MINERALS and ROCKS

What is Mineral?
 as defined by geologist, any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an
orderly crystalline structure and a define chemical composition. Thus, those
Earth materials that are classified as minerals exhibit the following characteristics:
1. Naturally occurring – minerals form by natural, geologic processes.
Consequently, synthetic diamonds and rubies, as well as a variety of other
useful materials produced in a laboratory, are not considered minerals
2. Solid substance – minerals are solids within the temperature ranges
normally experienced at Earth’s surface. Thus, ice (frozen water) is
considered a mineral, whereas liquid water and water vapor are not.
3. Orderly crystalline structure – minerals are crystalline substance which
means their atoms are arranged in an orderly, repetitive manner. Some
naturally occurring solids, such as volcanic glass (obsidian), lack a repetitive
atomic structure and are not considered minerals.
4. Define chemical composition – most minerals are chemical compounds
made up of two or more elements. The common mineral quartz, for example,
consists of two oxygen (O) atoms for every silicon (Si) atom, giving it a
chemical composition expressed by formula SiO2. However, few minerals
such as gold, sulfur and silver, consists of only single element.
5. Generally inorganic – inorganic crystalline solids, as exemplified by
ordinary table salt (halite), that are found naturally in the ground are
considered minerals. However, many marine animals secrete inorganic
compounds, such as calcium carbonate (calcite), in the form of shells and
coral reefs. These materials are considered minerals by most geologist.

What is rock?
 Any solid mass of mineral, or an aggregate of many minerals that occur naturally as
part of the planet.
 A few rocks are composed almost entirely of one mineral
 A common example is the sedimentary rock limestone, which consists of impure
masses of the mineral calcite.

Properties of Minerals
1. Luster - Is the appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
mineral
a. Metallic luster – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine
similar to a polished metal
b. Nonmetallic luster - vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-
like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc
2. Hardness - A measure of resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching.
 Standard hardness scale is the Mohs scale
  designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812
 The test compares the resistance of a mineral relative to the 10 reference
minerals with known hardness. It is simply determining the hardness of a
mineral by scratching them with common objects of known hardness (e.g.
copper coin -3.0-3.5).

Pros and cons in using Mohs scale

PROS CONS
Easy to do the test The scale is qualitative and not
quantitative
Can be done anywhere, anytime as Cannot be used to test accurate
long as the place is not dark hardness of industrial materials
Mohs scale is highly relevant for
field geologists to roughly identify
minerals using scratch kits
Can be done without or few kits –
handy

3. Color - An obvious feature but an unreliable diagnostic property

 Maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals (e.g. malachite –
green, azurite – blue).
 some minerals can exhibit a range of colors; the mineral quartz for
example, can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine),
white (colorless quartz) etc
 4. Streak - Is the color of the mineral in its powdered form which is a more reliable
indication of color.
 Streak of a mineral does not vary
 Note that the color of a mineral could be different from the streak.
 For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color (hence the other term of
pyrite which is Fool’s Gold) but has a black or dark gray streak.
 Streak is a better diagnostic property as compared to color.
 Streak is inherent to almost every mineral.
 Color maybe unreliable for identification as impurities within the
minerals may give the minerals a different color.
5. Crystal Form - Is the external expression of a mineral’s orderly internal
structure of atoms.
 Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform, needle-like
and equant (blocky/cubic).
 A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described as amorphous.
6. Cleavage and Fracture - The tendency of the mineral to break along planes of
weak bonding
 Minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken are said to fracture.
 When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is
described by the number of cleavage directions and the angle(s) between
planes (e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each other).

Left photo shows one cleavage direction (biotite). Middle photo has cleavage in 2
directions at 90° (orthoclase). Right photo has 3 cleavage directions at 74°
(calcite).

7. Specific Gravity - It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an

equal volume of water.
 A bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of
water (SG 1).
 It is a measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral.
The specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to density.

