C HAPTER

1
 1-1

P RESSURE
B ASICS

U
nderstanding pressure and pressure
relationships is important if we are
to understand well control. By defi-
nition, pressure is the force that is exerted or
Remember to think placed on a unit of area, such as pounds per
square inch (psi). The pressures that we deal
with daily in the oil industry include fluid,
downhole. The concepts formation, friction and mechanical. When
certain pressure limits are exceeded, disastrous
provided in this section consequences can result, including blowouts
and/or the loss of life.
cover the foundations for
good well control. FLUID PRESSURE
What is a fluid? A fluid is simply some-
thing that is not solid and can flow. Water
and oil are obviously fluids. Gas is also a fluid.
 C HAPTER 1
1-2

Pressure
(Force) What is pressure?

Pressure
(Force)

Fluid

Pressure

Under extreme temperature and/or pressure DENSITY CONVERSION FACTOR

almost anything will become fluid. Under some
conditions salt or rock become fluid. For our The conversion factor used to convert
purposes, fluids that we will consider are those density to pressure gradient in the English
normally associated with the oil industry, such system is 0.052. In the metric system, it is
as oil, gas, water, muds, packer fluids, brines, 0.0000981. Remember that the definition of
completion fluids, etc. pressure gradient is the pressure increase per
Fluids exert pressure. This pressure is the unit of depth due to its density. For our text,
result of the density of the fluid and the height we will use pounds per gallon (ppg) to measure
of the fluid column. Density is usually mea- density and feet (ft) for depth measurements
sured in pounds per gallon (ppg) or kilograms in the English system and kilograms per cubic
per cubic meter (kg/m³). A heavy fluid exerts meter (kg/m³) to measure density and meters
more pressure because its density is greater. (m) for depth measurements in the metric
The force or pressure that a fluid exerts at system.
any given point is usually measured in pounds The way 0.052 is derived is by using a one-
Pressure: per square inch (psi) or in the metric system, foot cube (one foot wide by one foot long by
1: the force bar. To find out how much pressure a fluid of one foot high). It takes about 7.48 gallons to
per unit area a given density exerts for each unit of length, fill the cube with fluid. If the fluid weighs
that is exerted
we use a pressure gradient. one pound per gallon, and you have 7.48
on a surface.
A pressure gradient is normally expressed gallons, then the total weight of the cube is
2: the force
as the force which the fluid exerts per foot 7.48 pounds, or 7.48 pounds per cubic foot.
that a fluid
exerts when it
(meter) of depth; it is measured in pounds per The weight of one of these square inches, one
is in some way square inch per foot (psi/ft) or bars per meter foot in height, can be found by dividing the
confined (bar/m). To get the pressure gradient we must total weight of the cube by 144:
within a vessel. convert the fluid’s density in pounds per gal- 7.48 ÷ 144 = 0.051944
lon to pounds per square inch per foot (or The conversion factor 0.052 is commonly
kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m³ to bar/m). used for oilfield calculations.
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-3

PRESSURE GRADIENT
To find the pressure gradient of a fluid, multiply the density of the fluid by 0.052; or in metrics,
by 0.0000981.
To calculate
Pressure Gradient = Fluid Density × Conversion Factor pressure at
So the pressure gradient of a 10.3 ppg (1234 kg/m³) fluid can be found by multiplying the fluid the bottom of
weight by the conversion factor. a well use true
vertical depth.
Pressure Gradientpsi/ft = Fluid Densityppg × Conversion Factor
= 10.3 ppg × 0.052
= 0.5356 psi/ft

Pressure Gradientbar/m = Fluid Densitykg/m³ × Conversion Factor

= 1234 kg/m³ × 0.0000981
= 0.1211 bar/m

EXAMPLE 1
What is the pressure gradient of a fluid with a density of 12.3 ppg (1474 kg/m³)?

Pressure Gradientpsi/ft = Fluid Densityppg × Conversion Factor

= 12.3 X 0.052
= 0.6396 psi/ft

Pressure Gradientbar/m = Fluid Densitykg/m³ × Conversion Factor

= 1474 X 0.0000981
= 0.1446 bar/m

PROBLEM 1A
What is the pressure gradient of a fluid
that weighs 9.5 ppg (1138 kg/m³)?

