Definition, scope & importance, need for public awareness

DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The word environment is derived from the french word 'environ' meaning surroundings.
Hence, everything surrounding us is called "ENVIRONMENT".
Every organism is surrounded by materials and forces that constitute its environment. It is the
environment from where every organism must derive its requirement. The environment
creates favourable conditions for the existence and development of living organisms.
The survival of any organism requires a steady supply of materials and removal of wate
products from its environment.
The degradation of the environment has become a serious problem for the existence of human
beings. Pollution of soil, water and air causes harm to living organisms as well as loss to
valuable natural resources.
Environmental studies involves educating the people for preserving the quality of
environment.
The scope of environmental studies include:
1. Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and its related problems
2. Motivating people for active participation in environmental protection and improvement
3. Developing skills for active identification and development of solutions to environmental
problems
4. Imbibe and inculcate the necessity for conservation of natural resources
5. Evaluation of environmental programmes in terms of social, economic, ecological and
aesthetic factors.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

In the industrialized era that we live today, every component that we intake - be it, air, water
or food are contaminated by industrial activities. THERE IS NO ZERO POLLUTION. To
minimize this problem, knowledge of environmental studies is essential. An in-dept study of
environmental studies will help us in the following ways:
1. We will begin to appreciate and adopt the idea of "DEVELOPMENT WITHOUT
DESTRUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT"
2. Knowledge about "VARIOUS TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTS & DIFFERENT
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS"
3. Playing an effective role in protecting the environment by "DEMANDING CHANGES IN
LAW AND ENFORCEMENT SYSTEMS".
4. Having a "POSITIVE IMPACT" on "QUALITY OF LIFE".
5. Creating a "CONCERN AND RESPECT FOR THE ENVIRONMENT".

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS:

Increasing population, Urbanization and poverty have generated pressure on the natural
resources and lead to a degradation of the environment. TO PREVENT THE
ENVIRONMENT FROM FURTHER DEGRADATION, the supreme court has ordered and
initiated environmental protection awareness through government and non-government

1
agencies to take part in protecting our environment.
Environmental pollution cannot prevented by laws alone. Public participation is equally
important with regard to environmental protection.
Environmental Education (EE) is a process of learning by giving an overall perspective of
knowledge and awareness of the environment. It sensitizes the society about environmental
issues and challenges interested individuals to develop skills and expertise thereby providing
appropriate solutions.
Climate change, loss of biodiversity, declining fisheries, ozone layer depletion, illegal trade
of endangered species, destruction of habitats, land degradation, depleting ground water
supplies, introduction of alien species, environmental pollution, solid waste disposal, storm
water and sewage disposal pose a serious threat to ecosystems in forest, rural, urban and
marine ecosystems.
Both formal and informal education on the environment will give the interested individual the
knowledge, values, skills and tools needed to face the environmental challenges on a local
and global level.

Forest Resources
Use and overexploitation: Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33 percent of its
land under forests. Today we have only about 12 percent. Thus we need not only to protect
existing forests but also to increase our forest cover. People who live in or near forests know
the value of forest resources first hand because their lives and livelihoods depend directly
on these resources. However, the rest of us also derive great benefits from the forests which
we are rarely aware of. The water we use depends on the existence of forests on the
watersheds around river valleys. Our homes, furniture and paper are made from wood from
the forest. We use many medicines that are based on forest produce. And we depend on the
oxygen that plants give out and the removal of carbon dioxide we breathe out from the air.
Forests once extended over large tracts of our country. People have used forests in our coun-
try for thousands of years. As agriculture spread the forests were left in patches which were
controlled mostly by tribal people. They hunted animals and gathered plants and lived
entirely on forest resources. Deforestation became a major concern in British times when a
large amount of timber was extracted for building their ships. This led the British to develop
scientific forestry in India. They however alienated local people by creating Reserved and
Protected Forests which curtailed access to the resources. This led to a loss of stake in the
conservation of the forests which led to a gradual degradation and fragmentation of forests
across the length and breadth of the country. Another period of overutilisation and forest deg-
radation occurred in the early period following independence as people felt that now that the
British had gone they had a right to using our forests in any way we pleased. The following
years saw India’s residual forest wealth dwindle sharply. Timber extraction continued to
remain the Forest Department’s main concern up to the 1970s. The fact that forest