Other properties of minerals

 Taste
  Smell
 Malleability
 Feel
 Magnetism
 Double refraction
 Chemical reaction to hydrochloric acid
Mineral Groups
1. Silicate minerals
a. Contains oxygen and silicon atoms as their fundamental building block
2. Nonsilicate minerals
a. Make up only about 8 % of the Earth’s crust but most of it are important
economically

1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements form the
silicon oxygen tetrahedron - the fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to this group. Aside from Si (46.6 %
by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common elements that make the earth’s crust
are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1), Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal
ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other
ions
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- combined with one or more ions.
Some sulfides are sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead and
zinc.
5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other
elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elementsa.
a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical
conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)b.
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
 conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)c.
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more
elements

The 8 elements comprising almost 99% of all minerals making up the Earth’s crust.
% by wt. of the %
Element Symbol atoms
Earth’s crust
Oxygen O 46.6 62.6

Silicon Si 27.7 21.2

Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5

Iron Fe 5.0 1.9

Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9

Sodium Na 2.8 2.6

Potassium K 2.6 1.4

Magnesium Mg 2.1 1.8

All other elements 1.4 <0.1

(The total abundances do not add up to exactly 100% because of round-off errors)

• Approximately 85% of the Earth's crust is composed of oxygen and silicon. Together
they form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron, which is the basic building block of silicate
minerals. Silicates are also termed as (common) rock forming minerals.

Rock Cycle

 A model that illustrates the origin of the three basic rock types and the
interrelatedness of earth materials and process
 It allows us to view many of the interrelationships among different parts of the
Earth system.
 Help us understand the origin of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
and to see that each type is linked to the others by the processes that act upon
and within the planet.
The basic cycle

 Magma is molten material that forms inside Earth. Eventually magma cools and
solidifies in the process called crystallization (may occur either beneath the surface
or, following a volcanic eruption, at the surface). the resulting rocks are called
igneous rock (ignis = fire).
 If igneous rock are exposed at the surface, they will undergo weathering, in which
day-in and day-out influences of the atmosphere slowly disintegrate and decompose
rocks. The materials that result are often moved downslope by gravity before being
picked up and transported by any of a number of erosional agents, such as running
water, glaciers, wind or waves. Eventually these particles and dissolved substances,
called sediment, are deposited. Although, most sediment ultimately comes to rest in
ocean, other sites of deposition include river floodplains, desert basins, swamps and
sand dunes.
 Next the sediments undergo lithification, a term meaning “conversion into rock”.
Sediment is usually lithified into sedimentary rocks when compacted by the weight
of overlying layers or when cemented as percolating ground water fills the pores
with mineral matter.
 If the resulting sedimentary rock I buried deep within Earth and involved in the
dynamics of mountain building or intruded by a mass of magma, it will be subjected
to great pressures and/or intense heat. The sedimentary rock will react to the
changing environment and turn into the third rock type, metamorphic rock. If
metamorphic rock is subjected to still higher temperatures, it will melt, creating
magma, which will eventually crystallize into igneous rock, starting the cycle all over
again.

 Although rocks may seem to be unchanging masses, the rock cycle shows that they
 are not. The changes, however, take-time – great amounts of time. In addition, the
rock cycle is operating all over the world, but in different stages.

Where does the energy that drives Earth’s rock cycle come from?

 Processes driven by heat from Earth’s interior are responsible for forming
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Weathering and the movement of weathered
material are external processes powered by energy from the Sun. External
processes produce sedimentary rocks.