Pressure Gradientpsi/ft =
Fluid Densityppg X Conversion Factor

Pressure Gradientbar/m =
1'
Fluid Densitykg/m³ X Conversion Factor

PROBLEM 1B
What is the pressure gradient of fresh water
which weighs 8.33 ppg (998 kg/m³)?
1'
If a fluid weighs
one pound per gallon, the
weight of one square inch in
a one foot length is 0.052 lbs.
1'
 C HAPTER 1
1-4

TVD VS. MD HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Once we know how to find pressure Hydrostatic pressure is the total fluid
exerted per foot, we can calculate the pressure created by the weight of a column
hydrostatic pressure at a given depth. All we of fluid, acting on any given point in a
have to do is multiply the pressure gradient well. Hydro means water, or fluid, that
by the number of feet to that vertical depth. exerts pressure like water, and static means
Here we have to learn the distinction between not moving. So hydrostatic pressure is the
measured depth (MD) and true vertical depth pressure created by the density and height of a
(TVD). stationary (not moving) column of fluid.
In the illustration below you can see that We already know how to calculate a
Hydrostatic
the depth straight down (the way that gravity pressure gradient from the fluid’s weight.
pressure:
pulls) for both wells is 10,000 ft (3048 m). Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated from a
force exerted
Well A has a measured depth of 10,000 ft pressure gradient to a given point:
by a body of
fluid at rest;
(3048 m), and a true vertical depth of 10,000
Hydrostatic Pressure =
increases ft (3048 m). Since gravity pulls straight down,
Pressure Gradient × DepthTVD
directly with along a true vertical (straight down) path, to
the weight and calculate the pressure at the bottom of the Or, it may be calculated by:
length of the hole we use the 10,000 ft (3048 m) depth. Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Density ×
fluid column. Well B has a measured depth of 11,650 Conversion Factor × DepthTVD
ft (3550.92 m), and its true
vertical depth is 10,000 ft (3048
m). Gravity still pulls straight True vertical depth vs. measured depth.

down, not along the path of the

well. You would have a vertical
depth of 10,000 ft (3048 m)
from the surface straight down to
where the well ended. Therefore,
to calculate the pressure at the
Well A Well B
bottom of Well B, you have to
use the true vertical depth of
10,000 ft (3048 m).
The illustration on page 1-5
offers another way of looking
at the difference between true
vertical depth and measured
depth. In this illustration, we
have a picture of square blocks,
15 by 10. Count how many
11,
10.0 PPG MUD

10,000'

blocks the well covers. This

650
1 0.

represents the measured depth

0P

'M
PG

of the well. Now, count the

D
MU

blocks from the bottom of the

D

well, straight up to surface.

The numbers of these blocks
represent true vertical depth.

MD and TVD
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-5
EXAMPLE 2
What is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a well which has a
fluid density of 9.2 ppg (1102 kg/m³), a MD of 6,750’ (2057.4 m) and
a TVD of 6,130’ (1868.42 m)?
Remember, the formula for calculating hydrostatic pressure is:

Hydrostatic Pressurepsi = Fluid Densityppg × Conversion Factor

× Depthft, TVD
= 9.2 × 0.052 × 6,130
= 2,933 psi

Hydrostatic Pressurebar = Fluid Densitykg/m³ × Conversion Factor

× Depthm, TVD

TVD
= 1102 × 0.0000981 × 1868.42
= 201.99 bar

MD
PROBLEM 2A
Find the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a well with a 9.7 ppg True vertical
(1162 kg/m³) fluid in it and a MD of 5,570’ (1697.74 m) and TVD of 5,420’ (1651.02 m). depth vs.
measured depth.

Hydrostatic Pressurepsi = Fluid Densityppg × 0.052 × Depthft, TVD

Hydrostatic Pressurebar = Fluid Densitykg/m³ × 0.0000981 × Depthm, TVD

Atmospheric
PROBLEM 2B pressure at sea
Find the hydrostatic pressure at 4,300’ (1310.64 m) TVD, of a well with fluid density of level is about
15 psi; the metric
16.7 ppg (2001 kg/m³). The well has a MD of 14,980’ (4565.9 m) and a TVD of 13,700’
equivalent is
(4175.76 m).
approximately
one bar.
The above equations for fluid gradient and hydrostatic pressure are basic to understanding
the fundamentals of pressure in wells. To prevent the well from flowing, fluid pressure in the
well must at least equal the formation pressure.