2
degradation and deforestation was creating a serious loss of the important functions of the
forest began to override its utilisation as a source of revenue from timber.
Deforestation: Where civilizations have looked after forests by using forest resources
cautiously, they have prospered, where forests were destroyed, the people were gradually
impoverished. Today logging and mining are serious causes of loss of forests in our
country and all over the world. Dams built for hydroelectric power or irrigation have
submerged forests and have displaced tribal people whose lives are closely knit to the
forest. This has become a serious cause of concern in India.
One of India’s serious environmental problems is forest degradation due to timber extraction
and our dependence on fuelwood. A large number of poor rural people are still highly
dependent on wood to cook their meals and heat their homes. We have not been able to plant
enough trees to support the need for timber and fuelwood. The National Forest Policy of
1988 now gives an added importance to JFM. Another resolution in 1990 provided a formal
structure for community participation though the formation of Village Forest Committees.
Based on these experiences, new JFM guidelines were issued in 2000. This stipulates that at
least 25 per cent of the income from the area must go to the community. From the initiation
of the program, until 2002, there were 63,618 JFM Committees managing over 140,953 sq.
km of forest under JFM in 27 States in India. The States have tried a variety of approaches to
JFM. The share for village forest committees ranges from 25 per cent in Kerala to 100 per
cent in Andhra Pradesh, 50 per cent in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tripura. In many
States 25 per cent of the revenue is used for village development. In many States non-timber
forest products (NTFPs) are available for people free of cost. Some States have stopped
grazing completely; some have rotational grazing schemes which have helped in forest
regeneration. Timber extraction, mining and dams are invariably parts of the needs of a
developing country. If timber is overharvested the ecological functions of the forest are lost.
Unfortunately forests are located in areas where there are rich mineral resources. Forests also
cover the steep embankments of river valleys, which are ideally suited to develop hydel and
irrigation projects. Thus there is a constant conflict of interests be
tween the conservation interests of environmental scientists and the Mining and Irrigation
Departments. What needs to be understood is that long-term ecological gains cannot be
sacrificed for short-term economic gains that unfortunately lead to deforestation. These
forests where development projects are planned, can displace thousands of tribal people who
lose their homes when these plans are executed. This leads to high levels of suffering for
which there is rarely a satisfactory answer.

Mineral Resources
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and identifiable
physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals from which a useful
substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to manufacture a useful product.
Minerals are formed over a period of millions of years in the earth’s crust. Iron, aluminum,
zinc, manganese and copper are important raw materials for industrial use. Important non-
metal resources include coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone used for building material,
such as granite, marble, limestone, constitute another category of minerals. Minerals with

3
special proprties that humans value for their aesthetic and ornamental value are gems such as
diamonds, emeralds, rubies. The luster of gold, silver and platinum is used for ornaments.
Minerals in the form of oil, gas and coal were formed when ancient plants and animals were
converted into underground fossil fuels. Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the
earth’s interior so that they can be used. This process is known as mining. Mining operations
generally progress through four stages: (1) Prospecting: Searching for minerals.
(2) Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, location, and economic value of the deposit.
(3) Development: Work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals can be
extracted from it.
(4) Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines.

In the past, mineral deposits were discovered by prospectors in areas where mineral deposits
in the form of veins were exposed on the surface. Today, however, prospecting and
exploration is done by teams of geologists, mining engineers, geophysicists, and geochemists
who work together to discover new deposits. Modern prospecting methods include the use of
sophisticated instruments like GIS to survey and study the geology of the area.
The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or mineral deposit
is nearer the surface or deep within the earth. The topography of the region and the
physical nature of the ore deposit is studied. Mines are of two types – surface (open cut or
strip mines) or deep or shaft mines. Coal, metals and non-metalliferous minerals are all mined
differently depending on the above criteria. The method chosen for mining will ultimately
depend on how maximum yield may be obtained under existing conditions at a minimum
cost, with the least danger to the mining personnel. Most minerals need to be processed
before they become usable. Thus ‘technology’ is dependent on both the presence of resources
and the energy necessary to make them ‘usable’. Mine safety: Mining is a hazardous
occupation, and the safety of mine workers is an important environmental consideration of
the industry. Surface mining is less hazardous than underground mining. Metal mining is less
hazardous than coal mining. In all underground mines, rock and roof falls, flooding, and
inadequate ventilation are the greatest hazards. Large explosions have occured in coal
mines, killing many miners. More miners have suffered from disasters due to the use of
explosives in metal mines. Mining poses several long-term occupational hazards to the
miners. Dust produced during mining operations is injurious to health and causes a lung
disease known as black lung, or pneumoconiosis. Fumes generated by incom-
plete dynamite explosions are extremely poisonous. Methane gas, emanating from coal strata,
is hazardous to health although not poisonous in the concentrations usually encountered in
mine air. Radiation is a hazard in uranium mines. Environmental problems: Mining
operations are considered one of the main sources of environmental degradation. The
extraction of all these products from the lithosphere has a variety of side effects. Depletion
of available land due to mining, waste from industries, conversion of land to industry and
pollution of land, water and air by industrial wastes, are environmental side effects of the use
of these non-renewable resources. Public awareness of this problem is of a global nature
and government actions to stem the damage to the natural environment have led to
numerous international agreements and laws directed toward the prevention of activities and
events that may adversely affect the environment.

4
Natural resources: Water resources

Water resources Almost 71% of earth's surface is covered by water of which 97% is ocean
waterwhich is unusable due to high salt concentration. Almost 2.6% of fresh water is is
trapped in ice caps and glaciers along with some part stored underground. Only 0.4% of the
total quantity of water is available in swamps, rivers, lakes and streams. Surface water
sources Sea water River and streams Natural lakes and ponds Artificial impounding
reservoirs Ground water sources After glaciers, ice caps and snow fields, ground water is
the next largest fresh water reservoir. Precipitation that does not run-off over the surface,
percolates through the soil and either accumulates in an underground basin or flows
underground in sub surface streams. Effects of over-utilizing ground water -Excessive
pumping of ground water causes porous formations to collapse resulting in subsidence -
Heavy pumping can lower water table and cause shallow wells to dry-up or even deplete the
entire aquifer. -Over-use of freshwater reservoirs along coast lines often allows salt water to
intrude into aquifers rendering the water unfit for domestic, industrial or agricultural
purposes.

Floods
A flood is an overflow of water, whenever the magnitude of flow of waterexceeds the
carrying capacity of the channel within its banks.

