Migration
“Migration is a process, whereby hydrocarbons move from source
rocks to traps”
Mainly migration (migration phases) is divided into:
1. Primary Migration: the release of petroleum compounds from solid
organic particles (Kerogen) in source beds and their transport
within and through the capillaries and narrow pores of a fine
grained source bed has been termed primary migration. -OR-The
process of loss of hydrocarbons from the source rock (also
expulsion)
2. Secondary Migration: The oil expelled from a source bed passes
through wider pores of more permeable porous rock unit. -OR-
Migration from source to reservoir rock in trap configuration along
a carrier system, including the migration within the reservoir itself
Distinction is made between primary and secondary migration by
facies
Petroleum generated from finely disseminated O.M (source beds);
it is the first appearance of petroleum, which is in dispersed form
This dispersed form will finally leads to the formation of petroleum
accumulation by the process of primary and especially secondary
migration.
Other migration includes:
3. Tertiary Migration: Migration to the surface, either from the
reservoir or source rock (dis-migration)
4. Re-Migration: Migration from one reservior system position
through an intervening section into another reservoir position (trap) in
the same or different reservoir.
Why do hydrocarbons Migrate?
Fluid migrates along pressure gradient: (pressure driven)
Density contrast between hydrocarbons and water: (buoyancy
driven)
Diffusion due to concentration differences: (chemical gradient
driven)
How do hydrocarbon migrates?
Hydrocarbons migrate as a separate phase from higher potential to a
lower potential via the most efficient way: (topography driven)
Physio-chemical Factors Controlling the Primary Migration
1. Pressure and Temperature
2. Compaction
3. Fluids
1. Pressure and Temperature
Temperature:
T increases with increase in burial (geothermal gradient)
Average 25oC/Km;
but not linear there may be change due to thermal conductivity
difference in rocks e.g., may found 5oC/Km in well of Andros
Island in Bahamas and 90oC/Km in walio oil fields of Indonesia.
Few factors which control G.G;
i. Thermal conductivity difference; e.g, salt good conductor than
shale thus energy transmission is easy from greater depth
ii. Regional flow
iii. Subsurface fluid flow
These are inter-connected, increase in temperature; would increase
in volume; would decrease in viscosity (fluids); pore spaces wider
and flow is easily (Fig.)
Pressure:
P increases with increase in depth w.r.t overburden of sediments
(gravity load); causes compaction and decrease porosity
Three types of P on fluids; (i) Overburden Pressure, (ii) Hydrostatic
Pressure and (iii) Petro-static Pressure (litho-static/Geo-static
Pressure)
These are inter-connected; when over-burden pressure increases,
the normal hydro-static pressure within sediments increases;
causing sediment to over-pressure and thus attain petro-static
pressure; which allow fluids to flow
Nature of pressure depends upon; (i) pore-fluids, (ii) Temperature
and (iii) Geological setup/tectonic effect
Average pressure may be 70-250 mg/l/m and reach upto 300mg/l/m
2. Compaction
Compaction results in; increase in bulk density and loss of porosity
by increase in P.
Rate of compaction depends upon material properties
(a) Physical
(b) Chemical
(c) Rate at which fluid is expelled; considered an important factor in
fluid migration
Compaction related fluid behaves differently in clastic sediments
and CaCO3
Compaction through Clastics
Higher in upper 100-300m as compared to 1000-3000, then slowly
diminished
Shale: in a young sediments due to high pressure; can generate
methane and other low molecular weight H/C
If gas produced; increase in volume; increases fluid pressure (non-
equilibrium state); thus fluid move from: hot to cold and deeper to
shallow
Compaction through CaCO3
Chemically reactive, which may increase or decrease
porosities/permeabilities
Shallow depths (100-300m) may decrease porosity
Higher depth may increase porosities due to recrystallization and
dolomitization
Eventually at depths; fine grained OM; concentrates on grain
boundaries
3. Fluids
Water abundant fluid may be (a) interstitial: expelled due to
compaction, but still some water left (b) structural; due to van der
waal forces, temporary, developed on mineral poles
Other fluid may be H/Cs; which present in pore spaces within
sediments
Possible Modes of Primary Migration
i. Continuous Oil Phase
ii. Colloidal or Micellar Solution
iii. Droplet/Bubbles
iv. Molecular Solution
v. Microfractures
i. Continuous Oil Phase
Movement of petroleum is in continuous oil phase during primary
migration.
Oil saturated in pore spaces in mature source rock upto 50%, in
terms of pore-fluids and assumed that rest of the pore spaces are
covered with structured water
If some of the interior surfaces are oil-wet rather than water wet
then oil will move as continuous phase.
