Particle size distribution
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The particle size distribution (PSD) of a powder, or granular material, or particles dispersed
in fluid, is a list of values or a mathematical function that defines the relative amounts of
particles present, sorted according to size.[1] PSD is also known as grain size distribution.[2]
A log-normal distribution of coal-fired Fly Ash.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Significance
• 2 Significance in the Collection of Particulate Matter
• 3 Nomenclature
• 4 Types
• 5 Sampling
• 6 Measurement techniques
o 6.1 Sieve analysis
6.1.1 Advantages
6.1.2 Disadvantages
o 6.2 Air elutriation analysis
o 6.3 Photoanalysis
o 6.4 Optical counting methods
o 6.5 Electroresistance counting methods
o 6.6 Sedimentation techniques
o 6.7 Laser diffraction methods
o 6.8 Acoustic spectroscopy or ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy
o 6.9 Air pollution emissions measurements
• 7 Mathematical models
o 7.1 Probability distributions
• 8 See also
• 9 External links
• 10 References
[edit] Significance
The PSD of a material can be important in understanding its physical and chemical
properties. It affects the strength and load-bearing properties of rocks and soils. It affects the
reactivity of solids participating in chemical reactions, and needs to be tightly controlled in
many industrial products such as the manufacture of printer toner and cosmetics.
[edit] Significance in the Collection of Particulate Matter
Particle size distribution can greatly affect the efficacy of any collection device.
Settling Chambers will normally only collect very large particles, those that can be
separated using sieve trays.
Centrifugal Collectors will normally collect particles down to about 20 μm. Higher
efficiency models can collect particles down to 10 μm.
Fabric Filters are one of the most efficient and cost effective types of dust collectors
available and can achieve a collection efficiency of more than 99% for very fine particules.
Wet Scrubbers that use liquid are commonly known as wet scrubbers. In these systems, the
scrubbing liquid (usually water) comes into contact with a gas stream containing dust
particles. The greater the contact of the gas and liquid streams, the higher the dust removal
efficiency.
Electrostatic Precipitators use electrostatic forces to separate dust particles from exhaust
gases. They can be very efficient at the collection of very fine particles.
[edit] Nomenclature
ρp: Actual particle density (g/cm3)
ρg: Gas or sample matrix density (g/cm3)
r2: Least-squares coefficient of determination. The closer this value is to 1.0, the better the
data fit to a straight-line.
λ: Gas mean free path (cm)
D50: Mass-median-diameter (MMD). The log-normal distribution mass median diameter. The
MMD is considered to be the average particle diameter by mass.
σg: Geometric standard deviation. This value is determined mathematically by the equation:
σg = D84.13 / D50 = D50 / D15.87
The value of σg determines the slope of the least-squares regression curve.
α: Relative standard deviation or degree of polydispersity. This value is also determined
mathematically. For values less than 0.1, the particulate sample can be considered to be
monodisperse.
α = σg / D50
Re(P) : Particle Reynolds Number. In contrast to the large numerical values noted for flow
Reynolds number, particle Reynolds number for fine particles in gaseous mediums is
typically less than 0.1.
Ref : Flow Reynolds number.
Kn: Particle Knudsen number.
[edit] Types
The way PSD is expressed is usually defined by the method by which it is determined. The
most easily understood method of determination is sieve analysis, where powder is separated
on sieves of different sizes. Thus, the PSD is defined in terms of discrete size ranges: e.g. "%
of sample between 45 μm and 53 μm", when sieves of these sizes are used. The PSD is
usually determined over a list of size ranges that covers nearly all the sizes present in the
sample. Some methods of determination allow much narrower size ranges to be defined than
can be obtained by use of sieves, and are applicable to particle sizes outside the range
available in sieves. However, the idea of the notional "sieve", that "retains" particles above a
certain size, and "passes" particles below that size, is universally used in presenting PSD data
of all kinds.