CAUSES OF FLOODS
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow (ice), sudden release of water from dams often causes
floods in the low lying coastal area.
2. Prolonged heavy rainfall can also cause the overflowing of lakes and rivers resulting
in floods
3. Reduction in carrying capacity of river channels due to accumulation of sediments or
obstructions built on flood ways.
4. Deforestation, overgrazing, mining increases the run-off from rains causing floods.
5. Removal of dense and uniform forest cover over the hilly zones leaqds to occourrence
of floods.
EFFECT OF FLOODS:
Due to floods:
1. Water spreads in the surrounding areas and submerges them
2. Plain surfaces get eroded and silted with mud and sand thereby affecting cultivable
land areas.
3. Extinction of civilization in some coastal areas also occurs.
FLOOD MANAGEMENT:
1. Floods can be controlled by constructing dams or reservoirs
2. Channel management and embankments also control floods
3. Encroachment of flood ways should be banned
4. Flood hazard may be reduced by forecasting or flood warning
5. Flood hazard may be reduced by reduction of runoff and this can be achieved by
increasing infiltration through appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.

5
Droughts
Drought is scarcity of water. Drought occurs due to:
1. inadequate rainfall
2. late arrival of rains and
3. excessive withdrawal of groundwater
Scarcity of water for normal needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population
may be termed as drought.
Drought is understood from dry weather which persists long enough to produce a serious
hydrological imbalance, leading to damage of plants, animals and human life.

TYPES OF DROUGHT
Droughts are classified into four types:
1. Meteorological Drought occurs when the total amount of rainfall is less than 75% of
normal rainfall. This drought will be severe if the rainfall is less than 50% of the
normal rainfall
2. Hydrological Drought occurs when the total amount of rainfall is less than the average
rainfall. It is generally associated with reduction of statistical average of water
reserves available in the source such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs.
3. Agricultural Drought occurs due to the shortage as well as the timing of overall
rainfall. This form of drought reduces groundwater and reservoir levels. Agricultural
Drought affects cropped plants.
4. Socio-economic Drought occurs due to reduction in the availability of food and social
security of people in the affected areas. Socio-economic drought leads to famine.
CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rainfall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought occurs
2. High population also leads to drought. Population growth leads to poor land use and
worsens the situation
3. Intensive cropping pattern and over-exploitation of scarce water resources by digging
wells or bore-wells for high productivity has turned drought prone areas into desert.
Ex:- Over exploitation of water resources for sugarcane in Maharashtra has prevented
the state from drought recovery for the past 30 years.
4. Deforestation leads to desertification and drought. Deforestation leads to the top soil
exposed to erosion by heavy rains, wind and the sun. Thus the top layer of soil rich in
nutrients gets washed away making the soil unproductive. Eroded soils exhibit a
droughty tendency.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT:
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water. It also degrades
the quality of drinking water
2. Drought causes widespread crop failures leading to acute shortage of food thereby
adversely affecting human and livestock populations

6
 3. Drought indicates the initiation of desertificarion
4. Raw materials for agro-based industries are critically affected during drought thereby
retarding industrial and commercial growth.
5. Drought accelerates degradation of natural resources
6. Drought leads to large scale migration to urban areas thereby creating slums.
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT :
1. Indigenous knowledge in control of droughts and desertification is very useful for
dealing with drought problems
2. Rainwater harvesting program is very useful technique used to conserve water and
control drought
3. Construction of large capacity reservoirs is essential in drought prone areas
4. Modern irrigation techniques (drip irrigation) is very useful to conserve water and
avoid wastage
5. Afforestation activities improve the potential of water in drought prone areas
6. Mixed cropping and dry farming are suitable methods that minimize the risk of crop
failure in dry and drought prone areas.

CONFLICTS OVER WATER

Water is essential for our existence and is fast becoming scarce. Rapidly increasing
population and limited water resources give rise to conflicts over water. Conflict through
use: Unequal distribution of water leads to inter-state or international disputes. Examples:
International conflicts
1. Conflict over water from the Indus between India and Pakistan
2. Conflict over water from the Colorado river between Mexico and USA
3. Conflict over water from the Shatt-al-Arab between Iran and Iraq
4. Conflict over water from the Bhramaputra between India and Bangladesh
National conflicts
1. Sharing of Cauvery water between Karnataka and Tamilnadu
2. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
3. Sharing of Siruveni water between Tamilnadu and Kerala
Construction of dams or power stations:
For hydroelectric power generation, dams are built across the rivers, and this initiates
conflicts between the states.

Conflict through pollution:

Rivers are also used for industrial purposes. They act as reservoirs for supply of fresh water
and also a receptor of waste water and rubbish from the industry. Water crossing borders that
has been polluted by wastes from one country develops into an international conflict.

Management of water conflicts

7
 1. Concerted efforts are required to enforce laws that check these practices to control
water pollution
2. In order to overcome the problem of sharing river water in a country, the concept of
interlinking of rivers has been suggested
3. Rivers should be nationalized, the National Water Authority and River Basin
Authority should be given powers to ensure equitable distribution of basin water.