Rock Classifications

1. Igneous Rocks
 these are rocks that are derived from the cooling and solidification of magma or
lava
 from solidified molten rock materials, usually hard and crystalline
 rate of cooling as one of the most important factors that control crystal size
 solidification can occur along the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of
the earth
 Difference between magma and lava?
 Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.
 Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through
a central vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.
 Composition might be similar. Both are teems that describe molten or
liquid rock.
 How it is formed?
 Formed either underground or above ground
 Underground – formed when the melted rock, called magma, deep within
the earth becomes trapped in small pockets (as these pockets of magma cool
slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous rocks)
 Above ground – formed when volcano erupt, causing the magma to rise
about the earth’s surface. when magma appears about
 Magma crystallizes to form igneous rock
 Crystallization – the formation of a crystalline solid from a liquid or gas.
 Usually, all of the molten material does not solidify at the same time.
Rather, as it cools, numerous small crystals develop. When the crystals
grow large enough for their edges to meet, their growth ceases for lack of
space, and crystallization continues elsewhere
 The rate of cooling strongly influences crystal size. If magma cools very
slowly, relatively few centers of crystal growth developed. Consequently,
slow cooling results in formation of large crystals
 Conversely, if cooling occurs quite rapidly, the ions lose their motion
and quickly combine. This results in a large number of tiny crystals that
all compete for the available ions. Therefore the outcome of rapid cooling
 is the formation of a solid mass of small intergrown crystalls
 Plutonic or intrusive rocks (after Pluto, the god of the lower world in classical
mythology)
 From solidified magma underneath the earth
 Gradual lowering of temperature is indicated by the movement of magma
from depth to surface causing slow cooling/crystallization
 Phaneritic textures (slow cooling forms large interlocking crystals)
 would never be exposed at the surface if portions of the crust were not
uplifted and the overlying rocks stripped away by erosion.
 Exposure of intrusive igneous rock occur in many places, including mount
Washington, new Hampshire; stone mountain, Georgia; the black hills of
south Dakota; and Yosemite national park, California.
 Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro
 Volcanic or extrusive rocks (after the fire god Vulcan)
 From solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth
 fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the
temperature between Earth’s surface and underneath
 extrusive igneous rocks are abundant in western portions of the
Americas, including the volcanic cones of the cascade range and the
extensive lava flows of the Colombian plateau
 common textures: aphanitic, porphyritic (define groundmass vs
phenocrysts), vesicular
 aphanitic texture – fine-grained texture; minerals not visible to the naked
eye; relatively fast rates of cooling/ solidification prevent the formation of
large crystals.
 porphyritic texture – formed through two stages of crystallization where
in magma partly cooled below the surface of the earth providing time for
the large crystals to grow (phenocrysts) before it is extruded to the
surface forming the fine-grained matrix (groundmass).
 Vesicular texture - voids created by rapid cooling which causes air
bubbles to be trapped inside.
 examples: rhyolite, andesite, basalt
 pyroclastic rocks - fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or
explosive type of eruption. Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits
(ignimbrite)
 Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content and relative
amounts of K, Na, Fe, Mg and Ca. They can be classified as felsic, intermediate,
mafic and ultramafic, practically based on presence of light and dark colored
minerals. The relatively dark minerals are olivine, pyroxene, hornblende and
biotite. The relatively light colored minerals are plagioclases, K-feldspars,
quartz and muscovite.
 felsic: granitic: >65% silica, generally light-colored
 intermediate: andesitic: 55-65% silica, generally medium colored
(medium gray)
 mafic: basaltic: 45-55% silica, usually dark colored
 ultramafic: <45% silica, generally very dark colored
Table from Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology
11thed, 2014, p 122

• Granite and Rhyolite

have the same
chemical composition
however Granite on
left exhibits phaneritic
texture and rhyolite
on the right has
aphanitic and
porphyritic textures.

• Diorite and Andesite

have the same
chemical composition
but different textures.
Diorite (left) is coarse
grained (phaneritic)
and andesite (right) is
 fine grained (aphanitic
and porphyritic).

• Gabbro and Basalt are

of the same chemical
composition but differ
in texture. Gabbro
(left) has larger
crystals than basalt
(right) which has finer
crystals.

2. Sedimentary rocks
 these are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth
 sedimentary processes include: weathering of rocks, erosion, sediment transport
and deposition (compaction and cementation)
 common sedimentary features: fossil assemblages and stratification
 fossil assemblages: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved
in rocks
 stratification or layering (strata which is >1cm is called bedding and < 1cm is
called lamination): layering is the result of a change in grain size and
composition; each layer represents a distinct period of deposition

Photo of the Kapurpurawan Formation

located at the coastal town of Burgos, Ilocos
Norte, courtesy of [Link]. shows
series of sedimentary strata
Photo from
[Link]
awan-rocks-the-most-famous-sedimentary-
rock-in-the-philippines/.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks (detrital sedimentary rocks)

- Forms from solid products of weathering
- grains, matrix and cement are the components of clastic rocks
- clastic rocks are commonly classified based on particle size
- clastic rocks with volcanic origin (e.g. pyroclastics) and may have undergone
some stages in the sedimentary processes could be classified as sedimentary
rock (e.g. volcanoclastic rocks).
- “clastic” means that they are composed of discrete particles that are
 compacted and cemented together
- the presence of variable grain sizes (including matrix and cement) is
indicative of sedimentary differentiation which is actually a function of
processes happening in different sedimentary environments.
- Conglomerate if sediment is rounded
- Breccia if the pieces are angular. Angular fragments indicate that the
particles were not transported very far from their source prior to
deposition and so have not had corners and rough edges abraded
Table below shows the different clastic rocks

- Currents of water or air sort the particles by size.

o The stronger the current, the larger the particle size carried. Gravels,
for example are moved by swiftly flowing rivers, rock-slides and
glaciers.
o Less energy is required to transport sand; thus, it is common in
windblown dunes, river deposits, and beaches.
o Silts and clays settle very slowly, accumulations of these materials
are generally associated with the quite waters of the lake, lagoon,
swamp