The PSD may be expressed as a "range" analysis, in which the amount in each size range is
listed in order. It may also be presented in "cumulative" form, in which the total of all sizes
"retained" or "passed" by a single notional "sieve" is given for a range of sizes. Range
analysis is suitable when a particular ideal mid-range particle size is being sought, while
cumulative analysis is used where the amount of "under-size" or "over-size" must be
controlled.
The way in which "size" is expressed is open to a wide range of interpretations. A simple
treatment assumes the particles are spheres that will just pass through a square hole in a
"sieve". In practice, particles are irregular - often extremely so, for example in the case of
fibrous materials - and the way in which such particles are characterized during analysis is
very dependent on the method of measurement used.
[edit] Sampling
Before PSD can be determined, it is vital that a precisely representative sample is obtained.
The material to be analyzed must be carefully blended, and the sample withdrawn using
techniques that avoid size segregation. Particular attention must be paid to avoidance of loss
of fines during maniputation of the sample.
[edit] Measurement techniques
[edit] Sieve analysis
This continues to be used for many measurements because of its simplicity, cheapness, and
ease of interpretation. Methods may be simple shaking of the sample in sieves until the
amount retained becomes more or less constant. Alternatively, the sample may be washed
through with a non-reacting liquid (usually water) or blown through with an air current.
[edit] Advantages
This technique is well-adapted for bulk materials. A large amount of materials can be readily
loaded into 8-inch-diameter (200 mm) sieve trays. Two common uses in the power industry
are wet-sieving of milled limestone and dry-sieving of milled coal.
[edit] Disadvantages
Many PSDs are concerned with particles too small for separation by sieving to be practical. A
very fine sieve, such as 37 μm sieve, is exceedingly fragile, and it is very difficult to get
material to pass through it. Another disadvantage is that the amount of energy used to sieve
the sample is arbitrarily determined. Over-energetic sieving causes attrition of the particles
and thus changes the PSD, while insufficient energy fails to break down loose agglomerates.
Although manual sieving procedures can be ineffective, automated sieving technologies
using image fragmentation analysis software are available. These technologies can sieve
material by capturing and analyzing a photo of material.
[edit] Air elutriation analysis
An air elutriator is a simple device which can separate particles into two or more groups.
Material may be separated by means of an elutriator, which consists of a vertical tube up
which fluid is passed at a controlled velocity. When the particles are introduced, often
through a side tube, the smaller particles are carried over in the fluid stream while the large
particles settle against the upward current. If we start with low flow rates small less dense
particle attain terminal velocites, and flow with the stream, the particle from the stream is
collected in overflow and hence will be separated from the feed. Flow rates can be increased
to separate higher size ranges. Further size fractions may be collected if the overflow from
the first tube is passed vertically upwards through a second tube of greater cross-section, and
any number of such tubes can be arranged in series.
Technique Advantages: A bulk sample is analyzed using centrifugal classification and the
technique is non-descructive. Each cut-point can be recovered for future size-respective
chemical analyses. This technique has been used for decades in the Air Pollution Control
industry (data used for design of control devices). This technique determines particle size as a
function of settling velocity in an air stream (as opposed to water, or some other liquid).
Technique Disadvantages: A bulk sample (about ten grams) must be obtained. It is a fairly
time-consuming analytical technique. The actual test method [3] has been withdrawn by
ASME due to obsolescence. Instrument calibration materials are therefore no longer
available.
[edit] Photoanalysis
Main article: Optical granulometry
Materials can now be analysed through photoanalysis procedures. Unlike sieve analyses
which can be time-consuming and inaccurate, taking a photo of a sample of the materials to
be measured and using software to analyze the photo can result in rapid, accurate
measurements. Another advantage is that the material can be analyzed without being handled.
This is beneficial in the agricultural industry, as handling of food products can lead to
contamination. Photoanalysis equipment and software is currently being used in mining,
forestry and agricultural industries worldwide.