DAMS - BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Dams are built across rivers to store water for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and
flood control. The dams built to serve more than one purpose are called "multi-purpose
dams". These dams were called the "temples of modern India" by the country's first Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. BENEFITS OF DAMS
1. Dams are built to control flood and store flood water
2. Sometimes dams are used for diverting part or all of the water from river into a
channel.
3. Dams are used mainly for drinking and agricultural purposes.
4. Dams are built for generating electricity
5. Dams are used for recreational purposes
6. Navigation and fishery can be developed in the dam areas
PROBLEMS OF DAMS Dams may face problems upstream or downstream as listed below:
Upstream problems
1. Displacement of tribal people
2. Loss of non-forest land
3. Loss of forests, flora and fauna
4. Landslides, sedimentation and siltation occurs
5. stagnation and waterlogging around reservoirs retards plant growth
6. Breeding of vectors and vector-borne diseases
7. Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS) causes earthquakes
8. Navigation and aquaculture activities can be developed in the dam area
Downstream problems
1. Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation
2. Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers
3. Salt intrusion at river mouth
4. Since the sediments carrying nutrients gets deposited in the reservoir, the fertility of
the land along the river gets reduced
5. Due to structural defects or faulty design of the dam may cause sudden dam failure
leading to collapse and destruction to life and property.

8
Agriculture - Effects of modern methods and options
The widespread use of chemicals in agriculture as fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and
rodenticides without proper technological information have multiplied the hazards to which
human beings are exposed. These chemicals spread through the environment and pose a
threat to all animals. Fertilizers are materials that are added to soil to restore and enhance soil
fertility to improve the quality and quantity of plant growth. Fertilizers may be natural or
artificial (synthetic). Natural fertilizers are further divided into Organic and inorganic
fertilizers. Examples of inorganic fertilizers are Gypsum, Crushed limestone and sulphur rock
phosphate while those for organic fertilizers are manure, animal excreta, plant wastes and
humus. Excess fertilizers that are not taken-up by plants, leech into sub-soil water sources
and contaminate them. They are non-biodegradable and thus accumulate to reach
objectionable levels as they pass through different levels of the food chain. The main problem
with fertilizer use is the contamination of water with nitrates, phosphates and potassium.
Nutrients are lost from agricultural fields through: -Runoff -Drainage and -Attachment to
eroded soil particles Amount of nutrient lost depends on: -Soil type and organic matter
content -Climate -Slope -Depth to groundwater and -Amount and type of fertilizer and
irrigation used The major nutrients in fertilizers are: -Nitrogen (N) -Phosphorus (P) and -
Potassium (K) Nitrogen is readily lost due to high solubility in nitrate form. Leaching of
nitrate from agricultural fields can increase groundwater concentrations to unacceptable
levels for drinking water supply High nitrate levels in drinking water are dangerous to human
health Phosphorus cannot be washed out of soil but can be washed into surface waters
together with the soil that is being eroded. Phosphorus is not dangerous. However, it
stimulates the excess growth of algae and this process is called "eutrophication". The algae
eventually die and decompose resulting in depletion of dissolved oxygen thereby killing fish.
Potassium does not cause water quality problems. Its solubility is similar to phosphorus i.e., it
is similarly bound by soil particles and can be by erosion. Pesticides: Qualities of an ideal
pesticide: -It should only kill target pest -Have no short term or long term effects on non-
target organisms -Should be able to be broken down into harmless compounds in a short time
-Should prevent the development of genetic resistance in target organism -Save money
compared to making no effort to control pest Since 1945, different types of synthetic organic
chemicals have been used as pesticides. Worldwide, 2.3 million Tonnes of pesticides are used
(85% in developing countries. Synthetic nsecticides are of the following types: Chlorinated
hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Pyrethroids DDT and other slowly degradable
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were banned in mid 1970s Organophosphates are more
rapidly biodegradable but are water soluble and could possibly contaminate surface and
groundwater sources. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are fat soluble Farmers apply non-persistent
pesticides at regular intervals to ensure effective insect control. The regular use of using non-
persistent pesticides is almost as good as using persistent pesticides. Pyrethrin (from wild
chrysanthemum type plants) and Rotenoids (from roots of rain forest legumes) are produced
from wild plants and can be effectively used as biological control agents as they are: -
Biodegradable -Effective in low doses and -Cause little harm to mammals ADVANTAGES
OF USING PESTICIDES The following are the benefits of using pesticides: -pesticides
save lives -they increase food supplies and lower food costs -they increase profits of farmers -
they work faster and better than alternatives -safer and more effective products are

