service is to commence).
TIME OF DEPARTURE
Enter Estimated time of departure (ETD) in four figure UTC, or
the estimate for the point where the ATS service is to
commence (applicable for use with AFIL - as referred to
above in the departure aerodrome section).

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 domestic flight notification form 195

Requirements Provide an ETD for every flight stage.

ETDs of more than 22 hours at the time of notification
cannot be accepted. A change of more than 30 minutes to a
submitted ETD should be advised to ATS.

ITEM 15 - CRUISING SPEED

Enter Enter TAS in knots or enter Mach number.
Requirements  ircle N, then enter zero and three figures for knots; eg,
C
0180. Circle M, then enter zero and two figures for mach
number to the nearest hundredth of a unit; eg, 082.

LEVEL
Enter First planned cruising level.
“A” followed by three figures to indicate altitude in hundreds
of feet up to and including 10,000FT eg A085.
“F” followed by three figures to indicate flight levels above
10,000FT; eg. F350
Requirements Cruising levels must be entered in the required format.

ITEM 15- ROUTE

Enter Details of the planned route, change of level, flight rules and
cruise climb.
Requirements for For an aerodrome, use the authorised abbreviation;
locations / eg YMBL for Marble Bar. For a navaid identifier, use
published two or three letter abbreviation; eg KSC for Kingscote NDB.
waypoints For a latitude and longitude identification, use degrees and
minutes in an eleven character group; eg 2730S15327E.
For a waypoint use assigned designator; eg CANTY.
For bearing and distance, enter the designator of the location
followed by three figures in degrees magnetic followed by
three figures in nautical miles; eg BN270120 is a position
120NM, 270 degrees from Brisbane.
Requirements For ATS route designator, enter published chart designator;

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domestic flight notification form
for route eg, B456, H62.
Route details must start with DCT (direct) to indicate the flight
is planned to track from the departure aerodrome (YSCB for
Canberra), to the first en route point, then from the last en
route point to the destination (YSSY for Sydney); eg DCT CB
SY DCT.
When planning to track direct from the departure aerodrome
to the destination aerodrome, ie without the use of
navigational aids, enter DCT only.
When operating outside a designated ATS route, enter DCT
followed by a significant point; eg DCT PH CKL BIU PH DCT
or DCT 1239S14325E 1300S14335E.
When operating in a designated ATS route, enter the name of
the location where the route is joined followed by the route
designator; eg on a flight departing Ceduna for Griffith via the
route designators J49 and B469 enter DCT CD J149 WHA
B469 in Item 15.
On survey work in a block or airspace, enter DCT followed
by significant points to the survey area, included the point
of commencement of survey, then the point of exit from the
survey area and the significant points to the destination;
eg, DCT BN KCY GAY YGYM MC BN DCT.
When planning to conduct survey work, a map of the survey
area must be provided to ATS with the flight notification.
When planning survey work, write in Item 18(b) the expected
delay (DLA) at the commencement of survey; eg DLA/GAY
0130 indicates a delay at Gayndah for 90 minutes.
Note1: A designated route begins and ends at the navaid
except where the departure or destination is not
serviced by a navaid.
Note 2: P
 ilots should refer to AIP ENR 3.1 para. 2 “Route
Specifications” and AIP ENR 1.1 para. 17 “Navigation
Requirements” when planning a route.

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 domestic flight notification form 197

Requirements Enter the significant point where the change will

for change occur, followed by an oblique stroke, the cruise speed and the
of speed/level level; eg, AY/N0130A080. Both cruise speed and level must be
entered even if only one has changed.
Requirements Enter details of a change to flight rules following the
for change entry in Items 8 of Y or Z.
of flight rules Enter the location where the change will occur followed by a
space and VFR or IFR; eg YBAF VFR.
Can accommodate change in level; eg ROM/N0180A090 IFR.
Requirements for cruise Enter the letter C followed by an
oblique stroke, climb/ block level the point at which the cruise
climb or reservation is reservation planned to start, an oblique
stroke, the speed to be maintained during the cruise climb
or reservation, AND the two levels defining the layer to be
occupied during the cruise climb or block reservation, OR one
level and the word PLUS; eg C/FERET/N0380F370F390, orC/
FERET/N0380F370PLUS
TOTAL EET
Enter Total estimated elapsed time of the flight as four figures in
hours and minutes; eg 0340 and include any aerial work delay
noted as DLA in Item
ITEM 18(A).
Enter Other information relevant to a stage of the flight and
information about navaid training, block surveys and other
plain language remarks of significance.
EET Use EET/ to indicate EETs for flights along designated ATS
routes at compulsory reporting points and for flights outside
designated ATS routes at points approximately 30 minutes
flying time or 200NM apart. Enter EET/ followed by the
designator, the elapsed time in hours and minutes from the
departure point to the significant point, including any DLA
time associated with airwork from the last route segment, a
space, and other point/time groups with a space in between
each one ie; eg EET/BN0035 MLY0100 GAY0204 indicated an
elapsed time to Brisbane of 35 minutes, Maleny 60 minutes
and Gayndah 124 minutes.

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domestic flight notification form
DEP DEP/ when ZZZZ has been entered in Item 13 followed by
latitude and longitude or bearing and distance from a location
with an authorised abbreviation; eg DEP/BN090120
DEST DEST/ when ZZZZ has been entered in Item 13 followed by
latitude and longitude or bearing and distance from a location
with an authorised abbreviation eg, DEST/2730S1527E
ALTN ALTN/ when ZZZZ has been entered in item 13 followed by
lattitude and longitude or bearing and distance from a location
with an approved abbreviation; eg ALTN/2700S15320E.
DLA DLA/ When aerial work will be conducted at a location
followed by the point where the aircraft will be operating,
a space, the estimated time in hours and minutes as a four
figure group eg; DLA/MDG 0030 RMK/MDG NDB indicated
that the aircraft will be delayed at Mudgee for 30 minutes
training on the NDB.
RMK/FLT Insert if flight numbers are used either in RTF phraseologies
or for traffic sequencing, and are not entered in Item 7.
RMK/FORM Insert details of the aircraft taking part in a formation flight if
more than one aircraft type is included in the formation. The
number, type and wake turbulence category of the second
and subsequent types of aircraft are entered, separated by a
plus sign; eg, RMK/FORM 2PC9+4F18 M OPS in R577
ITEM 18 (B)
Enter Other information relevant to ALL stages of the flight.
OPR OPR/ when name of operator is required.
TYP TYP/ when an approved aircraft type designator has not been
assigned and ZZZZ has been entered in Item 9; eg TYP/ Echo
Mk1.
REG REG/VH enter full aircraft registration; eg REG/VHZFR
PER PER/ to indicate aircraft performance as described in AIP ENR
1.5 para. 1.2; eg PER/B. IFR aircraft arriving at a controlled
aerodrome must insert their performance category.
STS STS/ for special aircraft handling; eg STS/MED 1, STS/MED 2.

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 domestic flight notification form 199

COM COM/ when changes to communication equipment and ZZZZ

has already been entered in Item 10; eg. COM/HF3452.
NAV NAV/ when changes to navigation equipment and ZZZZ has
already been entered in Item 10; eg NAV/GPSRNAV.
DAT Datalink capability as follows:
DAT/S Satellite
DAT/H HF
DAT/V VHF
DAT/M S SR Mode S
CODE CODE/ (reserved for future use).
STS/SARTIME
Requirements Date/time as a six figure group.
 nly one SARTIME to be entered as per flight notification; eg
O
080430.
If more than one SARTIME is desired, then TBA can be
entered as remark in Item 18(a) of each stage.
“For Arrival At” (or departure) aerodrome for cancellation of
SARTIME enter location as:
authorised aerodrome abbreviation, or
navaid identifier, or
latitude/longitude
ZZZZ cannot be accepted.
ITEM 19 - SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
Enter Additional information relevant to the flight for search and
rescue purposes (optional).
Requirements Fuel endurance to be entered for each stage of flight in hours
and minutes after E/; eg 0430 hours.
Under “dinghies”, enter number of dinghies carried, the total
capacity of ALL dinghies and colour. Persons on board to
be entered as the total number carried for each flight. Enter
TBA if the number is to be advised after time of filing flight
notification.
Survival equipment to be circled as follows:

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domestic flight notification form
• P - First Aid
• D - Emergency Rations
• M - Water
• J - Jackets
“Remarks” is provided for any additional survival equipment
carried. Pilot in command should include telephone, mobile
and fax number, and company name.

flight note
A Flight Note is not lodged as part of the ATS SARWATCH system as is the
case with an AVFAX or NAIPS Flight Notification. It is a document, left with
a responsible person which gives full details of the planned flight and an
expected time of arrival at the destination. It would be used for search and
rescue purposes should you fail to cancel the Flight Note by the time you
have nominated.
Thus a Flight Note does not provide an official SARWATCH but relies on
action by the responsible person calling the AusSAR number (1800 815 257)
on the form.
The recommended format, provided by Australian Search and Rescue
(AusSAR), is shown below. The forms (called AMSA 104) are available from
the AusSAR web site at [Link]/forms/[Link]. It is in the Search
and Rescue block under Flight Note.
Note that, in order to be fully effective, complete details of the planned tracks
and landing points should be provided on the Flight Note.

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FLIGHT NOTE EXAMPLE

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 f l i g h t i n f o r m ati o n s e r v i c e
202
in-flight information
PILOT RESPONSIBILITY
Pilots are responsible for requesting information necessary to make
operational decisions.

OPERATIONAL INFORMATION
Information about the operational aspects of the following subjects is
normally available from ATS:
• meteorological conditions;
• air routes and aerodromes, other than ALAs;
• navigational aids;
• communications facilities;
• ATS Procedures;
• airspace status;
• hazard alerts;
• search and rescue services;
• maps and charts; and
• regulations concerning entry, transit and departure for international flights.

IN-FLIGHT INFORMATION
The in-flight information services are structured to support the responsibility of
pilots to obtain information in-flight on which to base operational decisions relating
to the continuation or diversion of a flight. The service consists of three elements:
• Automatic Broadcast Services.
• On Request Service, and
• Hazard Alert Service.

AUTOMATIC BROADCAST SERVICES

The automatic broadcast services consist of:
• Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
• Automatic En Route Information service (AERIS),
• Automatic Weather Information Broadcast (AWIB), and
• Meteorological Information for Aircraft in Flight (VOLMET).

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ATIS
At aerodromes specified in ERSA the normal operational information
required by aircraft prior to take-off or landing is broadcast automatically
and continuously either on a discrete frequency or on the voice channel of
one or more radio navigation aids. The broadcast may be pre-recorded or
computerised.
When control zones are deactivated the ATIS may be used to broadcast
operational information of an unchanging nature. This information may include
PAL frequency, preferred runways and noise abatement procedures. It may
also include the expected reopening time of the tower. Pilots are encouraged
to monitor the ATIS outside the normal hours of the tower. There is no need
to nominate receipt of the ATIS code with CTAF reports.
The following information is transmitted at civil aerodromes: (aerodrome)
TERMINAL INFORMATION (code letter ALPHA, BRAVO, etc, as assigned
to each separately prepared transmission). ZULU is not used. TIME (hh mm
UTC) {Time of observations if appropriate} Type of approach expectation; eg,
“EXPECT ILS APPROACH”, etc
One runway in use:
RUNWAY (number), [DAMP], [WET], [WATER PATCHES] [FLOODED]
(if applicable)
or
More than one runway in use:
RUNWAY/S (number/s) AND (number/s) FOR ARRIVALS,
RUNWAY/S (number/s) AND (numbers/s) FOR DEPARTURES
[DAMP] [WET] [WATER PATCHES] [FLOODED] (if applicable)
Holding delay, if appropriate; eg “...MINUTES HOLDING MAY BE EXPECTED”,
etc (when being used) LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS IN
PROGRESS

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in-flight information
WIND
WIND DIRECTION quoted as either:
A. SINGLE MEAN DIRECTION
B. TWO VALUES representing variation in wind direction will be given
whenever;
i the extremes in wind direction vary by 60° or more, or
ii the variation is considered to be operationally significant (eg, the
variation is less than 60°, but the variation from the mean results is
either a downwind and/or significant cross-wind component on a
nominated runway)
C. VARIABLE will be used when the reporting of a mean wind direction is not
possible, such as:
i in light wind conditions (3KT or less) or
ii t he wind is veering or backing by 180° or more (eg, passage of
thunderstorms, or localised wind effect).
WIND SPEED quoted as either:
A. CALM (less than 1KT, eg “WIND CALM”)
B. SINGLE MAXIMUM VALUE whenever the extremes between minimum
and maximum are 10KT or less (eg, “WIND 250 DEGREES MAXIMUM 25
KNOTS”)
C. TWO VALUES REPRESENTING MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES
whenever the extremes in wind vary by more than 10KT (eg,”WIND 250
DEGREES MINIMUM 15 KNOTS, MAXIMUM 28 KNOTS”)
Note: When quoting a wind with variations in speed and direction, the above
criteria may be varied in order to indicate the true cross-wind and/or
downwind.
Where threshold wind analysers are installed and the wind at the threshold of
a duty runway varies from that of the central wind analyser or the threshold
wind on the other duty runway by 10° or 5KT or more and the variation is
anticipated to continue for more than 15MIN , threshold winds may be
broadcast on the ATIS; eg. THRESHOLD WIND RUNWAY…
(number),…/…, RUNWAY…(number),…/…

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VISIBILITY (distance is reported as appropriate:

A. T>10KM – “GREATER THAN WUN ZERO KILOMETRES” or actual
distance “...KILOMETRES”;
B. Between 6KM and 10KM (inclusive) – “...KILOMETRES”;
C. Up to and including 5,000M – “...METRES”; and
D. <1,500M – RVR is reported when available).
PRESENT WEATHER (as applicable; eg, showers in area)
or
CAVOK
CLOUD (below 5,000FT or below MSA, whichever is greater; cumulonimbus,
if applicable; if the sky is obscured, vertical visibility when available).
TEMPERATURE (if appropriate to the aerodrome traffic)
DEW POINT
QNH
Any available information on significant meteorological phenomena in the
approach, take-off and climb-out.
* ON FIRST CONTACT WITH (eg, GROUND, TOWER, APPROACH) NOTIFY
RECEIPT OF (code letter of the ATIS broadcast)
* This contact information may not be transmitted when recording space is
limiting.
At aerodromes where a Department of Defence (DOD) tower is operating, the
ATIS information follows the same sequence as in above paragraph down to
and including “WIND” information, except that “holding delay:, if relevant is
given in the second last item. The DOD sequence after “WIND” is as follows:
QNH
TEMPERATURE (if appropriate to the aerodrome traffic)
CLOUD (below 5,000FT or below MSA, whichever is greater; cumulonimbus,
if applicable; if the sky is obscured, vertical visibility when available).
VISIBILITY (distance is reported as appropriate:
A. >10KM – “GREATER THAN WUN ZERO KILOMETRES”
or actual distance “...KILOMETRES”
B. Between 6KM and 10KM (inclusive) – “...KILOMETRES”;

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in-flight information
C. Up to and including 5,000M – “...METRES”; and
D. <1,500M – RVR is reported when available).
PRESENT WEATHER (as applicable; eg, showers in area)
or
CAVOK
Other significant information, including holding delay (eg,”...MINUTES
HOLDING MAY BE EXPECTED”, etc and or significant meteorological
phenomena in the approach, take-off and climb-out).
* ON FIRST CONTACT WITH (eg, GROUND, TOWER, APPROACH) NOTIFY
RECEIPT OF (code letter of the ATIS broadcast)
* This contact information may not be transmitted when recording space is
limiting.
At locations where runway threshold wind analysers are installed, a tower
controller must provide a departing aircraft with the wind at the upwind area
of the runway if it varies from the ATIS broadcast by 10° or 5KT or more, and
the variation is anticipated to continue for more than 15MIN. Such information
shall be passed by use of the phrase “WIND AT UPWIND END…/…”

WIND SHEAR
When moderate, strong or severe wind sheer has been reported on the
approach or take-off paths, or has been forecast, the information will be
included on the ATIS in the following format, eg:
• W
 IND SHEAR WARNING - CESSNA 210 [(wake turbulence category)
CATEGORY AIRCRAFT (if military CATIS)] REPORTED MODERATE WIND
SHEAR ON APPROACH RUNWAY 34 AT THE TIME OF 0920, (plus, if
available, wind shear advice issued by MET, eg: FORECAST WIND AT 300
FEET ABOVE GROUND LEVEL 360 DEGREES 45 KNOTS); or
• P
 ROBABLE VERTICAL WIND SHEAR FROM 0415 TO 0430- FORECAST
WIND AT 200 FEET ABOVE GROUND LEVEL 110 DEGREES 50 KNOTS.

AERIS
The Automatic En Route Information Service continuously broadcasts routine
meteorological reports (METAR) from a network of VHF transmitters installed
around Australia.

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 in-flight information 207

The information broadcast on the individual transmitters caters primarily for

the needs of aircraft operating in control areas within VHF range of the facility.
The network frequencies, the operational information and transmitter
locations are shown on pages 149.

AERODROME WEATHER INFORMATION SERVICE (AWIS)

Broadcasts of actual weather conditions may be made on navigation aids from
AWS sites which use BoM AWS equipment or specific AWS that have met
BoM standards for acceptance into the BoM network.
Basic AWS’s provide wind direction and speed, temperature, humidity,
pressure setting and rainfall. Advanced AWS’s provide automated cloud
and visibility elements which will be appended to the meteorological report
as remarks, for guidance [Link] provided in AWIS broadcasts is
in similar format to that of an ATIS broadcast and will contain some of the
following additional information:
• test transmissions are identified as “TEST”
• station identifier as a plain language station name
• identifier “AWS AERODROME WEATHER”
• wind direction in degrees Magnetic and speed in Knots
• altimeter setting (QNH)
• temperature in whole degrees Celsius
• low cloud below 12,500FT (*)
• visibility (*)
• dew point in whole degrees Celsius (**)
• percentage relative humidity (**) and
• rainfall over the previous ten minutes (**)
(*) Provided from advanced AWS as guidance material (See page 132 for
information on cloud and visibility output)
(**) Provided as supplementary information
Information broadcast from the AWS specified above is is considered to
be “real time” data. When information is not available about a particular
item, either because of invalid data or an inoperative sensor, the element
of the broadcast will be identified as “CURRENTLY NOT AVAILABLE”; eg,

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in-flight information
“TEMPERATURE CURRENTLY NOT AVAILABLE”.
The integrity of the barometric system in BoM accepted AWS is such that
they are an approved source of QNH. Therefore, QNH from these AWS’s may
be used in accordance with ENR 1.5 para. 5.4 to reduce the published minima
for DME arrival procedures, and the published landing, circling and alternate
minima. Information derived from other sensors within the AWS, eg wind and
temperature, does not have the same degree of integrity and should be used
at pilot discretion.
When AWIS information is available after the hours of control tower staff and
the aerodrome is uncontrolled, reference will be made to its availability in
ATIS ZULU.
The availability of AWIS is contained in ERSA FAC and MET information for
appropriate locations.

ON REQUEST SERVICE - FLIGHTWATCH

FLIGHTWATCH is the generic radio callsign on the On-request Service to
respond to in-flight requests for operational information from pilots operating
in all classes of airspace.
FLIGHTWATCH is provided on FIS frequencies; however, aircraft operating
in CTA outside the range of a FIS VHF outlet may request operational
information on the ATC frequency in use. Due to workload considerations,
ATC may require that pilots request the information on an HF FIS frequency.
When requesting information, pilots must include the frequency on which
they are calling; eg ‘FLIGHTWATCH, PAPA GOLF KILO, ONE TWO THREE
DECIMAL ONE, REQUEST ACTUAL WEATHER SYDNEY”
FLIGHTWATCH will respond with information in an abbreviated form,
paraphrased into brief statements of significance. The full text of messages
will be provided on request.
FLIGHTWATCH frequencies and their distribution are shown at ERSA GEN.

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 in-flight information 209

HAZARD ALERT SERVICE

Hazard Alerts contain information, assessed by ATS to be of an unexpected
and critical nature, that could assist pilots to avoid hazardous situations.
Hazard Alerts will be:
• b
 roadcast on the appropriate ATS frequencies in the hour following the
observed or notified onset of the conditions and, as necessary,
• d
 irected to those aircraft maintaining continuous communications with
ATS (at the time the hazard is assessed) that are within one hour flight
time of the hazardous condition.
Hazard Alerts include:
• SIGMET,
• AIRMET,
• o
 bservations, pilot reports, or amended forecasts indicating that weather
conditions at the destination have unexpectedly deteriorated below the
IFR or VFR alternate minima, and any additional information that could
possibly assist the pilot in the avoidance of hazardous situations.
Hazard Alert Information, or its availability, will be directed or broadcast on the
appropriate ATS frequencies;
eg “ALL STATIONS HAZARD ALERT MELBOURNE. WEATHER
OBSERVATION NOTIFIES UNEXPECTED DETERIORATION BELOW THE
IFR ALTERNATE MINIMA”.
eg “ALL STATIONS HAZARD ALERT DUBBO. Pilot reports unexpected
deterioration below the VFR alternate minima”.
Note: Broadcasts will normally be made on receipt, H+15, and H+45.
When appropriate, ATC towers may provide advice about Hazard Alert
Information on the ATIS.

INFORMATION BY PILOTS
A pilot in command becoming aware of any irregularity of operation of any
navigational or communications facility or service or other hazard to navigation
must report the details as soon as practicable. Reports must be made to the
appropriate ATS unit, except that defects, or hazards on a landing area must
be reported to the person or authority granting use of the area.


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in-flight information
When a landing is made on a water-affected runway, the pilot is requested
to advise ATS of the extent of water on the runway and the braking
characteristics experienced.
The following terms should be used to describe water on a runway:
DAMP The surface shows a change of colour due to moisture.
WET The surface is soaked but there is no standing water.
WATER PATCHES Patches of standing water are visible.
FLOODED Extensive standing water is visible.
The following terms should be used to describe braking characteristics
experienced:
GOOD Pilots should not expect to find the conditions as good
as when operating on a dry runway, but should not
experience any directional control or braking difficulties
because of runway conditions.
MEDIUM Braking action may be such that the achievement of a
satisfactory landing or accelerate- stop performance,
taking into account the prevailing circumstances,
depends on precise handling technique.
POOR There may be a significant deterioration both in braking
performance and directional control.
BUSHFIRES During the bush fire danger period, pilots in command
of an aircraft should notify the nearest ATS unit promptly
of any evidence of bush fires observed which they
believe have not been reported previously.

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section 3 – operations
 g e n e ra l i n f o r m ati o n
212
classes of airspace
Australian airspace is classified in accordance with an ICAO international
standard.
The details, as they apply to VFR operations, are summarised as follows.
AUSTRALIAN AIRSPACE ORGANISATION WITH REFERENCE TO VFR
OPERATIONS

All references to transponders means with a serviceable Mode A & C

capability.
The VMC applicable to the various classes of airspace are provided on pages
218-224.

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 pre-flight altimeter check 213

PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECK (AIP ENR 1.7)

GENERAL
Whenever an accurate QNH is available and the aircraft is at a known
elevation, pilots must conduct an accuracy check of the aircraft’s altimeter at
some point prior to takeoff. In order of priority , the pilot should use tarmac,
threshold or airfield reference point elevation for the check.
Note: Where the first check indicated that an altimeter is unserviceable, the
pilot is permitted to conduct a further check at another location on
the airfield; for example, the first on the tarmac and the second at the
runway threshold (to determine altimeter serviceability).

VFR ALTIMETERS
With an accurate QNH set, a VFR altimeter(s) should read site elevation
to within 100FT (110FT at test sites above 3,300FT) to be accepted as
serviceable by the pilot. If an aircraft fitted with two VFR altimeters continues
to fly with one altimeter reading 100FT (110FT) or more in error, the faulty
altimeter must be placarded unserviceable and the error noted in the
maintenance release.
VFR altimeters are not permitted for aeroplane operations above FL200. VFR
flights operating above FL200 must be equipped with an altimeter calibrated
to IFR standards.

ACCURATE QNH AND SITE ELEVATION

A QNH can be considered accurate if it is provided by ATIS, tower or an
automatic remote-reporting aerodrome sensor. Area or forecast QNH must
not be used for the test.
Site elevation must be derived from aerodrome survey data published by
Airservices or supplied by the aerodrome owner.

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altimeter setting rules
GENERAL
Heights measured from a QNH or Area QNH datum must be expressed in
full, eg 3,000FT as “THREE THOUSAND” and 1,800FT as”ONE THOUSAND
EIGHT HUNDRED”, adding, if necessary , “ON… (QNH)”.
Expressions of height measured from the 1013.2HPA datum must always
include the words “FLIGHT LEVEL”.
Flights cruising at or below the transition altitude must change the Area
QNH altimeter setting when advised of a change by ATS. Pilots of aircraft not
using radio must use the QNH setting obtained by setting the altimeter to
aerodrome elevation before take-off.

TRANSITION LAYER, ALTITUDE AND LEVEL (AIP ENR 1.7)

The system of altimetry used in Australia makes use of a transition layer between
the transition altitude which is always 10,000FT and the transition level of FL110
to separate aircraft using QNH from those using 1013.2 HPa as a datum.
For all operations at or below the transition altitude, the altimeter reference will be:
• the current local QNH of a station along the route
• within 100nm of the aircraft; or
For cruising at and above the transition level, the Standard Pressure altimeter
setting of 1013.2 HPa must be used.
The positions to change between QNH and 1013.2 HPa are shown in the
diagram on the next page.
QNH is available from a reporting station or from the ATIS, TAF, AFOR, AERIS
or from ATS. Cruising within the transition layer is not permitted.

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 altimeter setting rules 215

AREA QNH
Area QNH is a forecast value which is valid for a period of 3 hours and
normally applies throughout an Area QNH Zone (AQZ).
Area QNH Zones will be subdivided, if necessary, to meet the following standards:
• A
 rea QNH forecasts are to be within +- 5 HPa of the actual QNH at any
lowlevel point (below 1,000 FT AMSL) within or on, the boundary of the
appropriate area during the period of validity of the forecasts.
• Area QNH must not differ from an adjoining Area QNH by more than 5 HPa.

LOCAL QNH
Local QNH, whether provided by ATS, AWS or Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) or
by using the altimeter subscale to indicate airfield elevation AMSL, is used as
shown in the diagram on the next page.

LIMITATIONS
To retain a minimum buffer of 1,000FT above the transition altitude, FL110 will
not be available for cruising when the Area QNH is less than 1013.2 HPa. With
a progressive decrease in the value of the Area QNH, FL115 and FL120 will not
be available when the Area QNH is below 997 HPa and 980HPa respectively.

Prior to transition layer, set Local QNH or, if not available, Area QNH TRANSITION
LEVEL
FL110
T R A N S I T I O N L AY E R
10000
TRANSITION
Set 1013.2 ALTITUDE
8000 Set Area QNH just prior to top of climb Set Local QNH (if available)

6000
ALTITUDES - All operations on Local QNH or Area Forecast QNH
4000

2000
Set Local QNH if known, otherwise aerodrome elevation
MSL

ALTIMETRY FL125 NOT AVAILABLE WHEN AREA QNH IS BELOW 963 HPA
FL12O NOT AVAILABLE WHEN AREA QNH IS BELOW 980 HPA
FL115 NOT AVAILABLE WHEN AREA QNH IS BELOW 997 HPA
FL110 NOT AVAILABLE WHEN AREA QNH IS BELOW 1013 HPA

NOTE: local QNH of a Station along the route within 100nm of the Aircraft

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visual flight rules
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR) (CAR 172)
VFR flight may only be conducted:
• in VMC; (see pages 218-224)
• p
 rovided that, when operating at or below 2,000FT above the ground or
water, the pilot is able to navigate by visual reference to the ground or water;
• at sub-sonic speeds; and
• in accordance with the 250 KT IAS speed restrictions identified in AIP ENR
1.1. (see page 78)
Unless the pilot in command holds a command instrument rating or night
VFR (NGT VFR) rating and the aircraft is appropriately equipped for flight at
night, a VFR flight must not depart from an aerodrome:
• before first light or after last light (see page 110); and
• u
 nless the ETA for the destination (or alternate) is at least 10 minutes
before last light after allowing for any required holding.
If the pilot in command only holds a NGT VFR agricultural rating, a NGT
VFR flight must not be conducted in controlled airspace. NGT VFR flight is
restricted to CHTR, AWK and PVT operations in aeroplanes not exceeding
5,700KG maximum take-off weight, helicopters, airships and balloons.
Passenger carrying CHTR flights in singleengine (non-turbine powered) aircraft
are not permitted to operate under VFR at night.

SPECIAL VFR
By day, when VMC does not exist, the ATC unit responsible for a CTR may
issue, at pilot request, a Special VFR clearance for flight in the CTR, or in a
CTA next to the CTR for the purpose of entering or leaving the CTR, provided:
• the Special VFR flight will not unduly delay an IFR flight;
• the flight can be conducted clear of cloud;
• t he visibility is not less than 800M for helicopters or 3,000M for
aeroplanes; or for balloons, not less than 100M below 500FT AGL and
3,000M at and above 500FT AGL.
• a helicopter will be operated at such a speed that the pilot has adequate
opportunity to observe any obstructions or other traffic in sufficient time
to avoid collisions; and

3 – general information
 visual flight rules 217

• t he flight can be conducted in accordance with the requirements of CAR

157 with regard to low flying, (see page 29)
Note: Special VFR is not permitted in Class E airspace.

DETERMINATION OF VISIBILITY FOR VFR (CAR 174)

 light visibility shall be determined by the pilot in command from the cockpit
F
of the aircraft while in flight.
Subject to CAR 257, the pilot in command of an aircraft operating under the
Visual Flight Rules is responsible for determining the visibility for the take-off
and landing of the aircraft.
In determining visibility for the purposes of this regulation, the pilot in
command shall take into account the meteorological conditions, sunglare and
any other condition that may limit his or her effective vision through his or her
windscreen.

3 – general information
218
VMC
VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS (VMC) – TAKE-OFF, EN ROUTE,
AND LANDING
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE – CLASS C (AIP ENR 1.2)

1000FT
Visibility 8000M
1500
metres
10 000FT (AMSL)
1000FT

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE CLASS C

3 – general information
 VMC 219

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE – CLASS D (AIP ENR 1.2)

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE CLASS D

3 – general information
220
VMC
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE – CLASS E (AIP ENR 1.2)

FL 180

1000FT
Visibility 8000M
1500
metres 10 000FT (AMSL)
1000FT

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT
4 500FT (AMSL)

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE CLASS E

3 – general information
 VMC 221

GAAP CONTROL ZONES (AIP ENR 1.2)

Visibility 5000M
Clear of Cloud

GAAP CONTROL ZONES

3 – general information
222
VMC
NON-CONTROLLED AIRSPACE – CLASS G (AIP ENR 1.2)

3 – general information
 VMC 223

NON-CONTROLLED AIRSPACE CLASS G

1000FT

1500
metres Visibility 8000M

1000FT

1010 000FT
000' (AMSL)
(AMSL)

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT
Clear of cloud

5KM VIS
3 000FT (AMSL)

Clear of cloud
Visibility 5000M

1 000FT (AGL)

3 – general information
224
VMC
NON-CONTROLLED AIRSPACE – BALLOONS

above nd
FT grou
00
15

Visibility 5000M

500FT AGL
Visibility 100M

10 miles

Aerodrome with instrument approach procedure

NON-CONTROLLED AIRSPACE - BALLOONS

3 – general information
 ATC radar services 225

OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS (AIP ENR 1.6)

Note: Background information on Transponders and TCAS is included on page 83.
Except as indicated below, ATS will assign a temporary discrete code for each
flight for aircraft operating in controlled airspace, and for aircraft participating
in Radar Information Services (RIS).
Unless otherwise advised by ATC or in accordance with GAAP procedures,
pilots of Mode 3A transponder-equipped aircraft operating in Australian
airspace must activate their transponders, and where a Mode 3C capability is
also available it must be activated simultaneously with Mode 3A (ALT).
Pilots must ensure that transponders are activated and that altitude
function is selected as:
• P
 rimary radar coverage only exists within 50NM of major airports and
the remainder of the radar surveillance system relies on transponder
information; and
• T
 raffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) relies on transponder
information for its pilot alerting and collision avoidance functions.
When operating in Australian airspace, transponder-equipped aircraft must
select and use codes in accordance with the following criteria:
• C
 ivil flights in controlled airspace - the assigned temporary discrete code,
otherwise 3000.
• C
 ivil flights OCTA participating in RIS - the assigned temporary discrete
code.
• Civil IFR flights OCTA not participating in RIS - 2000.
• Civil VFR flights OCTA not participating in RIS – 1200.
• C
 ivil flights not involved in special operations or SAR operating OCTA in
excess of 15NM offshore – 4000.
• Civil flights engaged in littoral (coastal) surveillance - 7615.
Pilots of flights which will require a RIS and/or a clearance into controlled
airspace, and for which a discrete code has already been coordinated, must
select that code and “ALT” immediately prior to making their RIS /clearance
request.

3 – general information
226
ATC radar services
A pilot must not operate the special identification function “IDENT” (SPI)
unless requested by ATC. Note that “squawk” does not mean press IDENT
(SPI).
A pilot departing from a radar controlled aerodrome must leave the
transponder selected to STANDBY until entering the departure runway, and on
arrival select STANDBY or OFF as soon as practable after landing.

VFR OCTA

ON A
Y
1 2 0 0
F STB

LT
TEST

IDENT
OF

When operating in, or in the vicinity of a GAAP control zone a transponder

should be selected to:
• STANDBY - for flights wholly within a GAAP CTR,
• ALT - prior to take-off departing a GAAP CTR, or
• ALT - when operating in GAAP lanes of entry.
Pilots must select the transponder to STANDBY before effecting an SSR code
change and returning the transponder to ON/ALT.
Note: This action is required to prevent possible loss of displayed aircraft
position/label information and possible misidentification of aircraft in
automated Australian ATC systems due to temporary selection (while
effecting the change) of a code already in use.
When acknowledging code setting instructions or changes to settings, the
pilot must read back the code to be set.

TRANSPONDER EMERGENCY CODES

The pilot of an aircraft encountering an emergency in flight, other than loss of
twoway communications, should select code 7700 unless he/she has specific
reason to believe that maintaining the assigned code would be the better
course of action.
TSET TLA

3 – general information
 ATC radar services 227

EMERGENCY

ON A
Y
7 7 0 0
F STB

LT
TEST

IDENT
OF

COMM FAILURE

ON A
Y
7 6 0 0
F STB

LT
TEST

IDENT
OF

The pilot of an aircraft losing two-way communications must set the

transponder to code 7600. (See page 388)
A radar controller observing a 7600 code shall request the pilot to operate
the identification (SPI function). If the identification signal is received, further
control of the aircraft will be continued using the identification transmission to
acknowledge receipt of instructions issued.
If the identification is not received, the aircraft must continue with the transponder
on code 7600 and follow radio failure procedures (see pages 388-392)

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PROCEDURES

Pilots requesting radar services should address their request to the ATS unit
with which they are communicating.
Where an Area Approach Control Centre (AACC) is not established, the pilot
will be advised the time or place to transfer to radar.
Where an AACC is established, procedural and radar control may be provided
on a common frequency. The callsign identifies the service being provided -
eg. …CENTRE, …APPROACH,.. DEPARTURES.

3 – general information
228
ATC radar services
IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES
Before exercising radar control there will be positive identification of the
aircraft concerned. However, radar services will not be provided until after the
aircraft is within controlled airspace.