Deeply buried source rock, at maximum phase of oil formation,
with high degree of compaction offer greater opportunity to primary
migration as continuous oil phase
Driving force under such condition could be pressure gradient.
ii. Colloidal and Micellar Solution
Colloid: size range; 1-10,00 nm (10-10,000 Ao)
Micelle: an aggregate of surfactant (which lower the surface
tension) molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid, may be hydrophilic
or hydrophobic.
The transport of petroleum compounds through pores in source
rocks as colloidal and micellar solution is proposed by Baker and
Meinschain (1959).
Organic compound (colloidal compounds) act as polar organic
compound, with hydrophilic part outside and hydrophobic part
inside the molecule as micelle.
It has been reported that sediments and crude oil act as polar
surface (Lousi, 1967; Seifer and Howells, 1969 and Seifer, 1975)
This might be the only way to solubilize practically water-insoluble
petroleum hydrocarbons in aqueous solution in relatively low
temperature.
All in all, solubilization of H/Cs and its transportation thorough
micellar solution does not seam to be likely process.
if micellar process were responsible for petroleum migration oil
should also be enriched in N-S-O polar compounds, which more
likely to form micellar solution, but crude oil are depleted in these
polar compounds, only certain shallow oil are rich in such
compounds.
iii. Droplet/Bubbles
Transportation of oil and gas in form of individual droplet/bubbles
through narrow, water saturated pores by phenomenon of Capillary
pressure.
If droplet; small or same size with pore spaces there will be no
restriction for movement of petroleum.
If droplet; larger than pore spaces, the capillary pressure will
overcome and oil will move in form of bubbles.
Capillary pressure is higher for small pore spaces.
iv. Molecular Solution
Another way of transporting mechanism, during primary migration.
There is solubility of different petroleum compounds within the
water.
In general; low molecular weight H/Cs are more soluble in water
than high molecular weight H/Cs, e.g., benzene and toluene are
among most soluble common petroleum hydrocarbons.
Solubility of oil range from 10ppm below 100 oC and 100ppm
below 100-200 oC.
Solubility increases; with increasing in temperature
Solubility decreases; with increasing C number.
With increase in P there should be increase in Solubility among
lighter H/Cs, when subsequently pressure decreases the H/Cs
released from the solution (within reservoir).
v. Microfractures
When pressure increase on source rock, decreases the porosity, thus
creates minute fractures, cracks or fissure within source rocks (This
will allow petroleum to migrate).
Tissot (1971), Snarsky (1962), and pelet (1971) pointed out that
rock fractures in dense, deeply buried shale; either by over pressure
of enclosed fluids or due to creation small pockets of over pressure
gas formed during petroleum generation.
Snarsky (1962), pointed, if mechanical strength of rock exceeds,
fracture will occur in rocks (this is subsequent release in pressure),
which promote migration.
Primary Migration under Geological and Geochemical Aspects
Observed facts w.r.t primary migration of petroleum can be related
to time, depth or chemical differences or similarities b/w source and
related oil.
Therefore petroleum geologists further divide primary migration
into early and late migration based on availability of compaction
waters.
i. Early Migration
Takes place at the first 1000-1500m of subsidence, when sediments
looses much of their porosity, yielding large volume of water.
Takes place before onset of main phase of petroleum formation.
The minute hydrocarbons, which are produce are directly inherited
from organisms or produce form the early diageneis.
T ranges from 50-70oC, this migration can take place sediments not
older than 1000years.
ii. Late Migration
Occurs during main phase of petroleum formation and generally
takes place at depths between 1500-3000m or 3500m
A special mechanism for primary migration in main phase is
dewatering of clay mineral.
Dewatering of clay or clay dehydration is release of bound water
during alteration of smectite to illite mainly under influence of
temperature (Burst 1959, Weaver, 1959) and pressure. As a result
which pressure on pore spaces increases, which expel the petroleum
from these pore spaces
The extent of migration may ranging from a few meters to a long
distance in kms.
Changes in composition of source rock bitumen versus crude oil
i. Hydrocarbon distribution in contact zone between source rock and
reservoir rock: Closed to reservoir, the source is depleted in more
lighter compounds. In source, where bitumen remaining, contains
enrichment of high molecular weight hetero-atomic compounds
and depleted in H/Cs.
ii. Gross chemical composition of crude oils versus source rock
bitumen: most oil enriched in saturated H/Cs and depleted in N-S-
O compounds
iii. The phenomenon of oil-source rock correlateion: most of the oil
un-changed within source and reservoir, which is good for
correlation.