9
continuously being developed. PROBLEMS OF PESTICIDES Development of genetic
resistance ALTERNATE METHODS OF INSECT CONTROL Modifying cultivation
process -crop rotation -planting rows of hedges or trees in and around crop fields -adjusting
planting times -destroy diseased or infected plants -growing crops in areas where their major
pests do not exist -using plant diversity to control pests by
adopting: intercropping agro-forestry
and polyculture -artificial selection, cross breeding and genetic engineering
varieties of plants and animals that are genetically resistant to certain pest insets, fungi and
diseases. -biological pest control against various natural parasites and pathogens can be
introduced to control the populations of specific pests. ORGANIC AGRICULTURE:
Organic agriculture is defined as an ecological production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on
minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and
enhance ecological harmony. EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE Agriculture has
been a practice in use for hundreds of years. It provides countless people with sustenance and
livelihood all over the world. However, modern practices in agriculture have led to several
damaging effects on the environment listed below: [Link] increases carbon dioxide
levels making it one of the main sources of carbon dioxide emissions for decades. This in-
turn aggravates the problem of global warming and consequent sea level rise. [Link] waste
from farms contains harmful pathogens known to cause disease and infection. By getting into
soil and water systems they create irreversible damage to land and pose health risks towards
humans. These problems lead both directly and indirectly to these health risks, and may
causes disorders such as hepatitis and meningitis. [Link] also put forth several
complications. They contain harmful elements such as nitrogen and phosphates, both of
which negatively affect air and water quality. Its use causes the release of ammonia, nitrogen
runoff and eutrophication, all of which have negative effects on the environment. [Link]
also include increased water or wind erosion, depleted groundwater supplies in irrigated
areas, [Link] agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the earth's land surface to
monoculture. As a result, the genetic and ecological diversity of the planet erodes. The
conversion of diverse natural ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the
genetic diversity of crops contribute to this erosion. [Link] addition to adding pollutants to
water, soil and air, modern agriculture practices can cause soil disturbance by using heavy
machines and tilling equipment. This, in turn, creates soil erosion and degrades the quality of
surrounding farmland. 7.A number of "ecological diseases" have been associated with the
intensification of food production. They may be grouped into two categories: diseases of the
ecotope, which include erosion, loss of soil fertility, depletion of nutrient reserves,
salinization and alkalinization, pollution of water systems, loss of fertile croplands to urban
development, and diseases of the biocoenosis, which include loss of crop, wild plant, and
animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies, pest resurgence and genetic
resistance to pesticides, chemical contamination, and destruction of natural control
mechanisms.

10
Agriculture - Effects of modern methods and options
The widespread use of chemicals in agriculture as fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and
rodenticides without proper technological information have multiplied the hazards to which
human beings are exposed. These chemicals spread through the environment and pose a
threat to all animals. Fertilizers are materials that are added to soil to restore and enhance soil
fertility to improve the quality and quantity of plant growth. Fertilizers may be natural or
artificial (synthetic). Natural fertilizers are further divided into Organic and inorganic
fertilizers. Examples of inorganic fertilizers are Gypsum, Crushed limestone and sulphur rock
phosphate while those for organic fertilizers are manure, animal excreta, plant wastes and
humus. Excess fertilizers that are not taken-up by plants, leech into sub-soil water sources
and contaminate them. They are non-biodegradable and thus accumulate to reach
objectionable levels as they pass through different levels of the food chain. The main problem
with fertilizer use is the contamination of water with nitrates, phosphates and potassium.
Nutrients are lost from agricultural fields through: -Runoff -Drainage and -Attachment to
eroded soil particles Amount of nutrient lost depends on: -Soil type and organic matter
content -Climate -Slope -Depth to groundwater and -Amount and type of fertilizer and
irrigation used The major nutrients in fertilizers are: -Nitrogen (N) -Phosphorus (P) and -
Potassium (K) Nitrogen is readily lost due to high solubility in nitrate form. Leaching of
nitrate from agricultural fields can increase groundwater concentrations to unacceptable
levels for drinking water supply High nitrate levels in drinking water are dangerous to human
health Phosphorus cannot be washed out of soil but can be washed into surface waters
together with the soil that is being eroded. Phosphorus is not dangerous. However, it
stimulates the excess growth of algae and this process is called "eutrophication". The algae
eventually die and decompose resulting in depletion of dissolved oxygen thereby killing fish.
Potassium does not cause water quality problems. Its solubility is similar to phosphorus i.e., it
is similarly bound by soil particles and can be by erosion. Pesticides: Qualities of an ideal
pesticide: -It should only kill target pest -Have no short term or long term effects on non-
target organisms -Should be able to be broken down into harmless compounds in a short time
-Should prevent the development of genetic resistance in target organism -Save money
compared to making no effort to control pest Since 1945, different types of synthetic organic
chemicals have been used as pesticides. Worldwide, 2.3 million Tonnes of pesticides are used
(85% in developing countries. Synthetic nsecticides are of the following types: Chlorinated
hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Pyrethroids DDT and other slowly degradable
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were banned in mid 1970s Organophosphates are more
rapidly biodegradable but are water soluble and could possibly contaminate surface and
groundwater sources. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are fat soluble Farmers apply non-persistent
pesticides at regular intervals to ensure effective insect control. The regular use of using non-
persistent pesticides is almost as good as using persistent pesticides. Pyrethrin (from wild
chrysanthemum type plants) and Rotenoids (from roots of rain forest legumes) are produced
from wild plants and can be effectively used as biological control agents as they are: -
Biodegradable -Effective in low doses and -Cause little harm to mammals ADVANTAGES
OF USING PESTICIDES The following are the benefits of using pesticides: -pesticides
save lives -they increase food supplies and lower food costs -they increase profits of farmers -
they work faster and better than alternatives -safer and more effective products are