GAUGE/ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Although a gauge placed at the bottom of a fluid column would read the hydrostatic
pressure of that column, it also would read the atmospheric pressure exerted on the column.
This pressure varies with weather conditions and elevation and is normally considered 14.7
psi or 15 psi (approximately one bar) at sea level. If a gauge has a unit notation of psig, it
includes the atmospheric column above it. If gauge reads in psig, it has been calibrated to
subtract the atmospheric column above it.
 C HAPTER 1
1-6

U–Tube Analogy U–Tubing

String Higher density U–Tubing

fluid

String Annulus

Annulus

pipe when making connections. This is often

U-TUBE evident when drilling fast because the effective
density in the annulus is increased by cuttings.
It is often helpful to visualize the well as Another example of U-tubing is when a
a U-tube (see above). One column of the tube slug is pumped. The heavier slug is designed
represents the annulus and the other column to allow tubing to pull dry by falling to a level
represents the pipe in the well. The bottom of
below the average length of stand pulled. The
the U-tube represents the bottom of the well.
depth where the slug will fall and the amount
In most cases, there are fluids creating
of fluid that U-tubes from the well can be
hydrostatic pressures in both the pipe and
calculated using the following equations:
annulus. Atmospheric pressure can be omitted,
since it works the same on both columns. If
there were 10 ppg (1198 kg/m³) fluid in both Gain In Pits =
the pipe and annulus, hydrostatic pressures (Slug Weight – Annulus Weight) ×
would be equal and the fluid would be static Volume of Slug ÷ Annulus Weight
on both sides of the tube.
Distance of Drop =
However, what will happen if fluid in the
annulus is heavier than the fluid in the string? Gain in Pits ÷ Pipe Capacity
U-tubing: The heavier fluid in the annulus exerting more
the tendency pressure downward will flow into the string, EXAMPLE 3
of liquids to displacing some of the lighter fluid out of the What will be the gain in the pits, and how
seek a pressure string, causing a flow at surface. The fluid level far will the slug fall if the mud weight is 10
balance point will fall in the annulus, equalizing pressures. ppg (1198 kg/m³), the pipe’s capacity is 0.0178
in an open well.
When there is a difference in the hydro- bbl/ft (0.00929 m³/m)? The volume of the
static pressures, the fluid will try to reach slug is 30 bbls (4.77 m³) and weighs 11 ppg
balance point. This is called U-tubing, and (1318 kg/m³).
it explains why there is often flow from the
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-7

Gain In Pitsbbls = (Slug Weightppg – Annulus Weightppg) × Volume of Slugbbls

÷ Annulus Weightppg
= (11 – 10) × 30 ÷ 10
= 1 × 30 ÷ 10
Porosity is the
= 3 bbls measurement
Distance of Dropft = Gain In Pitsbbls ÷ Pipe Capacitybbls/ft of void space
within a rock,
= 3 ÷ 0.0178
expressed as a
= 168.5 ft percentage.

Gain In Pitsm³ = (Slug Weightkg/m³ – Annulus Weightkg/m³) × Volume of Slugm³

÷ Annulus Weightkg/m³
= (1318 - 1198) × 4.77 ÷ 1198
= 120 X 4.77 ÷ 0.00929 ÷ 1198
= 0.478 m³

Distance of Dropm = Gain In Pitsm³ ÷ Pipe Capacitym³/m

= 0.478 ÷ 0.00929
= 51.45 m

PROBLEM 3
What will be the gain in the pits, and how far will the slug fall if the mud weight is 11.6 ppg
(1390 kg/m³), the pipe’s capacity is 0.00579 bbl/ft (0.00302 m³/m)? The volume of the slug
is 15 bbls (2.39 m³) and weighs 12.4 ppg (1486 kg/m³).

Gain In Pitsbbls = (Slug Weightppg – Annulus Weightppg) × Volume of Slugbbls

÷ Annulus Weightppg

Distance of Dropft = Gain In Pitsbbls ÷ Pipe Capacitybbls/ft

Gain In Pitsm³ = (Slug Weightkg/m³ – Annulus Weightkg/m³) × Volume of Slugm³

÷ Annulus Weightkg/m³

Distance of Dropm = Gain In Pitsm³ ÷ Pipe Capacitym³/m

Two important
characteristics of
reservoir rocks are
porosity, tiny openings
in rock (far left) and
permeability, the
connection of these
holes which allows fluids
to move (near left).
 C HAPTER 1
1-8