RADAR VECTORING PROCEDURES

On receipt of radar heading instructions the pilot must, unless otherwise
instructed, immediately commence a rate 1 turn, or the standard rate of turn
for the aircraft type, and then maintain the heading given.
Aircraft will normally be vectored on routes along which the pilot can monitor
navigation.
When an aircraft is given a vector which will take it off an established route,
the pilot will be advised of the reason for the vector, unless it is self-evident.
When an aircraft reports unreliable directional instruments, the pilot will be
requested, prior to the issuance of manoeuvring instructions, to make all turns
at an agreed rate and to carry out the instructions immediately on receipt.
When aircraft are radar vectored, the controller will assign altitudes which
allow for terrain clearance. However, in VMC by day, an aircraft may be
permitted to arrange its own terrain clearance. In such instances the aircraft
will be instructed to CLIMB (or DESCEND) TO (level) VISUAL.
Pilots being radar vectored will be routinely advised of their position to enable
pilot navigation in the event of radio or radar failure.
The interval between ATC transmissions will be kept short to enable the pilot
to quickly recognise a communication failure. When aircraft are on headings
that could infringe terrain clearance or separation standards, the intervals
between transmissions will not exceed 30 seconds.
Before take-off, ATC may indicate a requirement for a departing aircraft to
assume a heading after take-off, followed by frequency change instructions if
appropriate. Radar headings, other than those assigned for a Standard Radar
Departure (SRD), will only be issued for a visual departure by day in VMC.
Arriving aircraft may be radar vectored to:
• establish for a radar or pilot-interpreted approach;
• a position from which a visual approach can be made;
• avoid areas of hazardous weather or severe turbulence;
• expedite traffic flow or conform to noise abatement requirements.

3 – general information
 T–VASIS 229

T - VASIS
T-VASIS (AIP AD 1.1)

VERY HIGH VERY LOW

HIGH LOW

SLIGHTLY HIGH SLIGHTLY LOW

ON GLIDE SLOPE

3 – general information
230
PAPI
PAPI (AIP AD 1.1)
PAPI

TOO HIGH (MORE THAN 3.5ϒ) SLIGHTLY HIGH (MORE THAN 3.3ϒ)

ON CORRECT APPROACH PATH (3ϒ)

SLIGHTLY LOW (APPROX. 2.7ϒ) TOO LOW (LESS THAN 2.5ϒ)

3 – general information
 c o m m u n i c ati o n s

communications – OCTA 231

INTERPILOT AIR-TO-AIR COMMUNICATION (AIP GEN 3.4)

In accordance with regional agreements, 123.45MHZ is designated as the
air-to-air VHF communications channel. Use of this channel will enable aircraft
engaged in flights over remote and oceanic areas out of range of VHF ground
stations to exchange necessary operational information and to facilitate the
resolution of operational problems.

AERODROME FREQUENCY RESPONSE UNIT (AFRU)

(AIP GEN 3.4)
To assist pilots’ awareness of inadvertent selection of an incorrect VHF
frequency when operating into non-controlled aerodromes, a device known
as an Aerodrome Frequency Response Unit (AFRU) may be installed. An
AFRU will provide an automatic response when pilots transmit on the traffic
frequency for the aerodrome at which it is installed.
The features of the AFRU are as follows:
• w
 hen the aerodrome traffic frequency has not been used for the past five
minutes, the next transmissions over two (2) seconds long will cause a
voice identification to be transmitted in response, eg, “GOULBURN CTAF”.
•. when the aerodrome traffic frequency has been used within the previous
five (5) minutes, a 300 millisecond tone will be generated after each
transmission over two (2) seconds long.
A series of three (3) microphone clicks within a period of five (5) seconds
will also cause the AFRU to transmit a voice identification for the particular
aerodrome.
In the event that the transmitter in the AFRU becomes jammed for a period of
greater than one minute, the unit will automatically shut down.
The operation of the AFRU provides additional safety enhancements by
confirming the operation of the aircraft’s transmitter and receiver, the volume
setting, and that the pilot has selected the correct frequency for use at that
aerodrome.

3 – communications
232
communications – OCTA
CERTIFIED AIR/GROUND RADIO SERVICE
(AIP GEN 3.4)
A Certified Air/Ground Radio Service is an aerodrome-based radio information
service, which may operate at non-controlled aerodromes. The service is a
safety enhancement facility which provides pilots with operational information
relevant to the particular aerodrome. The service is operated by or for the
aerodrome operator within the hours published, on the CTAF assigned to the
particular aerodrome. It is not an air traffic service.
The service is not a separation service.
The call-sign of the service is the aerodrome location followed by “Radio”; eg,
“Ayers Rock Radio”. The radio operators of the service have been certified to
meet a CASA standard of communication technique and aviation knowledge
appropriate to the service being provided.
When a CA/GRS is operating on the CTAF, pilot procedures are unchanged
from the standard non-controlled operating and communication procedures.
The operational information provided by a CA/GRS assists pilots in making
informed operational decisions. Pilots retain authority and responsibility for
the acceptance and use of the information provided.
Aircraft making the normal inbound or taxiing broadcast receive a responding
broadcast from the CA/GRS operator, conveying the following information:
• Confirmation of correct CTAF selection.
• C
 urrent known, relevant traffic in the vicinity and on the manoeuvring
area of the aerodrome. Traffic information may include some or all of the
following:
– the call-sign, aircraft type, position and intention; or
– where circuit flying is in operation, general advice on the number of
aircraft in the circuit, and position in the circuit if relevant.
Note: This information is provided to assist pilots in arranging self-separation.
• W
 eather condition and operational information for the aerodrome. The
information which may be advised includes:
– runway favoured by wind or for noise abatement,
– wind direction and speed,
– runway surface conditions,

3 – communications
 communications – OCTA 233

– aerodrome QNH,
– aerodrome surface temperature, and
– estimated cloud base and visibility and present weather.
This information will be provided by means of an Automatic Aerodrome
Information Service (AAIS) broadcast on a discrete published frequency
(similar to ATIS). Pilots should monitor the published AAIS frequency
before making the taxiing or inbound broadcast and indicate that the AAIS
information has been received when making the inbound or taxiing broadcast.
Other operational information of a local nature, relevant to the safety of
operations at the aerodrome.
The CA/GRS will provide emergency services call-out if requested by the pilot
in an emergency or, if in the opinion of the operator, a call-out is warranted.
The weather information provided by the service is derived from approved
measuring equipment, which meets BoM aeronautical precision standards.
QNH provided by a CA/GRS or AAIS may be used to reduce landing, circling
and alternate minima in accordance with AIP ENR 1.5 (QNH Sources).
The CA/GRS operator may act as a representative of an air operator (where
formal agreement with the operator has been established) for the purposes of
holding SARWATCH.

UNICOM (AIP GEN 3.4)

UNICOM (Universal Communications) is a non-ATS communications service
provided on the CTAF to enhance the value of information normally available
about a noncontrolled aerodrome.
The primary purpose of the frequency used for UNICOM where the frequency
is the CTAF is for pilots to be able to exchange relevant traffic information.
Services available from a UNICOM should be considered as secondary and
must not detract from the interchange of traffic information between pilots.
Persons providing a Unicom service are required to be licensed by the
Australian Communication Authority (ACA). Detailed information regarding the
licensing and use of equipment may be obtained by contacting the ACA in the
appropriate State or Territory capital city.

3 – communications
234
communications – OCTA
Participation in Unicom services relates to the exchange of messages
concerning:
• fuel requirements;
• estimated times of arrival and departure;
• aerodrome information;
• m
 aintenance and servicing of aircraft including the ordering of parts and
materials urgently required;
• passenger requirements;
• unscheduled landings to be made by aircraft; and
• general weather reports;
• basic information on traffic.
This information is available to all aircraft during the times that Unicom is
operating.
Weather reports, other than simple factual statements about the weather,
may not be provided by Unicom operators unless they are properly authorised
to make weather observations under CAR 120.
The Unicom operator is solely responsible for the accuracy of any information
passed to an aircraft, while the use of information obtained from a Unicom is
at the discretion of the pilot in command.
Unicom operators must comply with the requirement of CAR 83 (2).

RADIO TELEPHONY REQUIREMENTS OUTSIDE CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

(AIP GEN 3.4)
When initiating a transmission to Air Traffic Services (ATS), you should
commence the transmission with the with the callsign of the unit being
addressed followed by the aircraft callsign eg “Brisbane Centre, Alpha Bravo
Charlie .........”.
When you read back an ATS message you should add the aircraft callsign at
the end of the transmission.
Broadcasts by aircraft in the vicinity of non-controlled aerodromes should be
prefixed with the location followed by the word “traffic” and the aerodrome
name should also be added to the end of the transmission eg “Bathurst traffic
.......... Bathurst”. This is to emphasise the location in situations where more
than one aerodrome may use the CTAF concerned.

3 – communications
 communications – OCTA 235

All transmissions between aircraft should be prefixed with the aircraft

callsign. When calling FLIGHTWATCH add the frequency in use to the initial
transmission. This assists the operator in monitoring multiple frequencies.

COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY (CTAF)

A CTAF is used for traffic broadcasts when operating in the vicinity of a non-
controlled aerodrome.
“In the vicinity” is defined as within 10 NM from the aerodrome and at such a
level that you may conflict with operations at that aerodrome (CAR 166).
If radio equipped you should monitor and broadcast on the CTAF when in
the vicinity of any non-controlled aerodrome (AIP ENR 1.1). At CTAF (R)
designated aerodromes, radio is mandatory.
Unless otherwise specified in ERSA or on charts, the CTAF frequency is 126.7
MHZ. This is termed the MULTICOM.
Mandatory Radio
Where the CTAF for a particular aerodrome is designated (R) on charts eg
“119.9 (R)”, the use of radio and the making of prescribed broadcasts, is
mandatory when operating in the vicinity of such aerodromes.
Non-radio Traffic
You should be aware that aircraft not equipped with radio may be operating at
any non-controlled aerodromes other than those designated CTAF (R).

3 – communications
236
sartime
COMMUNICATIONS
A pilot of other than an IFR RPT flight may nominate a SARTIME for departure
either as part of the arrival report or when submitting flight notification by the
phrase “SARTIME FOR DEPARTURE”. SAR alerting action will be initiated if
a report is not received by the nominated SARTIME for departure. CENSAR
may be contacted via FLIGHTWATCH or on 1800 814 931.

VFR operations
VFR OPERATIONS IN CLASS E & G AIRSPACE
SUMMARY OF REPORTS AND BROADCASTS – VFR AIRCRAFT IN CLASSES
E & G AIRSPACE

3 – C ommunications
 n o n - c o n tr o l l e d a e r o d r o m e s

general 237

BROADCASTS
In accordance with CAR 166 and 166A the following broadcasts on the CTAF
and in the standard format are required from radio equipped aircraft at non-
controlled aerodromes (AIP ENR 1.1):
• by 10NM inbound or overflying
• straight-in-approach at 3NM and 1NM (including intentions)
• before entering the runway for takeoff ( including intentions and the
runway concerned)
In addition, the following broadcasts are recommended:
• before taxiing (including destination or departure quadrant or intentions
and the runway be used)
• turning downwind
• turning base
• turning final
• entering the circuit
• clear of runway
The standard broadcast format is:
{location} Traffic, {aircraft type}, {Callsign}, {position/intentions}, {location)
eg, “Bundaberg Traffic, Cessna 172 Zulu Foxtrot Romeo, taxiing for
Archerfield, Runway 34 Bundaberg”.

USE OF RADIO
Carriage and use of radio is required at aerodromes depicted on charts and in ERSA
as <frequency>(R). At these aerodromes, pilots must commence monitoring and
broadcasting on the CTAF prior to and during all operations in the vicinity of the
aerodrome. (AIP ENR1.1) “In the vicinity” is defined as within 10NM and at a height
that could result in conflict with operations at that aerodrome (CAR 166).
It should be remembered that, unless the non-controlled aerodromes is designated
(R) on charts and in ERSA, operations by non-radio aircraft must be expected.

CIRCUIT DIRECTION
Left-hand circuits must normally be made. Right-hand circuit requirements are
listed in ERSA.
An aircraft is permitted, however to execute a turn opposite to the circuit direction
on to course if:

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

238
general
• it has climbed straight ahead to 1,500FT above aerodrome elevation; or
• it is at least 3NM from the aerodrome.

FINAL APPROACH
The turn on to final approach must be completed by a distance that is common to
operations at the particular aerodrome but in any case not less than 500M from
the runway threshold (CAR 166).

SEPARATION MINIMA FOR TAKE-OFF

An aircraft must not commence take-off until;
• a preceding departing aircraft using the same runway has;
– crossed the upwind end of the runway; or
– commenced a turn; or
– if the runway is longer than 1,800m, become airborne and is at least
1,800m ahead; or
– if both aircraft have a MTOW below 2,000kg, the preceding aircraft is
airborne and is at least 600m ahead.
• a preceding landing aircraft using the same runway, has vacated it and is
taxing away from the runway; or
• a preceding aircraft, using another runway, has crossed or stopped short of
the take-off aircraft’s runway.
At aerodromes where gliders operate to a common circuit pattern from a parallel
strip outside the runway strip, the above separation minima shall apply to aircraft
landing or taking off on either runway as if they were a single runway, but aircraft
taxiing or stationary on the runway must not affect operations on the other side.
Where gliders and glider tugs operate to a contra- circuit, simultaneous
operations are permitted.
Position in the circuit should be broadcast if considered of value to other aircraft
for separation purposes.

CIRCUIT HEIGHT
By convention, the following circuit heights are flown;
• jets, 1500FT AGL
• piston/turbo prop, 1000FT AGL; and
• helicopters, 800FT AGL.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

 general 239

Circuit heights for aerodromes which have specific requirements are

published in ERSA.

circuit procedures
Jets/turbo-props/
high performance aircraft,
(normal downwind speed
greater than 120kt), 1500' AGL
1500'

Typically singe-engine piston, 1000'AGL

1000'

Helicopters, 800' AGL

Ultralights with a maximum
speed of 55KT, 500' AGL
500'

JOINING THE CIRCUIT

GIVE WAY TO BROADCAST
TRAFFIC ON ENTERING
DOWNWIND DOWNWIND
60

27

GIVE WAY TO TRAFFIC

IN THE CIRCUIT AND
ON THE 45 DEGREE
ENTRY TO DOWNWIND BROADCAST
ENTERING MIDFIELD
CROSSWIND

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

240
circuit procedures
STRAIGHT--IN APPROACH AND CIRCUIT BROADCASTS

BROADCAST BROADCAST BROADCAST

1 mile final (intentions) 3 mile final 10 mile final

1NM 3NM 10NM

BROADCAST
Turning final
1/2 TO 3/4 NM (intentions) GIVE WAY TO
BROADCAST TRAFFIC ALREADY
Turning ESTABLISHED
downwind IN THE CIRCUIT

BROADCAST
Turning base

DEPARTING THE CIRCUIT

BROADCAST
Departure broadcast

TURN TO INTERCEPT
OUTBOUND TRACK

TURN 45 DEGREES WHEN

CLEAR OF CIRCUIT TRAFFIC
CONTINUE TURN IF REQUIRED
OR
WHEN 500' ABOVE
CIRCUIT HEIGHT
WHEN PAST THE UPWIND
THRESHOLD AND AT
THE CIRCUIT HEIGHT

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

 arrival and transiting 241

CLIMB AND CRUISE PROCEDURES

Pilots of radio-equipped VFR aircraft must listen out on the appropriate VHF
frequency (CAR 243) and announce if in potential conflict. Pilots intercepting
broadcasts from aircraft in their vicinity which are considered to be in potential
conflict with their own aircraft must acknowledge by transmitting own callsign
and, as appropriate, aircraft type, position, actual level and intentions.

ARRIVAL INFORMATION
When approaching an aerodrome and in the vicinity, all radio-equipped aircraft
must broadcast on the CTAF:
• callsign and aircraft type;
• p
 osition (reported as distance with either the radial bearing, or quadrant
from the aerodrome);
• level; and
• intentions.
“Bundaberg Traffic, Zulu Foxtrot Romeo, Cessna 172, One Five miles West, Two
Thousand Five hundred, Inbound, Circuit area Bundaberg at time Zero Two”

landing
LANDING MANOEUVRES
An aircraft approaching a non-controlled aerodrome for a landing must join on
the upwind, crosswind or down-wind leg of the circuit unless it is :
• following an instrument approach procedure in IMC; or
• c onducting a visual circling procedure in IMC after completion of an
instrument approach procedure; or
• c onducting a straight-in approach in accordance with the paragraphs
below.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

242
landing
The runway to be used for landing must be:
• the most into-wind runway; or
• w
 hen operational reasons justify, any other available landing direction
provided the nominated circuit is executed without conflict to landing
or takeoff traffic using the most into-wind runway; and
• serviceable and cleared of ground maintenance equipment and
personnel.
When approaching for a landing, and within 3NM of the aerodrome, all
turns must be made to the left except:
• where right hand circuits are specified for the aerodrome; or
• when entering the upwind, crosswind or downwind leg.
Any aircraft complying with the following conditions may make straight-in
visual approaches to non-controlled aerodromes:
• T
 he aircraft must be equipped with VHF radio and be able to
communicate on the CTAF.
• T
 he pilot in command must be able to determine the wind direction
and runway in use at the aerodrome from;
– AWS or UNICOM; or
– radio contact with a ground-based radio communication service, a
company agent or an aircraft operating at the aerodrome; or
– visual indications, if the information cannot be determined by the
above means.
Aircraft conducting a straight-in approach at a non-controlled aerodrome
in accordance with the above paragraphs, must observe the following
procedure:
• T
 he pilot must ensure that a general broadcast is made, on the CTAF
(RPT only), as close as practicable to 15NM from the aerodrome. This
broadcast must include the position of the aircraft and the intention to
carry out a straight-in approach at that aerodrome.
• T
 he pilot in command must not commence a straight-in approach to a
runway when the reciprocal runway direction is being used by aircraft
already established in the aerodrome traffic pattern.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

 landing 243

• A
 ll manoeuvring to establish the aircraft on final approach must be
conducted outside a 5NM radius from the intended landing runway
threshold.
Note: W ithin 5NM, pilots are expected to make only minor corrections
to line up accurately on final approach. This will enable pilots
conforming to the aerodrome traffic pattern to optimise their visual
scan for traffic along the final approach path.
• A
 s close as practicable to 5NM from the intended landing runway
threshold, the pilot in command must ensure that a broadcast is made,
stating that the aircraft is established on final approach at that distance
and identifying the runway to be used.
• T
 he aircraft’s landing lights, anti-collision lights and strobe lights, where
fitted, must be illuminated when within 5NM of the intended landing
runway threshold and must remain illuminated until after the aircraft
has landed.
• A
 n aircraft flying a standard aerodrome traffic pattern and established
on base leg or final approach for any runway has priority over an aircraft
carrying out a straight-in approach.

SEPARATION MINIMA FOR LANDING

An aircraft must not continue its approach to land beyond the threshold
runway until:
• a preceding departing aircraft using the same runway is airborne, and:
– has commenced a turn; or
– is beyond the point on the runway at which the landing aircraft could be
expected to completed its landing roll and there is sufficient distance
to manoeuvre safely in the event of a missed approach;
• a preceding landing aircraft using the same runway has vacated it and is
taxiing away from the runway;
• a preceding aircraft using another runway, has crossed or stopped short of
the landing aircraft’s runway.
At aerodromes where both powered aircraft and gliders operate together using
separate parallel runways or strips, simultaneous operations are permissible
where gliders and tugs operate on contra circuits to powered aircraft.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

244
landing
Where gliders and powered aircraft operate together in the same circuit pattern
• the two runways or strips shall be treated as one runway but
• s tationary or taxing aircraft on one runway must not affect operations on
the other.
Note: Pilots are reminded of their obligations to see and avoid all other
aircraft (CAR 163A).

TAXIING AFTER LANDING

After landing, the runway strip should be vacated as soon as practicable.
Aircraft should not stop until clear of the runway strip.

SARTIME AND SARWATCH

Pilots wishing to cancel SARWATCH may do so by reporting to ATS. When
cancelling SARWATCH, pilots must include:
• the aircraft radio callsign;
• p
 lace of arrival or point from which SARWATCH services are no longer
required;
• the words “CANCEL SARWATCH”; and
• w
 hen communicating with a unit other than that nominated, the name of
the ATS unit to which the report shall be relayed.
SARWATCH may be cancelled in combination with a pilot report of changing
to a CTAF, or in the circuit area, or after landing.
ATS will acknowledge “CANCEL SARWATCH” reports with a read-back of the
place of arrival, if appropriate, and the words “SARWATCH TERMINATED”.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

 landing 245

SARTIME
When operating on a SARTIME, the pilot must cancel SARTIME by the time
nominated and, during the contact with ATS, include the words”CANCEL
SARTIME”.
ATS will acknowledge “CANCEL SARTIME” reports with a readback of the
place of arrival, if appropriate, and the words “SARTIME CANCELLED”.
Pilots may cancel SARTIME via:
• FLIGHTWATCH on a FIS VHF outlet as shown in ERSA, or on HF;
• relay through another pilot.
• telephone to CENSAR on 1800 814 931, or
• ATS when telephone facilities are not available.
For SARTIME flights, pilots of single VHF radio-equipped aircraft must cancel
SARTIME either after landing or at or before reaching 10 NM from the non-
controlled aerodrome.

SARTIME FOR DEPARTURE

Only one SARTIME may be current at any time therefore, when submitting
flight notification, only a SARTIME from the aerodrome of initial departure
may be nominated. Subsequently, a SARTIME for departure from an
intermediate aerodrome may be nominated either by radio on arrival or by
telephone after landing.
Nominating a SARTIME by radio on arrival at an intermediate aerodrome
provides SARTIME for the intermediate landing as well as for the subsequent
takeoff and may also be used where communications on the ground cannot
be reasonably assured.
SAR alerting action will be initiated if a taxiing or departure report is not
received by the nominated SARTIME.

3 – non - controlled aerodromes

 GAAP procedures
246
general
GENERAL (AIP ENR 1.1)
General Aviation Airport Procedures (GAAP) cater for high-density operations
in VMC.
There are a number of GAAP airports in Australia and the general operating
procedures for them are outlined in this section.
Because each GAAP airport is unique, special procedures have been
developed to take local conditions into account. These special procedures
are listed in ERSA for a particular aerodrome and must be read in conjunction
with this section.
For extra guidance you can also refer to the Visual Pilot Guides produced for
each GAAP aerodrome.
Where a GAAP aerodrome is equipped with parallel runways, simultaneous
contracircuits may be conducted by day, and separate Tower frequencies are
used. Aircraft operations are regulated independently in each circuit. An ATC
clearance is required to enter the opposite circuit or airspace. Where operations
are confined to a single runway, ATC will specify the circuit direction.

Pilots unsure of the procedures at a particular GAAP Control Zone (CTR)

should advise ATC on first contact.
Pilot: “Unfamiliar with location”

3 – G A A P procedures
 general 247

GAAP DEPARTURE clear of

cloud

DEPARTURE INBOU
Call
Altitude
Position
SPD

TAXI TAKE-OFF
GAAP

DEPARTURE
1. Obtain ATIS and plan taxi route.
2. Request clearance to cross any runway as applicable.
3. Taxi to run-up bay under your own observations.
4. Complete run-ups and pre-flight checks.
5. Taxi to the holding point for the correct runway, obtain ATC
clearance to cross runways.
6. Call “READY” at the Holding point when you require no backtracking.
7. Depart from the circuit by extending the appropriate leg of the circuit
and not above the prescribed altitude for the aerodrome.
8. Track clear of the inbound reporting points.
9. Once clear of the GAAP CTR, change to the appropriate area frequency or
the appropriate approach frequency.

3 – G A A P procedures
 248
general

clear of clear of
GAAP ARRIVAL
cloud cloud

EPARTURE INBOUND
DESCENT
Call
Altitude CIRCUIT HT
Position

LDG
CLEARANCE

AXI GAAP

ARRIVAL
1. Track towards a GAAP inbound reporting point where possible.
2. Obtain the ATIS where possible and plan taxi route.
3. Call Tower with your inbound report when established overhead the
inbound reporting point at the correct altitude (if unfamiliar with the
aerodrome, advise ATC with the initial call).
4. Follow ATC instructions.
5. Once clear of the runway, contact SMC with callsign and request
a clearance to cross runway as applicable.
6. Taxi under own observations to your parking area.
7. SARTIME Cancellation

3 – G A A P procedures
 general 249

PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES
A PILOT MUST:
• s ight and maintain separation from other aircraft whilst operating in the
GAAP CTR;
• c omply with ATC instructions while ensuring that separation is maintained
from other aircraft;
• immediately advise ATC if unable to comply with a control instruction;
• advise ATC if unable to sight traffic, or if traffic is lost;
• a s a GAAP aerodrome is usually busy, a vigilant lookout is required at all
times;
• w
 ith parallel operations in progress, pilots should ensure they do not
overshoot final or drift into the opposite circuit on upwind.

PROVISION OF SEPARATION
In VMC (see page 218), the pilot in command is primarily responsible for
separation from other aircraft. ATC controls runway operations with landing and
take-off clearances and facilitates a high movement rate by providing traffic
information and/or sequence instructions. To aid in the provision of separation,
ATC will determine the status of operation in the GAAP CTR as follows:
• U
 nrestricted VFR Operations: There are no weather - related restrictions
to aircraft operations.
• R
 estricted VFR Operations: ATC may apply weather- related restrictions
to VFR operations to facilitate the movement and separation of IFR
aircraft. ATC will then broadcast on the ATIS “Restricted VFR Operations”.
The actual restriction imposed may be specified individually to aircraft,
although general restrictions may be notified on the ATIS; eg, “Start
Approval Required”.
When an aircraft is operating in conditions less than VMC, ATC will provide
separation within GAAP CTR.

TRAFFIC INFORMATION SHALL BE ISSUED BY ATC WHEN:

The pilot of one aircraft is required to give way to, follow, or otherwise adjust
the aircraft’s flight path relative to that flown by another aircraft; and/or
The relative positions of aircraft cannot be established, and a collision or near

3 – G A A P procedures
250
general
miss may be likely unless one or both aircraft adjust their respective flight
paths. In this case an alerting service will be prefixed by the cautionary word
“ALERT”
The provision of traffic information does not absolve the pilot from
keeping a good lookout and manoeuvring as required to avoid other
traffic.

3 – G A A P procedures
 pilot responsibilities 251

CLEARANCES - ALL OPERATIONS

INDIVIDUAL CLEARANCES ARE REQUIRED FOR:
• take-off and landing;
• entering, crossing or taxiing along all runways;
An instruction to HOLD SHORT OF RUNWAY (number) [LEFT or RIGHT]
requires a pilot to hold at a marked holding point or hold short of the
runway strip.

RUNWAY RIGHT

RUNWAY

TAXIWAY

CAUTION
Holding Points
may be placed RUNWAY LEFT
other than on
runways
TAXIWAY

• turns in a direction contrary to the circuit for a particular runway;

An ATC circuit entry instruction constitutes a clearance for a contrary
turn, if required to comply with the instruction.
• c ircuits at a height different to the circuit altitude published in ERSA for the
particular GAAP aerodrome; and
• o
 perations on routes or at altitudes different from those published in ERSA
for a particular GAAP aerodrome.
A clearance is required prior to operations in a GAAP CTR. A clearance to take
off, or instruction for circuit entry or transit, constitutes this clearance.
A pilot must not make a flight under the VFR in a GAAP Control Zone when
VMC does not exist. At pilot request, ATC may authorise operations, in less
than VMC within these zones, by the issue of a SPECIAL VFR clearance.

3 – G A A P procedures
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outbound

TAXI PROCEDURES
GENERAL INFORMATION
A GAAP aerodrome caters for high-density traffic and as such, much of the
responsibility for safety rests with the pilot in command. If you are taxiing
at a GAAP aerodrome and do not intend to depart, then a call to the Surface
Movement Control (SMC) advising your intentions is good airmanship.
If you are unfamiliar with the aerodrome, you should ask SMC for
“Detailed Taxi Instructions”.

3 – G A A P procedures
 outbound 253

ATIS
The ATIS is normally available on a discrete VHF or NDB frequency and
must be obtained before beginning to taxi. It contains essential information
regarding the runway to be used depending on your departure track. An ATIS
proforma is located on page 255 and may be photocopied for further use.
An example of a typical ATIS broadcast is:
Moorabbin information ROMEO; runways 35; departures and arrivals east:
runway 35 right frequency 118.1; arrivals and departures west runway 35 left
frequency 123.0; wind 330 degrees 20 gusting 30; crosswind up to 15; QNH
1018; temperature two zero; cloud: few at 3000; visibility greater than 10KM;
Moorabbin information ROMEO.
If the nominated runway is not operationally suitable, the pilot in command
must advise ATC by using the phrase ‘REQUIRE RUNWAY (number) [LEFT or
RIGHT)”.
If another runway is preferred, but not operationally required, the pilot in
command must advise ATC by using the phrase “REQUEST RUNWAY
(number) [LEFT OR RIGHT]”.
When ATIS is not available, terminal information will be provided by ATC. This
will include runway, traffic patterns and QNH. Landing information may be
requested with the inbound report.
ATIS information, where available, must be obtained prior to taxiing.

LISTENING WATCH
No apron information is given concerning aircraft taxiing, or about to taxi.
A continuous listening watch on the SMC frequency must be maintained
while taxiing or when conducting ground operations on the manoeuvring area.

TAXI CLEARANCE
Neither a Taxi call or Taxi Clearance is required at a GAAP Aerodrome.
However, pilots should plan the route along which the aircraft will be taxied
in anticipation of ATC clearances to cross, enter or taxi along runway.

3 – G A A p procedures
254
outbound
LOOKOUT & GIVE WAY
A good lookout is required at all times when taxiing at a GAAP aerodrome.
At GAAP aerodromes, information is not given concerning aircraft taxiing, or
about to taxi, on apron areas.

TAXI WAY

Yellow Aircraft is required to give way to Red Aircraft

REMEMBER:
• y ou may cross from the dashed side without permission (such as vacating
the runway offer landing).
• a t the GAAP aerodrome you need permission to cross or enter any
runway.
• a t the towered non-GAAP aerodromes you need permission to cross from
the continuous side for all runways.

3 – G A A p procedures
 outbound 255

3 – G A A p procedures
256
outbound
DEPARTURE INTO ADJOINING CTA
When departing into controlled airspace, route and level clearances override
published GAAP procedures and will be taken into account by ATC.
When prior flight details have not been lodged and the intention is to
depart VFR into controlled airspace, the following information must be
provided to ATC before the taxi call:
• a ircraft callsign and “FLIGHT DETAILS FOR DEPARTURE”
(WAIT for RESPONSE from ATC); then
• aircraft type
• first intended landing point
• route and
• level.
Where a departing aircraft will enter adjacent controlled airspace, frequency
change instructions will be issued by ATC.
Departure reports must not be passed on tower frequency at GAAP
aerodromes.
Do not enter Controlled Airspace without having received an appropriate
airways clearance.

CLASS C

GAAP

3 – G A A p procedures
 outbound 257

TAKE-OFF PROCEDURES

HOLDING POINT
At a holding point you should
make the following call.
RUNWAY
Pilot:  “Archer Tower, Cessna
172, ZFR, Ready Runway
28 left, for Casino, Dual/
Solo (if training flight)
Received (ATIS Code) CAUTION
Holding Points
Tower: ZFR clear for take-off
may be placed
runway 28 left. other than on
Pilot: “Clear for Take-off, runways
runway 28 left, ZFR”. TAXIWAY
A rolling start is required once a
take-off clearance is given.

RUNWAY DEPARTURES
If departing from a runway, the runway number or ATC instructions determine the
direction of turn. Eg Runway right will require a right hand circuit. As each GAAP
aerodrome has varying procedures, particular attention must be made to the
ERSA and the relevant GAAP Visual Pilot Guide regarding the departure details.
The turn in the direction of the circuit must not be made until 500 feet AGL or
otherwise instructed by ATC.

DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
As each GAAP aerodrome has varying procedures, particular attention must
be made to the ERSA regarding the departure altitude and tracking details.
Also the relevant Visual Pilot Guide will provide easy to understand procedures.
Tracking outbound via the inbound reporting points is not permitted.

3 – G A A p procedures
258
outbound

When departing into adjoining non-controlled airspace, a pilot must:

• depart the GAAP CTR by extending the appropriate leg of the circuit;
• obtain specific ATC approval for any turn contrary to the circuit direction; or
• c limb to the departure altitude specified in ERSA for the particular GAAP
aerodrome;
• avoid the inbound reporting points.
You will need to maintain continuous surveillance for, and separation from,
other aircraft and track via departure procedures (if any) for the particular
GAAP aerodrome as specified in ERSA. Track well clear of GAAP approach
points and associated VFR routes, to reduce the possible conflict with
inbound aircraft.
A Departure Report is not required at a GAAP Aerodrome.

3 – G A A p procedures
 outbound 259

3 – G A A p procedures
260
inbound
ARRIVAL PROCEDURES
ATIS
The ATIS is available on the appropriate frequency and where practicable
must be obtained prior to arriving at an inbound reporting point. The ATIS is
normally available on the NDB frequency as well.
When control zones are deactivated the ATIS may be used to broadcast
operational information of an unchanging nature. This information may include
CTAF frequency, Pilot Activated Lighting (PAL) frequency, preferred runways
and noise abatement procedures. It may also include the expected reopening
time of the tower. The code letter for these broadcasts outside tower hours
is “ZULU”. Pilots are encouraged to monitor the ATIS outside the normal
hours of the tower. There is no need to nominate receipt of “ZULU” with
broadcasts.
If the nominated runway if not operationally suitable, the pilot in command
must advise ATC by using the phrase “REQUIRE RUNWAY (number) [LEFT or
RIGHT]”.
If another runway is preferred, but not operationally required, the pilot in
command must advise ATC by using the phrase “REQUEST RUNWAY
(number) [LEFT OR RIGHT]”.
Whenever parallel runways are utilised for simultaneous contra circuits the
circuit direction must be determined as follows:
• where runway RIGHT is nominated the circuit is right-hand; and
• where runway LEFT is nominated the circuit direction is left hand.
When ATIS is not available, terminal information will be provided by ATC. This
will include runway, traffic patterns and QNH. Landing information may be
requested with the inbound report. ATIS proforma is located on page 235, and
may be photocopied for use.
After receiving ATIS, plan taxi route required after landing to anticipate ATC
clearance to cross or enter runways.

ALTITUDE
Each GAAP aerodrome has specific procedures relating to the entry altitudes.
The information regarding individual aerodromes may be found in ERSA and
the appropriate VPG.
It is important to ensure you are entering at the correct level as exiting
aircraft may pose a collision hazard.

3 – G A A p procedures
 inbound 261

TRACKING REQUIREMENTS
Visual Terminal Charts (VTC) show the correct track into the GAAP aerodrome.
The VTC arrows represent tracks, so wind must be taken into account when
flying the inbound and outbound tracks. The Visual Pilot Guide for the specific
aerodrome shows graphically how to enter the circuit pattern for landing.

INBOUND REPORTING POINTS

Inbound reporting points are placed at various positions near a GAAP CTR
to allow an orderly entry into the CTR without undue delays. It is important
to track via an inbound reporting point unless operational conditions will not
allow this.
Entry to the CTR must be in accordance with the procedures specified in
ERSA for the particular GAAP aerodrome.

INBOUND REPORT
An inbound report must be given to the tower upon passing overhead the
inbound reporting point. As a GAAP aerodrome is generally a busy one,
patience is needed to effectively negotiate the inbound report.
The pilot in command must report to the tower at a GAAP aerodrome
approach point, advising:
• callsign;
• aircraft type;
• position;
• level;
• ATIS code received; and
• Intention.
Pilot: “
 Archer Tower, Zulu Foxtrot Romeo, Cessna 172, Target, 1500,
Received Delta, inbound”
Tower: “Zulu Foxtrot Romeo, track to join downwind, runway one zero right.”
Pilot: “Runway one zero right, Zulu Foxtrot Romeo”.

3 – G A A p procedures
262
inbound
ENTRY TO THE CIRCUIT
Aircraft must not enter a GAAP CTR until in receipt of a circuit entry or zone
transit instruction.
If you have not received your circuit joining instruction before the GAAP CTR
boundary, then you are required to turn outbound and fly clear of the inbound
reporting point, before trying again.