11
continuously being developed. PROBLEMS OF PESTICIDES Development of genetic
resistance ALTERNATE METHODS OF INSECT CONTROL Modifying cultivation
process -crop rotation -planting rows of hedges or trees in and around crop fields -adjusting
planting times -destroy diseased or infected plants -growing crops in areas where their major
pests do not exist -using plant diversity to control pests by
adopting: intercropping agro-forestry
and polyculture -artificial selection, cross breeding and genetic engineering
varieties of plants and animals that are genetically resistant to certain pest insets, fungi and
diseases. -biological pest control against various natural parasites and pathogens can be
introduced to control the populations of specific pests. ORGANIC AGRICULTURE:
Organic agriculture is defined as an ecological production management system that promotes
and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on
minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain and
enhance ecological harmony. EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE Agriculture has
been a practice in use for hundreds of years. It provides countless people with sustenance and
livelihood all over the world. However, modern practices in agriculture have led to several
damaging effects on the environment listed below: [Link] increases carbon dioxide
levels making it one of the main sources of carbon dioxide emissions for decades. This in-
turn aggravates the problem of global warming and consequent sea level rise. [Link] waste
from farms contains harmful pathogens known to cause disease and infection. By getting into
soil and water systems they create irreversible damage to land and pose health risks towards
humans. These problems lead both directly and indirectly to these health risks, and may
causes disorders such as hepatitis and meningitis. [Link] also put forth several
complications. They contain harmful elements such as nitrogen and phosphates, both of
which negatively affect air and water quality. Its use causes the release of ammonia, nitrogen
runoff and eutrophication, all of which have negative effects on the environment. [Link]
also include increased water or wind erosion, depleted groundwater supplies in irrigated
areas, [Link] agriculture converts an ever-increasing portion of the earth's land surface to
monoculture. As a result, the genetic and ecological diversity of the planet erodes. The
conversion of diverse natural ecosystems to new agricultural lands and the narrowing of the
genetic diversity of crops contribute to this erosion. [Link] addition to adding pollutants to
water, soil and air, modern agriculture practices can cause soil disturbance by using heavy
machines and tilling equipment. This, in turn, creates soil erosion and degrades the quality of
surrounding farmland. 7.A number of "ecological diseases" have been associated with the
intensification of food production. They may be grouped into two categories: diseases of the
ecotope, which include erosion, loss of soil fertility, depletion of nutrient reserves,
salinization and alkalinization, pollution of water systems, loss of fertile croplands to urban
development, and diseases of the biocoenosis, which include loss of crop, wild plant, and
animal genetic resources, elimination of natural enemies, pest resurgence and genetic
resistance to pesticides, chemical contamination, and destruction of natural control
mechanisms.

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LAND AS A RESOURCE Land is a very valuable resource. It provides food, fibre, wood,
medicine and other biological materials needed for food. Soil is a mixture of inorganic
materials and (rocks and minerals) and organic materials (dead materials and plants). Top soil
is classified as a renewable resource as it is continuously regenerated by natural processes at
a very slow rate. However, if the rate of erosion is faster than the rate of renewal, the soil
becomes a non-renewable resource. Uses of land resources
1. Land provides food, wood, minerals, etc
2. Land nurtures plants and animals that provide us food and shelter
3. Land may be used as watershed or reservoir.
4. Land acts as a dustbin for the wastes generated by modern society.
5. Land is used for constructing buildings and industries.

Land degradation- Land slides, Soil erosion and Desertification

LAND DEGRADATION Land degradation is the process of deterioration of soil or loss of
fertility of soil. EFFECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION
1. Soil texture and structure are deteriorated
2. Loss of soil fertility due to loss of valuable nutrients
3. Increase in water logging, salinity, alkalinity and acidity problems
4. Loss at a social, economic and biodiversity level
CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION
Population: With the increase in population, more land is needed for producing food, fibre,
and fuel wood leading to increasing pressure on the limited land resources. Therefore the land
gets degraded due to over exploitation

Urbanization: Increased urbanization due to population growth reduces the agricultural land.
To compensate for loss of agricultural land, new lands comprising of natural ecosystems such
as forests are cleared. Therefore, urbanization leads to deforestation which in-turn affects
millions of plant and animal species.

Fertilizers and Pesticides: Increased application of fertilizers and pesticides are needed to
increase farm output in new lands thereby leading to pollution of land, water and soil
degradation.

Damage to top soil: Increase in food production generally leads to damage of top soil
through nutrient depletion.

Water-logging, soil erosion, salination and contamination of the soil with industrial waste
cause land degradation.

LANDSLIDES

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Landslides are the downward movement of a slope composed of earth materials such as rock,
soil or artificial fills. Landslides are also called rock-slide, debris-slide, slump, earth-flow or
soil-creep.
During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of mountainous fragile areas
are cut down and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land masses weaken the
already fragile mountain slopes leading to man-induced landslides.

EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES:
1. Landslides increase the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their
productivity
2. Destruction of communicative links
3. Loss of habitat and biodiversity
4. Loss of infrastructure and economic loss
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
1. Removal of vegetation - Deforestation in slopes creates soil erosion leading to
landslides
2. Underground mining activities cause subsidence of the ground
3. Movement of heavy vehicles in areas with unstable slopes causes landslides.
4. Addition of weight by construction on slopes causes landslides.
5. Over exploitation of groundwater also leads to landslides.
SOIL EROSION Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of soil. Soil
erosion removes soil components and litter. HARMFUL EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
1. Soil fertility is lost
2. Loss of soil ability to hold water and sediment
3. Sediment runoff can pollute water courses and kill aquatic life
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
1. Normal erosion: This is caused by the gradual removal of topsoil by natural processes.
The rate of erosion is slow.
2. Accelerated erosion: This is caused by man made activities. In this case, the rate of
erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION
1. Water: Water affects soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow or wave
action
2. Wind: Wind is an important climate agent that carries away the fine particles of soil
thereby contributing to soil erosion.
3. Biotic agents: Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents
causing soil erosion. These processes disturb the top soil thereby exposing the soil to
various physical forces inducing erosion
4. Landslides cause soil erosion
5. Construction of dams, buildings and roads removes the protective vegetal cover
leading to soil erosion
SOIL CONSERVATION PRACTICES
1. Conservational till farming or no-till farming: Traditionally, land is ploughed to
make a planting surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion.