 Non-clastic sedimentary rocks (chemical sedimentary rocks)

- Derived from material that is carried in solution to lakes and seas. When
conditions are right, it precipitates to form chemical elements.
Precipitation occurs directly as the result of physical processes, or
indirectly through life processes of water dwelling organisms.
- Example of deposit resulting from physical process  salt left behind as
a body of salt water evaporates. Shells  formed by water dwelling
animals
- evaporation and precipitation from solution or lithification of organic
matter
 - classified as evaporites (halite, gypsum and dolostone), precipitates
(limestone) and bioclastics (coal, coquina)
- limestone, most abuntant chemical sedimentary rock

Chart below summarizes the features of the non-clastic rocks

Lithification of Sediment
 Lithification refers to the processes by which sediments are transformed into
solid sedimentary rocks.
- One of the most common processes is compaction.
 Cementation is when cements precipitates onto sediment grains, fill the open
spaces and join particles.
- Common cements: calcite, silica (hardest cement and thus produce
hardest sedimentary rock), and iron oxide.

Features of Sedimentary Rock

 Sedimentary rocks records the planets history at the time the sediment was
deposited. It consist of layers called strata or beds.
o Strata or bed – single most characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks
 Fossils (remains of prehistoric life) are the most important inclusions found in
sedimentary rocks.

Conglomerate (left)
relatively large and
rounded clasts as
compared to the angular
clasts of the breccia on the
right
 Sandstone (left) with
visible grains and
prominent layering or;
claystone (right) with
several embedded fossils

Non-clastic sedimentary
rocks limestone (left) and
coquina (right)

3. Metamorphic rocks
 Are produced from the preexisting igneous, sedimentary or even from
other metamorphic rocks
 formed below the surface of the earth through the process of
metamorphism with the recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature conditions
 metamorphism means to “change form”, is a process that leads to
changes in the mineralogy, texture and chemical composition
 Most metamorphism occurs in one of two settings: contact or thermal and
regional metamorphism

 Agents of metamorphism
 Heat – provides the energy to drive the chemical composition reactions that
result in the recrystallization of existing minerals.
 Pressure – like temperature, also increase with depth as the thickness of the
overlying rock increases
 Buried rocks are subject to confining pressure, which is analogous to
water pressure, where the forces are applied equally in all directions.
 Confining pressure – causes the spaces between minerals grains to
close, producing a more compact rock having a greater density.
 Differential pressure – forces that generate mountain are unequal in
different directions. It is greater in one direction than in others.
 Chemically active fluids – fluids that surround mineral grains act as catalyst
to promote recrystallization by enhancing ion migration.
 How hot is it deep in the crust?  the deeper one goes, the hotter it
gets.
 Contact metamorphism
 heat and reactive fluids as main factors: occurs when a pre-existing rock gets
in contact with magma which is the source of heat and magmatic fluids
where metamorphic alterations and transformations occur around the
contact / metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and the rock layers.
The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the
 intruding magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the
reactive fluids coming from the magma.
 creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks
 example: hornfels

 Regional metamorphism
 pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone
considerable amount of mechanical deformation and chemical
recrystallization during orogenic event which are commonly associated
with mountain belts
 occurs in a regional/large scale
 creates foliated metamorphic rocks
 examples: schist, gneiss
 non-foliated rocks like marble also form through regional metamorphism,
where pressure is not intense, far from the main geologic event

*foliated – a texture of metamorphic rocks that give the rock a layered appearance
*non-foliated – do not exhibit foliation (layered appearance)

• Below is a table of the different common metamorphic rocks.

  Non-foliated rocks: Hornfels
(left), a fine-grained rock that
forms through contact
metamorphism of non -
carbonate rocks. Marble (right),
a recrystallized rock that forms
from the metamorphism of
limestone or dolostone

 Foliated rocks: Slate, phylite,

schist and gneiss from shale as
precursor rock. The stages of
transformation are
manifestation of increasing
metamorphic rate grade with
increasing pressure

References:

(1) Mr. Mulroy’s Earth Science: How do We Idendity Sedimentary Rocks?

(Accessed 09/22/2015) [Link]
idendity-sedimentary-rocks/
(2) Tarbuck, Lutgens, and Tasa. Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology 11thed,
2014
[Link]