Abnormally pressured formations exert

FORMATION CHARACTERISTICS pressure greater than the hydrostatic pressure (or
Fracture pressure gradient) of the contained formation
pressure is the Porosity and permeability, along with pres- fluid. When abnormally pressured formations
amount of sure differences, must be considered if we are to develop, during the compaction phase, the
pressure it takes understand well control. A reservoir rock looks pore fluid movement is restricted or stopped.
to permanently solid to the naked eye. A microscopic examina- The pore fluid pressure increases, generally
deform the rock tion reveals the existence of tiny openings in exceeding 0.465 psi/ft (0.1052 bar/m). The
structure of a the rock. These openings are called pores. The result causes the increasing overburden weight
formation. porosity of the rock is expressed as a percentage. to be partially supported by pore fluid rather
It is the ratio of void (pore) space to solid than by the rock grains. Such formations may
volume. Another characteristic of a reservoir require working fluid densities up to, and
rock is that it must be permeable. That is, the sometimes greater than, 20 ppg (2397 kg/m³)
pores of the rock must be connected so hydro- to control them.
carbons can move between them. Otherwise Abnormal pressures may be caused in
the hydrocarbons remain locked in place and other ways, including the presence of faults, salt
cannot flow into a well. domes, uplifting, and differences in elevation
of underground formations. In many regions,
hundreds of feet of pre-existing rock layers
(overburden) have been stripped off by erosion.
FORMATION PRESSURE At the new, shallower depths this loss from
erosion can cause the pressure to become
Formation pressure is the pressure within abnormal, above 0.465 psi/ft (0.1052 bar/m),
the pore spaces of the formation rock. This or 8.94 ppg (1072 kg/m³).
pressure can be affected by the weight of the When a normally pressured formation is
overburden (rock layers) above the formation, raised toward the surface while prevented from
which exerts pressure on both the grains and losing pore fluid in the process, it will change
pore fluids. Grains are solid or rock material, from normal pressure (at a greater depth)
and pores are spaces between grains. If pore to abnormal pressure (at a shallower depth).
fluids are free to move, or escape, the grains When this happens, and then you drill into
lose some of their support and move closer the formation, mud weights of up to 20 ppg
together. This process is called compaction. (2397 kg/m³) may be required for control.
Normally pressured formations exert a This process accounts for many of the shallow,
pressure equal to a vertical column of native abnormally pressured zones in the world.
fluid from the formation to surface. The pressure In areas where faulting is present, salt layers
gradient of the native fluid usually ranges from or domes are predicted, or excessive geothermal
0.433 psi/ft (0.0979 bar/m) to 0.465 psi/ft gradients are known, drilling operations may
(0.1052 bar/m), and varies depending on the encounter abnormal pressure. An abnormally
geologic region. Formations pressured in this pressured formation can often be predicted
range are designated normal, depending on using well history, surface geology, downhole
the area. For simplicity, this text will designate logs or geophysical surveys.
a gradient of 0.465 psi/ft (0.1052 bar/m) Subnormally pressured formations have
as normal. In normally pressured formations pressure gradients lower than fresh water,
most of the overburden weight is supported by or less than 0.433 psi/ft (0.0979 bar/m).
the grains that make up the rock. When the Naturally occurring subnormal pressure can
overburden increases with depth, pore fluids be developed when the overburden has been
are free to move and the amount of pore space stripped away, leaving the formation exposed
is reduced due to compaction. at the surface.
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-9

Casing existing formation pressure and resisting

rock structure. Loosely compacted
formations, such as those found offshore
Cement in deep water, can fracture at low
gradients. Fracture pressures at any given
Cement depth can vary widely because of the
Test geology of the area.

Formation
FORMATION INTEGRITY TESTS
An accurate evaluation of a casing
cement job as well as of the formation
Integrity is extremely important during the drilling
of a well and for subsequent work. The
Test information resulting from Formation
Integrity Tests (FIT) is used throughout the
life of the well and also for nearby wells.
Casing depths, well control options, formation
Depletion of original pore fluids through fracture pressures and limiting fluid weights
evaporation, capillary action and dilution may be based on this information. To determine
produces hydrostatic gradients below 0.433 the strength and integrity of a formation, a
psi/ft (0.0979 bar/m). Subnormal pressures Leak Off Test (LOT) or a Formation Integrity
may also be induced through depletion of Test (FIT) may be performed. Whatever the
formation fluids. name, this test is first: a method of checking the
cement seal between casing and the formation,
and second: determining the pressure and/or
FRACTURE PRESSURE fluid weight the test zone below the casing
can sustain.
Fracture pressure is the amount of pressure Whichever test is performed, some general
it takes to permanently deform (fail or split) points should be observed. The fluid in the
the rock structure of a formation. Overcoming well should be circulated clean to ensure it is of
formation pressure is usually not sufficient to a known and consistent density. If mud is used
cause fracturing. If pore fluid is free to move, for the test, it should be properly conditioned
a slow rate of entry into the formation will and gel strengths minimized. The pump used
not cause fractures. If pore fluid cannot move should be a high-pressure, low-volume test or
out of the way, fracturing and permanent cementing pump. Rig pumps can be used if the
deformation of the formation can occur. rig has electric drives on the mud pumps,
and they can be slowly rolled over. If the rig The information
Fracture pressure can be expressed as a
resulting from
gradient (psi/ft), a fluid density equivalent (ppg), pump must be used and the pump cannot be
formation
or by calculated total pressure at the formation easily controlled at low rates, then the leak-off
integrity tests
(psi). Fracture gradients normally increase with technique must be modified. It is a good idea is used
depth due to increasing overburden pressure. to make a graph of the pressure versus time throughout the
Deep, highly compacted formations can require or volume for all leak-off tests as shown in the life of a well.
very high fracture pressures to overcome the illustrations on the next page.
 C HAPTER 1
1-10 Pressure ~vs~ Time or Volume for Leak-off Tests
Increments of Volume
Generally about 20 Gal (75 Liters) Cumulative Volume Pumped Increments of Pressure
Shut Pumps
C Down End of
Pit Limit Test
E
D
B Instantaneous