INBOUND RADIO CALLS

3 – G A A p procedures
 inbound 263

Cancel SARTIME through CENSAR

1800 814 931

A circuit entry instruction constitutes a clearance to descend, where
applicable, to the circuit altitude specified in ERSA, except where:
 TC issues an “OVERFLY AT (level)” or “JOIN UPWIND AT (level)”
• A
instruction; or
• an alternative procedure is specified in ERSA.
“OVERFLY AT (level)” is an ATC instruction which:
• authorises entry into the CTR at the altitude specified by ATC;
• requires the pilot to overfly the aerodrome maintaining this altitude; and
• is used by ATC to direct aircraft overhead the aerodrome clear of circuit
traffic, and where parallel circuits are in use, authorises the aircraft to
enter airspace associated with the opposite circuit.
ATC will issue a separate circuit entry or sequencing instruction to authorise
descent.
“JOIN UPWIND AT (level)” is an instruction which:
• authorises entry into the CTR at the altitude specified by ATC;
• r equires circuit entry tracking upwind over the runway centre-line, clear of
the opposite circuit airspace where parallel runways are in use; and
• is used to position aircraft in the circuit overhead the runway from the
approach point associated with the inbound call.
ATC will issue a sequence instruction to authorise descent from the upwind
leg to join the circuit. An ATC sequencing instruction cancels any altitude
restrictions associated with the UPWIND or OVERFLY instructions.
ATC may issue a sequencing instruction with a take-off or touch-and-go
clearance. When issued with a sequencing instruction, a pilot must follow the
preceding aircraft.
Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, a pilot must report DOWNWIND
when starting the downwind leg, and must advise aircraft type, callsign and

3 – G A A p procedures
264
inbound
intentions (ie, full stop or touch-and-go). If frequency congestion prevents
the call being made in this position, the pilot must report MID DOWNWIND
or LATE DOWNWIND, as appropriate. When appropriate, ATC will issue a
sequencing instruction.
Non-standard circuit operations, eg, glide and flapless circuits, must be
advised to ATC, normally with the DOWNWIND report. This advice will also
alert other circuit traffic. ATC must also be advised of simulated engine
failures and asymmetric training in multi-engined aircraft at the earliest
opportunity.

LANDING PROCEDURES
SEQUENCING
As GAAP aerodromes are generally busy, it is very important to keep a
vigilant lookout and pay careful attention to the instructions issued by ATC. In
sequencing aircraft ATC will indicate the position of the preceding aircraft by
reference to a leg of the circuit or a clock bearing, and describe it either as a
specific type or in general terms (eg Cessna or Twin).
ATC may issue a sequence number. Sequence numbers specify the landing
sequence position of an aircraft with respect to any preceding traffic.
The instruction FOLLOW requires the pilot to sight the preceding aircraft, and
regulate circuit speed and approach to achieve longitudinal separation.
If the preceding aircraft cannot be sighted and identified, the pilot must
advise ATC. Do not delay acknowledgment of a sequencing instruction
while looking for a proceeding aircraft.

CIRCUIT PROCEDURES
All GAAP Aerodromes are training aerodromes as well as aerodromes
that cater for high performance aircraft. Therefore workload of the pilot in
command varies a great deal from time to time. Patience and understanding
is needed when flying amongst student pilots, as a high workload can easily
distract them.
It is of vital importance to keep a positive scan outside the aircraft at all times.
If you have been sequenced behind a slower aircraft, it is your responsibility
not to overtake the slower aircraft without specific approval from ATC. If you
are unable to sight the preceding aircraft, notify ATC immediately.

3 – G A A p procedures
 inbound 265

“TRAFFIC NOT SIGHTED” DO NOT DELAY YOUR ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

UNTIL YOU SIGHT THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT.

LANDING CLEARANCE
A landing clearance does not absolve the pilot in command from the
responsibility for ensuring that sufficient separation from the preceding
aircraft will be maintained during the landing.
An aircraft can be cleared to land whilst a preceding aircraft is still on the
runway provided ATC is satisfied that no collision risk exists.
The minimum distance from the perimeter of an aerodrome at which the turn
onto final must be completed is 500 metres.

500
M

3 – G A A p procedures
266
inbound
GO AROUND PROCEDURE
Where ATC instructs an aircraft to go around, or missed approach is initiated,
the pilot must:
• commence climb to circuit altitude;
• p
 osition the aircraft on the active side and parallel to the nominated
runway, while maintaining separation from other aircraft; and
• follow ATC instructions or re-enter the circuit from up wind.
ATC will advise when wake turbulence may be a hazard.

TAXIING AFTER LANDING

After landing, the runway must be vacated as soon as possible. After vacating
the runway, the pilot must not cross or taxi along a runway unless a clearance
to do so has been obtained.
Contact with SMC frequency must be made immediately when clear of the
runway used for landing, except when specified in ERSA. SARTIME should be
cancelled where applicable.
An instruction to “HOLD SHORT OF RUNWAY (number) [LEFT (or) RIGHT]”
requires a pilot to hold at a marked holding point or to hold short of the
runway strip.
Before crossing any runway, ensure there is no traffic in both directions of the
runway which may cause conflict.

3 – G A A p procedures
 inbound 267

SARTIME CANCELLATION
Sartime can be cancelled once on the ground by phone (1800 814 931) or by radio
on the appropriate frequency found in ERSA or the applicable Visual Pilot Guide.
Caution must be taken to remember to cancel Sartime as many man hours
are wasted every day confirming aircraft have landed safely and failed to
cancel their Sartime.
A sticker on your flight bag, or a reminder on your flight plan may help remind you.

Cancel SARTIME through CENSAR

1800 814 931

TRANSIT OF AND FLIGHT IN PROXIMITY TO A GAAP CTR
Due to the density of aircraft operations in proximity to the GAAP approach
point, transits of non-controlled airspace in close proximity to GAAP CTRs
should be avoided where possible.

TRANSIT
A pilot of a flight intending to transit a GAAP CTR must comply with the
procedures for entry to a GAAP CTR, then proceed as directed by ATC.
Generally you will be required to maintain the entry altitude and track
overhead the runway before tracking outbound clear of the inbound reporting
points. Other tracking requirements may be approved subject to ATC approval.

FLIGHT IN PROXIMITY
When a radio equipped aircraft will track within 5NM (or as specified in ERSA)
of a GAAP CTR boundary, without entering the GAAP CTR, the pilot must:
• p
 rior to entering this airspace, obtain the ATIS and broadcast position,
altitude, and intention on the appropriate tower frequency; and
• w
 hile operating in this airspace, maintain a continuous listening watch on
the appropriate tower frequency.
While operating in this airspace, all aircraft must maintain a continuous visual
surveillance for other aircraft.

3 – G A A p procedures
 c o n tr o l l e d airs p a c e
268
general
This section sets out the pilot action and related Air Traffic Services (ATS)
activity in civil and military controlled airspace.
For flight in close proximity to the boundary of controlled airspace, separation
is not provided with traffic operating outside controlled airspace.

AIRSPACE CLASSIFICATION
CLASS C

CLASS G

CLASS D
CLASS C

GAAP NON-TOWERED

The types of operations and services available for a particular airspace are
categorised in the following table:

3 – controlled airspace
 clearances 269

AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCES AND INSTRUCTIONS

Except in an emergency, a clearance is required for all flights in Classes C, D
and GAAP airspace, Restricted areas and for IFR flights in Class E airspace.
A clearance is not required for VFR flights in Class E airspace.
Special requirements apply to Parachute jumping Operations in Class E
Airspace - refer to AIP ENR 5.5-2.
Where the airspace classification and flight rules require, an aircraft must
not enter controlled airspace without a clearance (see page 290 for holding
procedures). The pilot is responsible for obtaining a clearance and, once
obtained, must not amend a planned route, deviate from the cleared track,
or change level without obtaining ATC approval. When determining where
the clearance request will be made, the pilot should consider aircraft
performance, the possibility of frequency congestion if the airspace is known
to be busy, the possibility of changes to route and/or level, and the possible
delays that might be incurred when clearances have to be coordinated with
adjacent ATC sectors.
Pilots of VFR flights operating in Class E or G airspace requesting a clearance
to operate in Class C or D airspace must advise position, level and tracking
details when making first contact with ATC.
Within VHF radio coverage, pilots must maintain continuous communications
with ATC when operating in classes C and D airspace. Further, when in Class
E airspace, pilots of VFR flights should monitor the ATS frequency appropriate
to their area of operation.
When communication facilities permit, clearances will be passed direct to
pilots by ATC.
The clearance authorises flight in the specified manner to the first point at
which the flight leaves controlled airspace, or if completely in controlled
airspace, to the first landing point.
An air traffic clearance proposed by ATC does not relieve the pilot from
complying with statutory requirements nor from the responsibility for the
ultimate safety of the aircraft.
If considered necessary, a pilot should request a different clearance from that
issued. In an emergency, a pilot may act without a clearance and immediately
advise ATC.

3 – controlled airspace
270
clearances
A pilot must advise ATC immediately if issued a clearance which requires the
use of navigation aids not available to the aircraft, or the pilot is not qualified
to use.
Air traffic clearances are aimed at keeping an aircraft in controlled airspace,
both laterally and vertically, if the pilot has so planned. If a pilot is in doubt
that the clearance will keep the aircraft in controlled airspace, ATC should be
advised and an alternative clearance may be requested.
A pilot, desiring to retain control area protection during climb in Class C or
Class D airspace, should maintain at least 500FT above the lower limit of the
CTA steps.

500'

500'

500'

CONTROL AREA PROTECTION

A control instruction issued after a clearance is obtained amends the

appropriate item in the clearance. When there is any change in the clearance
limit and/or route specified in the initial clearance, a completely new clearance
will be issued.
Whenever a restriction or requirement has been imposed, and,
subsequently, a further restriction/requirement is imposed, the subsequent
instruction will cancel all previous restrictions/requirements unless:
• all restrictions/requirements are restated; or
• the subsequent instructions is prefixed “FURTHER REQUIREMENT”.
At a controlled aerodrome, clearance for operation in an adjoining control area
is given before departure.

3 – controlled airspace
 clearances 271

If proposing to fly into a control area from an aerodrome located so close

to the entry point that making a full position report before entry is not
practicable, a clearance should be requested:
• a t a convenient time before entering the runway for take-off at an aerodrome
where communication can readily be established before take-off; or
• a fter take-off, if not available or obtainable before take-off, provided that
the aircraft does not enter the control area until cleared.
If landing at an aerodrome with the intention of departing for a control area
shortly after landing, any revision of notified details relevant to the clearance,
including Estimated Time of Departure (ETD), should be advised to ATC, and a
clearance requested before landing.
Pre-departure clearances provided to pilots may include a ‘CLEARANCE
VOID TIME”.
Where a void time is specified, the clearance is valid only if the flight enters
controlled airspace in accordance with the clearance at or before that time.
Pilots should submit details required for flight in controlled airspace at
least 30 minutes before the expected time of entry. Flight details submitted
with less than 30 minutes notification will be processed on a “controller
workload permitting” basis, and may be subject to delay.

AIRWAYS CLEARANCE
A pilot in command must request an airways clearance:
• before entering controlled airspace,
• o
 n the clearance delivery frequency, preferably immediately before
starting engines, otherwise as soon as possible thereafter; or
• w
 here a clearance delivery frequency is not available, before entering the
departure runway.
Airways clearances normally contain the following items:
• aircraft identification
• destination, area of operation, position or clearance limit
• route of the flight
• assigned level
• SSR code
• any additional instructions.

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clearances
If an aircraft is cleared only to an intermediate point, and flight beyond that
point will be in controlled airspace, a pilot in command must obtain a further
clearance before proceeding beyond the intermediate clearance point.
When an aircraft leaves controlled airspace, a further clearance must be
obtained for any subsequent flight in controlled airspace.

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separation in controlled airspace 273

SepAration in controlled airspace (excluding GAAP CTRS)

In Class C airspace, ATC shall provide separation as follows:
• between IFR flights;
• between IFR and VFR flights;
• between IFR and special VFR flights; and
• between special VFR flights when the visibility is less than VMC.
Additionally, in Class C and Class D airspace:
• a t controlled aerodromes appropriate runway separation is applied to all
aircraft; and
• ATC provides VFR flights with traffic information on other VFR flights.
Furthermore, when requested, and as far as is practicable, ATC will provide
VFR flights in Class C airspace with a suggested course of action to avoid
other VFR flights.
It is the responsibility of the pilot in command to see and avoid other
aircraft. (CAR 163A).

SPECIAL PROVISIONS
Notwithstanding the general provisions of the previous paragraphs:
• the separation of aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area (which
does not include apron and parking areas) is a joint pilot and controller
responsibility. The pilot must maintain separation while complying with
clearances and instructions;
• in the traffic circuit, pilots are required to position their aircraft in such a
manner that, while complying with clearances and instructions from ATC,
they maintain the necessary separation from other traffic;
• separation is not normally provided within a training area in controlled airspace;
• u
 nder certain conditions, the pilot of one aircraft may be given the
responsibility for separation with other aircraft. In this circumstance:
– the pilot is also responsible for the provision of wake turbulence
separation, except that ATC is responsible for wake turbulence
separation between landing aircraft;
– the pilot must advice ATC when he/she is unable to maintain, or has
lost, sight of the other aircraft;

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separation in controlled airspace
– where an aircraft has been instructed to maintain separation from, but
not follow, an IFR aircraft, ATC will issue traffic information to the pilot
of the IFR aircraft, including advice that responsibility for separation
has been assigned to the other aircraft.
• a ircraft flying in formation or as part of an in-company flight will not
be provided with separation with respect to other aircraft of the same
formation or in-company flight. Formation and in-company flights may be
conducted subject to pre-arrangement between the pilots concerned and,
where applicable, notification of the formation or in-company flight to air
traffic control.

SERVICES
CLEARANCE DELIVERY: used by the Airways Clearance Delivery
(ACD) service when established on a discrete
frequency.
GROUND: used by Surface Movement Control and Apron
service (if provided by ATC) when established
on a discrete frequency. At some locations this
service also provides the Airways Clearance
Delivery service on the same frequency.
TOWER: The following services use this identification:
Aerodrome Control; Aerodrome/Approach
Control when combined.
APPROACH: used by Approach Control (APP) service when
established on a discrete frequency or by
Departure Control (DEP) when on the same
frequency.
DEPARTURES: used by Departure Control (DEP) service when
established on a discrete frequency.
CENTRE: used for Area Control (ACC) service.

3 – controlled airspace
separation in controlled airspace 275

TRAFFIC INFORMATION IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

In controlled airspace (excluding GAAP CTRs) when a separation standard
does not exist, ATC will provide traffic information to the aircraft concerned
when, in the opinion of the Air Traffic Controller, the information is warranted
by the proximity of the aircraft.
The traffic information provided will contain as much information as is known
and is necessary to assist the pilot in identifying the other aircraft, eg:
• type
• altitude
• p
 osition, either by clock reference, bearing and distance, relation to a
geographical point or reported position and estimate
• intentions or direction of flight.
ATC will provide relevant traffic information to aerodrome traffic to enable
pilots, while complying with ATC instructions, to maintain separation from
other aircraft.

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enroute
AIRCRAFT OFF-TRACK IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE -
ADVICE TO ATC
In controlled airspace, separation standards are based on the pilot maintaining
track as closely as possible at all times.
Corrective action must be taken to regain track as soon as any deviation is
observed.
Additionally, the pilot must immediately notify ATC if the aircraft is found to be
off-track by any of the deviations described below:
• w
 here track guidance is provided by a localizer or VOR - half scale
deflection or more of the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
• w
 here track guidance is provided by NDB or Locator - ±50 or more from
the specified bearing;
• w
 here the track guidance is provided by DME - ± 2NM or more from the
required arc;
• w
 here the track guidance is provided by an RNAV system - an indicated
crosstrack deviation of ±2NM or more;
• a nd when navigating by visual reference to the ground or water - more
than 1NM from the cleared track.
The values given above must not be interpreted as defining a sector within
which the pilot is permitted to navigate.

DIVERSION FROM TRACK

In controlled airspace, any diversion from track requires prior clearance from
ATC, except in an emergency. The values given in previous paragraphs must
not be interpreted as tolerances within which diversions from track without
clearance are permitted.

DIVERSIONS DUE TO WEATHER

In controlled airspace, any diversion from track due to weather requires prior
clearance from ATC. If out of radio contact and unable to obtain a clearance, and the
pilot in command considers that the diversion is necessary, a PAN call specifying the
details of the diversion must be broadcast on the appropriate frequencies.
PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN, ZULU FOXTROT ROMEO, 15NM SOUTH OF
NORMANTON, 8500, IS DESCENDING IMMEDIATELY TO 500FT TO AVOID
CLOUD

3 – controlled airspace
 enroute 277

CHANGE OF LEVELS
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
In controlled airspace, the pilot in command must commence a change of
level as soon as possible, but no later than one (1) minute after receiving that
instruction from ATC, unless that instruction specifies a later time or place.
ATC may require that an assigned level must be reached by a specific time,
distance or place. If a pilot in command doubts that the requirement can be
met, ATC must be advised immediately.
A requirement to report at a time or place given in the same clearance as a
descent/climb instruction does not require the new level to be reached by the
specified time or place.
The pilot in command of an aircraft operating in controlled airspace must report:
• w
 hen the aircraft has left a level at which level flight has been conducted
in the course of a climb, cruise or descent; and
• when the aircraft leaves a level for which ATC has requested a report.
ATC may provide vertical separation between two climbing aircraft, not
otherwise separated, by means of a step-climb. Pilots in command, who are
subjected to a step-climb, must adopt the following procedure:
• T
 he pilot in command of the lower aircraft must report approaching each
assigned level in the sequence.
• T
 he pilot in command of the higher aircraft, on hearing the lower aircraft
report approaching each assigned level, must report the last vacated level.
Step-descents are the reverse of the above paragraphs. ATC may specify a
rate of climb or descent. Other considerations are as follows:
• T
 he phrase “STANDARD RATE” when included in a clearance, specifies
a rate of climb or descent of not less than 500FT per minute, except that
the last 1,000FT to an assigned level must be made at 500FT per minute.
• In the case of a step-climb or descent, the specified rate will be applicable
to all level clearances issued in the course of the step climb or descent.
If unable to comply with the prescribed rate, the pilot in command must
advise ATC.
Cruise climb requirements will be accommodated provided that other aircraft
are not denied the use of that airspace contained between the reporting
points for which the climb is expected to take place.

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enroute

BLOCK LEVELS
On request from the pilot, a flight may be cleared to operate within controlled
airspace within a Block Level provided that other aircraft are not denied the
use of that airspace contained within that Block. A glider or balloon cleared to
operate in controlled airspace will be assigned block levels.
The pilot shall have complete freedom to change levels within the block,
provided that the upper and lower levels are not exceeded. However, a
clearance to operate within a Block Level shall be cancelled or amended if
another aircraft requests the use of a level within the block.
When cancelling or amending a Block Level clearance, the aircraft operating
in a Block Level shall be instructed to climb or descend to an appropriate level
or block level in order to provide vertical separation from the other aircraft
requesting one of the levels. Aircraft at standard flight levels will be afforded
priority over aircraft using nonstandard flight levels.

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 taxi 279

ENGINE START, PUSH-BACK AND TAXI

ENGINE START
The pilot in command of an aircraft must request approval to start engines
when the requirement is notified by ATIS, NOTAM, AIP Supplement, ATC or
listed in ERSA.

PUSH BACK
The pilot in command must obtain an approval to push back where this
manoeuvre is necessary prior to taxiing. Information about other aircraft
moving on the same apron will be provided by the apron service.

TAXI CLEARANCE
When operating from a controlled aerodrome where ATIS is in operation a
pilot in command must obtain the ATIS prior to taxi, and advise ATC of the
ATIS code when requesting taxi clearance.
The pilot in command must obtain a taxi clearance either prior to moving
on the manoeuvring area, or in the case of the above paragraph, at the
completion of the push-back manoeuvre.
The taxi clearance regulates entrance to, and movement on, the taxiways.
Avoidance of collision on apron areas is a joint responsibility of the pilot in
command and any assisting company ground personnel. Information about
other aircraft moving on the same apron area will be provided by the ATC
(where it exists as a discrete service).
Subject to the following paragraphs, a pilot in command for whom a runway
has been nominated for take-off must regard the taxi clearance limit to be:
• f or piston-engined aircraft - the holding bay, if provided, otherwise the
holding point for the runway; and
• f or turbine-engine aircraft or aircraft which have reported “READY” before
reaching the holding bay - the holding point for the runway.
A taxi instruction which contains taxi limit beyond a runway must include
a “CROSS RUNWAY (number)” instruction to cross that runway. When an
aircraft is required to hold short of a runway intersecting the taxi route, ATC
will issue a taxi instruction limit of the holding point associated with the
intersecting runway.

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taxi
An aircraft which has been issued with a taxi instruction limit of the holding
point of a runway intersecting the taxi route, or which has been issued with
an instruction to “HOLD SHORT” of that runway must subsequently be
issued with an instruction to “CROSS RUNWAY (number)”.
Aircraft required to hold short of a runway must hold at the appropriate
holding point for that runway, or the runway strip edge at the intersection of a
crossing runway. A pilot wishing to use less than the full length of the runway
available should nominate the intention when requesting the taxi clearance.
ATC may offer an intersection departure and will advise the remaining runway
length, if required.
A pilot in command unfamiliar with the aerodrome should “REQUEST
DETAILED TAXI INSTRUCTIONS”.
VFR aircraft wishing to depart without submitting flight notification must
provide the following information on first contact with ATC:
• aircraft callsign and “DETAILS” (wait for a response from ATC)
• destination and first tracking point
• preferred level
• identification of ATIS code received.

PROVISION OF OPERATIONAL INFORMATION

ATC will supply the following information for take-off:
• runway or direction
• w
 ind direction and speed, QNH and, if required, temperature and/or dew
point;
• a time check to the nearest half-minute - upon commencing to taxi from
the apron prior to take-off;
• t he crosswind component on the runway to be used, if this equals or
exceeds 8KT for single-engined aircraft or 12KT for multi-engined aircraft
• the downwind component, if the operation is downwind
• aerodrome surface conditions significant to the operation
• known weather information
• birds that may be a hazard to the operation

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 taxi 281

NOMINATION OF RUNWAYS
ATC will nominate the runway, preferred runway or take-off direction. Where
noise abatement procedures are in force, the provisions of DAP NAP must
be applied. ATC shall not nominate a particular runway for use if an alternative
runway is available, when:
• for runways that are completely dry:
A. the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 20KT
B. the downwind component, including gusts, exceeds 5KT
• for runways that are not completely dry:
A. the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 20KT
B. there is a downwind component

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take-off
SELECTION OF TAKE-OFF DIRECTION
The pilot in command must ensure that the runway is suitable for the
operation. If not suitable for an operational reason, ATC must be advised
before taxiing or when requesting an airways clearance by using the phrase
“REQUIRE RUNWAY (number)”.
Such a request will not result in a loss of priority, provided it is made on first
contact with clearance delivery or before taxiing. The decision to take-off rests
solely with the pilot in command.
SELECTION OF CIRCUIT DIRECTION
Circuit directions and turns will be specified or authorised by ATC but will not
be specified in the take-off clearance when a Standard Instrument Departure
(SID) has been authorised.
A pilot in command must notify ATC if a particular turn or circuit is essential to
the safe operation of the aircraft by use of the word “REQUIRE”.
DEPARTURE INSTRUCTIONS
Departure Instructions may contain the following as required:
• aircraft identification
• radar heading instructions*
• altitude restrictions
• direction of turn
• tracking points
• any other instructions.
*A pilot assigned a radar heading (including runway heading) will not
compensate for wind effect.
When a heading is assigned as a departure instruction, the pilot in command
must ensure that the heading and the direction of the turn are read back. This
requirement also applies to the initial heading assigned by ATC as part of the
radar SID.

3 – controlled airspace
 take-off 283

TAKE-OFF PROCEDURES
CHANGE TO TOWER FREQUENCY
International aircraft will be instructed by the ATC when to change to the
tower frequency prior to take-off. Domestic aircraft should change to tower
frequency;
• in the holding bay, or
• c lose to, or at, the holding point of the nominated runway when ready for
take-off.

RUNWAY ENTRY
A pilot in command must not enter an active runway unless a specific
clearance to:
• take-off
• line up
• backtrack
has been received, or a clearance to enter for other purposes has been
received from ATC.

HOLDING ON THE RUNWAY

THE PILOT IN COMMAND MUST NOT HOLD ON THE RUNWAY IN USE
UNLESS PERMISSION TO DO SO HAS BEEN OBTAINED FROM ATC.

CLEARANCE REQUIRED
A pilot in command must not take off unless the specific clearance ‘CLEARED
FOR TAKE-OFF” has been received.

3 – controlled airspace
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take-off
SEPARATION MINIMA FOR TAKE-OFF
An aircraft will not be permitted to commence take-off until:
• a preceding departing aircraft using the same runway has:
- crossed the upwind end of the runway
- commenced a turn
- if the runway if longer than 1,800M, become airborne and is at least
1,800M ahead of the proposed point of lift off
- if the preceding aircraft has a MTOW of 7,000KG or less and the
following aircraft has a MTOW below 2,000KG and is slower, the
preceding aircraft is airborne and is at least 600M ahead of the
proposed point of lift off; or
- if both aircraft have a MTOW below 2,000KG, the preceding aircraft is
airborne and is at least 600M ahead of the proposed point of lift off;
• a preceding landing aircraft using the same runway has vacated it and is
taxiing away from the runway; and
• a preceding aircraft, using another runway, has crossed or stopped short
of the take-off aircraft’s runway.
Where reasonable to do so, ATC may issue a take-off clearance in
anticipation that the prescribed separation will exist at the time that the
take-off roll is commenced.
Other than as specified for Land And Hold Short (LAHSO) Operations,
exceptions to these application of separation standards are:
• aircraft taking off in formation with respect to each other;
• a ircraft operating in different areas or lanes on aerodromes with runways
or facilities suitable for simultaneous take-offs (CAR168); and
• the avoidance of wake turbulence.

3 – controlled airspace
 after take-off 285

AFTER TAKE-OFF
AIRBORNE REPORT – RADAR
Where departures control is established, or when instructed to call radar
when airborne, a pilot must, on first contact, report:
• the direction of turn;
• the initial radar heading;
• the altitude passing, to nearest 100FT; and
• the last assigned level.

DEPARTURE REPORT – NON-RADAR

Except when an airborne report has been made, a departure report containing
the following information must be passed to the tower:
• departure time (if applicable);
• tracking information;
• the last assigned altitude; and
• the estimate for the first en route reporting point.
The departure time must be calculated as follows:
• current time minus an adjustment for the distance from the aerodrome; or
• when over or abeam the aerodrome.
Tracking information must confirm the track established with reference to the
appropriate navigation aid, or visual reference.

3 – controlled airspace
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after take-off
ESTABLISHMENT ON TRACK
Unless otherwise instructed by ATC, a pilot in command must remain within
5 NM of the departure aerodrome to establish flight on the departure track as
soon as practicable after take-off.

RE m
TU 5n
PAR CK
DE TRA

FREQUENCY CHANGE
When frequency change instructions are issued immediately preceding the take-
off clearance, pilots must change frequency automatically from Tower as soon as
practicable after take-off, preferably within one mile of becoming airborne.
In all other situations, pilots of departing aircraft are required to remain on Tower
frequency until specific frequency change instructions are issued. Pilots can
generally expect an instruction to contact Departures Control prior to reaching
2,000FT and should, when advised, effect the change as soon as possible.
When contacting Area Control, advise only whether climbing to, descending
to, or maintaining the last assigned level.
EN ROUTE
In non-radar CTA, pilots must report maintaining an assigned level. After any
en-route frequency change, the pilot must advise the last assigned level and
whether the aircraft is on climb, cruise or descent.

3 – controlled airspace
 arrival 287

VFR FLIGHTS ENTERING CLASS C OR D AIRSPACE

Before reaching the boundary of class C or D airspace, the pilot must
establish twoway communications with ATC on the frequency notified on the
chart, in ERSA, or AIP Supplement or NOTAM, and obtain a clearance.
When advance notification has not been provided, the pilot must advise the
following to ATC before the point of intended entry:
• a ircraft callsign “INBOUND/TRANSIT DETAILS” (wait for the ATC response
“GO AHEAD”) then advise:
– flight rules and aircraft type
– position
– route and next estimate, and
– preferred level
The area VHF frequency may be used to obtain a clearance when out of range
of the ATC frequency, or to obtain advice as the appropriate ATC frequency on
which a clearance can be obtained. If the flight will transit a Radar Information
Service (RIS) area before entering controlled airspace, clearance request
should be made on the RIS frequency.
If entry to the CTR will be from an adjacent GAAP CTR, a clearance should be
requested before engine start. ATC will advise the extent of the delay, if any.
If landing at an aerodrome where ATIS is provided, the pilot should obtain
the ATIS before the first contact on the approach/tower frequency. On first
contact advise ATIS received.
The clearance to enter will specify the altitude, track and any holding
instructions. Some of these items may be combined with the clearance
“CLEARED FOR VISUAL APPROACH”.

FLIGHTS ENTERING CONTROLLED AIRSPACE FROM NONTOWERED

AERODROME
When the controlled airspace and a non-controlled airport in the vicinity, a
clearance should be obtained direct on the ATC frequency. When this is not
possible, clearances should be requested through the ATS unit providing
services in Class G airspace.

3 – controlled airspace
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arrival
VISUAL APPROACH
ATC AUTHORISATION
Criteria under which visual approaches may be authorised by ATC are as follows:
• for a VFR flight by day and night, the aircraft is within 30NM of the
aerodrome.

TRACKING REQUIREMENTS
Tracking requirements for a visual approach include the following:
• a pilot in command must maintain track/heading on the route progressively
authorised by ATC until: by day, within 5NM of the aerodrome; or by night,
- for a VFR flight, within 3NM of the aerodrome; and
- the aerodrome is in sight.
• f rom this position the circuit must be joined as directed by ATC for an
approach to the nominated runway.

MINIMUM ALTITUDE REQUIREMENTS

For VFR flights during the conduct of a visual approach, a pilot must descend
as necessary to:
• b
 y day
operate not below the lowest altitude permissible for VFR flight (CAR157).
• b
 y night
maintain not less than the lowest altitude permissible for VFR flight (CAR
174B) until the aircraft is within 3NM of the aerodrome and the aerodrome
is in sight. (AIP GEN 3.3)
When conducting a visual approach, a pilot in command must not climb above
an altitude reported to ATC as having been reached or left, unless authorised
to do so.

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 arrival 289

A pilot may be assigned the responsibility to follow another arriving aircraft

which he/she has reported sighting. When assigned this responsibility, the
pilot must maintain separation from and not overtake that aircraft. In this
circumstance, the pilot is also responsible for providing his/her own wake
turbulence separation. If sighting is subsequently lost, the pilot must advise
the ATC immediately.

3 nm

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290
holding
A pilot in command cleared to a point for which there is an approved holding
pattern, must hold in that pattern until further cleared. Where a delay of more
than five minutes is expected, ATC will advise:
• in a radar environment, an expected landing time; and
• in a procedural environment, an expected approach time.
A pilot in command required to hold in an approach sequence must advise
ATC of the latest divert time, when operationally necessary.
When an aircraft is holding because airspace is closed or weather conditions
are worse that the prescribed landing minima, ATC will nominate scheduled
reporting times. These times will normally be at 15 minute intervals.

OPTION 1 : HOLD

OPTION 2 : DESCEND BELOW STEPS AND

AGAIN ASK FOR CLEARANCE

OPTION 3 : FLY AROUND CONTROLLED

AIRSPACE OUTSIDE THE BOUNDARIES

OPTION 4 : PROCEED TO AN ALTERNATE

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 landing 291

LANDING - PROVISION OF OPERATIONAL INFORMATION

ATC will supply the following information for landing operations:
• runway and direction
• w
 ind direction and speed, QNH and, if required, temperature and/or dew
point
• k nown significant weather information, including low cloud and visibility or
runway visual range
• a time check (to the nearest half minute) whenever a time to commence
final is specified by ATC
• t he crosswind component on the runway to be used, if this equals or
exceeds 8KT for single-engined aircraft or 12 KT for multi-engined aircraft
• the downwind component if a pilot operates downwind
• aerodrome surface conditions significant to the operation
• birds and other hazards to aircraft
• cautionary advice of wake turbulence.

SELECTION OF LANDING DIRECTION

The pilot in command must ensure that the nominated runway or direction
is operationally suitable. If the nominated runway or direction is not suitable,
ATC must be advised using the phrase “REQUIRE RUNWAY(number)”. Such a
request will not result in of loss of priority provided that it is made:
• b
 efore reaching 80NM (120NM for jets) from a capital city aerodrome
(including Essendon) or 30NM from other controlled aerodromes, for
arriving aircraft wholly within controlled airspace; or
• o
 n first contact with ATC for arriving aircraft entering controlled airspace
within the distance specified above or a control area step or a control zone.
The decision to land rests solely with the pilot in command.

SELECTION OF CIRCUIT DIRECTION

A pilot in command must notify ATC if a particular turn or circuit is essential to
the safe operation of the aircraft. The word REQUIRE must be used to enable
ATC to identify the safety requirement.

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landing
LANDING CLEARANCES
Pilot in command must not land unless the specific clearance “CLEARED TO
LAND” has been received.
When operations at an aerodrome are not restricted to runways, the clearance
authorises the proposed operation. The pilot in command should watch for
other traffic and ensure that there is no collision risk.

SEPARATION MINIMA FOR LANDING

The appropriate wake turbulence separation standard will always be applied
by the ATC between landing aircraft.
A landing aircraft will not be permitted to cross the threshold of the runway on
its final approach until;
• a preceding departing aircraft using the same runway
– is airborne, and
- has commenced a turn; or
- is beyond the point on the runway at which the landing aircraft
could be expected to complete its landing roll and there is
sufficient distance to manoeuvre safely in the event of missed
approach; or
– is at least 1,000M from the runway threshold, and
- has commenced the take-off run; and
- in the opinion of the controller, no collision risk exists, and
- the aircraft taking off has a MTOW of 7,000KG or less; and
- the landing aircraft is performance Category A and has a MTOW
below 3,000KG.
• a preceding landing aircraft using the same runway:
– has vacated it and is taxiing away from the runway; or
– will vacate the runway without backtracking, and
- in the opinion of the tower controller, no collision risk exists; and
- the preceding landing aircraft has a MTOW of 7,000KG or less; and
- the following landing aircraft is performance Category A and has a
MTOW below 3,000KG; or

3 – controlled airspace
 landing 293

– in the case where the following landing aircraft is a helicopter, the
preceding landing aircraft is at least 300M down the runway from the
threshold and ATC is satisfied that no collision risk exists. This standard
is not applicable at GAAP aerodromes;
•.  a preceding aircraft, using a different runway, has crossed or stopped short
of the landing aircraft’s runway.
In the above situations, a landing clearance may be issued if ATC expects that
the required runway separation standard will exist.
Exceptions to separation minima are:
• aircraft landing in formation with respect to each other;
• a ircraft operating in different areas or lanes on aerodromes with runways
or facilities suitable for simultaneous landings.

Note: Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) are not covered in this guide
but are included in AIP ENR 1.1.

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landing
GO AROUND PROCEDURES - VISUAL APPROACH IN VMC
In the event that an aircraft is required to go around from a visual approach in
VMC, the aircraft must initially climb on the runway track, remain visual and
await instructions from ATC. If the aircraft can not clear obstacles on runway
track, the aircraft may turn.
The exception to the above procedure is that, at Sydney, visual go-arounds
must be carried out as directed by ATC.

TAXIING AFTER LANDING

A pilot in command must not hold on the runway in use unless ATC has so
authorised.
After landing, unless specified otherwise by ATC, an aircraft must [Link]
with the following:
• promptly vacate the runway without backtracking;
• c hange from the aerodrome frequency to the SMC frequency (where
established) when vacating the runway strip and obtain an ATC taxi
instruction;
• n
 ot cross any runway that intersects the taxi route unless in receipt of a
taxi instruction and a “CROSS RUNWAY (number)” instruction from ATC;
and
• taxi to the destination via the most direct taxiway(s) available;
• w
 here an apron service is provides on a discrete frequency (see ERSA),
change to that frequency on entering the apron.
A taxi instruction which contains a taxi limit beyond a runway must include
a “CROSS RUNWAY (number)” instruction to cross that runway. When an
aircraft is required to hold short of a runway intersecting the taxi route, ATC
will issue a taxi instruction limit of the holding point associated with the
intersecting runway. An aircraft which has been issued with a taxi instruction
limit of the holding point of a runway intersecting the taxi route, or which
has been issued with an instruction to “HOLD SHORT” of that runway, must
subsequently be issued with an instruction to “CROSS RUNWAY (number)”.
Aircraft required to hold short of a runway must hold at the appropriate
holding point for that runway, or the runway strip edge at the intersection of a
crossing runway.