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 The no-till farming method makes minimum disturbance to the top soil by making
slits in the unploughed soil. Seeds, fertilizers and water are injected in these slits.
2. Contour farming: In this method, crops are planted in rows along contours of gently
sloped land. Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil thereby slowing water runoff.
3. Terracing: In this method, steep slopes are converted into a series of broad terraces
that run across the [Link] retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by
controlling runoff.
4. Alley cropping or Agro forestry: This method involves planting crops in strips or
alleys between rows of trees or shrubs that provide fruits and fuel wood. Hence, when
the crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded as the trees and shrubs remain on
ground holding the soil particles.
5. Wind breaks or shelter belts: In this technique, trees are planted in long rows along
the boundary of cultivated land which block the wind and reduce soil erosion. Wind
breaks help in retaining soil moisture, supply wood for fuel and provide habitat for
birds.

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Energy resources, Growing energy needs, Renewable and non-renewable energy
sources
ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy may be defined as "any property which can be converted into work"
Energy is defined as "the capacity to do work"

Energy is available on earth in a number of forms and some forms may be used immediately
while others might require some transformation. It is difficult to imagine Life without energy.
All the developmental activities in the world are directly or indirectly dependent on energy.
Both energy production and energy utilization indicate a country's progress.

GROWING ENERGY NEEDS

Energy is essential to the existence of mankind. All industrial processes like mining,
transport, lighting, heating and cooling in buildings need energy. With the growing
population, the world is facing an energy deficit. Lifestyle change from simple to a complex
and luxurious lifestyle adds to this energy deficit. Almost 95% of commercial energy is
available from fossil fuels like coal and natural gas. These fossil fuels will not last for more
than a few [Link], we must explore alternative fuel/energy options.

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY ENERGY SOURCES

Based on continual utility, natural resources can be classified into two types:
Renewable energy sources: These resources can be generated continuously and are
inexhaustible.
Ex: Wood, Solar energy, Wind energy, Hydro power, tidal energy, Geo-thermal energy, etc
Merits of Geo-thermal energy:
1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security
3. Fits in the concept of sustainable development
4. Reliable and devices are modular in size
5. Decentralized energy production
Non-renewable energy sources: Non-renewable energy sources are natural resources, that
cannot be regenerated once they are exhausted. They cannot be used again.
Ex: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and Nuclear fuels

Renewable energy sources

RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
Renewable energy sources are natural resources that can be regenerated continuously and are
inexhaustible. They can be repeatedly used.

SOLAR ENERGY:
The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy. Nuclear fusion occurring
in the sun releases enormous amount of energy in the form of heat and light. Several

16
techniques are available for collecting, converting and using solar energy.

METHODS OF HARVESTING SOLAR ENERGY

Listed below are the various devices used to harvest solar energy.
1. Solar cells or Photovoltaic cells or PV cells: Solar cells consist of a p-type
semiconductor (Silicon doped with Boron) and n-type semiconductor (Silicon doped
with Phosphorus) in close contact with each other. When solar rays fall on the top p-
type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band move to the conduction band
and cross the p-type junction into the n-type semiconductor. A potential difference is
created causing an electric current to flow. These cells are widely used in calculators,
electronic watches, street lights, water pumps to radio and television.
2. Solar battery: When several solar cells are connected in series, it forms a solar
battery. These solar batteries generate enough electricity to run water pumps, street
lights, etc. They are mainly used in remote areas where electricity supply is a
problem.
3. Solar heat collectors: Solar heat collectors consist of natural materials like stones,
bricks, or materials like glass, which absorb heat during the day time and release it
slowly in the night. It is generally used in cold places where houses are kept in hot
condition using solar heat collectors.
4. Solar water Heaters: It consists of an insulated box, in which is painted black on the
inside. It is provided with a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. The box contains
a copper coil painted in black through which cold water flows in, gets heated in the
copper coil and flows into a storage tank. Finally, water from storage tanks is
supplied.
5. Solar energy is currently used to power satellites, watches, calculators, etc
6. A few applications of solar energy are: (i) solar water heater, (ii) solar cooker, (iii)
solar dryer and (v) solar refrigerator.
WIND ENERGY:
Wind is defined as moving air. Energy recovered from the force of wind is called wind
energy. Wind energy is harnessed by the use of wind mills.
1. Wind mills: The force of blowing wind strikes the blades of the wind mill thereby
causing it to rotate continuously. This rotational energy of the blades is used to drive
several machines like water pump, flour mill and electric generators.
2. Wind farms: Several wind mills joined together in a definite pattern forms a wind
farm. Wind farms generate large amounts of electricity.
CONDITION The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is
15 kmph

ADVANTAGES:
1. It does not cause any air pollution
2. It is very cheap
OCEAN ENERGY
Ocean can be used for generating electricity:

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 1. Tidal energy: Ocean tides produced by virtue of gravitational force of sun and moon
possess enormous amounts of energy. Tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing
a tidal barrage.
During high tide, sea-water is allowed to flow into reservoir of the barrage and rotate the
turbine thereby producing electricity.
During low tide, when sea level is low, sea water stored in the barrage reservoir is allowed to
flow into the sea thereby rotating the turbine again.