SURFACE PRESSURE (PSI)

Shut-in Pressure
PRESSURE

PRESSURE
Shut-In Increments of
Pressure Weight
Time

Stop Here
Stop Here

A
Slack in System

TIME PUMP STROKES TIME

Pressure vs time
or volume for
leak-off tests used, a small tank should be used so large
LEAK-OFF TEST (LOT) amounts of fluid are not forced into the
formation. Circulating frictional pressure losses
A leak-off test is performed to estimate which are present in this technique add more
the maximum pressure or mud weight (fluid unseen pressure on the formation tested, which
density) that the test point can withstand before will give slightly different results (lower fracture
formation breakdown or fracture occurs. pressures) than technique number 1.

LEAK-OFF TECHNIQUE 1
The well is pressured in increments of 100 LIMITED INTEGRITY TEST
psi (6.9 bar) or fluid is pumped into the well
in approximately one-half barrel (0.079 m³)
A limited formation integrity test (limited
increments of volume. After each increase in
FIT), also called a jug test, is performed when
pressure, the pump is stopped and the pressure
is held for about 5 minutes. If the pressure it is not acceptable to cause the formation to
holds, the next increment is tested. If the fracture. It may also be used on wells drilled in
pressure does not hold, the well is pressured developed fields. In such cases, operators have
again. The test is completed when the pressure good data concerning formation strength and
will not hold after several attempts, or if the do not expect to approach fracture pressures.
well will not pressure up any further. In the limited formation integrity test, the
wellbore is pressured to a predetermined
LEAK-OFF TECHNIQUE 2 pressure or fluid weight. If the formation can
withstand the applied pressure, the test is
The choke is opened on the manifold and called good.
Jug test:
the pump is started at an idle. The choke is
limited Both tests, Limited FIT and LOT, have
closed to increase the pressure in increments of
formation their good and bad points. In the Limited FIT,
100 psi (6.9 bar). At each interval of pressure,
integrity test, the formation is not broken down, however,
the fluid volume in the pits is watched until
often performed the maximum pressure before the formation
it is certain that no fluid is being lost to the
when risk of
formation. The test is complete at the pressure starts to accept fluid is not determined. In the
formation
where fluid is continuously being lost to the LOT, the pressure where the formation starts
damage is high.
formation. Some fluid will be lost at each accepting fluid is determined, but there is a
pressure increase. If this technique is to be possibility of fracturing the formation.
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-11
total pressure against the formation. From test
FLUID DENSITY/PRESSURE data, calculations estimate the integrity fluid
density. This is the total pressure, represented as When
The total pressure applied causes leak off or fluid density, above which leak off or formation computing
damage may occur. This may also be called the formation
formation damage. This is usually a combination
maximum allowable mud weight or frac mud integrity values
of the hydrostatic pressure of a fluid plus an
weight. The calculations to find the estimated decimals in the
additional pressure, such as pump pressure on
integrity fluid density follow. results are not
a leak off test. The applied pressure raises the
rounded up.

Estimated Integrity Fluid Densityppg = (Test Pressurepsi ÷ 0.052 ÷ Depth of Testft, TVD) + Test Fluid Densityppg

Est. Integrity Fluid Densitykg/m³ = (Test Pressurebar ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ Depth of Testm, TVD) + Test Fluid Densitykg/m³

Test fluid density is seldom used throughout the entire well. If the fluid density changes, then the surface pressure
that may damage the formation should be re-calculated. To find the new estimated integrity pressure with a different
density fluid:

Est. Integrity Pressurepsi = (Est. Integrity Fluid Densityppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × Depth of Testft, TVD × 0.052

Est. Integrity Pressurebar = (Est. Int. Fluid Densitykg/m³ – Present Fluid Densitykg/m³) × Depth of Testm, TVD × 0.0000981

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the following equations for the formation's estimated integrity fluid density (maximum fluid weight without causing
formation damage), and the estimated integrity pressure that may cause damage with a different fluid density using the
following data. Note: When doing the following exercises, decimals in the answers should not be rounded up. Safety
against formation fracture lies in the lower values.