3 – controlled airspace
 3 295

When separate frequencies for aerodrome control and surface movement

control are in use, the pilot in command, on landing, must change from the
aerodrome control frequency to the SMC frequency on vacating the runway
strip, and then transmit the aircraft callsign and, if applicable, parking bay
number. A pilot in command may “REQUEST DETAILED TAXI INSTRUCTIONS
TO (location)”.
Aircraft taxiing on the manoeuvring area will be regulated by ATC to
avoid possible conflict, and will be provided with a traffic information and
alerting service. The pilot must maintain separation while complying with
the clearances and instructions. A taxi clearance will govern entry to and
movement on the taxiways but will not relate to movement on the apron
areas. However, available essential information referring to other aircraft
entering or leaving the same apron area will be provided. Radio watch must
be maintained on the SMC (or tower frequency where no SMC frequency is
provided) until parked.

3 – controlled airspace
 c l ass e airs p a c e
296
services
OPERATIONS IN CLASS E AIRSPACE
ATC TRAFFIC SERVICES
In Class E airspace, the following traffic services are provided by ATC:
• separation between IFR flights,
• t raffic information to IFR flights about known VFR flights as far as
practicable, and
• t raffic information to radar-identified VFR flights which are in receipt of a
radar information service about other observed traffic.
Traffic information services provided by ATC do not relieve pilots of their
responsibilities for continued vigilance to see-and-avoid other aircraft.
In Class E airspace, the following also apply:
• H
 azard Alerts will be directed to pilots of IFR flights, and to pilots of
known VFR flights.

VFR FLIGHTS IN CLASS E AIRSPACE

VFR flights entering Class E airspace do not require a clearance. VFR flights
entering and operating in Class E airspace should:
• avoid published IFR routes, where possible,
• unless receiving a RIS, monitor the Class G area frequency, and
• take appropriate action to avoid potential conflict.

ADDITIONAL ATC SERVICES - CLASS E AIRSPACE

Radar Services. Unless impracticable to do so, ATC will provide some
additional radar services in Class E airspace
Note: Many factors, such as the limitations of radar, volume of traffic,
controller workload and communications frequency congestion could
prevent ATC from providing a radar service. The controller’s reason
against providing or continuing to provide the service in a particular case
is not subject to question, nor need it be communicated to the pilot.
Within radar coverage, a radar-derived traffic information, navigation or
position information service may be provided to VFR flights. Pilots wishing to
use radar services must be in direct VHF communications with ATC and be
equipped with a serviceable transponder. Flights using the service will not be

3 – class e airspace
 services 297

allocated a specific transponder code except when the ATC intends to provide
an ongoing service.
Pilots of VFR flights receiving a Radar Information Service (RIS) in Class E
airspace will be provided with information about radar observed traffic. However,
due to the nature and type of radar coverage, not all aircraft will be observed on
radar. Consequently, traffic information provided by ATC may be incomplete.
Pilots must comply with the see-and-avoid requirements of CAR163A.

On initial contact, pilots must advise position, level and intentions and advise
the radar service required. ATC will respond by identifying the aircraft, and
notifying the pilot that the aircraft has been “IDENTIFIED” prior to the
commencement of traffic information, position information, or navigational
assistance. ATC may also assign a specific transponder code prior to, or
during the provision of, radar services. ATC must be advised of any attention
to change track or level.
When ATC is unable to provide radar services, the pilot will be advised
“RADAR SERVICE NOT AVAILABLE”. Requests for emergency assistance
should be prefixed by “MAYDAY” (three times) or “PAN PAN” (three times),
and will receive priority.
Radar services may be terminated at any time by the controller or by pilot
request. When services are terminated, ATC will advise “RADAR SERVICES
TERMINATED” (see Note 2 below). If a specific transponder code has not
been allocated, ATC will advise “SQUAWK CODE 1200”.
Note 1: Navigational guidance is advisory in nature and the responsibility
for the safe operation of the aircraft remains with the pilot. Terrain
clearance, aircraft-to-aircraft separation, and obtaining clearances
into controlled airspace remain pilot responsibilities.
Note 2: When radar services to VFR flights are terminated, pilots should
monitor an ATS frequency appropriate to their area of operation.

3 – class e airspace
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services
ATC SERVICE TO VFR FLIGHTS IN CLASS E AIRSPACEAND RAS AREAS IN
CLASS G AIRSPACE
In designated RAS areas, Flight information and SAR Alerting Services are
provided by ATC.
Additionally, a limited on-request service is available to VFR flights, subject
to higher priority duties and other factors, including equipment limitations,
volume if traffic, frequency congestion and workload. The service available to
VFR flights are:
• t raffic Information Service. Pilots requesting this service should use the
phrase “REQUEST TRAFFIC ADVISORY”. Information is based on observed
traffic at the time of the request. On-going traffic information will not be
provided, unless so advised by the controller.
• p
 osition Information Service. Pilots requesting this service should use the
phrase “REQUEST POSITION ADVISORY”.
• n
 avigation Assistance Service. Pilots requesting this service should use
the phrase “REQUEST NAVIGATION ADVISORY”. Responsibility for aircraft
and terrain avoidance remains with the pilot in command.
On completion of these services, the controller will advise
“RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED”.

3 – class e airspace
 c r u isi n g o c ta

prohibited/restricted/danger 299

AIRSPACE RESERVATION
A designated airspace or portion thereof under the control of another
authority may be reserved to allow the following:
• fl
 ights of special military significance requiring the use of controlled
airspace, which would be subject to unacceptable restrictions if normal
operations applied;
• c ivil flights requiring passage through military airspace when weather
conditions or other factors make flight on the normal air route inadvisable, or
impossible, and when other routes are unavailable, or the use of such routes
would impose severe economic penalties on the operation of the aircraft.
There are two types of airspace reservations; fixed defined areas and
“mobile” (Eg, aerial refuelling, en route formation flights, etc). Such
reservations are normally only applied during limited periods. A designated
airspace or portion thereof under the control of a military ATC authority may
also be reserved to confine particular activities.
In such airspace, RAAF ATC shall be responsible for the provision of
separation for transiting civil or military aircraft from the areas reserved or
restricted for current air defence operation.

CLASSIFICATION
Airspace in which a potential hazard to aircraft operations may exist, and
all areas over which the operation of civil aircraft may be restricted are
promulgated as follows:
• P
 rohibited Area
Airspace within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited.
• R
 estricted Area
Airspace within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with
specified conditions.
• D
 anger Area
Airspace within which activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may
exist at specified times.
These areas are promulgated in the DAH and are shown on MAP charts by
boundaries outlined in red and containing the identification of the area as a
letter and a number.

3 – cruising octa
300
prohibited/restricted/danger
The letters allocated are:
P = Prohibited Area
R = Restricted Area
D = Danger area
The number identifies the area.
When used internationally, the identification of these areas are preceded by a
FIR identifier as follows;
Brisbane = YB
Melbourne = YM
Details are shown in ERSA or NOTAM
Unless otherwise specified, vertical limits are promulgated as AMSL when at or
below the transition altitude, or as a flight level when above the transition altitude.
The abbreviation “SFC” means the surface of the ground or water. “NOTAM”
indicates that the vertical limits or hours of activation will be notified by NOTAM.
The promulgated vertical limits of prohibited and restricted areas include all
the buffers necessary for the protection of aircraft operating outside these
areas. Therefore, the promulgated levels may be used by aircraft avoiding the
areas, except where the vertical limit abuts controlled airspace, in which case,
a clearance is required.

FLIGHT WITHIN PROHIBITED (PRD) AREAS

Flight within a prohibited area is not permitted in any circumstances.

FLIGHT WITHIN RESTRICTED AREAS

Approval for an aircraft to fly within an active restricted area or airspace
depends on the location of the airspace and the type of activity being
conducted in that area or airspace, at the time. Pilots desiring access to a
restricted area or airspace should request clearance from ATC in the same
manner that clearance to enter controlled airspace is requested. Clearances
are generally only withheld when activities hazardous to the aircraft are taking
place, or when military activities require absolute priority. When clearance is
granted, the flight must be conducted in accordance with the conditions and
instructions specified by the ATC unit.

3 – cruising octa
 prohibited/restricted/danger 301

Civil aircraft operating in military Restricted areas or airspace in which an ATC

service is provided will receive a service equivalent to that of Class C airspace
unless specified otherwise by ERSA FAC.
When compliance with an air traffic clearance requires flight:
• from controlled airspace into an adjoining active restricted area or airspace; or
• t hrough an active restricted area or airspace into adjoining controlled
airspace; or
• t hrough an active restricted area or airspace within controlled airspace; the
pilot in command may assume that ATC has obtained approval for the flight.
The flight path must comply with prescribed controlled airspace procedures.
When flight within an active restricted area or airspace is required in
circumstances other than those specified in this section, operators must
submit a request to ATS for specific approval to enter.

FLIGHT WITHIN DANGER AREAS

Approval for flight within a danger area outside controlled airspace is not required.

LANES OF ENTRY
Lanes of entry are established to permit passage to and from a GAAP CTR
without entering an adjacent civil or military CTR. The vertical limits provide
separation from overlying control or restricted areas.
When using these lanes, pilots must:
• operate under VFR
• c onform with the general flight rules regarding terrain clearance, flight over
populous areas, and low level restricted areas;
• o
 perate not higher than the altitude specified as the upper limit in the
section being flown; and
• keep to the right.

3 – cruising octa
302
selection of levels
CRUISING LEVELS

0 9500

MA
8500
0

DD
1000s +5

7500

GNETIC TRACK
6500

1000s +5
5500
4500
N

3500
E

2500
V

00
E

1500

CRUISING LEVEL TO BE APPROPRIATE TO MAGNETIC TRACK (CAR173)

• W
 hen a V.F.R. flight is conducted at a height of 5,000 feet or more above
mean sea level, the pilot in command must, subject to any contrary air
traffic control instructions, ensure that the cruising level of the aircraft is
appropriate to its magnetic track.
• W
 hen a V.F.R. flight is conducted at a height less than 5,000 feet above
mean sea level, the pilot in command must, subject to any contrary air
traffic control instructions, ensure that the cruising level of the aircraft is,
whenever practicable, appropriate to its magnetic track in accordance with
the following division.
• U
 nless CASA otherwise approves, a V.F.R. flight shall not be conducted at
a height above flight level 200.

3 – cruising octa
 radio requirements 303

VFR BELOW 5000FT OCTA

Aircraft may maintain a listening watch on other than the area VHF for
operations below 5,000FT OCTA such as parachuting, gliding, agricultural
operations and flights in the vicinity of non-controlled aerodromes.
Gliders are encouraged, but not required, to monitor the Area VHF when
operating above 5,000FT OCTA.

LIMITED RADIO AND NO RADIO PROCEDURES

Authorisation may be given to Australian registered aircraft to vary the
requirements for the carriage of radio equipment as specified in Radio
Communication and Navigation Requirements. Authorisations are given by the
relevant District Office of the CASA.

NON-RADIO AT OR ABOVE 5000 FT

A no-radio aircraft operating OCTA may, due to stress of weather, operate
above 5,000FT to the minimum extent necessary for the safe conduct of the
flight, provided;
• the aircraft cruises at a VFR level;
• the cruise is conducted in VMC; and
• a s soon as is practicable, the aircraft descends in VMC to below 5,000
FT to continue flight in VMC. A pilot not able to comply with these
requirements must proceed to the nearest suitable aerodrome and land.
A no-radio aircraft other than a glider may operate above 5,000FT within the
confines of a published Danger Area. Gliders may be authorised to operate
above FL200 and monitor an approved frequency other than the area VHF
frequency. The area of operation will be advised by NOTAM.
If total or partial failure of mandatory radio communications equipment occurs
before flight commences and repair facilities are available, repairs must be
made before the flight proceeds. Where repair facilities are not available,
and flight to the nearest appropriate repair facility entails flight in controlled
airspace or an aerodrome designated CTAF (R), the flight may proceed
provided that for flight in controlled airspace ATS is advised of the radio failure
and a clearance for the flight is obtained from ATC.

3 – cruising octa
304
navigation position fixing
The following apply to flight under the VFR:
• t he pilot in command must navigate the aircraft by visual reference to the
ground or water, or by using any of the methods specified in AIP ENR 1.1 as
“ALTERNATE MEANS” , except that when operating at or below 2,000FT
above the ground or water, the pilot in command must be able to navigate
by visual reference to the ground or water.
• w
 hen navigating by visual reference to the ground or water, the pilot in
command must positively fix the aircraft’s position by visual reference
to features shown on topographical charts at intervals not exceeding 30
minutes. When flying over the sea, visual reference features may include
rocks and reefs and fixed man-made objects which are marked on suitable
charts and are readily identifiable from the air.
Note: Flight above more than SCT cloud, or over featureless land areas,
or over the sea, may preclude visual position fixing at the required
intervals and may therefore make visual navigation impracticable.
• w
 hen navigating by visual reference in controlled airspace the pilot must
notify ATC if the aircraft’s track diverges by more than one (1) nautical
mile from the track approved by ATC, or, if navigating by reference to radio
navigation aids, by more than the tolerances given on AIP ENR 1.1-19.4.7.
• VFR flight on top of more than SCT cloud is available provided that:
– VMC can be maintained during the entire flight, including climb, cruise
and descent.
– for VFR flight on top, the visual position fixing requirements of
AIP ENR 1.1-19.1 or the IFR navigational requirements must be met.
– prior to conducting a VFR flight on top of more than SCT cloud, the
pilot in command must ensure that current forecasts and observations
(including those available in flight observations) indicate that conditions
in the area of, and during the period of, the planned descent below the
cloud layer will permit the descent to be conducted in VMC.
– the position at which descent below cloud is planned to occur must
be such as to enable continuation of the flight to the destination and, if
required, an alternate aerodrome in VMC (see Notes 1 and 3).

3 – cruising octa
 navigation position fixing 305

•  when navigating by reference to radio navigation systems, the pilot in

command must obtain positive radio fixes at the intervals and by the
methods prescribed on AIP ENR 1.1-19.1 and AIP ENR 1.1-19.4.6.
• t he pilot in command of a VFR flight wishing to navigate by means of
radio navigation systems or any other means must indicate in the flight
notification only those radio navigation aids with which the aircraft is
equipped and the pilot is qualified to use (see Note 2).
• VFR
 aeroplanes operating above F200 must be equipped with an altimeter
calibrated to IFR standards.
Note 1: A pilot must not undertake a VFR flight on top of more than SCT
cloud unless the aircraft is equipped with serviceable flight and
navigation instruments as specified in CAO 20.18 Appendix IV.
Note 2: “Qualified” means the holder of an instrument rating or NVFR
rating which is endorsed for the particular navigation aid or
any private or higher category pilot who has received in-flight
instruction from a qualified instructor in the use of the radio
navigation aid as the sole means of navigation, and who is
competent to navigate by use of the aid.
Note 3: Pilots are warned against initiating VFR-on-top when weather
conditions are marginal. Before committing their flight to operating
VFR-on-top they should be confident that meteorological
information used is reliable and current, and clearly indicates that
the entire flight will be able to be conducted in VMC.

3 – cruising octa
306
navigation position fixing
ALTERNATE MEANS OF NAVIGATION
An aircraft operating under the VFR can also be navigated by:
• a full time licensed flight navigator; or
• a n approved self-contained navigation system, or approved long range
radio navigation system; or
• u
 se of a radio navigation system or systems on routes where, after
making allowance for possible tracking errors of ± 9° from the last positive
fix, the aircraft will come within the rated coverage of a radio aid which
can be used to fix the position of the aircraft. The maximum time interval
between positive fixes must not exceed two (2) hours. (AIP ENR 1.1-
19.2.1(a)
Note: self-contained or long range navigation systems may only be used as
the sole means of navigation if the system installed in the aircraft has
been approved by the CASA and the pilot in command operates the
system in accordance with the terms of this approval.

TRACK KEEPING
Tolerances are applied to tracks to assess containment area for the purposes
of ensuring navigational integrity, separation from other aircraft, terrain and
obstacle clearance and avoidance of specified airspace. Although allowing
for the errors inherent in the navigational systems used, these tolerances are
based on the assumption that the pilot will maintain track as closely as possible.
The pilot in command must, at all times, take positive action to regain track as
soon as a deviation from the correct track is recognised.

BY USE OF NAVAIDS
When using radio navigational aids as the primary means of navigation:
• t he aircraft must be navigated by reference to the aid which provides the
most precise track guidance with which the aircraft is equipped and the
pilot is qualified to use; and
• o
 nly those aids which specifically define the relevant track must be used
for track keeping.
The order of precision is Localizer, VOR, then NDB/ Locator. When track guidance
is provided by radio navigation aids, but navigation is by an approved self-
contained navigation system or long range navigation system, the pilot must
maintain track as defined by the most accurate radio navigation aid available.

3 – cruising octa
 navigation position fixing 307

POSITION FIXING WITH NAVAIDS

A positive radio fix is one that is determined by the passage of the aircraft over:
• a NDB; or
• a VOR station; or
• a DME; or
• is one determined by the intersection of two or more position lines which
intersect with angles of not less than 45° and which are obtained from
NDBs, VORs, Localizers or DMEs in any combination.
For the purpose of this section, a position line must be within the rated
coverage of the aid with the exception that if a fix is determined entirely by
position lines from NDBs, the position lines must be within a range of 30NM
from each of the NDBs.

3 – cruising octa
 aerial sporting and recreational activities
308
gliding
GENERAL
Pilots should take extra care when operating at an aerodrome where gliding
operations are in progress, Gliding operations are indicated by the “gliding
operations in progress” ground signal displayed next to the primary winch
direction indicator. Pilots should also establish whether the gliders are being
launched by winch or aerotow, or both.

GLIDING
OPERATIONS
IN PROGRESS

Where aerotowing is in progress, pilots should remain well clear of gliders

under tow. If wire launching is used, pilots should establish the locations of
either the winch or tow car and the cable, and remain well clear. Over- flying
the active runway below 2,000FT AGL is not advised, nor is landing without
first ascertaining that the cable if on the ground and not across the landing
path. Aerotow and winch launching are possible up to 4,000FT AGL, but
launches to 1,500FT or 2,000FT AGL are normal.
Except for operations in controlled airspace, gliding operations may be
conducted noradio, or may be on frequencies 122.5MHZ, 122.7MHZ or
122.9MHZ, which have been allocated for use by gliders. Unless otherwise
authorised, gliding operations in controlled airspace must be conducted
using the appropriate air traffic control frequency. Radio equipped gliders at
non-controlled aerodromes will use the appropriate gliding frequency or CTAF.
Whenever possible, when operating above 5,000FT AMSL outside a CTAF
area, glider pilots are expected to listen out on the area VHF and announce if
in potential conflict.

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 gliding 309

GLIDING OPERATIONS AT LICENSED AERODROMES

Gliding operations may be conducted from:
• a glider runway strip within the runway strip (single runway), using a
common circuit direction;
• a glider runway strip adjacent to the existing runway strip (dual runways),
using a common circuit direction; or
• a separate glider runway strip parallel to and spaced away from the
existing runway strip (parallel runways), using contra-circuit procedures.
Details of the gliding operation are published in the ERSA entry for the
aerodrome. When procedures are changed for intensive short-term activity, a
NOTAM will be issued.
Where dual or parallel runways are established, the glider runway strip
will conform to normal movement area standards, but will be marked by
conspicuous markers of a colour other than white. Glider runway strips must
not be used except by gliders, tug aircraft and other authorised aircraft.
Where a single runway is established and gliders operate within the runway
strip, the runway strip markers may be moved outwards to incorporate the
glider runway strip. Glider movement and parking areas are established
outside of the runway strips. When the glider runway strip is occupied by a
tug aircraft or glider, the runway is deemed to be occupied. Aircraft using the
runway may, however, commence their take-off run from a position ahead of a
stationary glider or tug aircraft.
Except for gliders approaching to land, powered aircraft have priority in the
use of runways, taxiways and aprons where a single runway or dual runway
operation is established.
At the locations where parallel runways exist and contra-circuit procedures apply,
operations on the two parallel runways by aircraft below 5,700KG MTOW may
be conducted independently in VMC by day. Aircraft must not operate within the
opposing circuit area below 1,500FT AGL, but should join their circuit upwind
over the runway at 1,500FT or downwind at 1000FT. Aircraft should ascertain the
runway direction in use as early as possible and conform to that pattern.
A crossing runway should only be used when operationally necessary, and
traffic using the crossing runway should avoid conflicting with the established
circuit; eg, by remaining below it, or using a long final, or not turning after
take-off until well clear.

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gliding
At aerodromes other than for which contra-circuits are prescribed, gliders are
generally required to conform to the established circuit direction. However,
unforeseen circumstances may occasionally compel a glider to execute a
nonstandard pattern, including use of the opposite circuit direction in extreme
cases.
At licensed aerodromes a VHF listening watch on the CTAF is maintained
during aerotow launching by the tug pilot, and during wire launching by the
winch or towvehicle driver. The tug pilot or winch/car driver may be able to
advise glider traffic information to inbound or taxiing aircraft.
Where wire launching is used launching will cease and the wire will be
retracted or moved off the strip when another aircraft joins the circuit or taxis,
or a radio call is received indicating this. A white strobe light is displayed by a
winch, or a yellow rotating beacon by a tow-car associated vehicle, whenever
the cable is deployed.
Gliders are not permitted to perform aerobatics, including spin training, within
2NM of a licensed aerodrome below 2,000FT AGL. Gliders are not permitted
to perform continuous 360 degree turns nor to use thermal lift on the live
side of a common circuit area (including the circuit area being used by known
traffic on a crossing runway) unless they monitor the CTAF and give way to
maintain adequate separation from other traffic in the circuit area.

3 – aerial sporting and recreational activities

 parachuting operations 311

GENERAL
Parachutists must not be dropped if descent will result in their entry into
cloud.
A broadcast advising the intention to drop parachutists must be made from
the drop aircraft not less than two (2) minutes prior to parachutists exiting
the aircraft. This requirement applies to both relevant frequencies when
the landing area is located in a CTAF, or when parachutists descend from
controlled airspace into underlying Class G airspace.
Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute operations must make an all stations
broadcast advising their intentions, on the appropriate area VHF, and CTAF
two (2) minutes prior to parachutists exiting the aircraft. In addition, when
operations are conducted in controlled airspace:
• a clearance to drop is required.
• n
 otification of clearance request must be made at least five (5) minutes
before the proposed exit.
• t wo serviceable VHF comms must be carried on ar which is to monitor the
CTAF (AIP ENR 5.5)

PARACHUTING OPERATIONS IN CLASSES C AND D AIRSPACE

Parachutists must not be permitted to exit the aircraft until the pilot has
received a clearance from ATC authorising the descent. This will be phrased
as “[callsign] CLEAR TO DROP”.
Where parachutists will leave classes C or D airspace on descent, the pilot of
the aircraft must broadcast the intention to drop, at least two (2) minutes prior
to exit, on the relevant CTAF, or Area VHF frequency. Notwithstanding that a
drop clearance may have been issued, the drop must not proceed if replies
to this broadcast (or visual observation) indicate that there is conflicting traffic
beneath the CTA. The drop must not proceed until the conflicting traffic is clear.
Two VHF comms, one monitoring the underlying CTAF are required (AIP ENR
5.5)
PARACHUTING OPERATIONS IN CLASS E AIRSPACE
Pilots of PJE aircraft operating in Class E airspace are required to establish
contact with ATC notifying the intent to commence operations before the
drop commences.

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312
parachuting operations
ATC will broadcast on the appropriate frequency before the drop as an alert
to pilots of IFR flights operating in the airspace. Pilots of PJE aircraft must
broadcast in accordance with the above paragraphs to alert pilots of VFR
flights in Class E airspace, and IFR and VFR flights in underlying Class G
airspace.
Pilots of PJE aircraft are responsible for notifying ATC when the jump has
been completed.

PARACHUTE OPERATIONS IN CTAF(R) AREAS

Aircraft supporting parachute descents within the vicinity of an airport
designated CTAF(R) must be equipped with two VHF radio transceivers in
order to monitor traffic in the surrounding airspace (AIP ENR 5.5). Further,
in addition to the two (2) minutes prior broadcast on the CTAF frequency,
the pilot must advise the intention to drop parachutists, on both the CTAF
frequency and all surrounding frequencies, not less than four (4) minutes prior
to the planned exit.
Parachutists must not be dropped within 15 minutes prior to the estimated
time of arrival of an RPT aircraft, unless the two aircraft are in direct
communication and the exit can be completed such that all parachutists have
landed prior to the arrival of the RPT aircraft in the circling area. Once the RPT
aircraft has landed and taxied clear of the runway, the exit of parachutists may
proceed provided there is no other conflicting traffic.
When a departing RPT aircraft has broadcast taxiing for departure,
parachutists must not be permitted to commence a descent until the RPT
aircraft is clear of the circling area.

PARACHUTE DESCENTS AT LICENSED AERODROMES

Parachutists must not be dropped onto a licensed aerodrome without the
approval of the relevant Area Office of CASA unless:
• t he aerodrome operator has approved parachute descents onto the
aerodrome, and other regular or locally-based users of the aerodrome
airspace have been advised of the intended parachuting operations; and
• t he target for parachutists is located clear of movement areas by the
distance prescribed as the minimum drop zone radius for the qualifications
of the parachutists using it.

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 parachuting operations 313

Parachutists must not be dropped so as to conflict with any traffic:

• in the live side of any circuit known to be in use, or reasonably expected
to be used by known traffic in the prevailing conditions; or
• using any runway, taxiway or apron.
Parachutists must not be dropped if another aircraft is conducting an
instrument approach, or is expected to commence an instrument approach
within (5) minutes after the planned drop.

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314
ballooning
TYPES OF OPERATION
Balloons are permitted to operate in private, aerial work and charter
operations. Aerial work and charter operations are flown under an Air Operator
Certificate (AOC) - the pilot in command holds a commercial pilot (balloon)
licence and is responsible to a chief pilot in accordance with CAO 82.7. Private
operations are conducted by pilots who hold a pilot licence issued by the
Australian Ballooning Federation Inc.
Unless authorised by CASA, pilots of balloons engaged in private operations
must not operate:
• in controlled airspace; or
• b
 elow 2,000FT above aerodrome level within 3NM of a licensed
aerodrome, or
• below 1,000FT above ground level over a populous area.
Permission to fly in these areas, either for a specified event or for suitably
qualified pilots, may be sought from CASA Area Offices. When permissions
are issued, they usually contain directions to operate in the same manner as
balloons in aerial work or charter operations.
Pilots of balloons engaged in aerial work or charter operations may:
• operate within controlled airspace subject to an ATC clearance;
• operate from licensed aerodromes; and
• t ake off from, and land at, adequate open spaces within populous areas.
When doing this, they must ensure that the balloon reaches the minimum
overflight of 1,000FT AGL within a reasonable time following take-off, and
minimise the time spent flying at low level whilst approaching to land in or
within 300 metres of a populous area.
Except where overflying a populous area, balloon pilots are not required to
observe a minimum height. However, this does not absolve pilots from any
responsibility with respect to landholders, stock or property. The Australian
Ballooning Federation Inc maintains a register of sensitive areas where
landholders have requested that pilots either do not land, or alternatively,
observe a minimum overflight height. (AIP ENR 5.5)

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 ballooning 315

CARRIAGE AND USE OF RADIO

Pilots of balloons engaged in aerial work or charter operations are required to carry
and use VHF radio for communication, as necessary, with other aircraft and with ATS.
However, the operators are authorised to maintain their own SARWATCH, and
no flight notification is required for flights outside controlled airspace.
Pilots of balloons who have been permitted to operated in the airspace a and b
above are required to carry and use radio as described in the above paragraph.
Where a number of balloons are permitted to operate together in the vicinity of
an uncontrolled licensed aerodrome, one balloon in each group may maintain
radio communication for the group.
Pilots of balloons engaged in private operations are required to carry radio and
use it in accordance with the procedures described in ENR Section 19. Whilst
they are operating:
• in the vicinity of a non-controlled aerodrome;
• at or above 5,000FT above mean sea level;
• w
 ithin 10NM of an aerodrome with a published instrument approach
procedure; or
• at night.
The holder of a private pilot certificate issued by the Australian Ballooning
Federation Inc may have that certificate endorsed to permit radio
communication of VHF frequencies only, without being the holder of a flight
radiotelephone operator licence.

OPERATIONS IN THE VICINITY OF AERODROMES

Within 3 NM of an aerodrome, the pilot-in-command of a balloon is required
to give way to other traffic operating in the traffic pattern of the aerodrome
which is applicable to the runway in use at the time.
The pilot-in-command of a balloon who intends to overfly an aerodrome within
3NM should do so at a height greater than 1,500FT above the aerodrome. In
the case of a private balloon flight which is not specifically authorised by CASA,
overflight must be conducted more than 2,000FT above the aerodrome.
The pilot of a balloon which is taking off within 3NM of an aerodrome must
give way to aircraft which are landing or on final approach to land, by delaying
their take-off or, if airborne, by climbing or descending to remain clear of the
other aircraft’s flight path.

3 – aerial sporting and recreational activities

316
ballooning
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR BALLOONS.
PG 194 prescribes VMC for balloons. Operations in other than prescribed
VMC are not permitted.
NIGHT BALLOON OPERATIONS
Aerial work and charter operations by pilots who hold a NVFR (balloon)
rating, and private operations with specific permission from CASA, may be
conducted at night. In the case of aerial work and charter operations, these
are restricted to the period of (1) hour prior to first light.
OPERATIONS IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Prior to a proposed flight in controlled airspace, a balloon operator or pilot-in-
command must liaise with ATS as follows:
• c ontact ATC by telephone or radio prior to inflating the balloon to advise
the planned launch site and likely direction or area of flight, and ascertain
the availability of an ATC clearance; and
• call to obtain a clearance before becoming airborne.
The pilot must maintain a continuous listening watch on the appropriate
frequency during flight within controlled airspace, and report flight progress
as required by ATC. The pilot must report changes in the direction of drift,
which will cause the balloon to diverge from its nominated track or area
of operations, as soon as possible, and, in any case, before the track error
exceeds one (1) nautical mile.
For operations in an area controlled airspace within radar coverage, a
serviceable transponder must be carried unless ATC has advised that a
transponder is not required for that flight.
In the event of a radio failure or other emergency, the relevant procedures as
listed in Section 4 must be followed. Particular attention should be given to
notifying the termination of a flight where radio contact is not able to confirm this.

3 – aerial sporting and recreational activities

air d e f e n c e i d e n ti f i c ati o n z o n e

procedures for defence zone 317

PROCEDURES FOR AIRCRAFT OPERATING IN AN AIR DEFENCE

IDENTIFICATION ZONE
GENERAL
 he following general rules and procedures apply to enable identification of air
T
traffic entering any designated Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ) under
the control of Australia.
 n ADIZ is airspace of defined dimensions within which identification of all
A
aircraft is required.
 hen a flight is intended to operate within an ADIZ, the pilot, unless
W
exempted in accordance with para 4, must;
• lodge a flight notification covering flight within the ADIZ with the
appropriate ATS unit at least 60 minutes before entry into the ADIZ;
• r eport position to ATS when passing each position reporting point
within the ADIZ;
• r eport position to ATS at ADIZ boundary with a geographical reference
(eg 15NM east of...) or, if the departure point is within 100NM of the
ADIZ boundary, report departure;
• report departure if departing from a point in the ADIZ;
• m
 aintain a continuous listening watch on the communications
frequency of the appropriate ATS unit or on another frequency as
directed until the flight is through the ADIZ;
• n
 ot deliberately deviate from tracks and altitudes filed in the flight plan
unless prior ATC clearance is obtained, or, outside controlled airspace,
notification is given to the appropriate ATS unit; and
• a ctivate the aircraft transponder when within 100NM of the ADIZ and
when operating within the ADIZ.
 he following flights over Australia and its territorial waters are exempted
T
from compliance with the requirements of para 3;
• a flight originating within an ADIZ which maintains a steady outbound track;
• a flight which remains within 10NM of the point of departure;
• a ircraft performing published approach, holding or recovery
procedures; and
• a flight conducted in accordance with special procedures arranged with
the Area Air Defence Commander.

3 – air defence identification zone

318
procedures for defence zone
Flight plans lodged in accordance with para 3 must include details of:
• tracks and altitudes to be flown while operating in the ADIZ;
• e
 stimated elapsed times for each route segment in the ADIZ, including
the segment in which the ADIZ boundary is crossed;
• position reporting points, departure and landing points; and
• e
 stimated time at the commencing point of the first route segment for
which details are required in accordance with para 3.
Reporting points published in aeronautical charts must be used plus those
required by the Area Air Defence Commander.
 ilots must immediately notify ATS of any deviation from flight plan beyond
P
the following tolerances:
• estimated time of commencing the ADIZ route segments - ± 5 minutes;
• over land area - ±10NM from track;
• over oceanic areas - ± 20NM from track.
Note: The 5 minutes expressed in deviation above will be used in considering
interception action (see below), but pilots must report predicted
deviations of greater than two minutes.
In the event of failure of two-way radio communication, the pilot must
proceed in accordance with the normal radio failure procedures.

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
Special Requirements may be published relative to a particular ADIZ. Flights
exempted in accordance with para 4 will not be exempted from the special
requirements unless so specified.

NON-COMPLIANCE
Significant deviations from the requirements for flight in an ADIZ must be
reported immediately to ATS and details and reasons for the deviation must
be reported at the first point of landing, for transmission to the Area Air
Defence Commander.

3 – air defence identification zone

procedures for defence zone 319

INTERCEPTION
Aircraft not exempted in accordance with para 4, and which cannot be
satisfactorily identified, may be intercepted by fighter aircraft.
If any doubt arises as to the friendly intention of an aircraft, closer
identification may be necessary, in which case the identifying aircraft will
maintain visual observation of the intercepted aircraft, and:
• a pproach at the same level from astern on a parallel course to the left of the
aircraft to be identified, with a minimum lateral displacement of 1,000M;
• if strictly necessary for identification, move closer while maintaining a
generally parallel course, but never closer than 200M;
• if identified as friendly, make the appropriate signal to proceed from a
position slightly ahead, by a climbing turn of 90 degrees to port away from
the intercepted aircraft, if permissible, considering other air traffic.
Aircraft identified by intercept as;
• Friendly should then proceed according to flight plan and/or ATC
instructions;
• Unknown should be prepared to be shadowed, diverted or instructed to
land at a suitable airfield;
• Hostile aircraft positively identified as “Hostile” may be engaged and
destroyed.

ACTION BY INTERCEPTED AIRCRAFT

An aircraft which is intercepted by another aircraft must immediately:
• f ollow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft, interpreting and
responding to visual signals in accordance with the table over page.
Visual Signals for Use in the Event of Interception;
• notify, if possible, the appropriate ATS unit;
• a ttempt to establish radio communication with the intercepting aircraft,
or with the appropriate intercept control unit, by making a general call on
the emergency VHF frequency 121.5MHZ and repeating this call on the
emergency UHF frequency 243.0MHZ, if practicable, giving the identity
and position of the aircraft and nature of the flight;

3 – air defence identification zone

320
procedures for defence zone
• if equipped with SSR transponder, select code 7700, unless otherwise
instructed by the appropriate ATS unit.
If any instructions by radio from any sources conflict with those given by the
intercepting aircraft by visual or radio signals, the intercepted aircraft must
request immediate clarification while continuing to comply with instructions
given by the intercepting aircraft.