[edit] Optical counting methods
PSDs can be measured microscopically by sizing against a graticule and counting, but for a
statistically valid analysis, millions of particles must be measured. This is impossibly arduous
when done manually, but automated analysis of electron micrographs is now commercially
available. Instruments such as the Retsch Camsizer can perform this analysis on the run using
standard camera technology.
[edit] Electroresistance counting methods
An example of this is the Coulter counter, which measures the momentary changes in the
conductivity of a liquid passing through an orifice that take place when individual non-
conducting particles pass through. The particle count is obtained by counting pulses, and the
size is dependent on the size of each pulse.
Technique Advantages: Very small sample aliquots can be examined.
Technique Disadvantages: Sample must be dispersed in a liquid medium... some particles
may (partially or fully) dissolve in the medium altering the size distribution. The results are
only related to the projected cross-sectional area that a particle displaces as it passes through
an orifice. This is a physical diameter, not really related to mathematical descriptions of
particles (e.g. terminal settling velocity[4]).
[edit] Sedimentation techniques
These are based upon study of the terminal velocity acquired by particles suspended in a
viscous liquid. Sedimentation time is longest for the finest particles, so this technique is
useful for sizes below 10 μm, but sub-micrometer particles cannot be reliably measured due
to the effects of Brownian motion. Typical apparatus diperses the sample in liquid, then
measures the density of the column at timed intervals. Other techniques determine the optical
density of successive layers using visible light or x-rays.
Technique Advantages: This technique determines particle size as a function of settling
velocity.
Technique Disadvantages: Sample must be dispersed in a liquid medium... some particles
may (partially or fully) dissolve in the medium altering the size distribution, requiring careful
selection of the dispersion media. Density is highly dependent upon fluid temperature
remaining constant. X-Rays will not count carbon (organic) particles. Many of these
instruments can require a bulk sample (e.g. two to five grams).
[edit] Laser diffraction methods
These depend upon analysis of the "halo" of diffracted light produced when a laser beam
passes through a dispersion of particles in air or in a liquid. The angle of diffraction increases
as particle size decreases, so that this method is particularly good for measuring sizes
between 0.1 and 3,000 μm. Advances in sophisticated data processing and automation have
allowed this to become the dominant method used in industrial PSD determination. A
particular advantage is that the technique can generate a continuous measurement for
analyzing process streams.
[edit] Acoustic spectroscopy or ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy
Instead of light, this method employs ultrasound for collecting information on the particles
that are dispersed in fluid. Dispersed particles absorb and scatter ultrasound similarly to light.
This has been known since Lord Rayleigh developed the first theory of ultrasound scattering
and published a book "The Theory of Sound" in 1878.[5] There have been hundreds of papers
studying ultrasound propagation through fluid particulates in the 20th century.[6] It turns out
that instead of measuring scattered energy versus angle, as with light, in the case of
ultrasound, measuring the transmitted energy versus frequency is a better choice. The
resulting ultrasound attenuation frequency spectra are the raw data for calculating particle
size distribution. It can be measured for any fluid system with no dilution or other sample
preparation. This is a big advantage of this method. Calculation of particle size distribution is
based on theoretical models that are well verified for up to 50% by volume of dispersed
particles.
[edit] Air pollution emissions measurements
Cascade Impactors – Particulate matter is withdrawn isokinetically from a source and
segregated by size in a cascade impactor at the sampling point exhaust conditions of
temperature, pressure, etc. Cascade impactors use the principle of inertial separation to size
segregate particle samples from a particle laden gas stream. The mass of each size fraction is
determined gravimetrically. The California Air Resources Board Method 501[7] is currently
the most widely accepted test method for particle size distribution emissions measurements.
[edit] Mathematical models
[edit] Probability distributions
• The log-normal distribution is often used to approximate the particle size distribution
of aerosols, aquatic particles and pulverized material.
• The Weibull distribution or Rosin Rammler distribution is a useful distribution for
representing particle size distributions generated by grinding, milling and crushing
operations.
[edit] See also