The well has a TD of 11,226' (3421.68 m) and a Casing Shoe set at 5,821' (1774.24 m) TVD. The Leak Off Test
Pressure was 1,250 psi (86.19 bar), with a Leak Off Test Fluid of 9.6 ppg (1150 kg/m³). The Present Fluid Wt. is
10.1 ppg (1210 kg/m³).

First find the Estimated Integrity Fluid Density:

Estimated Integrity Fluid Densityppg = (Test Pressurepsi ÷ 0.052 ÷ Depth of Testft, TVD) + Test Fluid Densityppg
= (1,250 ÷ 0.052 ÷ 5,821) + 9.6
= 4.1 + 9.6
= 13.7 ppg.

Est. Integrity Fluid Densitykg/m³ = (Test Pressurebar ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ Depth of Testm, TVD) + Test Fluid Densitykg/m³
= (86.19 ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ 1774.24) + 1150
= 495 + 1150
= 1645 kg/m³
 C HAPTER 1
1-12

In formation integrity calculations, it is more conservative to not round up. So, in the previous
calculations 4.1 ppg was used instead of 4.13 ppg (495 kg/m³ instead of 495.19 kg/m³).
In this example, the present mud weight is higher than the test mud weight so we must solve for
the present estimated integrity pressure.

Estimated Integrity Pressurepsi

= (Est. Integrity Fluid Densityppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × Depth of Testft, TVD × 0.052
If fluid density
is changed, = (13.7 – 10.1) × 5,821 × 0.052
surface pressure = 1,089 psi
that may
damage the Estimated Integrity Pressurebar
formation must
= (Est. Int. Fluid Densitykg/m³ – Pres. Fluid Densitykg/m³) × Depth of Testm, TVD × 0.0000981
be recalculated.
= (1645 – 1210) × 1774.24 × 0.0000981
= 75.71 bar

PROBLEM 4
What is the estimated integrity fluid density and estimated integrity pressure that may damage the
formation for a well with an MD of 12,000’ (3657.6 m), TVD of 10,980’ (3346.7 m). The Casing Shoe is
at 8,672’ (2643.23 m) TVD. The Leak Off Test Pressure was 1,575 psi (108.59 bar) with a Leak Off Test
Fluid Density of 11.1 ppg (1330 kg/m³), and the Present Fluid Density is 11.6 ppg (1390 kg/m³).
First, solve for the estimated integrity fluid density:

Estimated Integrity Fluid Densityppg

= (Test Pressurepsi ÷ 0.052 ÷ Depth of Testft, TVD) + Test Fluid Densityppg

Estimated Integrity Fluid Densitykg/m³

= (Test Pressurebar ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ Depth of Testm, TVD) + Test Fluid Densitykg/m³

Second, solve for the present estimated integrity pressure:

Estimated Integrity Pressurepsi

= (Est. Integrity Fluid Densityppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × Depth of Testft, TVD × 0.052

Estimated Integrity Pressurebar

= (Est. Int. Fluid Densitykg/m³ – Pres. Fluid Densitykg/m³) × Depth of Testm, TVD × 0.0000981

Often a chart is generated to post on the rig floor showing incremental mud weight increases and
the estimated integrity pressures with each. To do so, calculate the gain in hydrostatic pressure for
an increment of 0.1 ppg (11.98 kg/m³).

Hydrostatic Pressure = Fluid Weight Increase × Conversion Factor × DepthTVD

The estimated integrity pressure that may be applied is reduced by the hydrostatic pressure increase
gained by each increase in mud weight. A chart beginning with the present mud weight up to
integrity fluid density versus integrity pressure can then easily be prepared.
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-13