DIVERSION OF AIRCRAFT FOR DEFENCE OPERATIONS

The Area Air Defence Commander may, through ATS, direct the flight
of aircraft in the interests of national security. Messages initiating such
requirements will be prefaced by MILITARY OPERATIONS REQUIRE…

3 – air defence identification zone

 visual signals 321

VISUAL SIGNALS FOR USE IN THE EVENT OF INTERCEPTION -

INITIATED BY INTERCEPTING AIRCRAFT

3 – CHAPTER HEADING
322
visual signals

3 – CHAPTER HEADING
 visual signals 323

RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
DURING INTERCEPTION
DURING INTERCEPTION

1 1 2 2 3 34 4

PHRASE PHRASE
MEANING MEANING PHRASE PHRASE
MEANING MEANING

CALLSIGN CALLSIGN
What is your callsign?
What is your callsign? CALL SIGN CALL
My call
SIGN
sign isMy
(call
call
sign)
sign is (call sign)
(call sign) (call sign)
(Note 3) (Note 3)

FOLLOW FOLLOW
Follow me Follow me WILCO WILCO
Understood. Will
Understood.
comply Will comply

DESCEND DESCEND
Descend for landing
Descend for landing CAN NOT CAN
Unable
NOTto comply
Unable to comply

YOU LAND YOU

Land
LAND
at this aerodrome
Land at this aerodrome REPEAT REPEAT
Repeat your instruction
Repeat your instruction

PROCEED PROCEED
You may proceed
You may proceed AM LOST AM
Position
LOSTunknown
Position unknown

MAY DAY MAY

I am DAY
in distress
I am in distress

HIJACK HIJACK
I have been hijacked
I have been hijacked

LAND LAND
I request to land
I request to land

DESCEND DESCEND
I require descent
I require descent

NOTES: NOTES:
1. Circumstances
1. Circumstances
may not alwaysmaypermit,
not always
nor make
permit, desirable,
nor makethe desirable,
use of the
thephrase
use of"HIJACK".
the phrase "HIJACK".
NOTES:
2. The callsign
2. The 1. 
required Circumstances
callsign
to be
required
given is
tothat may
usednot
be given is always
in that used permit,
radiotelephony nor makecommunications
in radiotelephony
communications desirable, theunits
with ATS with
andATS
corresp
units
to the aircraft
toidentification
the aircraft
useidentification
in the
of the flight
phrase in
notification.
the flight notification.
“HIJACK” .
3. The callsign
3. The
required
callsign
is that
required
used is
with
thatATS
used
and with
corresponding
ATS and corresponding
to the aircraft
toidentification
the aircraft identification
in the flight in
notific
the
2. The callsign required to be given is that used in radiotelephony
communications with ATS units and corresponding to the
aircraft identification in the flight notification.
3. The callsign required is that used with ATS and corresponding
to the aircraft identification in the flight notification.

3 – air defence identification zone

 night vfr
324
checklist
Or do PAGE
1 1 Flight of at least 1Hr at night in 12 months NO 1hr dual 327
YES

Or do PAGE
2 1 take-off & landing in 6 months NO 1T/O & L dual 327
YES
PAGE
3 Carrying passengers NO Go to 5 329
YES

4 3 take-offs & landings at night Or do 3 T/O & L at PAGE

in preceeding 90 days NO night Solo or Dual 329

YES
PAGE
5 LSALT: determined by TAC / ERC / WAC NO 331
± 10NM AIP GEN 3.3 - 13 ± 15° NOAID
EITHER SIDE YES ± 10.3° NAVAID
OF TRACK ± 5NM BUFFER
PAGE
6 Weather Forecast with NOTAMS AIP ENR 1.10 - 1 NO Get One! 89
YES

7 Cloud: More than 4/8ths below the Not advisable due to PAGE
LSALT plus 1000ft on the ARFOR YES inability to remain in VMC 327
NO FEW = 1 to 2 OKTAS
SCT = 3 to 4 OKTAS
8 TAF's AIP ENR 1.1 - 76 BKN = 5 to 7 OKTAS
OVC = 8 OKTAS
CLOUD: More than4/8ths below 1500FT or;
VIZ: Less than 8KM or; FEW + FEW = SCT
X/Wind: Greater than maximum for the Aircraft FEW + SCT = BKN
or a percentage probability of any of above SCT + SCT = BKN
YES Plan for an alternate
INTER: 30 mins holding
TEMPO: 60 mins holding
NO

9 NAVAIDS AIP ENR 1.1 - 79 PAGE

Aerodrome served by a NAVAID + Aircraft equipped with the NAVAID 343

YES Plan for an alternate within

NO 1HR and have NAVAID
Go to 10

3 – night V F R
 checklist 325

PAGE
10 LIGHTING AIP ENR 1.1 - 80 343
PAL with STBY No Resp Person YES Plan for an Alternate *
PAL with STBY + Resp Person YES Go to 11
PAL with NO STBY + No Resp Person YES Plan for an Alternate *
PAL with NO STBY + Resp Person YES Plan for an Alternate *
Portable with Resp Person YES Go to 11
Portable with No Resp Person YES Plan for an Alternate *
Permanent + Resp Person YES Go to 11
* Alternates with PAL do not need a responsible person if dual VHF Equipped
or 1X VHF + HF + 30mins holding
PAGE
11 Aircraft Instruments CAO 20.18 Appendix IV 340
Does your aircraft have:
Airspeed indicator, Altimeter, Compass, Clock, Turn & Slip, OAT, Artificial
Horizon, Suction Gauge, D.G, and anything required by the Flight Manual?
YES
NO
Go to 12
PAGE
12 Aircraft Lighting CAO 20.18 Appendix V 338
Does your aircraft have:
Instrument lights with variable illumination, Pilot compartment lights, Passenger
compartment lights, 1X landing light, Navigation lights, 1 shock proof electric torch
for each crew member.
YES
NO
Go to 13
PAGE
13 Aircraft Radio Equipment AIP GEN 1.5 - 1 - 1.5 - 5 329
Is your aricraft equipped with:
1X VHF radio
1X Navaid NDB or VOR
SSR Transponder if operating in CTA/RADAR
YES
NO
Go to 14
PAGE
14 SARTIME AIP ENR 1.10 - 7 329
If travelling over 120NM at night submit a SARTIME or FLIGHT NOTE
(Left with a responsible person)?
YES NO SUBMIT ONE
ENJOY YOUR FLIGHT

3 – night vfr
326
general
QUALIFICATIONS FOR NIGHT FLYING UNDER VFR (CAR 174C)
• Subject to this regulation, a person other than:
– in the case of agricultural operations—the holder of a licence on which
a night V.F.R. agricultural rating has been endorsed; or
– in the case of any other flight—the holder of a licence on which a night
V.F.R. rating has been endorsed; or
– a student pilot, or holder of a private pilot licence, a commercial pilot
licence or an air transport pilot licence, permitted under Part 5 to fly
an aircraft in a traffic pattern at night under the V.F.R.; shall not fly an
aircraft at night under the V.F.R.
• A
 pilot who holds a licence on which an instrument rating for a category
of aircraft has been endorsed may fly an aircraft of the same category at
night under the V.F.R.:
– using the types of navigation aids endorsed in the pilot’s log book for
use with that rating; and
– subject to compliance with any conditions that CASA issues in Civil
Aviation Orders in relation to aeronautical experience and recent
experience.
In this regulation, a reference to flying an aircraft includes a reference to
conducting a flight as pilot in command.

VFR FLIGHTS AT NIGHT (CAR 174B)

• E
 xcept with the permission of CASA, an aircraft shall not, except when
necessary for take-off or landing, be flown at night under the VFR at a
height less than 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle located within 10
miles of the aircraft in flight.
• A
 single engine aircraft must not be flown at night under the VFR except in
the following operations:
– private operations;
– aerial work operations;
– c harter operations that do not involve the carrying of passengers for
hire or reward;
– charter operations that involve the carrying of passengers for hire or
reward, if:

3 – night vfr
 general 327

- the operator is approved in writing by CASA to conduct the

operations; and
- the operations are conducted in a turbine powered aeroplane
approved in writing by CASA for those operations.
CHTR, AWK and PVT operations under the VFR at night must not be
conducted unless the forecast indicates that the flight can be conducted in
VMC at not less than 1000FT above the highest obstacle within 10NM either
side of the track.

CIRCUIT TRAINING OPERATIONS AT NIGHT

Aircraft engaged in training operations at night in the circuit area must not,
when below 1,500FT AGL, carry out any manoeuvres which involve:
• the simulation of failure of an engine; or
• flight in a simulated one-engine inoperative condition; or
• the intentional shutdown of a serviceable engine.

PRIVATE (AEROPLANE) PILOT: RECENT EXPERIENCE

REQUIREMENTS (CAO 40.2.2)
A night V.F.R. rating does not authorise the holder of the rating to fly as pilot in
command of an aircraft by night unless:
• w
 ithin the period of 1 year immediately before the day of the proposed
flight, he or she has undertaken:
– in the case of a balloon grade of night V.F.R. rating — at least 1 flight
of at least 30 minutes duration while flying a balloon at night as pilot
in command, as pilot acting in command under supervision or in dual
flying; and
– in any other case — at least 1 flight of at least 1 hour duration while
flying an aircraft at night as pilot in command, as pilot acting in
command under supervision or in dual flying; and
• in the case of an aeroplane grade of night V.F.R. rating — within the period of
6 months immediately before the day of the proposed flight, he or she has:
– carried out at least 1 take-off and 1 landing at night while flying an
aeroplane as pilot in command, as pilot acting in command under
supervision, or in dual flying; or
– satisfactorily completed an aeroplane flight review or an aeroplane

3 – night vfr
328
general
proficiency check that was conducted at least in part at night; or
– 
passed a flight test that was conducted at night for the purpose of the
issue, or renewal, of an aeroplane pilot rating; and
• in the case of a helicopter grade of night V.F.R. rating — within the period
of 6 months immediately before the day of the proposed flight, he or she
has:
– 
carried out at least 1 take-off, 1 circuit and 1 landing at night while
flying a helicopter as pilot in command, as pilot acting in command
under supervision, or in dual flying; or
Note: A person carries out a circuit while flying a helicopter if the person:
• takes off in the helicopter from an aerodrome; and
• fl
 ies the helicopter around the aerodrome in accordance with the
traffic pattern for the aerodrome; and
• lands the helicopter at the aerodrome.
– s atisfactorily completed a helicopter proficiency check that was
conducted at night; or
–  assed a flight test that was conducted at night for the purpose of
p
the issue of a helicopter pilot licence, or the issue, or renewal, of a
helicopter pilot rating; and
• in the case of a balloon grade of night V.F.R. rating — within the period of 1
year immediately before the day of the proposed flight, he or she has:
– c arried out at least 1 flight at night as pilot in command, as pilot acting
in command under supervision or in dual flying while flying a balloon;
or
– 
satisfactorily completed a balloon proficiency check that was
conducted at night; or
– 
passed a flight test that was conducted at night for the purpose of the
issue of a balloon pilot licence, or the issue, or renewal, of a balloon
pilot rating.

3 – night vfr
 general 329

CARRYING PASSENGERS
A private (aeroplane) pilot must not fly an aeroplane as pilot in command if the
aeroplane is carrying any other person unless:
• if the flight is undertaken in daylight—the pilot has, within the period of 90
days immediately before the day of the proposed flight, carried out at least
3 takeoffs and 3 landings while flying an aeroplane as pilot in command or
as pilot acting in command under supervision, or in dual flying; and
• if the flight is undertaken at night—the pilot has, within the period of 90
days immediately before the day of the proposed flight, carried out at
least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings at night while flying an aeroplane as pilot in
command or as pilot acting in command under supervision, or in dual flying.

Radio communication systems

Flight notification

Submission of flight details at least 30 minutes before ETD is recommended.

3 – night vfr
330
radio navigation systems

RATED COVERAGE
The following ranges are quoted for planning purposes. Actual ranges
obtained may sometimes be less than these due to facility and site variations
(see ERSA). The localizer ranges are for those installations that have been
nominated for position fixing at ranges beyond 25NM:
• NDB (published in ERSA);
• VOR and DME:
Aircraft Altitude (FT) Range (NM)
Below 5,000 60
5,000 to below 10,000 90
10,000 to below 15,000 120
15,000 to below 20,000 150
20,000 and above 180
• Localizer:
Aircraft Altitude (FT) Range (NM)
Above 2,000 AGL within
±10° of course line 25
Below 5,000 30
5,000 and above 50

3 – night vfr
 lowest safe altitude 331

The LSALT specified for a route segment is that for IFR procedures. Where
an NDB or VOR mark the segment, the tolerances applicable to the NDB are
used. Unreported obstacles up to 360FT may exist in navigation tolerance
areas. Therefore, LSALT is calculated by adding:
• 1
 ,000FT to the highest obstacle, where the highest obstacle is more
than 360FT above the height determined for terrain, or
• 1
 ,360FT to the height determined for terrain where the highest charted
obstacle is less than 360FT above the height determined for terrain.
The minimum LSALT published is 1,500FT due to lack of data concerning
terrain near sea level.
LSALT details for RNAV routes are shown in each grid square formed by the
parallels and meridians. On the ERCs-H, the grid is at 4° intervals, and at 1°
intervals on the ERC-L and TACs (See also AIP GEN 3.3 para 3.2).
Lowest safe altitudes for IFR flights are published in MAP, NOTAM or AIP
Supplement.
Grid LSALTs have been determined for ERC and TAC. On each ERC-H the grid
for each LSALT is a square with the dimensions of four degrees of latitude
by four degrees of longitude. On ERC-L and TAC, the grid squares comprise
one degree of latitude by one degree of longitude. The Grid LSALT is normally
displayed in the centre of the grid square.
A pilot using Grid LSALT for obstacle clearance is responsible for determining
the allowance for navigation error that should be applied, considering the
limitations of the navigation aids or method of navigation being used for
position fixing. This navigation error allowance must be applied to the
proposed track. The highest Grid LSALT falling within the area covered by the
determined navigation error must be used.
If the navigation of the aircraft is inaccurate, or the aircraft is deliberately
flown off track, or whenever there is failure of any radio navigation aid
normally available, the pilot in command must ensure that the aircraft is flown
not lower than 1,000 FT above the highest terrain or obstacle within a circle,
centred on the DR position, with a radius of 5NM plus 20% of the air distance
flown from the last positive fix.

3 – night vfr
332
lowest safe altitude

AIR DISTANCE + 20% + 5NM

DR POSITION

TRAC
K MA
DE G
OOD

PLANNED TRACK

 or routes and route segments not shown in MAP, the lowest safe altitude
F
shall be not less than 1,000FT above the highest terrain or obstacle within an
area of 5NM surrounding and including the area described on the following
paragraphs 3 and 4, except that where the highest terrain or obstacle in
the tolerance area is not above 500FT, the lowest safe altitude shall be not
less than 1,500FT. To ensure compliance with the foregoing requirement,
LSALT must be calculated using the following methodology (which takes into
account the obstacle reporting requirements of CAR 89Y).
After assessing obstacles and terrain in the relevant area, either:
• w
 here the highest obstacle is more than 360FT above the height
determined for terrain, add 1,000FT to the highest obstacle: or
• w
 here the highest charted obstacle is less than 360FT above the height
determined for terrain, or there is no charted obstacle, add 1,360FT to the
height determined for terrain.

3 – night vfr
 lowest safe altitude 333

LSALT 2360FT

1000FT
Marked Obstacle
1260FT

360FT

260FT
ASSUMING AN OBSTACLE IS
360FT BESIDE MARKED OBSTACLE
1000FT

360FT + 1000FT = 1360FT + 1000FT = LSALT 2360FT

LSALT 2460FT
1000FT

1460FT
460FT

1000FT

460FT + 1000FT = 1460FT + 1000FT = LSALT 2460FT

3 – night vfr
334
lowest safe altitude
 or routes defined by radio navigation aids or to be navigated by DR: Lines
F
drawn from the departure point or en route radio aid, 10.3° each side of the
nominated track (where the track guidance is provided by a radio navigation
aid), or 15° each side of the nominal track (where no track guidance is
provided) to a limit of 50NM each side of the track, thence parallelling track
to abeam the destination and then converging by a semicircle of 50NM
radius centred on the destination. On shorter routes, where these lines are
displaced by less than 50NM abeam the destination, they shall converge by a
radius based on the lesser distance. Where the lines thus drawn come at any
time within the coverage of an en route or destination radio aid the aircraft is
equipped to use, they will converge by straight lines to that aid. The minimum
angle of convergence which must be used in this case is 10.3° each side of
track.

5NM

>10.3ϒ 50NM
5NM LONG LEG 10.3ϒ 5NM

AID >10.3ϒ 10.3ϒ AID

50NM

5NM

RATED COVERAGE

LONG LEG - NAVAID TO NAVAID

3 – night vfr
 lowest safe altitude 335

5NM

>10.3ϒ
5NM SHORT LEG 15ϒ 5NM

AID 15ϒ NO AID

>10.3ϒ

5NM

RATED COVERAGE
SHORT LEG - NOAID TO NAVAID

5NM

50NM 50NM
5NM LONG LEG 15ϒ 5NM

NO AID 15ϒ NO AID

50NM

5NM

LONG LEG - NOAID TO NOAID

3 – night vfr
336
lowest safe altitude

5NM

>10.3ϒ
5NM SHORT LEG 10.3ϒ 5NM

AID >10.3ϒ 10.3ϒ AID

5NM

RATED COVERAGE
SHORT LEG - NAVAID TO NAVAID

5NM

>10.3ϒ 50NM
5NM LONG LEG 15ϒ 5NM

AID >10.3ϒ 15ϒ NOAID

50NM

5NM

RATED COVERAGE

LONG LEG - NOAID TO NAVAID

3 – night vfr
 lowest safe altitude 337

5NM

5NM SHORT LEG 15ϒ 5NM

NO AID 15ϒ NO AID

5NM

SHORT LEG - NOAID TO NOAID

FOR AIRCRAFT FLOWN AT NIGHT UNDER THE VFR

The area to be considered must be:
• t he area specified on page 334 for aircraft being navigated by means of a
radio navigation system; or
• within radius of 10NM from any point along the aircraft’s nominal track.
However, an aircraft which has positively determined by visual fix that a critica
obstruction has been passed may nevertheless descend immediately to a
lower altitude, provided that the required obstacle clearance above significant
obstructions ahead of the aircraft is maintained.
An aircraft must not be flown at night under the VFR, lower than the published
lowest safe altitude or the lowest safe altitude calculated in accordance with
this section except:
• during take-off and climb in the vicinity of the departure aerodrome;
• w
 hen the destination aerodrome is in sight and descent can be made
within the prescribed circling area of 3NM radius of the destination
(AIP GEN 3.3);
• or when being radar vectored.

3 – night vfr
338
aircraft equipment for night VFR
Aircraft equipment for night vfr flight

LIGHTING
The following lighting equipment is required for night VFR flight (CAO 20.18
Appendix V & CAR 174A):
• iIllumination for all instruments and equipment, used by the flight crew,
that are essential for the safe operation of the aircraft. The illumination
shall be such that:
- all illuminated items are easily readable or discernible, as applicable;
- its direct or reflected rays are shielded from the pilot’s eyes;
- its power supply is so arranged that in the event of the failure of the
normal source of power, an alternative source is immediately available;
and
- it emanates from fixed installations.
• iIntensity control
- means of controlling the intensity of the illumination of instrument
lights, unless it can be demonstrated that non-dimmed instrument
lights are satisfactory under all conditions of flight likely to be
encountered.
• landing lights
- Two landing lights are required for night VFR charter operations
carrying passengers. For private and aerial work operations and charter
operations not carrying passengers for hire and reward one landing
light is required (CAR 329A).
Note: A single lamp having two separately energised filaments may be
approved as meeting the requirement for two landing lights.
• passenger compartment lights
- Lights in all passenger compartments.
• pilots’ compartment lights
- means of lighting the pilots’ compartment to provide illumination
adequate for the study of maps and the reading of flight documents.

3 – night vfr
aircraft equipment for night VFR 339

• emergency lighting
- Emergency exit lighting as specified in Air Navigation Orders Part 105
AD/General/4B and
- a shock-proof electric torch for each crew member at the crew
member station.
• position and anti-collision lights
- The navigation and anti-collision lights described below (CAR 196)
Note: position and anti-collision lights shall be displayed at night and in
conditions of poor visibility (CAR 196).

NAVIGATION LIGHTS (CAR 196)

Unless CASA otherwise directs, an aeroplane in flight or operating on the
manoeuvring area of a land aerodrome shall display the following navigation
lights:
• a n unobstructed red light projected above and below the horizontal plane
through an angle from dead ahead to 110° port;
• a n unobstructed green light projected above and below the horizontal
plane through an angle from dead ahead to 110° starboard; and
• a n unobstructed white light projecting above and below the horizontal
plane rearward through an angle of 140°, equally distributed on the port
and starboard sides.
Unless CASA otherwise directs, navigation lights shall be steady lights.
 nless CASA otherwise directs, an aeroplane in flight or operating on
U
the manoeuvring area of a land aerodrome shall display, in addition to the
navigation lights, an anti-collision light consisting of a flashing red light visible
in all directions within 30 degrees above and 30 degrees below the horizontal
plane of the aeroplane.
Where the lights are flashing lights, the aircraft:
• shall display an additional flashing white light visible in all directions; and
• may display an additional flashing red rear light;
Unless CASA otherwise directs, wing-tip clearance lights comprising steady
lights of the appropriate colours must be displayed if the distance of the
navigation lights from the wing-tip is more than 2 metres.
At an aerodrome used or available for use in night flying operations, an aircraft

3 – night vfr
340
aircraft equipment for night VFR
parked on or adjacent to the movement area shall be clearly illuminated or
lighted, unless the area that it occupies is marked by obstruction lights.

110ϒ 110ϒ

RED LIGHT GREEN LIGHT

ROTATING
RED LIGHT

WHITE LIGHT
140ϒ

EXEMPTIONS
Where an aircraft is not equipped in accordance with the above, CASA may
give permission, subject to such conditions (if any), for the aircraft to be flown
under VFR.

INSTRUMENTS
The flight and navigational instruments required for night VFR operations are
(CAO 20.18 Appendix IV):
• an airspeed indicating system;
• a sensitive altimeter;
• a direct reading magnetic compass; or a remote indicating compass and a
standby direct reading magnetic compass;
• a n accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, minutes and seconds,
except that this may be omitted if it is carried on the person of the pilot or
navigator;

3 – night vfr
aircraft equipment for night VFR 341

• an outside air temperature indicator;

• an attitude indicator (artificial horizon);
• a heading indicator (directional gyroscope);
• a turn and slip indicator except that only a slip indicator is required when a
second attitude indicator usable through flight attitudes of 360 degrees of
pitch and roll is installed;
• m
 eans of indicating whether the power supply to the gyroscopic
instruments is working satisfactorily; and Note that for night VMC flights a
rate of climb and descent indicator (vertical speed indicator) and pitot heat
are not required.

ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE

The altimeter and airspeed indicator shall be capable of being connected
to either a normal or an alternate static source but not both sources
simultaneously.
Alternatively, they may be connected to a balanced pair of flush static ports.

DUPLICATED GYRO POWER SOURCE

For night VMC charter the attitude indicator, turn and slip indicator shall have
duplicated sources of power supply unless the turn and slip indicator or the
second attitude indicator specified above has a source of power independent
of the power operating other gyroscopic instruments. Note that these
duplicated sources of power are not required for aeroplanes engaged in
private and aerial work night VMC operations.
A gyro-magnetic type of remote indicating compass may be considered also
to meet the requirement for a heading indicator specified above provided
that such installation complies with the duplicated sources of power supply
requirements of the previous paragraph.

EXEMPTIONS
Where an aircraft is not equipped in accordance with the above, CASA may
give permission, subject to such conditions (if any), for the aircraft to be flown
under VFR.

3 – night vfr
342
aircraft equipment for night VFR
SERVICEABILITY OF INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
All instruments and equipment fitted to an aircraft shall be serviceable prior to
takeoff unless:
• fl
 ight with unserviceable instruments or equipment has been approved by
CASA or
• t he unserviceability is permitted under the provisions of a permissible
unserviceability schedule; or
• t he unserviceable instruments or equipment are not required under the
regulations.
Where flight is conducted with unserviceable instruments or equipment,
the unserviceable instruments or equipment shall be prominently placarded
‘UNSERVICEABLE’ or removed from the aircraft.
Note: Where an instrument or item of equipment performs more than
one function, it is permissible to placard as unserviceable only the
function(s) which are unserviceable.
A charter, aerial work or private operator may elect to have a permissible
unserviceability schedule. In the case of charter or aerial work operators, the
permissible unserviceability schedule shall be incorporated in the operator’s
operations manual.
For night VFR flights you must make provision for flight to an alternate
aerodrome in accordance with the following paragraphs.

3 – night vfr
 alternatives 343

When a flight is required to provide for an alternate aerodrome, any

aerodrome may be so nominated for that flight provided that:
• it is suitable as a destination for that flight; and
• it is not an aerodrome for which an alternate would also be required.

ALTERNATES BASED ON RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS

A night VFR flight must provide for an alternate aerodrome within one (1)
hour’s flight time of the destination unless the destination is served by a radio
navigation aid (NDB/VOR) and the aircraft is fitted with the appropriate radio
navigation system capable of using the aid.
The alternate aerodrome must be served by a radio navigation aid (NDB/
VOR) which the aircraft is equipped to use.

ALTERNATES BASED ON RUNWAY LIGHTING

 ortable Lighting
P
When a flight is planned to land at night at an aerodrome where the runway lighting
is portable, an alternate is required unless arrangements are made for a responsible
person to be in attendance during the arrival and departure times as specified in
paragraph 5, to ensure that the runway lights are available.
 tandby Power
S
When a flight is planned to land at night at an aerodrome with electric
runway lighting, whether pilot activated or otherwise, but without standby
power, an alternate is required unless portable runway lights are available and
arrangements have been made for a responsible person to be in attendance
during the arrival and departure times specified in paragraph 5, to display the
portable lights in the event of a failure of the primary lighting.
 his alternate need not have standby power or standby portable runway
T
lighting.
 ilot Actuated Lighting (PAL)
P
When a flight is planned to land at night at an aerodrome with PAL and
standby power, an alternate is required unless a responsible person is in
attendance to manually switch on the aerodrome lighting.
 his alternate need not have standby power or standby portable runway
T
lighting.

3 – night vfr
344
alternatives
 lternate Aerodromes - PAL
A
An aerodrome may be nominated as an alternate provided that, if the aircraft
is fitted with single VHF communication, the alternate aerodrome must be
one which is:
• served by a lighting system which is not pilot activated; or
• s erved by PAL and there is a responsible person in attendance to
manually switch on the aerodrome lighting.
For private airwork and charter night VFR operations, where the alternate
aerodrome is served by PAL, there is no requirement for a responsible person
on the ground to be in attendance, but the aircraft must be equipped with;
• dual VHF; or
• s ingle VHF and HF communications and carries 30 minutes holding fuel
to allow for the alerting of ground staff in the event of a failure of the
aircraft’s VHF communication.
 erodrome Lighting – Times of Activation
A
When aerodrome lighting is required and PAL is not being used, the pilot in
command or operator must ensure that arrangements have been made for
the lighting to be operating during the following periods:
• D
 eparture: from at least 10 minutes before ETD to at least 30 minutes
after take-off
• A
 rrival: from at least 30 minutes before ETA to the time landing and taxiing
has been completed.
The above shall apply to runway, obstacle and taxiway lighting.

RESPONSIBLE PERSON
A responsible person referred to above in relation to portable lights, is one
who has been instructed in, and is competent to display, the standard runway
lighting with portable lights.

FUEL TO FIRST LIGHT

The alternate requirements of paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above need not be
applied if the aircraft carries holding fuel for first light plus 10 minutes at the
destination.

3 – night vfr
 alternatives 345

TOWERED AERODROMES - LIGHTING

Aerodrome lighting at an aerodrome where a control tower is operating will
be activated by ATC as necessary. Pilots requiring aerodrome lighting outside
the control tower’s published hours should use PAL, if available, or make
appropriate arrangements with ATC. If ATC has already ceased duty, requests
should be directed to the local aerodrome operator. Confirmation should be
obtained that requests for lighting will be satisfied.
A pilot having made arrangements with ATC for night lighting must notify any
change in requirements.

NON-CONTROLLED AERODROMES
Aerodrome lighting at non-controlled aerodromes should be arranged direct
with the aerodrome operator, or by using PAL facilities, if available.
ERSA identifies locations where selected runway lighting is routinely left
switched on during the hours of darkness.

3 – night vfr
346
CAAP 5.13 night visual flight rules
CAAP 5.13 - NIGHT VISUAL FLIGHT RULES
A comprehensive Civil Aviation Advisory Publication (CAAP) on the subject of
NVFR is currently under preparation. A draft may be viewed at:
[Link]/rules/[Link]#operational

3 – night vfr
 347

section 3 – helicopter operations

 helicopter
348
flight reviews private helicopter pilot
FLIGHT REVIEWS PRIVATE (HELICOPTER) PILOT (CAR 5.91)
Private (helicopter) pilot require the same biennial flight reviews as for Private
(aeroplane) pilots (CAR 5.91).
As private (helicopter) pilot you must not fly a helicopter as pilot in command
unless, within the period of 2 years immediately before the day of the
proposed flight, you have satisfactorily completed a helicopter flight review
conducted only by an appropriate person (as defined in CAR 5.91 sub
regulation 8) and an this person has made the appropriate endorsement in
your log book.
You are taken to have completed a helicopter flight review if within the period
of 2 years immediately before the day of the proposed flight you have:
• passed
 a flight test conducted for the purpose of the issue of a helicopter
pilot licence or the issue, or renewal, of a helicopter pilot rating; or
• satisfactorily completed a helicopter proficiency check; or
• s atisfactorily completed helicopter conversion training given by the holder
of a grade of flight instructor (helicopter) rating that authorises him or her
to conduct helicopter flight reviews;
CASA may approve a synthetic flight trainer for the above purposes.
Note: Operational standards for synthetic flight trainers are set out in the
documents titled “FSD1—Operational Standards and Requirements—
Approved Flight Simulators” and FSD2—Operational Standards and
Requirements—Approved Synthetic Trainers” that are published by
CASA.

3 – HELICOPTER
 recent experience requirements 349

A private (helicopter) pilot must not fly a helicopter as pilot in command if the
helicopter is carrying any other person unless:
• if the flight is undertaken in daylight—the pilot has, within the period of 90
days immediately before the day of the proposed flight, carried out at least
3 circuits while flying a helicopter as pilot in command or as pilot acting in
command under supervision or in dual flying; and
•.  if the flight is undertaken at night—the pilot has, within the period of 90
days immediately before the day of the proposed flight, carried out at least
3 circuits at night while flying a helicopter as pilot in command or as pilot
acting in command under supervision or in dual flying.
Note: Under regulation 5.40, a person must not fly as pilot acting in
command under supervision unless he or she holds a commercial pilot
licence or an air transport pilot licence.
 or the purposes of this regulation, a person carries out a circuit while flying a
F
helicopter if the person:
• takes-off in the helicopter from an aerodrome; and
• fl
 ies the helicopter around the aerodrome in accordance with the traffic
pattern for the aerodrome; and
•. lands the helicopter at the aerodrome.
In this regulation: aerodrome means a place that aircraft may land at, or take
off from, in accordance with regulation 92.

3 – HELICOPTER
350
hot fuelling
In this section, ‘hot refuelling’ means the refuelling of a helicopter with its
engine or engines running.
Hot refuelling of a helicopter may take place with its rotor or rotors rotating.
Hot refuelling of a helicopter must not be carried out unless authorised by its
operator.
The operator of a helicopter who authorises hot refuelling of that helicopter
must include in the operations manual:
• the operational circumstances in which hot refuelling may take place; and
• the procedures to be followed during hot refuelling; and
• t he requirements and instructions, if any, set out in the helicopter’s flight
manual that relate to hot refuelling; and
• if applicable, the instructions to ensure fuel quality as required for the
purposes of CAO 20.10 sub-paragraph 7.2 (b).
As hot refuelling requires the compliance with an operations manual, this is
generally a commercial operation and therefore will not be covered in this
document.

3 – HELICOPTER
 instruments required 351

Instruments required for private VFR operations (CAO 20.18)

The flight and navigation instruments required for private VFR operations are:
• an airspeed indicating system;
• a pressure altimeter with a readily adjustable pressure datum setting scale
graduated in millibars;
– a direct reading magnetic compass; or
– a remote indicating magnetic compass and a standby direct reading
magnetic compass; and
• a n accurate timepiece indicating hours, minutes and seconds. This may be
carried on the person of the pilot or navigator.
Note that helicopters engaged in VFR regular public transport, charter or aerial
work operations must also be equipped with:
• a slip indicator; and
• a n outside air temperature indicator when operating from or to a location
at which ambient air temperature is not available from ground-based
instruments.

special VFR
By day, when VMC does not exist, the ATC unit responsible for a CTR may
authorise, at pilot request, a Special VFR flight in the CTR, or in a CTA next to
the CTR for the purpose of entering or leaving the CTR, provided that:
• the Special VFR flight will not unduly delay an IFR flight; and
• the flight can be conducted clear of cloud; and
• the visibility is not less than 800M (for helicopters); and
• A
 helicopter will be operated at such a speed that the pilot has adequate
opportunity to observe any obstructions or other traffic in sufficient time
to avoid collisions; and
• t he flight can be conducted in accordance with the requirements of CAR
157 with regard to low flying.

3 – HELICOPTER
352
alternate requirements
When operating a helicopter under the VFR, and the use of the helicopter
VMC is permissible at the destination, the pilot in command must provide
for a suitable alternate aerodrome when either of the following conditions is
forecast at the destination:
• cloud - more than 4/8ths of below 1,000FT; or
•. visibility - less than 3,000M
For helicopters operating under the VFR at night, the alternate minima are a
ceiling of 1,500 FT and a visibility of 8KM.
For VFR helicopter operations by day, the alternate minima are the
same as for night unless the additional conditions specified in the above
paragraphs are met. When these additional conditions are met, the alternate
requirements are as shown in the above paragraphs.

3 – HELICOPTER
VMC: outside controlled airspace 353

NON-CONTROLLED AIRSPACE - HELICOPTER

1000FT

1500
metres Visibility 8000M

1000FT

10 000FT
000' (AMSL)
(AMSL)

1000FT
1500
metres Visibility 5000M

1000FT
Clear of cloud

5KM VIS
3 000FT (AMSL)

Clear of cloud
Visibility 5000M

1 000FT (AGL)
Visibility
800 metres
700FT reduced
10 miles speed

Aerodrome with instrument approach procedure

SAME VMC IN CONTROLLED AIRCRAFT MAY TAKE OFF OR LAND

AIRSPACE BUT ATC MAY DIRECT IF FLIGHT AT THE MINIMUM ALTITUDE
HIGHER CONDITIONS, OR PERMIT PERMISSIBLE ON THE PROPOSED
VFR FLIGHT IN LOWER CONDITIONS FLIGHT PATH CAN BE MADE IN VMC

3 – HELICOPTER
354
aerodromes
USE OF AERODROMES
An aircraft shall not land at, or take-off from, any place unless:
• it is an aerodrome established under the Air Navigation Regulations; or
•. the use of the place as an aerodrome is authorised by a licence
granted under CASR Part 139 (Licensed Aerodrome); or
• t he place is a Defence Force aerodrome for which CASA has
authorised civil operations in accordance with section 20 of the Act; or
• t he place is suitable for use as an aerodrome and the aircraft can
land at, or take-off from, the place in safety, having regard to all the
circumstances of the proposed landing or take-off (including the
prevailing weather conditions),

CIRCUIT HEIGHT
By convention, helicopters are flown at a circuit height of 800FT AGL. The
following circuit heights apply to other aircraft:
• jets, 1500AFT AGL
• piston/turbo prop, 1000FT AGL;
Circuit heights for aerodromes which have specific requirements are
published in ERSA.

3 – HELICOPTER
 aerodromes 355

GENERAL
The procedure in this section apply to all helicopters operating in the vicinity
of aerodromes and in helicopter access corridors and lanes, in accordance
with the provisions of CAR’s 92,157,163 and 166.

TAXIING
For all helicopters, maximum use of the “air transit” procedure should be
made to expedite traffic movement and flow about an aerodrome.
All helicopters may use “air taxiing” procedures as required. However,
wheeled helicopters, where practicable, are encouraged to “ground taxi” on
prepared surfaced to minimise rotor wash and its effects.
At night a helicopter should not taxi via routes which do not meet the
physical dimensions and lighting requirements specified in CAAP 92-2(0).

TAKE-OFF/ DEPARTURE
At controlled aerodromes, helicopters may be granted a take-off clearance
or instructed to report airborne, as appropriate, from any area nominated by
ATC or the pilot, and assessed by the pilot as being suitable as a HLS.
Helicopters taking off/ departing must proceed in accordance with ATC
instructions. Subject to clearance, a turn after take-off maybe commenced
when the pilot considers that the helicopter is at a safe height to do so.
Unless requested by the pilot take-off clearance will not be issued for a
helicopter if the tailwind component exceeds 5KT.
Prescribed exit “gates” and associated standard routes and/or altitudes may
be provided to facilitate the flow of helicopter traffic. Procedures for their
use will be promulgated in ERSA. Use of these “gates” is not mandatory.
Helicopters may, subject to an ATC clearance, revert to the standard traffic
procedure applicable to aeroplanes.
This option may be more appropriate when operating larger helicopters.