2. Ocean thermal energy There is a large temperature difference between surface level
and deep water level of tropical oceans. This temperature difference can be utilized to
generate electricity. This energy is called ocean thermal energy. A necessary
condition is that temperature difference of at least 20C is required between surface
water and deep water. The technique used here is that the relatively hot surface
temperature of the ocean is used to boil a low boiling liquid like ammonia. The high
vapor pressure of the liquid formed by boiling is used to turn the blades in a turbine
and generate electricity. The cool waters in the deep sea are used to cool and condense
the vapor into liquid.
Geo-thermal energy:
Temperature of the earth increases at the rate of 20 - 75C per km. Down below the earths
surface, high pressure and high temperature steam fields exist in many places. The energy
harnessed from high temperature present inside the earth's surface is called geothermal
energy.
1. Natural Geysers: In some places, steam comes out of ground through cracks naturally
in the form of natural geysers.
2. Artificial Geysers: Sometimes, a hole is drilled up to the hot region and by sending a
pipe in it, the steam is made to rush-out through the pipe with very high pressure.
The steam coming out of natural or artificial geysers is made to rotate the turbine of a
generator to produce electricity.
BIOMASS ENERGYBiomass is organic matter produced by plants or animals. It is used as
a source of energy. Biomass is generally burnt for heating, cooling and industrial purposes.
Ex: wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes, etc.
Biomass may be converted into energy in any of the following types:
1. Biogas: Biogas is a mixture of gases such as methane, carbondioxide, hydrogen sulphide,
etc. It contains about 65% of methane gas as a major constituent. Biogas is obtained by the
anaerobic fermentation of animal dung or plant wastes in the presence of water.
2. Biofuels: Biofuels are the fuels, obtained by the fermentation of biomass. Examples are
Ethanol, Methanol.
(i) Ethanol: Ethanol can be produced by sugarcane. Its calorific value is less
when compared to petrol and therefor produces much less heat than petrol.
(ii) Methanol: Methanol can be easily obtained from ethanol or sugar containing
plants. Its calorific value is also too low when compared to gasoline and petrol.
(iii) Gasohol: Gasohol is a mixture of ethanol and gasoline.

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3. Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen can be produced by thermal dissociation or photolysis or
electrolysis of water. It possesses high calorific value. It is non polluting as the product of
combustion is water.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen fuel
(i) Hydrogen is highly flammable and explosive in nature.
(ii) Safe handling is required
(iii) It is difficult to store and transport.

Non-renewable energy sources

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
1. Coal: Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed in several stages as burried remains of land
plants that lived 300-400 million years ago and were subjected to intense heat and
pressure over millions of years.
Various stages of coal: The various stages of coal during formation of coal from wood are:
i. Wood
ii Peat
iii Lignite
iv Bituminous coal and
v Anthracite
Carbon content of anthracite is 90% and its calorific value is 8700 kcal. Carbon content of
Bituminous coal, Lignite and Peat are 80%, 70% & 60% respectively. India has
approximately 5% of the worlds coal. However, it is not of good quality as it has poor heat
capacity.

Disadvantages of using coal:

1. Burning coal produces carbondioxide which is the main cause for global warming
2. Coal contains impurities like Sulphur and Nitrogen which produce toxic gases when
burnt.
2. Petroleum: Petroleum or crude oil is a thick liquid consisting of more than 100
cumbustible hydrocarbons with small amounts of S, O and N as impurities. Fossil fuels are
mainly sormed by the decomposition of dead plants and animals that were buried under lakes
and oceans at a high temperature and pressure for millions of years. From the crude
petroleum oil, various hydrocarbons are separated by fractional distillation of crude
petroleum oil. At the present rate of usage, the world's crude oil reserves are expected to get
over in the next 30 years.

LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

The petroleum gas obtained during crackling and fractional distillation can be easily
converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. LPG is a colourless, odourless gas to
which mercaptans are added to produce foul smell that aids in detection of LPG leaks.

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NATURAL GAS Natural gas is found above the oil in oil well. It is a mixture of 50-90%
methane and small amounts of other hydrocarbons. Its calorific value ranges between 12000
and 14000 kcal/m3.
1. Dry gas: Natural gas containing low hydrocarbons like d ethane, it is called dry gas.
2. Wet gas: Natural gas containing high hydrocarbons like propane and butane along with
methane is called wet gas.
Natural gas is formed by decomposition of dead plants and animals buried under oceans at
high temperature and pressure for millions of years.

NUCLEAR ENERGY:
Dr. Homi Bhabha was the father of nuclear power development in India. India has 10 nuclear
reactors that produce 2% of India's electricity. Nuclear energy is produced by two types of
reactions:

(i) Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission is a nuclear chain reaction in which the heavy nucleas is
split into lighter nuclii by fast moving neutrons thereby releasing a large amount of energy.
Ex: Fission of Uranium235

(ii) Nuclear fusion: Nuclear fusion is a nuclear chain reaction in which lighter nucleus are
combined together at extremely high temperatures to form heavy nucleus thereby releasing
large amount of energy.
Ex: Fusion of Dueterium atoms to form helium with release of large amount of energy.

Nuclear power plants have been established in the following locations in India:
i. Tarapur (Maharashtra)
ii Rana Pratap Sagar (Rajasthan)
iii Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
iv Narora (Uttar Pradesh)

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