EXAMPLE 5
Estimated Integrity Pressure on Surface
Prepare a chart of Estimated Integrity Pressure on surface for mud weights Fluid Estimated Fluid Estimated
Density Integrity Press. Density Integrity Press.
ranging from 10.1 to 11.1 ppg (1222 to 1330 kg/m³). The Casing Shoe (ppg) (psi) (kg/m3) (bar)
depth is 5,821’ (1774.24 m) TVD and Estimated Integrity Pressure for
10.1 1250 1210 86.19
present fluid weight 10.1 ppg (1210 kg/m³) is 1,250 psi (86.19 bar). First,
10.2 1220 1222 84.1
find the increase in hydrostatic pressure for 0.1 ppg (11.98 kg/m³):
10.3 1190 1234 82.01
Hydrostatic Pressurepsi = Fluid Wt. [Link] × 0.052 × Depthft, TVD 10.4 1160 1246 79.92
= 0.1 × 0.052 × 5,821
10.5 1130 1258 77.83
= 30 psi
10.6 1100 1270 75.74
Hydrostatic Pressurebar = Fluid Wt. [Link]/m³ × 0.0000981 × Depthm, TVD 10.7 1070 1282 73.65
= 11.98 × 0.0000981 × 1774.24 10.8 1040 1294 71.56
= 2.09 bar 10.9 1010 1306 69.47
Based on the gain in hydrostatic pressure, subtract this value from the 11.0 980 1318 67.38
calculated Estimated Integrity for each corresponding increase in mud 11.1 950 1330 65.29
weight.

PROBLEM 5
Prepare a chart of Estimated Integrity Pressure on surface for mud weights ranging from 11.7
to 12.6 ppg (1402 to 1510 kg/m³). The Casing Shoe depth is 8,672’ (2,643.23 m) TVD and
the Estimated Integrity Pressure for present fluid weight 11.6 ppg
(1390 kg/m³) is 1,352 psi (93.22 bar). Estimated Integrity Pressure on Surface
Fluid Estimated Fluid Estimated
Hydrostatic Pressurepsi = Fluid Wt. [Link] × 0.052 Density Integrity Press. Density Integrity Press.
(ppg) (psi) (kg/m3) (bar)
× Depthft, TVD

Hydrostatic Pressurebar = Fluid Wt. [Link]/m³ × 0.0000981

× Depthm, TVD

Next, fill in chart at right.

Alternate terms such as fracture mud weight, and either

MASP (Maximum Allowable Surface Pressure) or MAASP
(Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure) are also
used for estimated integrity fluid density and estimated
integrity pressure. If such terms and information are used
as limiting factors and without proper understanding of
limiting pressures vs. maintaining control of the well, serious
well control complications can result. If this information is
used during a well kill operation you must also take kick
position, distribution and density into account.
 C HAPTER 1
1-14

may be performed to determine the test

EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT pressure. The equivalent mud weight (EMW)
is also the summation of all pressures
From the previous discussions, it should (hydrostatic pressure, choke or back pressure,
be apparent that any applied pressure raises applied pressure, kick pressure, circulating
the total pressure at a given point. If the pressure losses, etc.) at a given depth or zone
applied pressure is known, then it can be and is expressed as a fluid density. If these
calculated to an equivalent weight. pressures are known or can be estimated, the
Alternatively, if a zone must be pressure
EMW can be calculated as follows:
tested to an equivalent weight, then calculations

EMW = (Pressure ÷ Conversion Factor ÷ Depth of InterestTVD) + Present Fluid Density

EXAMPLE 6
What is the EMW for a zone with an MD depth of 3,120’ (950.97 m) and TVD of 3,000’ (914.4
m) when the well is shut in with 375 psi (25.86 bar) registering on the casing gauge? Present Fluid
Density is 8.8 ppg (1055 kg/m³).

EMWppg = (Pressurepsi ÷ 0.052 ÷ Depth of Interestft, TVD) + Present Fluid Densityppg

= (375 ÷ 0.052 ÷ 3,000) + 8.8

= 2.4 + 8.8

= 11.2 ppg

EMWkg/m³ = (Pressurebar ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ Depth of Int.m, TVD) + Present Fluid Densitykg/m³

= (25.86 ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ 914.4) + 1055

Frictional
resistance: = 288 + 1055
the opposition = 1343 kg/m³
to flow created
by a fluid when PROBLEM 6
it flows through
a line or other What is the EMW for a zone with a MD of 7,320’ (2231.14 m) and TVD of 6,985’ (2129.03 m)
container. if the estimated choke and friction pressures total 730 psi (50.33 bar)? The Present Fluid Density
is 13.8 ppg (1654 kg/m³).