3 – HELICOPTER
356
aerodromes
At night a helicopter should not take-off other than from a site which
conforms with the requirements specified in CAAP 92-2(0). Any illuminated
runway or illuminated taxiway of dimensions commensurate with the size
of the helicopter landing site applicable to the helicopter, in accordance with
CAAP 92-2(0), is considered to meet the requirements of CAAP 92-2(0).
At a controlled aerodrome a pilot may take-off from any area which is
assessed as being suitable as a HLS.
When the pilot elects to conduct the take-off from outside the flight strip of
the runway in use by aeroplanes, the helicopter take-off path must be outside
that flight strip.
Before take-off, the helicopter is to be positioned to the appropriate side of
the runway in use so that the turn after take-off does not cross the extended
centre line of that runway. The pre take-off position of the helicopter will be by
air transit or by taxiing as appropriate.
The turn after take-off onto the desired departure track may be commenced
when the pilot considers that the helicopter is at a safe height to do so. If
the resultant departure track conflicts with the aeroplane traffic pattern, the
helicopter should remain at 500FT above the surface until clear of that circuit
pattern. Where this procedure is not practicable on environmental grounds,
the helicopter is to adopt the standard departure procedure applicable to
aeroplanes.
Pilots of radio equipped helicopters must broadcast intentions on the
appropriate frequency before take-off.

HELICOPTER ACCESS CORRIDORS AND LANES

The following procedures for operations within promulgated helicopter access
corridors and lanes apply:
• maximum IAS of 120KT;
• h
 elicopters must operate under VFR, usually not below 500FT above the
surface by day subject to flight over populous areas. Restrictions are the
limitations published in ERSA for authorised corridors by night;
• “see and avoid” procedures must be used;
• formation
 flights are restricted to line astern with the lead aircraft
responsible for maintaining separation from other traffic in accordance
with sub paragraph c;

3 – HELICOPTER
 aerodromes 357

• a traffic advisory service is available in access corridors;

• a radar advisory service may be given at designated aerodromes;
• a continuous listening watch on the appropriate ATS frequency in access
corridors or broadcast frequency in lanes is mandatory;
• two-way
 operations are conducted with all traffic keeping to the right of
the central geographical/topographical feature(s) as detailed in ERSA;
• the
 pilot-in-command has the responsibility to ensure that operations are
confirmed within the boundaries of the corridor or lane;
• the
 limits of corridors and lanes must be adhered to, with any transitional
altitude requirements maintained within an accuracy of ± 100FT;
• a helicopter not confirming its operations to an access corridor will require
ATC clearance and while outside the corridor, will be subject to separation
standards as applied by ATC.
Note: Subject to environmental noise considerations, the imposition of
limitations on those types of helicopters which exceed the noise limits
specified in ICAO Annex 16 Vol 1 may be necessary.

ARRIVALS
At a controlled aerodrome, prescribed entry “gates” and associated standard
routed and/or altitudes may be provided to facilitate the flow of helicopter
traffic. Procedures for their use will be promulgated in ERSA. Use of these
“gates” is not mandatory. Subject to the receipt of an ATC clearance,
helicopters ,may, if required, conform to the standard traffic procedures
applicable to aeroplanes.
This option may be more appropriate when operating larger helicopters.
Unless requested by the pilot, a landing clearance will not be issued for a
helicopter if the tailwind component exceeds 5KT.
At night a helicopter should not land at a site other than one which conforms
with the requirements specified in the latest issue of CAAP 92.2. Any
illuminated runway or illuminated taxiway of dimensions commensurate with
the size of the helicopter landing site applicable to the helicopter, in accordance
with CAAP 92.2, is considered to meet the requirements of CAAP 9.2.

3 – HELICOPTER
358
aerodromes
CIRCUIT PROCEDURES
At controlled aerodromes and specific operating procedures applicable to
the helicopter traffic pattern will be detailed in ERSA. The following generally
applies:
• w
 here possible, helicopter circuit traffic will be separated from the
aeroplane traffic pattern by the use of contra- direction circuits, outside of
and parallel to the flight strip of the runway in use, and at a lower altitude
than other traffic, but not below 500FT above the aerodrome elevation; or
• w
 hen separated circuit patterns are not practicable, helicopters may utilise
the same traffic pattern direction as other traffic, and will normally operate
inside and at a lower altitude than the traffic, but not below 500FT above
the aerodrome elevation.
At non-controlled aerodromes the following circuit operating procedures
apply;
• h
 elicopters may be operated on contra-direction circuits and parallel to
the aeroplane traffic pattern at a lower altitude than that traffic; but not
below 500FT above the aerodrome elevation. The landing site associated
with the helicopter circuit is to be positioned outside the flight strip of the
runway in use so the helicopter circuit traffic does not cross the extended
centre line of that runway;
• if
 the procedure outlined in sub paragraph A, is not practicable the
helicopter circuit patterns should be flown inside and parallel to the
aeroplane traffic and at lower altitudes, but not below 500FT above
aerodrome elevation. The landing site associated with the helicopter circuit
must be positioned outside the flight strip of the runway in use so that the
helicopter circuit traffic does not cross the extended centre line of that
runway; or
• the
 helicopter must follow the standard aeroplane traffic pattern and, in
this case, may use the fight strip area of the runway in use;
• the
 pilots or radio equipped helicopters must broadcast their intentions
and listen out for other traffic on the appropriate frequency.

3 – HELICOPTER
 low flying 359

low flying (CAR157)

An aircraft must not fly over:
• any city, town or populous area, at a height lower than 1000 feet; or
• any other area at a height lower than 500 feet.
 height specified above is the height above the highest point of the terrain,
A
and any object on it, within a radius of 300 metres; from a point on the terrain
vertically below the aircraft.
Paragraph 1 (A) does not apply in respect of a helicopter flying at a designated
altitude within an access lane details of which have been published in the AIP
or NOTAMS for use by helicopters arriving at or departing from a specified
place.
Paragraph 1 does not apply if:
• through
 stress of weather or any other unavoidable cause it is essential
that a lower height be maintained; or
• the
 aircraft is engaged in private operations or aerial work operations, being
operations that require low flying, and the owner or operator of the aircraft
has received from CASA either a general permit for all flights or a specific
permit for the particular flight to be made at a lower height while engaged in
such operations; or
• the
 pilot of the aircraft is engaged in flying training and flies over a part of
a flying training area in respect of which low flying is authorised by CASA
under sub regulation 141 (1); or
• the
 pilot of the aircraft is engaged in a baulked approach procedure, or the
practice of such procedure under the supervision of a flight instructor or a
check pilot; or
• the
 aircraft is flying in the course of actually taking-off or landing at an
aerodrome; or
• the pilot of the helicopter is engaged in:
– a search; or
– a rescue; or
– dropping supplies in a search and rescue operation; or
– operation for the purposes of, the Australian Federal Police or the
police force of a State or Territory; and

3 – HELICOPTER
360
low flying
– engaged in law enforcement operations; or
– the pilot of the helicopter is engaged in an operation which requires
the dropping of packages or other articles or substances in accordance
with directions issued by CASA.

3 – HELICOPTER
 over water flights 361

LIFE JACKETS
Each occupant of a helicopter operating to or from an off-shore landing site
located on a fixed platform or vessel shall wear a life jacket during the entire
flight over water regardless of the class of operation or the one-engine-
inoperative performance capability of the helicopter.

HELICOPTER FLOTATION SYSTEMS (COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS)

• A
 single engine helicopter engaged in passenger carrying charter
operations shall be equipped with an approved flotation system whenever
the helicopter is operated beyond autorotative gliding distance from
land. However, when following a helicopter access lane prescribed in
AIP-ERSA, or when departing from or landing at a helicopter landing site
in accordance with a normal navigation procedure for departing from or
landing at that site, an approved flotation system is not required.
•  A single engine helicopter engaged in regular public transport operations
shall be equipped with an approved flotation system whenever the
helicopter is operated beyond autorotative gliding distance from land.
• A
 multi-engine helicopter engaged in passenger carrying charter or regular
public transport operations over water and which is not operated in
accordance with oneengine- inoperative accountability procedures shall be
equipped with an approved flotation system.

3 – HELICOPTER
362
over water flights
Aircraft engaged in PVT, AWK or CHTR operations, and which are normally
prohibited by CAR 258 from over-the water flights because of their inability
to reach land in the event of engine failure, may fly over water subject to
compliance with the conditions in this section. These conditions are additional
to the requirements for flight over land.
(Different requirement apply to that the case of passenger-carrying CHTR
operations. The distance between successive land areas suitable for an
emergency landing must not exceed 50NM. In the case of helicopters, a fixed
platform or a vessel suitable for an emergency landing and located adjacent to
land may be considered acceptable for this requirement.)
There is no limitation for PVT, AWK or freight-only CHTR operations.
Each occupant of the aircraft must wear a life jacket during the flight over the
water unless exempted from doing so under the terms of CAO 20.11.
A meteorological forecast must be obtained.
VFR flights are required to submit a SARTIME flight notification to ATS or
leave a Flight Note with a responsible person.

SAR ALERTING
 FR flights may choose to operate on reporting schedules for the over-water
V
stages of a flight. Schedules may be arranged before commencing the over-
water stage and terminate on completion of the crossing.
 FR aircraft not equipped with radio which will enable continuous
V
communication, or not radio equipped, must carry a survival beacon as
prescribed in CAO 20.11, for the over-water stages of the flight.
Helicopters must be fitted with an approved flotation system unless
exempted under the terms of CAO 20.11.
Helicopters operating in accordance with the approval given must comply
with the VFR, except that in the case of helicopters operating below 700FT
above water by day, the flight visibility must not be less than 5,000M and
the helicopter must be flown at a distance equal to or greater than 60M
horizontally and 500FT vertically from cloud, unless track guidance is provided
by an approved operating radio navigation aid and the helicopter is equipped
with a complimentary system.

3 – HELICOPTER
 363

section 4 – emergency procedures

 g e n e ra l
364
planning
Each year there are a large number of Search and Rescue (SAR) phases
declared, with many requiring substantial effort to resolve. Many pilots have
discovered that the comforting phrase, “it can’t happen to me”, is far from
correct. If you prepare adequately for all eventualities you will be better able
to deal with any emergency situation in which you may find yourself and
thus enable AusSAR, which is responsible for aviation and maritime SAR in
Australia to offer you better assistance.
To help you in this preparation, the following guide is suggested.
Select the route which gives you short legs between the best visual fixes,
and the least rugged terrain. Make sure that your maps cover the entire route.
Always wear a watch. Remember, that external navigation aids, such as GPS,
should be cross-checked using other navigational methods to ensure its
accuracy.
If your planned flight crosses high country or large water expanses, consider
the alternative routes that may be used in conditions of adverse weather.
Remember the problems of rising ground in deteriorating meteorological
conditions.
Make sure you get a forecast. Take special note of the weather, freezing level,
significant cloud cover and expected visibility. Relate the forecast to your
planned route and the nature of the terrain.
Always tell someone what you are doing - either by lodging a flight plan
or leaving a flight note. If the weather is not suitable, consider using an
alternate route or postponing the flight. Consider discussing the situation
with someone else with aviation experience.
If you are making a VFR Flight, plan to arrive at least 10 minutes before the
end of daylight, or earlier, if your flight time is more than 1 hour, or if the
terrain or the weather could reduce the light. If you are delayed, make sure
that your departure is not too late to meet this requirement.
Break your flight into route segments, measure distances carefully and use a
computer to find time intervals. Do not guess or give just one time interval.
Either lodge a flight plan or leave a flight note with a responsible person. Plan
a realistic SARTIME and don’t forget to amend it if you are delayed for any
reason. Provide a destination telephone number on your flight plan or flight
note. If a pilot or one of the passengers has a mobile phone, provide that
number as well.

4 – PLANNING
 planning 365

HELPING SEARCH AND RESCUE

Should you have to make a forced landing, many of the planning hints
mentioned previously will help AusSAR find you quickly, for example:
• the search will take account of the forecast and actual weather conditions;
• t he search will be based on the information you gave in your flight
notification form or flight note, plus, if necessary, the performance figures
of your aircraft;
• t he area which will be searched first will normally be 10 miles either side
of your planned route and;
Other things which you can do to help yourself and the AusSAR
organisation in these circumstances are:
• stay with your aircraft (see also “Hints for Survival” pages);
• c arry a heliograph or mirror to signal search aircraft by day and an electric
torch for use at night; (heliographs are available at most army disposal
stores or camping stores)
• c arry matches or a cigarette lighter, a pocket compass, knife and first
aid kit, and wear warm clothing in winter (a space blanket is a cheap
lightweight alternative to a blanket)
• a lways carry water, and take extra supplies if you are flying over hot arid
areas; and
• c arry a ‘survival food kit’ of high calorie food items (eg, sweets, raisins,
nuts, Vitamin C tablets, etc) packed in a small waterproof container.
Read the other survival hints in ERSA EMERG Section and in the
succeeding pages of this Guide.
REMEMBER - IT CAN HAPPEN TO YOU–BUT IT NEED NOT BE A TRAGEDY
A pilot who does not hold an instrument rating or who is flying an aircraft not
equipped for instrument flight has no place in adverse weather. However, there
are many occurrences where VFR pilots find themselves in weather which is
below the minima specified for Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC).
Such occurrences are generally the result of poor planning for safety and too
frequently end in tragedy.
VFR flight in weather which is below VMC is NOT PERMITTED.

4 – PLANNING
366
planning
When weather begins to deteriorate, monitor the changes carefully and
consider possible alternative action. If you have already planned an alternative
route, decide when to divert.

BROADCAST YOUR INTENTIONS

Government and licensed aerodromes and many ALAs are shown on WACs,
VTC’s and VNC’s. Note which aerodromes lie close to your track and which
may be suitable for an precautionary landing.
Decide how and/or when you will make a firm decision to continue or turn
back.
Plan your immediate flight path so that you remain well clear of cloud and
heavy rain AT ALL TIMES. There have been many occasions when pilots have
not intended to fly into cloud but, through inadequate planning, their flight
path has inadvertently taken them into cloud.
When you become aware that any element of the weather is about to FALL
BELOW THE VMC MINIMA - DO NOT HESITATE, TURN BACK IMMEDIATELY.
BROADCAST YOUR INTENTIONS. DO NOT leave your decision until the
weather has already fallen below VMC Minima.

4 – planning
 d istr e ss b e a c o n s

background 367

Distress beacons have been used in aviation for many years and, with some flights
now being conducted without the lodgement of flight plans or notices or reporting
progress, there is increasing importance on having an effective distress beacon as
a means of last resort to alert the SAR system that you are in grave and imminent
danger. A distress beacon is a useful alerting and localisation aid should you be
required to call for assistance. The following information is provided to give you an
understanding of the different types of beacons available and their use.

ALERTING THE SAR SYSTEM WITH DISTRESS BEACONS

Distress beacons are detected by other aircraft who may be monitoring 121.5 MHz
or by the Cospas-Sarsat satellite based system which provides distress alerting and
location information to search and rescue (SAR) authorities in the aviation, maritime
and land environments. The Cospas-Sarsat system, which has been in operation
since 1982, was originally designed to service a discrete distress frequency on
406.025 (generically stated as 406) MHz but the requirement was expanded to
include a reduced service on the aviation distress frequency of 121.5 MHz. In
the case of the latter, the physical characteristics of the radio frequency and the
output signal mean that there is coarser resolution with beacons operating on this
frequency compared to those operating on the higher frequency.
Australia, through AusSAR, is responsible for operating the regional Cospas-Sarsat
ground segment in the South West Pacific [Link] is done by monitoring
satellite intercepted signals from three ground stations in Albany (WA), Bundaberg
(QLD), and Wellington (NZ). With 121.5 MHz signals, the three elements in the
process (ie the beacon, the satellite and the ground station) must be in view
of each other. This introduces delays in the SAR system responding. With later
technology 406 MHz signals, the satellite has the capacity to time tag the digital
information and repeat it when it is next interrogated by a ground station or pass
the information via satellites in geo-stationery orbit over the equator to provide a
near instantaneous alerting function.

BEACON TERMINOLOGY
There have been a number of conventions used in the past to describe the
various types of distress beacons that have been available in the market place.
The current practice is to use Electronic Locator Transmitter (ELT) to describe
those that are fitted to an aircraft, Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon
(EPIRB) to describe those that are designed to float when immersed in water,
and Personal Locator Beacon (PLB) to describe the portable units that are
designed for personal use. Many GA operators carry the PLB variant.

4 – distress beacons
368
background
COMPATIBILITY OF OLDER TECHNOLOGY BEACONS
The 1960s saw the emergence of aviation distress beacons that operated
on 121.5 MHz. These beacons meet the FAA TSO C91 standard and provide
an audible tone on the frequency with the likelihood that other aircraft or
air traffic services in the area would intercept it and become aware that an
aircraft is in distress. A large number of aircraft still operating in Australia are
fitted with this standard of ELT. These older beacons are not covered by the
Cospas-Sarsat system and continue to rely on the aviation sector for SAR
alerting purposes.
When a decision was taken to extend the Cospas-Sarsat system to include
121.5 MHz, the standard pertaining to aviation beacons was revisited and a
new standard (FAA TSO C91A) was set making the beacon emission suitable
for intercept by satellite. The FAA standard for 406 MHz beacons is TSO C126.
These standards are reflected in CAR 252A.
It should be noted that from February 2009 the Cospas-Sarsat system will
no longer receive beacons transmitting on 121.5 and 243.0 MHz. At this time
only 406 MHZ beacons complying with TSO C126 or the appropriate AS/NZS
standard will be acceptable.

COMPARISON OF DISTRESS BEACONS

The 121.5 MHz beacons in current production are relatively lightweight and
inexpensive. They provide an affordable alternative to the more expensive 406
MHz beacons (which are now available with an embedded GPS so that they
can automatically report the beacon position in digital form via the satellite
system when activated). A comparison of the two beacon technologies is
shown in Table 1.
As a result of the location of the three ground stations servicing the Australian
region, there are approximately fifty satellite passes serviced per day by
AusSAR which results in a typical coverage area and average times for
detection of a 121.5 MHz beacon.

4 – distress beacons
background 369

4 – distress beacons
370
background

BUNDABERG

6 UR
4

HO S
HO
2
HO

U
RS
U
RS
1H
ALBANY

OU
WELLINGTON

THE TYPICAL COSPAS-SARSAT COVERAGE AREA AND AVERAGE TIMES FOR

DETECTIONOF A 121.5 MHz DISTRESS BEACONS IN THE AUSTRALIAN AREA

The major implications for general aviation aircraft operating in Australia using
121.5 MHz beacons is that if the beacon is of the older type, then there
is a reliance on other aircraft to detect the 121.5 MHz signal and raise the
alarm. This may be problematic in many parts of Australia as only the larger
commercial aircraft regularly monitor this frequency. If the beacon is Cospas-
Sarsat compatible, the system will generally detect the signal but produce
an ambiguous fix position either side of the satellite pass. Follow-on passes,
collateral information, or the use of aircraft to investigate both possible
positions are used to refine the correct distress beacon position.
This evolution takes time and the accuracy of the Cospas-Sarsat derived
position is less accurate than with the more technically advanced 406 MHz
beacon which usually provides an accurate position on the first pass. These
beacons are also encoded with the details of the registered owner and,
through the GEOSAR supplementary repeaters, provide near instantaneous
advice that an emergency situation exists prior to a Cospas-Sarsat satellite
pass. If an embedded GPS is fitted, a position will be passed along with this
initial alert advice. The time critical nature of an adequate response is a major
consideration when considering the safety of life.

4 – distress beacons
 care and storage 371

CARE AND STORAGE OF DISTRESS BEACONS

Because an air traffic services unit or AusSAR will declare a Distress Phase
immediately it is made aware that a beacon signal has been detected, it is
most important that care is taken by pilots and technical staff to ensure that
beacons are not activated accidentally.
Owners of Beacons are asked to observe the following:
• R
 EAD and ADHERE to the operating and general instructions issued by
the manufacturer.
• E
 nsure that impact operated beacons are switched ‘OFF’ except when
arming is actually required.
• M
 ost PLBs have a self-test function that should be used rather than
testing the beacon on the operational frequency.
• If operational testing of ELTs is required, the beacon SHOULD NOT be
operated for more than five seconds with the preferred procedure being
that the test is conducted within the first five minutes of the hour. Longer
tests are required to be conducted in a screened radio test cage. BEFORE
operational tests for any period are conducted, operators must contact
AusSAR (1800 815 257) to gain approval.
• A
 LWAYS notify the air traffic service provider or AusSAR if a beacon has
been activated inadvertently. Early advice will assist in the continued
efficiency of the SAR system.
• W
 hile performing maintenance on an aircraft, have a VHF radio tuned to
121.5 MHz to detect any inadvertent activation.
• M
 onitor 121.5 MHz on start-up and shut-down. A knock while parked or a
heavy landing may activate some impact operated beacons.
• K
 eep PLBs in a handy position and brief passengers on their location and
use in the case of emergency.

4 – distress beacons
372
emergency activation
USING DISTRESS BEACONS
If you are in the WATER, and your beacon is buoyant, the beacon should
be activated IN THE WATER and allowed to float to the end of the lanyard.
You should ensure that the aerial is substantially vertical. DO NOT attach the
lanyard to the aircraft, but rather a person or liferaft.
In situations where you are forced to use a non-buoyant distress beacon in a
water survival situation, ensure that the beacon is kept dry. The beacon will
operate successfully from inside a plastic bag, and should be located just as
close to the water as possible. If you raise the beacon high above the water,
the beacon’s effectiveness will be reduced.
For operations over LAND, you will get the best performance from an ELT
by operating it while still installed in the aircraft as long as the fixed aerial
remains attached. If there is any doubt about the integrity of the system, then
it should be removed from the aircraft and used in the manner described
below for PLBs.
PLBs are most effective when placed on a flat surface on the ground in an
exposed position. Space blankets or aluminium foil make good earth mats
to optimise the signal with the active beacon being placed in the middle. It
is suggested that if you carry a beacon you also carry sufficient household
aluminium foil to make a 120cm square earth mat for use in emergencies.
You should always activate your distress beacon if you are in grave and
imminent danger regardless of whether you can optimise its performance as
described above.
Modern distress beacons have been detected by other aircraft and the
Cospas Sarsat system in very marginal conditions.

4 – distress beacons
emergency activation 373

4 – distress beacons
374
emergency activation
IN THE EVENT OF BEING FORCED DOWN OR SOME INSTANCES DITCHING
ACTIVATE THE DISTRESS BEACON IMMEDIATELY
• W
 here the beacon is permanently installed, activate the beacon in situ, or
if there is some concern about the integrity of the installation, remove it
and use it as described below.
• W
 here a non-permanent ELT or a PLB is being used, select a site for the
activation of the beacon. If possible, the site should be elevated, clear of
trees, boulders, etc and reasonably close to the aircraft.
• P
 lace the beacon on a flat surface and use an earth mat if available. You
may consider placing the beacon on the wing of the aircraft or other
reflective metal surface if there is no earth mat available or the terrain is
inhospitable to any other option.
• If required, secure the beacon with rocks, sticks, tape, etc so that the
aerial remains substantially vertical.
• R
 emain clear of the beacon. Obstacles near it will distort the radiation
pattern.
• A
 beacon which is damaged or under wreckage may still transmit some
signal so always activate it.
• T
 o avoid confusing direction finding equipment on search aircraft, avoid
activating two or more beacons within 1NM of each other. If two or more
beacons are available, their use should be rationalised to extend the
alerting period.
• In the event of a search, an aircraft may drop a radio to you. Walk
away from the beacon to avoid interference on the radio transmission
frequency. DO NOT switch off the beacon UNLESS instructed to do so.
An Emergency Locator Transmitter, or any variant, is a useful search aid should
you be forced down and require assistance. However, to obtain maximum
benefit from your beacon and to assist the search aircraft, it is necessary to
observe a few guidelines for activating your ELT.
If you are in the WATER, and your beacon is buoyant, the beacon should be
activated IN THE WATER and allowed to float to the end of the lanyard. DO
NOT attach lanyard to aircraft, but rather to person or liferaft. Adjust the bridle
so that the aerial is substantially vertical.
In situations where you are forced to use a non-buoyant ELT in a water
survival situation, ensure that the beacon is kept dry. The beacon will operate

4 – distress beacons
 emergency activation 375

successfully from inside a plastic bag, and should be located as close to the
water as possible. If you raise the beacon high above the water, the beacon’s
effectiveness will be reduced.
For operations over LAND you will get the best performance from a beacon
operating from its permanent installation in the aircraft or from operating it on
the ground on an EARTH MAT.
An EARTH MAT can be a SPACE BLANKET or similar material with a reflective
surface.
A simple inexpensive earth mat can be made by joining household
ALUMINIUM FOIL to make a 120cm square. It is suggested that, if you carry
an ELT, you make a foil earth mat, fold it and tape it to you ELT. To use the
earth mat, unfold it and place it flat on the ground, holding the edges
down with rocks or earth. Switch on your beacon and place in the
centre of the earth mat, alternatively place ELT on wing of aircraft.
IN MANY CASES, USING AN EARTH MAT WILL INCREASE
THE EFFECTIVE RANGE OF YOUR EMERGENCY
LOCATOR TRANSMITTER

4 – distress beacons
376
signals
TRANSMISSION OF SIGNALS
• T
 he pilot in command of an aircraft shall transmit or display the signals
specified in this Division according to the degree of emergency being
experienced.
• T
 he signals specified in relation to each successive degree of emergency
may be sent either separately or together for any one degree of emergency.

DISTRESS SIGNALS
• T
 he distress signal shall be transmitted only when the aircraft is
threatened with grave and immediate danger and requires immediate
assistance.
• In radio telegraphy, the distress signal shall take the form of SOS (... – – –
...), sent 3 times, followed by the group DE, sent once, and the call sign of
the aircraft, sent 3 times.
• T
 he signal specified in the above may be followed by the automatic alarm
signal which consists of a series of 12 dashes, sent in one minute, the
duration of each dash being 4 seconds, and the duration of the interval
between consecutive dashes being one second.
•  In radiotelephony, the distress signal shall take the form of the word
“MAYDAY”, pronounced 3 times, followed by the words “THIS IS”,
followed by the call sign of the aircraft 3 times.
• B
 y other means the distress signal shall take one or more of the following
forms:
– the Morse signal ... – – – ... with visual apparatus or with sound
apparatus;
– a succession of pyrotechnical lights, fired at short intervals, each
showing a single red light;
– the two-flag signal corresponding to the letters NC of the International
Code of Signals;
– the distant signal, consisting of a square flag having, either above or
below, a ball or anything resembling a ball;
– a parachute flare showing a red light;
– a gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of approximately one
minute.

4 – signals
 signals 377

URGENCY SIGNALS
• T
 he following signals, used either together or separately, shall be used by
an aircraft for the purpose of giving notice of difficulties which compel it to
land without requiring immediate assistance:
– the repeated switching on and off of the landing lights;
– the repeated switching on and off of the navigation lights, in such a
manner as to be distinctive from the flashing lights described below;
– a succession of white pyrotechnical lights.
• T
 he following signals, used either together or separately, shall be used
by an aircraft for the purpose of giving notice that the aircraft has a very
urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of a ship, aircraft or
vehicle, or of some person on board or within sight:
– in radiotelegraphy, 3 repetitions of the group XXX (– .. – – .. – – .. –), sent
with the letters of each group, and the successive groups clearly separated
from each other, and sent before the transmission of the message;
– in radiotelephony, 3 repetitions of the words PAN, PAN, sent before
the transmission of the message;
– a succession of green pyrotechnical lights;
– a succession of green flashes with signal apparatus.

SAFETY SIGNALS
• T
 he safety signal shall be transmitted when an aircraft wishes to transmit
a message concerning the safety of navigation or to give important
meteorological warnings.
• The safety signal shall be sent before the call and:
– in the case of radiotelegraphy shall consist of 3 repetitions of the group
TTT (– – –), sent with the letters of each group and the successive
groups clearly separated from each other; and
– in the case of radiotelephony shall consist of the word “SECURITY”,
repeated 3 times.

4 – signals
 forced landings
378
initial action
HIGH KEY
2500ft AGL
LOW KEY
1500 ft AGL ENGINE FAILURE POINT
4500ft AGL

IF TOO LOW

IF TOO HIGH

4 – forced landings
 hints 379

STAY WITH YOUR AIRCRAFT

It is much easier for air search observers to spot an aircraft than a walking
survivor, and this applies whether your aircraft is still in one piece or not.
However, there are two exceptions to this rule:
• If your aircraft is completely hidden from air observation by trees or
undergrowth, etc try to find a clearing where you can set up signals for
search aircraft.
• If you are absolutely certain that a town, settlement, road or homestead is
within reasonable distance, you could walk out – but if you do, leave notes
for a land search party telling them what you are doing and leave a trail
which they can follow. See signal codes, page 348.

WATER
Salvage your water supply, conserve it as much as possible and augment it if
you can, by rain, dew, river water or any other means. For example, dig down
in the middle of the sandy bed of a watercourse to locate a soak, or distil salt
water by holding a cloth in the steam of boiling water and wringing it into a
container.
Water is more important to survival than food – you can comfortably do
without food for 48 hours or more, but lack of water causes dehydration and
only one-fifth of the body’s fluids (about 11 litres) can be lost if an individual is
to survive.
Under desert survival conditions, the preferred method, after a forced landing,
is to wait until your are extremely thirsty before drinking at all and then to
drink at the rate at which sweating is taking place. This method ensures that
there is little impairment in efficiency and wastes no water. You can also save
water by reducing sweating, eg: by keeping in the shade, not exposing the
skin to sun or hot winds and resting during the day. If water supplies have to
be restricted, do not take salt or eat salty foods.
DO NOT drink URINE under any circumstances.

4 – forced landings
380
hints
Minimum water requirements per person to maintain the correct balance of
body fluid, when resting in the shade, are:
Mean temperature (Degrees C) 35 32 30 27 or below
Litres per 24 hours 5 3.5 2.5 1
(Mean temperature is usually about 8oC below daily maximum)
• If you do decide to walk out you will double the body’s need for water.
• In desert or semi-desert areas, walk only at night or in the early morning.
• F
 or every 4.5 litres of water carried, you should be able to walk 32
kilometres at night in these types of terrain.
DO NOT DRINK SALT WATER

4 – forced landings
 hints 381

EMERGENCY WATER STILL

To supplement supplies, an emergency water still, requiring the carriage of
some equipment, can extract small amounts of water from soil that looks
quite dry, if set up in this manner.
Foliage (if available) should be placed as illustrated around the container under
the plastic sheet. Clear polythene which ‘wets’ easily is best for the purpose but
ordinary clear kitchen polythene sheet (or preferably the thicker 100μm variety
such as is laid down before concrete floors, etc., are poured) is satisfactory,
particularly if its surface is roughened so that the droplets of water will cling to
it more easily and will not be wasted by dropping off before they run down to
the point of the cone. It is wise to cut the sheets to size and roughen them with
sandpaper before they are stored in the aircraft, rather than waiting until one is
stranded somewhere in the outback. If a ‘nesting’ set of containers is obtained
and the sheets and tubing rolled inside them, a very compact bundle can be
made. But see that it is very well wrapped – it may have to lie around in the
luggage compartment for a long time before it is needed.

DIRT TO ANCHOR PLASTIC SHEET

PLASTIC DRINKING TUBE

PLASTIC SHEET

ROCK

1m
200mm
ONE OR TWO 500mm
LITRE CONTAINER

4 – forced landings
382
hints

SIGNALLING
If you have a Locator beacon, operate it as described in “EMERGENCY
ACTIVATION OF DISTRESS BEACONS (on page 338)”.
Collect wood, grass, etc., and build several signalling fires – preferably in the form
of a triangle. Use oil from the engine and tyres to make black smoke. Unless there
is ample firewood in the area, do not light fires until you hear or see search aircraft,
or until desperate. Be careful to have a fire break between the fires and your
aircraft. Try to have the fires downwind from the aircraft.
Conserve your batteries if the aircraft radio is undamaged. After one attempt to
contact an airways operations unit, do not use your transmitter until you hear or
see search aircraft. Maintain a listening watch, as search aircraft may broadcast
information or instruction in the hope that you can receive. Make a note of, and call
on the overlying controlled airspace frequency. Watch for contrails.
Make signals on the ground using the ‘Search and Rescue Ground Signals
illustrated’ in this section and in the EMERG Section.
Aircraft may fly over your notified route on the first or second night. Light the fires
as soon as you hear them, and if possible keep them burning all night.
If you do not have a heliograph or a mirror, try to remove some bright metal fittings
from your aircraft for signalling – any flash seen by the aircraft will be investigated.

4 – forced landings
 hints 383

HYGIENE
To remain in reasonable condition, you should take as much care as possible
to avoid accidents or illness. The following hints may help:
• keep your body and clothes as clean as possible;
• always wash your hands before eating;
• dispose properly of body wastes, garbage, etc., in trenches;
• if possible, sterilise or boil water and cook food to avoid gastric troubles;
• avoid activities which may lead to injury;
• keep your clothing dry;
• keep your head covered when in the sun; and
• d
 o not sleep on the ground – make a raised bed with aircraft seats, wood
and dry leaves, etc.

SHELTER
Some type of shelter is essential whatever type of terrain you have come
down in.
If your aircraft is not badly damaged, it may be used as a shelter, otherwise
you should use whatever is available from the aircraft and, by the use of trees,
etc., rig up a temporary tent as protection against the weather.

FIRES
You may find that a fire is essential for warmth, cooking, drying clothes,
distilling or purifying water, etc. If there is plenty of wood available this should
prove no problem, but otherwise you may have to improvise a stove from a
can or other container. Fuel for such a stove could be oil or fat, using a wick,
or petrol and a 75 mm layer of fuelimpregnated sand.

4 – forced landings
 ra d i o f ai l u r e
384
procedures
In the event of communication failure:
• MAINTAIN TERRAIN CLEARANCE THROUGHOUT ALL PROCEDURES.
• SQUAWK 7600

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS BY AN AIRCRAFT
In Flight:
• During the hours of daylight: by rocking the aircraft wings.
NOTE: This signal should not be expected on the base and final legs of the
approach.
• D
 uring the hours of darkness: by flashing on and off twice, the aircraft’s
landing lights or, if not so equipped, by switching on and off twice, its
navigation lights.
On the Ground:
• During the hours of daylight: by moving aircraft’s ailerons or rudder.
• D
 uring the hours of darkness: by flashing on and off twice, the aircraft’s
landing lights or, if not so equipped, by switching on and off twice, its
navigation lights.

4 – radio failure
 procedures 385

IF VFR OCTA
STAY IN VMC
• B
 ROADCAST INTENTIONS (assume transmitter is operating and prefix
calls with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”)
• R
 EMAIN VFR OCTA AND LAND AT THE NEAREST SUITABLE Non-
controlled AERODROME. REPORT ARRIVAL TO ATS IF ON SARTIME
OR REPORTING SCHEDULES. SEARCH AND RESCUE TELEPHONE
NUMBER 1800 815 257.
• IF IN CONTROLLED/RESTRICTED AIRSPACE SQUAWK 7600 IF
TRANSPONDER EQUIPPED. LISTEN OUT ON ATIS AND/OR VOICE
MODULATED NAVAIDS. TRANSMIT INTENTIONS AND NORMAL
POSITION REPORTS [IFR ONLY] INTENTIONS (assume transmitter is
operating and prefix calls with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”)
AND
• IF IN VMC AND CERTAIN OF MAINTAINING VMC STAY IN VMC
AND LAND AT THE MOST SUITABLE AERODROME. (NOT SPECIAL
PROCEDURES IF PROCEEDING TO A GAAP). REPORT ARRIVAL TO ATS.
OR
• IF IN IMC OR UNCERTAIN OF MAINTAINING VMC
NOTES:
• Initial and subsequent actions by the pilot at the time of loss of communications
will depend largely on the pilot’s knowledge of the destination aids, the air
traffic/air space situation and meteorological conditions en-route and at the
destination. It is not possible to publish procedures that cover all radio failure
circumstances. The following procedures ensure that Air Traffic services and
other traffic should be aware of the pilot’s most likely actions. Pilots should
follow these procedures unless strong reasons dictate otherwise.
• In determining the final level to which a pilot will climb after radio failure,
ATC will use the level provided on the Flight Notification, or the last level
requested by the pilot and acknowledged by ATC.