Factors controlling the Secondary Migration
There are three parameters, which controls the secondary migration
and subsequent formation of oil and gas pools.
i. Buoyancy
ii. Hydrodynamic fluid flow
iii. Capillary pressure
i. Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the force due to differences in the densities i.e., water
and petroleum, by which petroleum move upward.
Buoyancy results in the final equilibrium adjustments of gas, oil
and water in a pool and in the original concentration of the
dispersed particles of petroleum in water.
In hydrostatic condition only buoyancy force is considered for
secondary migration.
ii. Hydrodynamic Fluid Flow
There is, however, frequently sub-surface water flow and the effect
of hydrodynamic condition on petroleum can not be neglected on
secondary migration.
The interaction between buoyancy and flowing water will either
enhance or retard the migration. With flowing water the direction as
well as the rate of petroleum flow also changed (Fig).
The force of buoyancy acts on trapped petroleum in two ways:
i. When oil and gas reaches to crest of anticlines, it rests there. If the
hydrodynamic pressure is much high then the oil will passes to
another structural high.
ii. In case of stratigraphic traps the permeability decreases up dip,
then oil and gas migrate up dip due to buoyancy then stop by
shale. If the water flow downward then it restricts the oil and gas
flow or if flow is within the direction buoyancy then oil and gas
might enter to small pore spaces.
iii. Capillary displacement Pressure
The force required to move petroleum through a pore opening.
Depends upon:
i. Radius of the pore opening (R= m)
ii. The interfacial tension b/w petroleum and water (r=dyne cm-1)
iii. Wettability of the rock: the contact angle between petroleum and
water interface against the rock (thetha=degrees)
Mathematically
Capillary displacement pressure= 2rcosθ/R
Interfacial Tension:
Molecular attraction between fluid boundaries that cause fluid in
separate phase
If difference between interfacial tension high, then fluid are
immiscible.
Depends upon temperature and decrease when increased.
Wettability:
An angle of contact between solid and liquid
When two fluids occur together, one likely to have more affinity for
the solid (rock wall) and wets.
Two possibilities: Oil wet condition: when the rock wall have more
contact with oil, large angle. Water wet condition: when the rock
wall have more contact with water, small angle
Geological and Geochemical consideration on Secondary Migration
The movement of hydrocarbon is mainly controlled by these three
factors, such as buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamic
flow of water.
The difficult to assess the exact point when the hydrocarbons begin
to coalesce into pool.
It is very difficult to quantify the relative importance of buoyancy
or hydrodynamic forces on secondary migration.
At initial stage, oil are microscopic and more dispersed than the
final stage, due to which, in initial stage, oil will not move
according to law of buoyancy, rather move by water flow.
So the hydrodynamic water flow is more important in initial stage
rather than final stage
As oil grows, they subject to buoyancy, then the upward moving of
the oil and gas starts when ever there is low capillary pressure.
In buoyancy, oil and gas always seek highest point in carrier bed or
reservoir rock, as they move the oil particle merge into globules,
patches and stringers.
Eventually, a point comes where: pore diameter too small, and
capillary pressure could not be overcome, thus accumulation starts.
Note: any tectonic or disturbance may change this delicate balance, so
tectonic forces are important means of influencing secondary
migration
There might be some changes regarding chemistry of oil and gases,
which are less understood.
The changes observed to date are difficult to explain because they
are not always consistent. The parameter investigation are C and N
isotopes, the amount of heavier hydrocarbon distribution.
i. Along the migration path there is increase of non-polar
compounds and a decrease in content of asphaltene, resins,
porphyrins and other non-hydrocarbon compounds.
ii. Water washing may cause loss in low boiling, more soluble
hydrocarbons along with slight decrease of 13C/12C isotope ratio
may cause primarily by the preferential loss of aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Note: might be the process of effusion and diffusion, solution and
adsorption phenomena along with temperature and pressure effect.
Termination of Secondary Migration and Accumulation of Oil and Gas
The end of secondary migration and the final stage in the formation
of oil and gas pools, is the concentration of oil and gas from
disseminated stage into commercial size, in the highest available
part of a trap.
Oil or gas may trapped in any rock of suitable porosity and
permeability (reservoir rock), regardless of lithology
The cap rock or seal, by virtue of its general decrease in pore
diameter, must exert capillary pressures which are great enough to
stop the passage of oil and gas particles.
The oil or gas may be close to source area or far away, depending
upon geometry of basin and conditions.