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386
procedures
INITIAL ACTIONS
IF NO CLEARANCE LIMIT RECEIVED AND ACKNOWLEDGED
Proceed in accordance with the latest ATC route clearance acknowledged and
climb to planned level.
IF A CLEARANCE LIMIT INVOLVING AN ALTITUDE OR ROUTE RESTRICTION
HAS BEEN RECEIVED AND ACKNOWLEDGED;
• m
 aintain last assigned level, or minimum safe altitude if higher, for three
minutes, and/or
• hold at nominated location for three minutes, then
• p
 roceed in accordance with the latest ATC route clearance acknowledged and
climb to planned level.

IF BEING RADAR VECTORED

• maintain last assigned vector for two minutes; and
• C
 LIMB IF NECESSARY TO MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE, to maintain terrain
clearance, then
• proceed in accordance with the latest ATC route clearance acknowledged.

IF HOLDING
• fly one more complete holding pattern; then
• p
 roceed in accordance with the flight plan or the latest ATC clearance
acknowledged, as applicable.

DESTINATION PROCEDURES
Track to the destination in accordance with flight plan (amended by the latest ATC
clearance acknowledged, if applicable).
Commence descent in accordance with standard operating procedures or flight
plan.

SPECIAL PROCEDURES – GAAP

Carry out general COM Failure procedures. Enter GAAP control zone at 1500FT
or as detailed in ERSA. Track via the appropriate General Aviation approach points.

4 – radio failure
 procedures 387

Proceed to overhead the aerodrome at that altitude. Ascertain landing direction,

descend to join desired circuit at circuit altitude via the downwind entry point
(remain clear of other circuit). Proceed with normal circuit and landing, maintain
separation from other aircraft. Watch for light signals from the tower.
If your aircraft is fitted with a Navigational Aid, selecting the appropriate
frequency and listening for instructions may be a possibility. Generally
speaking this is one of the most effective ways of proceeding safely.
When tower is active follow normal procedure. Watch tower for light signals.

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procedures
COMMUNICATION AND NAVAID FAILURE
In the event of complete failure of communications and navigation aids,
MAINTAIN TERRAIN CLEARANCE THROUGHOUT ALL PROCEDURES and
proceed as follows:
IF VFR OCTA
STAY IN VMC. BROADCAST INTENTIONS (assume transmitter is operating
and prefix calls with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”). REMAIN VFR OCTA AND
LAND AT THE NEAREST SUITABLE Non-controlled AERODROME. REPORT
ARRIVAL TO ATS IF ON SARTIME OR REPORTING SCHEDULES.

IF IN CONTROLLED/RESTRICTED AIRSPACE OR IF IFR IN ANY AIRSPACE

SQUAWK 7600 IF TRANSPONDER EQUIPPED. LISTEN OUT ON ATIS AND/
OR VOICE MODULATED NAVAIDS. TRANSMIT INTENTIONS AND NORMAL
POSITION REPORTS [IFR ONLY] (assume transmitter is operating and
prefix calls with “TRANSMITTING BLIND”). IF PRACTICABLE LEAVE/AVOID
CONTROLLED/RESTRICTED AIRSPACE AND AREAS OF DENSE TRAFFIC. AS
SOON AS POSSIBLE ESTABLISH VISUAL NAVIGATION. LAND AT THE MOST
SUITABLE AERODROME. (NOTE SPECIAL PROCEDURES IF PROCEEDING
TO A GAAP). REPORT TO ATS ON ARRIVAL.

EMERGENCY CHANGE OF LEVEL IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE

PROCEDURES
WHEN IT IS NECESSARY FOR AN AIRCRAFT IN CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
TO MAKE A RAPID CHANGE OF FLIGHT LEVEL OR ALTITUDE BECAUSE
OF TECHNICAL TROUBLE, SEVERE WEATHER CONDITIONS, OR
OTHER REASONS, THE CHANGE WILL BE MADE AS FOLLOWS USING
URGENCY MESSAGE FORMAT, STATING LEVEL CHANGES INVOLVED AND
DIVERSIONS IF APPLICABLE.

• SQUAWK SSR CODE 7700

• INTENTION OF PERSON IN
• TRANSMIT: PANPAN, PANPAN,
COMMAND
PANPAN
• PRESENT POSITION FLIGHT
• AGENCY BEING CALLED
LEVEL OR ALTITUDE AND
• AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION
HEADING
• NATURE OF URGENCY
• ANY OTHER USEFUL
PROBLEM
INFORMATION

4 – radio failure
 m e r c y f l i g h ts

general 389

A flight may be declared a mercy flight when:

An urgent medical, flood or fire relief or evacuation flight is proposed in order
to relieve a person from grave and imminent danger and failure to do so is
likely to result in loss of life or serious or permanent disability and the flight
will involve irregular operation, a mercy flight must be declared.
A mercy flight must only be declared by the pilot in command and the
factors/risks that the pilot in command must consider in the declaration,
commencement and continuation of the flight are detailed in AIP ENR 1.1.
A flight must not be declared a mercy flight when:
• it can comply with the applicable regulations and orders, or
• o
 perational concessions to permit the anticipated irregular operations can
be obtained.
In these cases, the flight should be notified as search and rescue (SAR),
medical (MED), hospital aircraft (HOSP), flood or fire relief. Special
consideration or priority will be granted by ATC if necessary.
A mercy flight must not be undertaken when:
• alternative means of achieving the same relief are available; or
• t he crew and other occupants of the aircraft involved will be exposed to
undue hazards; or
• r elief or rescue can be delayed until a more suitable aircraft or more
favourable operating conditions are available.
In assessing the justification of risks involved in a mercy flight, the pilot must
consider the following:
• the availability of alternative transport or alternative medical aid;
• the weather conditions en route and at the landing place(s)
• the distance from which it should be possible to see the landing place;
• the air distance and the type of terrain involved;
• t he navigation facilities useable and the reliability of those facilities (such
as facilities may include landmarks, etc);
• the availability of suitable alternate aerodrome;
• the availability and reliability of communications facilities;
• the asymmetric performance of the aircraft;

4 – mercy flights
390
general
• w
 hether the pilot’s experience reasonably meets the requirements of the
mercy flight;
• t he effect on the person requiring assistance if the flight is delayed until
improved operating conditions exist;
• whether the flight is to be made to the nearest or most suitable hospital; and
• the competence of the authority requesting the mercy flight
The pilot in command of a mercy flight must:
• g
 ive flight notification as required for a charter flight and identify the flight
by the term “MERCY FLIGHT”. This notification must include the reason
for the mercy flight and reference to any rule or regulation which will not
be complied with;
• specify reporting points or times when contact will be made;
• s pecify the special procedures intended or special assistance required of
the ground organisation; and
• limit the operating crew and the persons carried in the aircraft to the
minimum number required to conduct the flight.
If the mercy flight applies only to a portion of the flight this must be stated in
the flight notification. If a normal flight develops into a mercy flight, the pilot in
command must take appropriate action.
The pilot in command must submit an Air Safety Incident Report (ASIR) on
any mercy flight undertaken, summarising the aspects of irregular operation
which caused the operation to be considered under the mercy flight
provisions and the factors which led to the decision to make the flight. This
report must include the name and address of the authority requesting the
mercy fight and, in medical cases, the name of the patient.

4 – mercy flights
 391

section 5 – index
392
definitions
ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA) The take-off run
available plus the length of stopway available (if stopway is provided).
AERODROME BEACON (ABN) A light, visible intermittently at all
azimuths, used to indicate the location of an aerodrome from the air.
AERODROME CONTROL SERVICE ATC service for aerodrome traffic.
AERODROME CONTROL TOWER A unit established to provide ATC
service to aerodrome traffic.
AERODROME ELEVATION The elevation of the highest point of the
landing area.
AERODROME METEOROLOGICAL MINIMA (Ceiling and Visibility Minima)
The minimum heights of cloud base (ceiling) and minimum values of
visibility which are prescribed in pursuance of CAR 257 for the purpose of
determining the usability of an aerodrome either for take-off or landing.
AERODROME REFERENCE POINT (ARP) The designated geographical
location of an aerodrome.
AERODROME TRAFFIC All traffic on the manoeuvring area of an
aerodrome and all aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aerodrome.
Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it is, in,
entering, or leaving the traffic circuit.
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION CIRCULAR (AIC) A notice containing
information that does not qualify for the origination of a NOTAM, or
for inclusion in the AIP, but which relates to flight safety, air navigation,
technical, administrative, or legislative matters.
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION (AIP) A publication
issued by or with the authority of a State and containing aeronautical
information of a lasting character essential to air navigation.
AIP SUPPLEMENT (SUP) Temporary changes to the information
contained in the AIP which are published by means of special pages.
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT CATEGORIES For the purposes of wake turbulence
separation aircraft are divided into the following weight categories:
• HEAVY (H) - All aircraft of 136,000KG maximum take-off or more;
• MEDIUM (M) - Aircraft of less than 136,000KG maximum take-off
weight but more than 7,000KG maximum take-off weight.
• LIGHT (L) - Aircraft of 7,000KG maximum take-off weight or less.

5 – index
 definitions 393

AIR-GROUND COMMUNICATIONS (A/G) Two-way communications

between aircraft and stations on the surface of the earth.
AIR-REPORT (AIREP) A report prepared by the pilot during the course of
a flight in conformity with the requirements for position, operational
or meteorological reporting in the AIREP form.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL CLEARANCE Authorisation for aircraft to proceed
under conditions specified by an Air Traffic control unit.
Note 1: For convenience, the term “Air Traffic Control Clearance” is
frequently abbreviated to “Clearance” when used in
appropriate context.
Note 2: The abbreviated term “Clearance” may be prefixed by
“Taxi”,“Take-Off”, “Departure”, “En-route”, Approach”, or
“Landing” to indicate the particular portion of the flight to
which the Air Traffic control Clearance relates.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS Directions given by a person
performing duty in Air Traffic control for an aircraft to conduct its flight
in the manner specified in the directions.
AIR TRANSIT Means the airborne movement of a helicopter that is:
• for the expeditious transit from one place within an aerodrome to
another place within the aerodrome;
• at or below 100FT above the surface; and
• at speeds greater than those used in air taxiing.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICES Means any service provided by
Air Traffic Control when performing a function referred to in Air
Service Regulation 3.02 and includes a traffic advisory service, traffic
avoidance advice and traffic information.
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES (ATS) ATC service, flight information service and
SAR alerting service.
AIRWAYS CLEARANCE A clearance, issued by ATC, to operate in
controlled airspace along a designated track or route at a specified
level to a specified point or flight planned destination.
ALERT, TO To warn to prepare for search and rescue and/or to direct the
guarding of specified radio frequencies.

5 – index
394
definitions
ALERTING SERVICE A service provided to notify an appropriate
organisation regarding aircraft in need of search and rescue air, and to
assist such organisation as required.
ALL-OVER FIELD A defined landing area selected or prepared for the
landing and take-off of aircraft in various directions.
ALTIMETER SETTING A pressure datum which when set on the sub-
scale of a sensitive altimeter causes the altimeter to indicate vertical
displacement from that datum. A pressure-type altimeter calibrated
in accordance with Standard Atmosphere may be used to indicate
altitude, height or flight levels, as follows:
• when set to QNH or Area QNH it will indicate altitude;
• when set to Standard Pressure (1013.2 HPA ) it may be used to
indicate flight levels.
ALTITUDE (ALT) The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object,
considered as a point, measured from mean sea level.
Note: In aeronautical terms, altitude is measured in feet. For flight
planning, the letter”A” followed by 3 figures denotes specific
altitude, eg A060 for 6000FT AMSL.
APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE ATC service for arriving or departing flights.
APPROACH SEQUENCE The order in which two or more aircraft are
cleared to approach to land at the aerodrome.
APRON A defined area on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate
aircraft for purposes of loading or unloading passengers or cargo,
fuelling, parking or maintenance.
APRON Service A traffic regulatory and information service provided to
aircraft using the apron area of an aerodrome.
AREA CONTROL CENTRE (ACC) A unit established to provide area
control service.
AREA CONTROL SERVICE ATC service in control areas.
AREA QNH A forecast altimeter setting which is representative of the
QNH of any location within a particular area.
AUTOMATIC ENROUTE INFORMATION SERVICE (AERIS) The provision
of operational information enroute by means of continuous and
repetitive broadcasts.

5 – index
 definitions 395

AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS) The provision

of current, routine information to arriving and departing aircraft by
means of continuous and repetitive broadcasts during the hours when
the unit responsible for the service is in operation.
BLOCK LEVEL A section of airspace with specified upper and lower limits
on a specified track.
BRIEFING The act of giving in advance, specific pre-flight instructions or
information to aircrew.
CEILING The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest
layer of cloud below 20,000FT covering more than one-half of the sky.
CENTRE A generic callsign used in the en route and area environment
which can include Air Traffic Control (procedural or radar), Advisory,
Flight Information and Alerting services, depending on the
classification of airspace in which the service is provided.
CLEARANCE LIMIT The point specified in an air traffic control clearance
to which an aircraft is authorised to proceed.
CLEARANCE EXPIRY TIME The time, if specified, in an air traffic control
clearance at which the authorisation granted therein is withdrawn.
CLEARWAY A defined rectangular area on the ground or water at the
end of a runway in the direction of take-off and under the control of
the Competent Authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over
which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified
height.
COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY (CTAF) A frequency for
pilots to exchange traffic information while operating to or from an
aerodrome without an operating control tower or within a designated
area. Where established, a CTAF will be shown in ERSA FAC.
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE Airspace of defined dimensions within which
air traffic control services are provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights
in accordance with the airspace classification
CONTROL AREA (CTA) A controlled airspace extending upwards from a
specified limit above the earth.
CONTROL ZONE (CTR) A controlled airspace extending upwards from
the surface of the earth to a specified upper limit.

5 – index
396
definitions
CROSSWIND SHEAR A wind shear occurrence which requires a rapid
change in aircraft heading to maintain track.
CRUISE/CLIMB An aeroplane cruising technique resulting in a net
increase in altitude as the aeroplane weight decreases.
CRUISING LEVEL A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Note: The word “level”, except in the expression “flight level” is used
to designate the vertical position of an aircraft regardless of
the reference datum or the units of vertical distance used. In
air-ground communications a level will be expressed in terms
of “altitude” or “flight level”, depending on the reference
datum and the altimeter setting in use.
DAY That period of time from the beginning of morning civil twilight to
the end of evening civil twilight.
DEAD RECKONING (DR) NAVIGATION The estimating or determining of
position by advancing an earlier known position by the application of
direction, time and speed data.
DENSITY HEIGHT An atmospheric density expressed in terms of height
which corresponds to that density in the standard atmosphere.
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) Equipment which measures
in nautical miles, the slant range of an aircraft from the selected DME
ground station.
DME DISTANCE The slant range from the source of a DME signal to the
receiving antenna.
DISTRESS A stage of being threatened by serious and imminent danger
and of requiring immediate assistance.
DOMESTIC FLIGHT A flight between two points within Australia.
ELEVATION (ELEV) The vertical distance of a point or a level, on or affixed
to the surface of the earth, measured from mean sea level.
EMERGENCY PHASES
• Uncertainly Phase: A situation wherein uncertainty exists as to the
safety of an aircraft and its occupants..
• Alert Phase: A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the
safety of an aircraft and its occupants.

5 – index
 definitions 397

• Distress Phase: A situation wherein there is reasonable certainty

that an aircraft and its occupants are threatened by grave and
imminent danger or require immediate assistance.
ESTIMATE The time at which it is estimated that an aircraft will be over a
position reporting point or over the destination.
ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME The estimated time to proceed from one
significant point to another.
ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL For VFR flights, the time at which the
aircraft is estimated to arrive over the aerodrome of intended landing.
FINAL LEG The path of an aircraft in a straight line immediately
preceding the landing (alighting) of the aircraft.
FIX A geographical position of an aircraft at a specific time determined
by visual reference to the surface, or by navigational aids.
FLIGHT FILE A file stored on the NAIPS system which contains stored
briefings, or a stored flight notification. Flight files are owned by pilots
and / or operators, and updated at their request.
FLIGHT INFORMATION Information which may be of assistance to a pilot
in the planning and progress of a flight.
FLIGHT INFORMATION AREA (FIA) An airspace of defined dimensions,
excluding controlled airpsace, within which flight information and SAR
alerting services are provided by an ATS unit.
Note: FIA’s may be sub-divided to permit the specified ATS unit
to provide its services on a discrete frequency or family of
frequencies within particular areas.
FLIGHT INFORMATION CENTRE A unit established to provide flight
information and SAR alerting services.
FLIGHT INFORMATION OFFICE A unit providing briefing and debriefing
services.
FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (FIR) An airspace of defined dimensions
within which flight information service and alerting service are provided.
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE (FIS) A service provided for the purpose
of giving advice and information useful for the safe and efficient
conduct of flights.

5 – index
398
definitions
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE STATION (FISS) A unit providing flight
information services.
FLIGHT LEVEL (FL) A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is
related to a specific pressure datum, 1013.2HPA and is separated from
other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.
Note: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the
Standard Atmosphere
• when set to a QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude, and
• when set to a pressure of 1013.2HPA may be used to indicate
flight levels.
FLIGHT NOTE Details of the route and timing of a proposed flight
provided by the pilot-incommand of an aircraft, which is other than
notification submitted to the Airservices Australia, and which is
required to be left with a person who could be expected to notify
appropriate authorities in the event that the flight becomes overdue.
FLIGHT SERVICES (FS) Air-ground communications services, flight
information services and SAR alerting services provided by ATS units.
FLIGHT STAGE A route or part of a route flown between any two
aerodromes without an intermediate landing.
FORECAST A statement of expected meteorological conditions for a
specified period, and for a specified area or portion of airspace.
FORECASTER A Weather Officer designated by the Bureau of Meteorology
to prepare and issue forecasts of meteorological conditions.
FORMATION Two or more aircraft flown in close proximity to each other
and operating as a single aircraft with regard to navigation, position
reporting and control.
Note: Refer CAR 163AA for conditions under which formation flight
may be undertaken.
FULL EMERGENCY (In the context of aerodrome emergency plans)
- A situation in which the response of all agencies involved in the
Aerodrome Emergency Plan will be activated. A full emergency will
be declared when an aircraft approaching the airport is known or
suspected to be in such trouble that there is danger of an accident.

5 – index
 definitions 399

GRIB Processed data in the form of grid-point values expressed in binary

form. [Wind and temperature values derived from World Area Forecast
System (WAFS) models are input to NAIPS and automated flight
planning systems in GRIB format].
GROSS WEIGHT The weight of the aircraft together with the weight of all
persons and goods (including fuel) on board the aircraft at the time.
HARD SURFACE A surface comprised of asphalt, concrete, bitumen, tar
stone covered, tar bound pavements, compacted gravel or coral. It
does not include any grass or natural surface.
HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS Meteorological conditions which may
endanger aircraft or adversely affect their safe operation, including,
but not limited to, dust-storms, icing, thunderstorms, linesqualls,
blizzards, sandstorms, severe storms of tropical or sub-tropical origin,
other severe or turbulent conditions, abnormal conditions of sea and
sea swell, widespread conditions of fog, low cloud and low visibility,
heavy precipitation, freezing precipitation and hail.
HEADING The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an aircraft is
pointed, usually expressed in degrees from North (true, magnetic,
compass or grid).
HEIGHT
• The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as
a point measured from a specified datum or;
• the vertical dimension of an object.
HOLD SHORT LINE A line marked across a runway, in accordance with
the requirements of AIP AD, at which landing aircraft must stop when
required during land and hold short operations (LAHSO). The line shall
not be closer than 75M to the intersecting runway centreline.
HOLDING BAY An enlargement or special arrangement of a taxiway,
provided near the runway end to permit aircraft to hold without
obstructing the passage of other aircraft on the taxiway.
HOLDING POINT A specified location identified by visual or other means
in the vicinity of which the position of an aircraft in flight is maintained
in accordance with ATC instructions.
Note: Caution, taxiways may also include a holding point.

5 – index
400
definitions
HOLDING PROCEDURE A predetermined manoeuvre which keeps an
aircraft within a specified airspace whist awaiting further clearance.
Note: Clearance not applicable OCTA.
LAND In relation to a helicopter, means to lower the helicopter to bring
the undercarriage in contact with a surface.
LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS A procedure involving dependent
operations conducted on two intersecting runways whereby aircraft
land and depart on one runway while aircraft landing on the other
runway hold short of the intersection.
LANDING AREA That part of the movement area intended for the landing
or take-off of aircraft.
LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA) The length of runway which
is declared by the State to be available and suitable for the ground
landing run of an aeroplane. The landing distance available
commences at the threshold and in most cases corresponds to the
physical length of the runway pavement. However, the threshold may
be displaced from the end of the pavement when it is considered
necessary to make a corresponding displacement of the approach
area and surface by reason of obstructions in the approach path to the
runway.
LENGTH (LEN) In relation to a helicopter, means the total length of the
helicopter (including its rotors).
LEVEL (LVL) A generic term relating to the vertical position of an aircraft
in flight and meaning altitude or flight level.
LICENSED AERODROME means a place that is:
• Licensed as a aerodrome under the Civil Aviation Regulations; or
• Established as an aerodrome under the Air Navigation Regulations.
LOCAL STANDBY (In the context of Aerodrome Emergency Plans) - A
situation in which activation of only the airport-based agencies
involved in the Aerodrome Emergency Plan is warranted. A local
Standby will be the normal response when an aircraft approaching
an airport is known or is suspected to have developed some defect,
but the trouble is not such as would normally involve any serious
difficulty in effecting a safe landing.

5 – index
 definitions 401

MANOEUVRING AREA That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-

off landing and taxiing of aircraft, excluding aprons.
MARKER An object, other than a landing direction indicator, a wind
director indicator or flag used to indicate an obstacle or to convey
aeronautical information by day. MARKINGS Signs displayed on
surfaces in order to convey aeronautical information.
MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (MTOW) The maximum take-off weight of
an aircraft as specified in its Certificate of Airworthiness.
MEDICAL A flight providing transport of medical patients, personnel,
and/or equipment, prioritised as:
MED 1: An aircraft proceeding to pick up, or carrying, a severely ill
patient, or one on whom life support measures are being taken.
MED 2: An aircraft proceeding to pick up medical personnel and/or
equipment urgently required for the transport of a MED 1
patient, or returning urgently required medical personnel and/
or equipment at the termination of a MED 1 flight.
METEOROLOGICAL BRIEFING Explanation with the aid of relevant
meteorological charts, reports and documents of the existing and
expected meteorological conditions over an area along air routes, on
flight paths and at aerodromes.
METEOROLOGICAL DISPLAY The special exhibition of, and/or availability
of, meteorological data for examination by persons concerned with
air navigation.
METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE An office of a meteorological authority
staff and equipped to provide certain meteorological services for air
navigation.
METEOROLOGICAL WARNING A statement or meteorological report of
the occurrence or expectation of a deterioration or improvement in
meteorological conditions or of any meteorological phenomenon
which may seriously affect the safe operation of aircraft.
MOVEMENT AREA That part of an aerodrome to be used for the take-off
landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the manoeuvring area
and the apron(s).

5 – index
402
definitions
NAIPS The National Aeronautical Information Processing System, which
provides briefings and flight notification functionality.
NIGHT (NGT) That period of time between the end of evening civil
twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight.
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB) A special radio station, the
emissions of which are intended to enable a mobile station to
determine its radio bearing or direction with reference to that special
radio station.
NOTAM A notice issued by or with the authority of Airservices
Australia and containing information or instructions concerning
the establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility,
service, procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is
essential to persons concerned with flight operations.
OPERATIONS MANUAL A manual provided by an operating agency for
the use and guidance of its operations staff, containing instructions as
to the conduct of flight operations, including the responsibilities of its
operations staff.
OVERSHOOT SHEAR A wind shear occurrence which produces an
INITIAL effect of overshooting the desired approach path and/or
increasing airspeed.
PARKING AREA A specially prepared or selected part of an aerodrome
within which aircraft may be parked.
PERMISSIBLE ALL-UP-WEIGHT The all-up-weight to which an aircraft is
limited by virtue of the physical characteristics of an aerodrome.
PRIMARY MEANS NAVIGATION SYSTEM A navigation system that, for a
given operation or phase of flight, must meet accuracy and integrity
requirements, but need not meet full availability and continuity of
service requirements. Safety is achieved by either limiting flights to
specific time periods, or through appropriate procedural restrictions
and operational requirements.
PREFERRED RUNWAY A runway nominated by ATC as the most suitable
for the prevailing wind, surface conditions and noise sensitive areas
in the proximity of the aerodrome.

5 – index
 definitions 403

PROCEDURE TURN A manoeuvre in which a turn is made away by

an aircraft to intercept and proceed along the reciprocal of the
designated track.
Note 1: Procedure turns are designated “left” or “right” according to
the direction of the initial turn.
Note 2: Procedure turns may be designated as being made either
in level flight or while descending, according to the
circumstances or each individual instrument approach
procedure.
QNH ALTIMETER SETTING That pressure which, when placed on the
pressure setting sub-scale of a sensitive altimeter of an aircraft
located at the reference point of an aerodrome, will cause the
altimeter to indicate the vertical displacement of the reference point
above mean sea level.
RADAR INFORMATION SERVICE (RIS) An add-on ATC service within
radar coverage which provides information to flights, not otherwise
receiving a separation service, in order to improve situation
awareness and assist pilots in avoiding collisions with other aircraft.
RADAR VECTORS Navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of specific
headings, based on the use of radar.
REPETITIVE FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan referring to a series of frequently
recurring, regularly operated individual flights with identical basic
features, submitted by an operator for retention and repetitive use by
ATS units.
RESCUE COORDINATION CENTRE (RCC) A centre that co-ordinates
search and rescue within an assigned area.
RESCUE UNIT A unit composed of trained personnel and provided with
equipment suitable for the expeditious conduct of search and rescue.
ROUTE A way to be taken in flying from a departure to a destination
aerodrome, specified in terms of track and distance for each route
segment.
RUNWAY (RWY) A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome
prepared for the landing and take-off of aircraft.

5 – index
404
definitions
RUNWAY NUMBER The number allotted to a runway end, being that
whole number nearest to one tenth of the magnetic bearing of the
centerline of the runway measured clockwise from magnetic north
when viewed from the direction of approach. Single numbers so
obtained are preceded by “O” and where the final numeral of the
bearing is 5 degrees or greater, the number allocated is the next
largest number.
RUNWAY STRIP (RWS) The defined area, including the runway (and
stopway if provided), intended both to reduce the risk of damage
to aeroplanes inadvertently running off the runway and to protect
aeroplanes flying over it during take-off, landing or missed approach.
Apart from the use of its runway, the area is not intended for taxi,
take-off or landing operations.
SARTIME The time nominated by a pilot for the initiation of SAR action if
a report has not been received by the nominated time.
SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR) The act of finding and returning to safety,
aircraft and persons involved in an emergency phase.
SEARCH AREA The area in which an aircraft is believed to have crashed
or forced-landed.
SEARCH AND RESCUE REGION The specified area within which search
and rescue is coordinated by a particular Rescue Coordination Centre.
SEPARATION
• LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION: Longitudinal spacing of aircraft
which is never less than the prescribed standard interval. When
using a time standard, the interval between aircraft is calculated at
the speed of the following aircraft;
• LATERAL SEPARATION: The lateral spacing of aircraft by requiring
operation on different routes, or in different geographical locations
as determined by visual observation or by use of radio or other
navigation aids;
• VERTICAL SEPARATION: The vertical spacing of aircraft.
SIGNIFICANT POINT A specified geographical location used in defining
an ATS route or the flight path of an aircraft and for other navigation
and ATS purposes.

5 – index
 definitions 405

SOLE MEANS NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEM A navigation system that,

for a given phase of flight, must allow the aircraft to meet all four
navigation system performance requirements - accuracy, integrity,
availability and continuity of service.
SUPPLEMENTAL MEANS NAVIGATION SYSTEM A navigational system
that must be used in conjunction with a sole means navigation
system.
SPECIAL VFR FLIGHT A VFR flight authorised by ATC to operate within
a control zone under meteorological conditions below the visual
meteorological conditions.
STANDARD PRESSURE The pressure of 1013.2 hectopascals which, if set
upon the pressure sub-scale of a sensitive altimeter, will cause the
latter to read zero when at mean sea level in a standard atmosphere.
This pressure must be set on the sub-scale of an altimeter before the
vertical displacement indicated by the altimeter is corrected to a true
value by applying the temperature correction.
STOPWAY A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of a
runway in the direction of take-off designated and prepared by the
Competent Authority as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be
stopped in the case of an interrupted take-off.
TAKE-OFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA) The length of the take-off run
available plus the length of clearway available.
TAKE-OFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA) The length of runway which is
declared by the State to be available and suitable for the ground run
of an aeroplane taking-off. This in most cases corresponds to the
physical length of the runway pavement.
TAXI HOLDING POINT A designated position on a taxiway, runway or
channel at which taxiing aircraft may be required to stop pending
receipt of permission to proceed.
TAXIWAY (TWY) A defined path on a land aerodrome, selected or
prepared for the use of taxiing aircraft.
Note: Caution, taxiways may also include a holding point.
TERRAIN CLEARANCE The vertical displacement of an aircraft’s flight
path from the terrain. Minimum values are prescribed relative to the
flight rules in force and the conditions prevailing.

5 – index
406
definitions
THRESHOLD (THR) The beginning of that portion of the runway useable
for landing.
TOTAL ESTIMATED ELAPSED TIME For VFR flights the estimated time
required from take-off to arrive over the destination aerodrome.
TRACK The projection on the earth’s surface of the path of an aircraft, the
direction of which path at any point is usually expressed in degrees
from North (True, Magnetic or Grid).
TRANSITION ALTITUDE The altitude at or below which the vertical
position of an aircraft is controlled by reference to altitudes.
TRANSITION LAYER The airspace between the transition altitude and the
transition level.
TRANSITION LEVEL (TRL) The flight level at or above which the vertical
position of an aircraft is controlled by reference to flight levels.
UNDERSHOOT SHEAR A wing shear occurrence which produces an
INITIAL effect of undershooting the desired approach path and/or
decreasing air speed.
UNSERVICEABLE AREA A portion of the movement area not available
for use by aircraft because of the physical condition of the surface, or
because of any obstruction on the area.
VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RADIO RANGE (VOR) A VHF radio navigational
aid which provides a continuous indication of magnetic bearing from
the selected VOR ground station.
VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR SYSTEM (VASIS) A system
of lights so arranged as to provide visual information to pilots of
approaching aircraft of their position in relation to the optimum
approach slope for a particular runway.
VISIBILITY (VIS) The ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions
and expressed in units of distance, to see and identify prominent unit
objects by day and prominent lit objects by night. Visibility is divided
into two classes as follows:
Flight Visibility:  The average range visibility forward from the
cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
Ground Visibility: The visibility at an aerodrome, as reported by and
approved observer.

5 – index
 abbreviations 407

GENERAL AND METEOROLOGICAL ABBREVIATIONS

This list covers abbreviations which may be found throughout the Guide and
on associated charts, or which are used in NOTAM, AIP Supplements and in
meteorological messages and documentation.
Abbreviations marked “+” may be used as spoken words in radio telephony.
Abbreviations “#” may be spoken using the constituent letters rather than the
phonetic alphabet.

A
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

A/A Air to Air

ACD Airways Clearance Delivery
AACC Area Approach Control Centre
ACFT Aircraft
AAD Assigned Altitude Deviation
ACK Acknowledge Service
AAIS Automatic Aerodrome
ACN Aircraft Classification Number
Information Service
ACPT Accept, Accepted
AAL Above Aerodrome Level
Telecommunication
ABM Abeam
ACT Active, Activated, Activity
ABN Aerodrome Beacon Information
AD Aerodrome Zone(s)
Service
ADC Aerodrome Chart
ABT About
ADDGM Aerodrome Diagrams
ABV Above
ADDN Addition, Additional
AC Altocumulus
#ADF Automatic Direction Finding
+ACAS Airborne Collision Avoidance
Equipment
System
#ADIZ Air Defence Identification Zone
ACC Area Control Centre
ADJ Adjacent
ACCID Initial Notification of an Aircraft
Accident ADQ Adequate Aerodrome

5 – index
408
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION
ADR Advisory Route Publication
#ADS Automatic Dependent +AIRAC  Aeronautical Information
Surveillance
Regulation and Control
ADZ Advise
+AIREP Air-Report
AEP Aerodrome Emergency Plan
+AIRMET  Information in plain language
+AERIS Automatic En Route Information concerning weather significant
Service to light aircraft operations at or
below 10,000FT
AFIL Flight Notification: filed in the
air, or indicating the position at #AIS Aeronautical Information Service
which ATS services will first be
AL Approach Lights
required.
#ALA Aircraft Landing Area for the
AFM Yes, Affirm, Affirmative, that is
purpose of CAR 92(1)(d)
correct
+ALERFA Alert Phase
AFRU Aerodrome Frequency
Response Unit ALM Aircraft Landing Minima

AFS Aeronautical Fixed Service ALR Alerting Message

AFT After... ALS Approach Lighting System

#AFTN Aeronautical Fixed ALT Altitude

Telecommunication Network
ALTN Alternate, Alternating (light
AFZ Australian Fishing Zone(s) alternates in colour)

A/G Air-to-ground ALTN Alternate (aerodrome)

AGA Aerodromes, Air Routes and AMD Amend, Amended

Ground Aids
AMDT Amendment (AIP Amendment)
#AGL Above Ground Level
#AMSL Above Mean Sea Level
AGN Again
ANC Aeronautial Chart 1:500,00
AH After Hours (followed by name/title)

AIC Aeronautical Information AOC Aerodrome Obstruction Chart

Circular
AP Airport
#AIP Aeronautical Information

5 – index
 abbreviations 409

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

APAPI Abbreviated Precision Approach ASPH Asphalt
Path Indicator
ASR Area Surveillance Radar
APCH Approach
# ATA Actual Time of Arrival
APP Approach Control
#ATC Air Traffic Control (in general)
APR April
#ATD Actual Time of Departure
APRX Approximate, Approximately
ATFM Air Traffic Flow Management
Publication
#ATIS Automatic Terminal Information
APSG After Passing
Service
APV Approve, Approved, Approval
ATS Air Traffic Services
AQZ Area QNH Zone
ATTN Attention
ARC Area Chart
AUG August
ARFL Aeroplane Reference Field
AUTH Authorised, Authorisation
Length
AUW All Up Weight
+ARFOR Area Forecast (in aeronautical
meteorological code) AUX Auxiliary

ARN Aviation Reference Number AVM Abrupt Vertical Manoeuvres (by

the MIL)
ARNG Arrange
A-VASIS Abbreviated Visual Approach
ARP Aerodrome Reference Point
Slope Indicator System
ARP Air-Report (message type
AT-VASIS Abbreviated “T” Visual Approach
designator)
Slope Indicator System
ARR Arrive, Arrival (pronounced “AY-TEE-VASIS”)
ARS Special Air-Report (message AVBL Available
Type designator)
AVG Average
AS Altostratus
+AVGAS Aviation Gasoline
#ASAP As Soon As Possible
AWIB Aerodrome Weather Information
ASC Ascent to, Ascending to Broadcast
ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance AWK Aerial Work
Available

5 – index
410
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

AWS Automatic Weather Station BTL Between Layers

AWY Airway BTN Between
AZM Azimuth

C
B 0
C Degrees Celsius (Centigrade)
+BASE Cloud Base C Centre (Runway)
BCFG Fog Patches CA/GRS Certified Air / Ground Radio
Service
BCN Beacon (aeronautical ground
light) CAO Civil Aviation Order
BCST Broadcast CAR Civil Aviation Regulation
BDRY Boundary CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority
BECMG Becoming +CAT Category
BFR Before CAT Clear Air Turbulence
BL Blowing (followed by +CAVOK Visibility, cloud and present
DU = dust, SA = sand or SN = weather better than prescribed
snow) values of conditions
BLDG Building #CB Cumulonimbus
BLO Below Clouds CC Cirrocumulus
BLW Below CCTS Circuits
BOMB Bombing CEN En Route and Area ATC Unit
BR Mist CET Clearance Expiry Time
BRF Short (used to indicate type of CF Change Frequency To
approach)
CFM Confirm, I Confirm
BRG Bearing
CH Channel
BRKG Braking
CHTR Charter
BS Broadcasting Station Commercial)

5 – index
 abbreviations 411

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

CI Cirrus CONST Construction, Constructed

CIT Near, Over Large Town(s) CONT Continue(s), Continued
CIV Civil COOR Coordinate, Coordinated
CK Check COORD Coordinates
C/L Centre Line COR Correct, Corrected, Correction
CLA Clear type of ice formation COS Conical Surface
CLBR Calibration COT At the Coast, Coastal
CLD Cloud COV Cover, Covered, Covering
CLG Calling #CPDLC Controller Pilot Datalink
Communication
CLIAS Climbing Indicated Airspeed
CRZ Cruise
CLR Clear, Cleared to..., Clearance
CS Cirrostratus
CLSD Closed, Close, Closing
CS Call-sign
CM Centimetre
#CTA Control Area
CMB Climb to or Climbing to
+CTAF Common Traffic Advisory
CMPL Completion, Completed, or
Frequency
Complete
CTAF(R) Common Traffic Advisory
CMSD Commissioned
Frequency where the carriage
CNL Flight Plan cancellation and usage of radio is mandatory.
message
CTC Contact
CNL Cancel
CTL Control
CNS Communications, Navigation
CTN Caution
and Surveillance
CTR Control Zone
COM Communications
CU Cumulus
CONC Concrete
CUF Cumuliform
COND Condition
CUST Customs
CONS Continuous

5 – index
412
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

CWY Clearway DIV Diversion, Divert, Diverting

DLA Delay, Delayed

D #DME Distance Measuring Equipment

DMEN DME (International)
D Danger Area (followed by
identification) #DMEP DME (International Precision -
used in conjunction with MLS)
D Deleted
DNG Danger, Dangerous
DA Decision Altitude
DOC Documents
DAP Departure and Approach
Procedures DOM Domestic

DCMSD Decommissioned DP Dew Point

DCKG Docking DPT Depth

DCT Direct (in relation to flight plan #DR Dead Reckoning

clearance and type of approach) DR... Low Drifting (followed by DU
DEC December =dust, SN=snow SA = sand

DEG Degrees DRG During

DEP Depart, Departure, Departed, DS Duststorm

Departing, Departure Message DTAM Descend to And Maintain
DER Departure End of Runway DTG Date-Time Group
DES Descend to, Descending to DTHR Displaced Runway Threshold
DEST Destination DTRT Deteriorate, Deteriorating
+DETRESFA Distress Phase DU Dust
DEV Deviation, Deviating DUR Duration
#DF Direction Finder/ Finding DUC Dense Upper Cloud
DIF Diffuse DVOR Doppler VOR
DISP Displaced DZ Drizzle
DIST Distance

5 – index
 abbreviations 413

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

E #ERC En Route Chart

+#ERSA En Route Supplement Australia
E East, East Longitude
ESE East South-East
EAT Expected Approach Time
EST Estimate, estimate as message
EB Eastbound type indicator
#EET Estimated Elapsed Time #ETA Estimated Time of Arrival,
Estimating Arrival
EHF Extremely High Frequency
(30 000 to 300 000 MHZ) # ETD Estimated Time of Departure,
Estimating Departure
ELEV Elevation
ETO Estimated Time Over significant
ELR Extra Long Range
point
#ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter
EV Every
EM Emission
EET Estimated Elapsed Time
EMBD Embedded in a Layer (to
EXC Except
indicate cumulonimbus
embedded in layers of other EXP Expect, Expected, Expecting
clouds)
EXTD Extend, Extending, Extended
EMERG Emergency

F
ENDCE Endurance
ENE East North-East
ENG Engine F Fixed (chart symbol)

ENR En Route FAC Facility, Facilities

ENRC En Route Chart (followed by FAF Final Approach Fix

name/title) FAL Facilitation of International Air
EOBT Estimated off Blocks Time FAP Final Approach Point
+EPIRB Electronic Position Indicating FATO Final Approach and Take-off
Radio Beacon (marine term) Area
EQPT Equipment +FAX Facsimile Transmission

5 – index
414
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION
FBL Light (used to indicate the FLW Follow(s), Following
intensity of WX phenomena,
FLY Fly, Flying
interference or static reports, eg
FBL RA = light rain) FM From

FC Funnel cloud (tornado or water FM From (followed by time weather

spout) change is forecast to begin)

FCST Forecast FMU Flow Management Unit

FDL Fixed Distance Lighting FNA Final Approach

FEB February FPD Flight Plan Designator

FEW Few (cloud descriptor) FPL Filed Flight Plan Message

FFR Flood, Fire Relief FPM Feet Per Minute

FG Fog FPR Flight Plan Route

#FIA Flight Information Area FR Fuel Remaining

#FIC Flight Information Centre FRI Friday

FIO Flight Information Office FREQ Frequency

#FIR Flight Information Region FRNG Firing

#FIS Flight information Service FRQ Frequent

FISS Flight Information Service #FS Flight Service (in general)

Station
FSL Full Stop Landing
FL Flight Level
FSP Fish Spotting
FLD Field
FST First
FLG Flashing
FT Feet
FLR Flares
FU Smoke
FLT Flight
FXD Fixed
FLTCK Flight Check
FZ Freezing
FLUC Fluctuating, Fluctuation,
FZDZ Freezing Drizzle
Fluctuated

5 – index
 abbreviations 415

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

FZFG Freezing Fog +GRASS Grass Landing Area
FZL Freezing Level GRIB Processed Meteorological
data in the form of grid point
FZRA Freezing Rain
values expressed in binary form
(aeronautical meteorological

G
code)
GRVL Gravel
G Green GS Groundspeed
GAAP General Aviation Aerodrome GS Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets
Procedures
#GCA Ground Controlled Approach
GEN General H
GEO Geographic, true #H24 Continuous day and night
service
GES Ground Earth Station
HAA Height Above Aerodrome
GFY Glider Flying
HAT Height Above Threshold
GLD Glider
HBN Hazard Beacon
GND Ground
HDG Heading
GNDCK Ground Check
HDS Hours of Daylight Saving
GNS Global Navigation System
HEL Helicopter
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite
System HF High Frequency (3000 to 30,000
KHZ)
GP Glide Path
HGT Height, Height above
GP FLG Group Flashing (number) (used
in conjunction with aerodrome +HIAL High Intensity Approach Lighting
lighting)
HIOL High Intensity Obstacle Lighting
GPS Global Positioning System
HIRL High Intensity Runway Lighting
GPI Glide Path Intercept
#HJ Sunrise to Sunset
GR Hail

5 – index
416
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

HLDG Holding Initial Approach Fix

HLS Helicopter Landing Site #IAL Instrument Approach and
Landing Charts
#HN Sunset to Sunrise
IAO In and out of clouds
HO Service Available to meet
operational requirements #IAS Indicated Air Speed
HOSP Hospital Aircraft IBN Identification Beacon
HPA Hectopascal +ICAO International Civil Aviation
Organisation
HR Hours
IC Ice Crystals (MET code)
HS Homestead
ICE Icing, Ice
HS Service available during hours
of scheduled operations ID Identifier, identify
HSL Hold Short Lights IF Intermediate Approach Fix
HURCN Hurricane #IFF Identification Friend/Foe
HVY Heavy #IFR Instrument Flight Rules
HVY Heavy (used to indicate the #ILS Instrument Landing System
intensity of WX phenomena,
IM Inner Marker
eg HVY RA = heavy rain)
#IMC Instrument Meteorological
HX No specific working hours
Conditions
HYR Higher
IMG Immigration
HZ Haze
IMPR Improve, Improving,
HZ Hertz Improvement
HZS Horizontal Surface IMT Immediate, Immediately
INBD Inbound

I #INC In Cloud

+INCERFA Uncertainty Phase
IAC Instrument Approach Chart
(followed by name/title) IAF +INFO Information

5 – index
 abbreviations 417

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

+INOP Inoperative JUN June

#INS Inertial Navigation System
INSTL Install, Installed, Installation
INSTR Instrument
K
KG Kilograms
INT Intersection
KHZ Kilohertz
+INTER Intermittent, Intermittently
KM Kilometres
INTL International
KMH Kilometres per Hour
INTRG Interrogator
KPA Kilopascals
INTRP Interrupt, Interruption,
Interrupted KT Knots

INTSF Intensify, Intensifying KW Kilowatts

INTST Intensity
+ISA International Standard
Atmosphere
L
L Left (runway identification)
ISB Independent Sideband
L Locator (see LM, LO)
ISOL Isolated
LAHSO Land and Hold Short Operations
IWI Illuminated Wind Indicator
LAN Inland

J
+LAT Latitude
LDA Landing Distance Available
JAN January LDG Landing
+J-BAR Jet Barrier LDI Landing Direction Indicator
JF Saturday, Sunday and PH LEN Length
JO Monday to Friday except PH LF Low Frequency (30 to 300 KHZ)
JTST Jet Stream LGT Light, Lighting.
JUL July LGTD Lighted

5 – index
418
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION
LIH Light Intensity High LYR Layer, Layered
LIL Light Intensity Low
LIM Light Intensity Medium
LIOL Low Intensity Obstacle Lights
M
M Metres (preceded by figures)
LIRL Low Intensity Runway Lights
M Mach number (followed by
LJR Low Jet Route figures)
LLN Low Level Navigation MAE Men and Equipment
(by the MIL)
MAG Magnetic
LLO Low Level Operations
(by the MIL) MAINT Maintenance

LL Lower Limits MAN Manual

LLZ Localizer MAP Aeronautical Maps and charts

LM Locator (middle) MAPT Missed Approach Point

LMT Local Mean Time MAR March

LO Locator (outer) MAR At Sea

LOC Locally, Location, Located, Local +MAX Maximum

LOE Lane of Entry MBST Microburst

+LONG Longitude MCW Modulated Continuous Wave (by

the MIL)
LRG Long Range
MDA Minimum Descent Altitude
LSALT Lowest Safe Altitude
MDF Medium Frequency Direction
LTD Limited Finding Station
LUL Lowest Usable Level #MEA Minimum En-route Altitude
LV Light and variable (relating to MED Medical
the wind)
+MET Meteorological, Meteorology
LVE Leave, Leaving
+METAR Routine Weather Report
LVL Level

5 – index
 abbreviations 419

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

METRAD MET Radar interface or static reports, eg
MOD RA = moderate rain)
MF Medium frequency
(300 to 3000 KHZ) MON Monday
MHZ Megahertz MON Above Mountains
MIFG Shallow Fog MOV Move, Moved, Moving,
Movement
MIL Military
MOWP Method of Working Plan
MIN Minutes
MPS Meters per Second
MIOL Medium Intensity Obstacle
Lights MRG Medium Range
MIRL Medium Intensity Runway Lights MRP ATS/MET Reporting Point
MISC Miscellaneous MS Minus
MKR Marker Radio Beacon #MSA Minimum Sector Altitude
MLJ Military Low Jet MSG Message
MLJR Military Low Jet Route MSL Mean Sea Level
#MLS Microwave Landing System MT Mountain
MLW Maximum Landing Weight MTOW Maximum Take-off Weight
MM Middle Marker MTP Maximum Tyre Pressure
MNM Minimum MTW Mountain Waves
MNT Monitor, Monitoring, Monitored MVA Minimum Vector Altitude
MNTN Maintain, Maintained, MWO Meteorological Watch Office
Maintaining
MX Mixed type of ice formation
MOA Military Operating Area (white and clear)
MOC Minimum Obstacle Clearance

N
(required)
MOD Moderate, Moderately
MOD Moderate (used to indicate the N North, North Latitude
intensity of WX phenomena, NAIPS National Aeronautical

5 – index
420
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

Information Processing System NW North-West

NAP Noise Abatement Procedures NXT Next
NAV Navigation
NAVAID Navigation Aid
NB Northbound
O
OBS Observe, Observed,
NBFR Not Before Observation
NC No Change OBSC Obscure, Obscured, Obscuring
#NDB Non Directional Radio Beacon OBST Obstacle
NE North-East OBSTR Obstruction
NEG Negative, no, Permission not #OCA Oceanic Control Area
granted, or that is not correct
OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude
NGT Night
OCC Occulting (light)
+NIL None
OCNL Occasional, Occasionally
NM Nautical Miles
OCT October
NML Normal
#OCTA Outside Control Area
NNE North North-East
#OCTR Outside Control Zone
NNW North North-West
OFZ Obstacle Free Zone
NOF International NOTAM Office
OHD Overhead
+NOSIG No Significant Change
OM Outer Marker
+NOTAM Notice to Airmen
OPA Opaque, white type of ice
NOV November formation
NSC No significant Cloud OPMET Operational Meteorological
NTA No TAF Amendment OPN Open, Opening,Opened
NV Night VFR OPN Operational Notification
NVG Night Vision Goggles (by the Message
MIL)

5 – index
 abbreviations 421

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

OPR Operator, Operate, Operative, PDC Pre-Departure Clearance

Operating, Operational
PEC Pressure Error Correction
OPS Operations
PERM Permanent
O/R On Request
PFR Preferred Route
OT Other Times
PH Public Holiday
OTLK Outlook (used in SIGMET
PILS Practice ILS
messages for volcanic ash and
tropical cyclones) PJE Parachute jumping Exercise

OTP On top PL Ice Pellets

OUBD Outboard PLN Flight Plan

OVC Overcast PLVL Present Level

OW Over Water PN Prior Notice Required

#PNR Point of No Return

P PO Dust Devils
#POB Persons on Board
P Prohibited Area
POSS Possible
+PAL Pilot Activated Lighting
#PPI Plan Position Indicator
PANS Procedures for Air Navigation
PRFG Aerodrome Partially Covered by
Services
fog (MET code)
+PAPI Precision Approach Path
PRI Primary
Indicator
PRM Precision Runway Monitoring
PAR Precision Approach Radar
PRKG Parking
PARL Parallel
+PROB Probable, Probability
PAX Passengers
PROC Procedure
PCD Proceed, Proceeding
PROV Provisional
PCL Pilot Controlled Lighting
PS Plus
PCN Pavement Classification Number

5 – index
422
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

PSG Passing RAG Runway Arresting Gear

PSN Position RAI Runway Alignment Indicator
PSP Pierced Steel Plank +RAPIC Radar Picture (MET)
PTBL Portable +RAS Radar Advisory Service
PTN Procedure Turn RCA Reach Cruising Altitude
PVT Private #RCC Rescue Coordination Centre
PWR Power RCH Reach, Reaching
RCL Runway Centre Line

Q RCLL Runway Centre Line Lights

RCLM Runway Centre Line Marking
#QNH Altimeter subscale setting to
obtain elevation or altitude RDL Radial

QUAD Quadrant RDO Radio

RE… Recent (used to qualify weather
phenomena, eg RERA = recent

R rain)
REC Receive, Receiver, Received
R Red
REDL Runway Edge Lights
R Restricted Area (followed by
number) REF Reference to..., Refer to...

R Right (runway system REG Registration

identification) RENL Runway End Lights
RA Rain REP Report, Reported, Reporting,
RAC Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Reporting Point
Services REQ Request, Requested
RAD Radius RERTE Re-Route
RAFC Regional Area Forecast Centre RES Reserve Fuel
RAG Ragged RESTR Restrictions

5 – index
 abbreviations 423

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

REV Review RSR En Route Surveillance Radar

RFF Rescue and Fire Fighting RTE Route
Services
RTF Radio Telephone
RH Radio Height
RTIL Runway Threshold Identification
RHC Right Hand Circuit Lights
RIF Reclearance in flight RTHL Runway Threshold Light(s)
RL Report Leaving RTN Return, Returned, Returning
RLA Relay to RTZL Runway Touchdown Zone Lights
RLLS Runway Lead-in Lighting #RVR Runway Visual Range
RMK Remark(s) RWS Runway Strip
+RNAV Area Navigation RWY Runway
+ROBEX Regional OPMET Bulletin

S
Exchanges Recommended
Practices (ICAO)
ROC Rate of Climb S South, South Latitude
ROD Rate of Descent SA Sand
+ROFOR Route Forecast (in aeronautical SAL Supplementary Airline licence
meteorological code)
SALS Simple Approach Lighting
RPI Runway Point of Intercept System
RPT Regular Public Transport +SAR Search and Rescue
RQ Require(d) SARPS Standards and Recommended
RQMNTS Requirements Practices (ICAO)

RR Report Reaching +SARTIME  Time search action required

RSC Rescue Sub-Centre SAT Saturday

RSCD Runway Surface Condition +SATCOM Satellite Communication

RSP Responder Beacon System SB Southbound

SC Stratocumulus

5 – index
424
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

SCT Scattered may affect the safety of aircraft

operations
SDBY Standby
SIGWX Significant Weather
SDC Standard Departure Clearance
SIMUL Simultaneous, Simultaneously
SE South East
SKC Sky Clear
SEC Seconds
+SKED Schedule, Scheduled
SEC Second, Secondary
SLP Speed Limiting Point
SECT Section, Sector
SLW Slow, Slowly
+SELCAL Selective Calling System
#SMC Surface Movement Control
SEP September
SMR Surface Movement Radar
SER Service, Servicing, Served
SN Snow
SEV Severe (used eg. to qualify icing
and turbulence report) +SNOWTAM A special series
NOTAM notifying the presence
SFC Surface
or removal of hazardous
SFL Sequenced Flashing Lights conditions due to snow,
ice, slush or standing water
SG Snow grains
associated with snow, slush and
SH... Showers (followed by RA=rain, ice on the movement area
SN=snow, PE=ice pellets,
SOC Start of Climb
GR=hail, GS=small hail and/or
snow pellets or combinations SOT Start of TORA (take-off)
thereof, eg, SHRASN= showers
SP Single Pilot
of rain and snow)
SPA Sport Aviation
SHF Super High Frequent (3,000 to
30,000MHZ) +SPECI Aviation Special Weather (in
Aeronautical meteorological
+SID Standard Instrument Departure
code)
SIF Selective Identification
SPFIB Specific Preflight Information
SIG Significant Bulletin
+SIGMET Information concerning en route +SPOT Spotwind
weather phenomena which

5 – index
 abbreviations 425

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

SQ Squall SUBJ Subject to

SR Sunrise SUN Sunday
SRD Standard Radar Departure SUP Supplement (AIP Supplement)
SRG Short range SUPPS Regional Supplementary
Procedures
#SRR Search and rescue region
SVCBL Serviceable
SRY Secondary
SVY Survey Operations
SS Sandstorm
SW South-West
SS Sunset
SWS Soft Wet Surface
SSB Single Sideband
SWY Stopway
SSE South South-East
SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar
SST Supersonic Transport T
SSW South South-West ...T Bearing (true)
ST Stratus T Temperature
STA Straight in Approach TA Transition Altitude
+STAR Standard Arrival Route +TAC Terminal Area Chart
STD Standard +TACAN Tactical Air Navigation Aid
STF Stratiform +TAF Aerodrome Forecast
STN Station +TAIL Tailwind
STNR Stationary TAR Terminal Area Survelliance Area
STODA Supplementary Take-off #TAS True Airspeed
distance
+TAT Terminal Area Thunderstorm
STOL Short Take-off and Landing Service (meteorological term)
STS Status TAX Taxiing, Taxi
STWL Stopway Light(s) TBA To Be Advised

5 – index
426
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

TC Tropical Cyclone TNH Turn Height

+TCAS (tee-kas) Traffic Alert and TNS Transitional Surface
Collision Avoidance System
TOC Top of Climb
TCH Threshold Crossing Height
TODA Take-off Distance Available
TCTA Trans-continental Control Area
TOP Cloud Top
TCU Towering Cumulus
TORA Take-off Run Available
TDO Tornado
TP Turning Point
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TR Track
TECR Technical Reason
TRA Temporary Reserved Airspace
TEL Telephone
TRANS Transmits, Transmitter
+TEMPO Temporary, Temporarily
TRL Transition Level
TFC Traffic
TROP Tropopause
TGL Touch and go Landing
TS... Thunderstorm
TGS Taxiing Guidance System
#TTF Trend Type Forecast
THR Threshold
TUE Tuesday
THRU Through
TURB Turbulence
THU Thursday
+T-VASIS “T” Visual Approach Slope
TIBA T raffic Information Broadcasts by Indicator System (pronounced
Aircraft “TEE-VASIS”)
+TIL Until TWR Aerodrome Control Tower,
Aerodrome Control
TIP Until Past (place)
TWY Taxiway
TKOF Take-off
TWYL Taxiway Link
TLW Time Limited WIP (work in
progress) TYP Type of Aircraft
#TMA Terminal Control Area TYPH Typhoon
TNA Turn Altitude

5 – index
 abbreviations 427

CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

U VC Vicinity of the aerodrome

I#VDF VHF Direction Finding Station
UAB Until Advised By
VER Vertical
#UDF UHF Direction Finding Stations
#VFR Visual Flight Rules
UFN Until Further Notice
#VHF Very High Frequency (30 to 300
UHDT Unable Higher Due Traffic MHZ)
#UHF Ultra High Frequency VIA By way of...
(300 to 3 000 MHZ)
#VIP Very Important Person
UIR Upper Flight Information Region
VIS Visibility
UL Upper Limits
VLF Very Low Frequency (3 to 30
UNA Unable MHZ)
UNAP Unable to Approve VLR Very Long Range
UNLC Unlicensed #VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
UNL Unlimited +VOLMET Meteorological Information for
Aircraft in Flight
UNREL Unreliable
#VOR VHF Omni-directional Radio
U/S Unserviceable
Range (OMNI)
UTA Upper Control Area
VRB Variable
#UTC Coordinated Universal Time
VTC Visual Terminal Chart

V W
VA Volcanic Ash
W West, West Longitude
VAL In Valleys
W White
VAR Magnetic Variation
WAC World Aeronautical Chart - ICAO
+VASIS Visual Approach Slope Indicator 1:1 000 000 (followed by name/
System title)
VCY Vicinity

5 – index
428
abbreviations
CODE DEFINITION CODE DEFINITION

WAFC World Area Forecast Centre WTSPT Water Spout

WB Westbound WX Weather
WDI Wind Direction Indicator
WDSPR Widespread
WED Wednesday
X
X Cross
WEF With Effect From, Effective From
XBAR Crossbar (of approach lighting
WI Within system)
WID Width XNG Crossing
WIE With Immediate Effect, Effective XS Atmospherics
Immediately
+WILCO Will Comply
WIND Wind (used in connection with
direction and speed)
Y
YCZ Yellow Caution Zone
WINTEM Forecast upper wind and
YR Your(s)
temperature at specified points
(in aeronautical met code)
WIP Work in Progress
WKN Weaken, Weakening
Z
Z Coordinated Universal Time (in
WNW West North-West
meteorological messages)
WO Without
WPT Way Point
WRNG Warning
WS Wind Shear
WSW West South-West
WT Weight
WWW World Wide Web

5 – index
 subject and page 429

A ALTERNATE AERODROMES
alternate aerodromes 344
ABBREVIATIONS 407 weather conditions 91
Accidents and incidents 31 ALTERNATE REQUIREMENTS
Acrobatic flight 27 helicopters 352
ADIZ 321 radio navaids 306
Aerial sporting and ALTERNATE REQUIREMENTS
recreational activities 308 due to facilities 94
AERIS coverage 148 VFR alternate minima 92
AERIS 147 ALTIMETER
AERODROME accuracy 213
forecasts 128 altimetry general 214
frequency response unit 231 pre flight check 213
markings – displaced threshold 83 transition level 215
markings – PAPI 230 Animals – carriage 15
markings – T-VASIS 229 Approved observers 143
markings – weather information service Area forecasts 127
(AWIS) 207
ATC radar services 225
Aerodromes – helicopters, use of 354
ATIS 203
AFRU 231
Availability of meteorological
Air to air communications 231 documentation 122
AIRCRAFT Aviation forecasts 123
beacon transponder 225 AWIS 207
callsigns 65

B
equipment 72
safety 157
speeds 63 BALLOONING
weather reports 143 carriage and use of radio 315
AIREP special 150 meteorological conditions 316
AIRMET 145 operations in controlled airspace 316
Airways clearance 269 operations in the vicinity
Alerting the SAR system 367 of aerodromes 315

5 – index
430
subject and page
Beacon terminology 369 CONTROLLED AIRSPACE
Before flight responsibilities after take-off 285
pilot in command 9 airways clearance 271
Bird strike 33 arrival 288
Briefing of passengers 157 avoiding controlled airspace 76
change of levels 277

C

departure instructions
diversion from track
282
276
CAGRS (Certified air ground engine start,
radio service) 232 push-back and taxi 279
Call signs 65 establishment on track 286
Care and storage of distress frequency change 286
beacon 371
go around procedures 294
CARRIAGE
holding 290
balloon operations 314
minimum altitude requirements 288
of animals 15
nomination of runways 281
of firearms 16
provision of separation 273
of passengers – prohibition 13
selection of circuit direction 282
of passengers in seats
selection of take-off
with dual controls 12
direction 282
use of radio 315
separation minima for take-off 284
Changes in medical conditions 5
take-off procedures 283
Charts 118
tracking requirements 288
Circuit height – helicopters 354
visual approach 288
Circuit height 238
CONTROLS
Class E airspace 296
conversions 67
Clearances all operations GAAP 251
dual 23
Climb and cruise procedures 241
pilots at 23
Cloud height datum 126
CTAF 235
Code – weather code
and translation 125
Communication and navaid
failure 384

5 – index
 subject and page 431

D Entry to the circuit – GAAP

Equipment of aircraft for
262

Daily inspection 161 VFR flight at night 338

Danger, prohibited, Establishment on track controlled
and restricted areas 299 airspace 286
Daylight and darkness graphs 112
Declared density charts
Defect reporting
100
30
F
Departure procedure – GAAP 247 FIREARMS
Designated remote areas 154 carriage 16
Discharge of firearms 16 discharge 16
Disorderly and offensive behaviour 14 Flight briefing 169
Displaced threshold 84 FLIGHT NOTE
Distress signals 376 contents 200
Diversion from track controlled form 201
airspace 276 FLIGHT NOTIFICATION
Documents to be carried in aircraft 14 AVFAX 189
Dual controls carriage of passengers 12 contents 192
Dual controls 23 form 191
Duration of licence 6 flight notification 165
NAIPS 169

E NVFR
Flight planning preparation
324
88
ELT Flight reviews – PPL 8
requirements for VFR 163 Flight reviews required helicopter 348
testing 164 FLIGHTS OVER WATER
use in emergencies 164 flights over water 151
EMERGENCY helicopters 361
beacon – care and storage 371 safety equipment 152
mercy flights 389 Flightwatch 208
locator transmitters 163 Flying – low 359
procedures 364 Flying over public gatherings 28

5 – index
432
subject and page
Forced landings 378 gliding 308
Forecasts 123 operations at licenced
Formation flying 77 aerodromes 309
Frequency change controlled GO AROUND PROCEDURE
airspace 286 controlled airspace 294
FUEL GAAP 266
fuels and oils 16 Ground operations of engines 21
planning 105 Ground signals 82
requirements 104

H
G Hazard alert service 209
GAAP Hazardous weather 146
altitude 260 HELICOPTER
arrival procedures 248 alternate requirements 352
clearances all operations 251 circuit height 358
departure into adjoining CTA 256 flight reviews required 348
departure procedure 257 flights over water 361
go around procedure 266 hot refuelling 350
inbound radio calls 262 instruments required for
inbound reporting points 261 VFR flight 351
landing procedures 264 low flying 359
lookout and give way 254 recent experience requirements 349
outbound radio calls 253 special VFR 351
pilot responsibilities 251 use of aerodromes 354
provision of separation 249 Helping search and rescue 365
take-off procedure 257 Holding controlled airspace 290
taxi clearance 253
taxi procedures 252
taxiing after landing 266
transit of and flight in proximity to 267
GLIDING

5 – index
 subject and page 433

I Lookout and give way – GAAP

Low Flying – helicopters
254
359
Icing 103 Low flying 29
Identification procedures 228 Lowest safe altitude – NVFR 331
Inbound radio calls – GAAP 262

M
Inbound reporting points – GAAP 261
Incidents and accidents 31
Information by pilots 209 Magnetic tracks – cruising levels 302
INSTRUMENTS Manipulation of propeller 22
for flight under VFR 72 Medical certificate 5
NVFR 338 Mercy flights 389
INTER 126 METAR 139
Interception of civil aircraft 319 METEOROLOGICAL
Internet 188 advices 144
Intoxicated persons 13 aerodrome categories 129
aerodrome forecasts 128

L

aircraft weather reports
AIREP
144
150
LANDING AIRMET 145
clearance – GAAP 251 area forecasts 127
manoeuvres 241 automatic weather stations 141
procedures – GAAP 264 aviation forecasts 123
Lanes of entry 301 briefing 122
Licence production 9 cloud height datum 126
Licence requirements 6 conditions for balloons 316
Licenced aerodromes parachute conditions observed en-route 27
descents at 312 forecasts for flights 123
Light signals 82 hazardous weather 146
Lighting – NVFR 338 METAR 139
Listening watch 25 reports 139
Log books 8 SIGMET 144
Logs – navigation 27 significant forecast abbreviations 125

5 – index
434
subject and page
SPECI 139 NOTAM 95
TEMPO and INTER 126 Numerals 37
terminal aerodrome forecast NVFR
(TAF) 128 aircraft equipment 338
trend type forecast (TTF) 135 alternate aerodromes 344
Minimum altitude requirements instruments 340
controlled airspace 288
lighting 338
lowest safe altitude (LSALT) 331

N private pilot recent

experience requirements 327
NAIPS qualification for night flying 326
area briefing 172 radio communication systems 329
domestic/ICAO notification 179 radio navigation systems 330
location briefing 171 alternate requirements 343
SARTIME notification 177 runway lighting 343
web briefing 188

O
NAVIGATION
flights under the VFR 74
logs 27 Observers – approved 143
position fixing 304 Obstruction of exits and passageways 24
track keeping 306 Offensive and disorderly behaviour 14
Night VFR – checklist 324 Operating near other aircraft 77
Nomination of runways controlled Operation of transponders 86
airspace 281
OPERATIONS
NON-CONTROLLED AERODROMES
controlled airspace 268
arrival information 241
in class E airspace 296
circuit height 238
in controlled airspace – balloons 316
climb and cruise procedures 241
private 11
landing manoeuvres 241
special VFR 351
separation minima for landing 243
visual flight rules 216
take-off 238
Outbound radio calls – GAAP 253
taxiing after landing 244
Over water flights 151

5 – index
 subject and page 435

Overtaking aircraft 69 AERIS 206

aerodrome categories 129

P

aerodrome forecasts
aircraft speeds
128
78
PAPI 230 alternate aerodromes 344
PARACHUTE area forecasts 127
descents at licenced aerodromes 312 availability of meteorological
operations in CTAF (R) 312 documentation 122

Parachuting in class C,D & E airspace 311 aviation forecasts 123

Passengers – carriage prohibition 13 AWIS 207

Phonetic alphabet 37 briefing of passengers 157

Phrases 43 charts 118

PILOT IN COMMAND daily inspection 161

planning of flight 88 daylight and darkness 110

powers 10 declared density chart(s) 100

responsibility of pilot in command 90 designated remote areas 154

responsibilities before flight 9 emergency locator transmitters 163

Pilot responsibilities 90 flight information service 88

Pilots at controls 23 flight notification 165

Planning – emergency 364 flights over water 151

Planning of flight by pilot in command 88 fuel planning 105

Position fixing 304 fuel requirements 104

Powers of pilot in command 10 icing 103

PPL recency requirements 8 meteorological briefing 122

Precautions before take-off 20 meteorology services 122

Pre-flight altimeter check 213 NAIPS 169

Pre-flight information 88 notification required from

operators 165
PRE-FLIGHT BRIEFING
pre-flight planning 128
AVFAX 189
safety precautions before flight 157
DECTALK 190
significant forecast
NAIPS 169
abbreviations 124
PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING
TEMPO and INTER 126

5 – index
436
subject and page
weather code and translation 251 Radio calls – outbound GAAP 253
Pre-flight safety precautions 26 Radio communication systems –
Prevention of collision 69 NVFR 329
Private operations 11 Radio failure – light signals 387
Private pilot licence 7 Radio failure procedures 388
Production of licence 9 Radio requirements– pre-flight
planning 90
Propeller manipulation 22
Radio– standard words and phrases 38
PROVISION OF SEPARATION
Radio telephony procedures 34
controlled airspace 273
Read back information 35
GAAP 249
Recency – student pilot licence 7
Public gatherings – flying over 28
Recency requirements (PPL) 8
Recent experience requirements 348

Q Refuelling operations
Regulation of flight assessment of
16
78
Qualification for night flying 326
Reporting of defects 30
Reports – meteorological 139

R Responsibility of pilot in command

before flight 9
Radar – weather 121
Restricted, prohibited and danger
Radar vectoring procedures 228 areas 121
RADIO Restrictions on advertising 11
aircraft callsigns 65 Right of way 69
amended route or level 36 RULES OF THE AIR
general phrases 43 formation flying 77
ground station callsigns 65 light signals 82
ground vehicles 66 operating near other aircraft 77
numerals 37 operations in the
phonetic alphabet 37 vicinity of aerodromes 79
read back information 35 overtaking aircraft 69
route terminology 36 prevention of collision 69
standard words and phrases 35 right of way 69
transmission of numbers 38 rules of the air 74

5 – index
 subject and page 437

see and avoid 72 Signals – ground 82

time 75 Smoking in aircraft 14
track keeping 76 SPECI 139
VFR navigation 74 Special VFR – helicopters 351
Runway lighting 343 Special VFR 216
NVFR alternate requirements 343 Standard words and phrases 38
Starting and ground operations of engines 21

S Starting and running of engines

Student pilot licence
21
6
Safety harnesses and seat belts 24 Student pilot recency requirements 7
Safety precautions before flight 26 Summary of broadcasts 236
Safety precautions before take-off 26 Survival equipment over water flights 152
Safety signals 377
SARTIME and SARWATCH
Seat belts and safety harnesses
244
24 T
See and avoid 72 TAF 128
Selection of circuit direction Take-off and landing reports 98
controlled airspace 282 TAKE-OFF PROCEDURE
Selection of circuit direction, separation controlled airspace 283
minima and height 282
GAAP 259
Selection of cruising levels 302
Taxi clearance – GAAP 253
Selection of take-off direction
Taxi procedures – GAAP 252
controlled airspace 282
Taxi, push-back and engine
Separation minima for landing 243
start 279
Separation minima for take-off
Taxiing after landing – GAAP 266
controlled airspace 284
Taxiing after landing 294
Separation minima for take-off uncontrolled
airspace 238 Taxiing 279

SIGMET 144 Terminal aerodrome forecast (TAF) 128

Signaling – emergency 376 Testing of radios 25

Signalling equipment 153 Time 108

over water flights 151 Track keeping 76

Signals – lights 82

5 – index
438
subject and page
a GAAP CTR W
Transit of and flight in proximity to
267
Transition layer 214 Weather code and translation 125
Transmission format 35 Weather radar 121
Transmission of distress Wind shear reporting 147
signals 376
Transmission of numbers 38
Transponder emergency codes 226
Trend type forecast (TTF) 135
T-VASIS 229

U
UNICOM 233
Urgency signals 377
Using distress beacons 372

V
VFR – determination of visibility 217
VFR – navigation requirements 74
VFR – track keeping 76
VFR altimeters 213
VFR flights at night 326
VFR instrument serviceability 73
VFR instruments 72
VFR navigation 74
VFR 216
Vicinity of, In the 51
Visibility for VFR 217
Visual approach controlled airspace 288
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC) 218

5 – index
quick reference 439

5 – appendix
440
quick reference

HIGH KEY
2500ft AGL
LOW KEY
1500 ft AGL ENGINE FAILURE POINT
4500ft AGL

IF TOO LOW

IF TOO HIGH

5 – appendix
quick reference 441

5 – appendix
 casa visual pilot guides
Jandakot Archerfield Sydney Basin Melbourne
V I S U A L P I L O T G U I D E – F I X E D W I N G 2 0 0 7 V I S U A L P I L O T G U I D E – F I X E D W I N G 2 0 0 7 V I S U A L P I L O T G U I D E – F I X E D W I N G 2 0 0 7 V I S U A L P I L O T G U I D E – F I X E D W I N G 2 0 0 7

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