EMWppg = (Pressurepsi ÷ 0.052 ÷ Depth of Interestft, TVD) + Present Fluid Densityppg

EMWkg/m³ = (Pressurebar ÷ 0.0000981 ÷ Depth of Interestm, TVD) + Present Fluid Densitykg/m³

P RESSURE B ASICS
1-15

To determine how much applied pressure is required to test to a pre-determined EMW

at a given depth:

Test Pressurepsi = (EMWppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × 0.052 × Depth Testedft, TVD

Test Pressurebar = (EMWkg/m³ – Present Fluid Densitykg/m³) × 0.0000981 × Depth Testedm, TVD
Most pressure
EXAMPLE 7 loss will occur
circulating
How much test pressure should be used to test a formation with a MD of 5,890’ (1795.27 m) and down the string
a TVD of 5,745’ (1751.08 m) to an equivalent fluid density of 13.4 ppg (1606 kg/m³)? The Present and through
Fluid Density is 9.1 ppg (1090 kg/m³). restrictions such
as jet nozzles.

Test Pressurepsi = (EMWppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × 0.052 × Depth Testedft, TVD

= (13.4 – 9.1) × 0.052 × 5,745

= 4.3 × 0.052 × 5,745

= 1285 psi

Test Pressurebar = (EMWkg/m³ – Present Fluid Densitykg/m³) × 0.0000981 × Depth Testedm, TVD

= (1606 – 1090) × 0.0000981 × 1751.08

= 88.64 bar

PROBLEM 7
How much test pressure should be used to test a formation with a MD of 7,590’ (2313.43 m) and
a TVD of 7450’ (2270.76 m) to an equivalent fluid density of 14.3 ppg (1714 kg/m³)? The Present
Fluid Density is 8.9 ppg (1067 kg/m³).

Test Pressurepsi = (EMWppg – Present Fluid Densityppg) × 0.052 × Depth Testedft, TVD

Test Pressurebar = (EMWkg/m³ – Present Fluid Densitykg/m³) × 0.0000981 × Depth Testedm, TVD
 C HAPTER 1
1-16

circulating system as fluid is pumped through

PRESSURE–LOSSES/CIRCULATING surface lines, down the string, and up the
annulus. The pressure on the pump is actually
Friction is the resistance to movement. It the amount of friction that must be overcome
takes force, or pressure, to overcome friction to move fluid throughout the wellbore at a
to get anything to move. Friction has to be given flow rate. Most of the pressure loss
overcome to lift pipe, move fluid, or even will occur when circulating down the string
to walk. How much friction is present to and through restrictions such as jet nozzles.
overcome depends upon many factors. These Pressure losses also occur in other parts of
include density or weight, type and roughness the circulating system, such as when the choke
of the surfaces making contact, surface area, is used to hold back pressure on the casing
thermal and electrical properties of the surfaces side during well killing operations. When
and direction and velocity of the objects. fluid finally returns to the pits it is under
The amount of force used to overcome atmospheric, or almost zero, pressure.
Bottomhole friction is called frictional loss and can be When the well is being circulated,
pressure:
measured in many ways. Torque, drag (amps, bottomhole pressure is increased by the amount
1: pressure
exerted by a
foot-pounds, horsepower) and force (psi or of friction overcome in the annulus. When
column of fluid bar) to move fluid are a few. Thousands of pumps are shut off, wellbore pressure is reduced
in the wellbore. psi (bar) of pressure can be lost to the well’s because no frictional force is being overcome.
2: formation
pressure at
depth of
interest.

Standpipe
2950
3000 Drill Pipe

Pump
0

Flowline

TANK

Casing

Circulating Bit

Pressure 900
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-17
Well Static Normal Circulation Circulation with Rotating Head Kick Circulation
Well static Normal circulation Circulation with rotating head Kick circulation

PUMP PUMP PUMP PUMP

Rotation BOP
Head Stack

BHP = HP + APL +
BHP = HP BHP = HP + APL Rotating Head Back Pressure BHP = HP + APL + Choke Press

Since friction adds pressure to the wellbore, WELL STATIC

it increases the effective weight, or the If no fluid is moving, the well is static.
equivalent circulating density (ECD). The total The bottomhole pressure (BHP) is equal to the
value is the equivalent of bottomhole pressure hydrostatic pressure (HP) on the annular side.
with the pump on. If pressure in a permeable
If shut in on a kick, bottomhole pressure is
formation is closely balanced by ECDs, a well
equal to the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus
could flow when the pump is turned off. Data
plus the casing (wellhead) pressure.
obtained from logging while drilling tools
(LWD) can be used to get an accurate reading
NORMAL CIRCULATION
of annular pressure, which may be used to
During circulation, the bottomhole pressure
determine ECD. Hydrostatic
is equal to the hydrostatic pressure on the
pressure is
annular side plus the annular pressure loss
controlled by
(APL).
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE careful
monitoring
ROTATING HEAD and control of
Pressure is imposed on the walls of the hole. During circulating with a rotating head fluid weight.
The hydrostatic of the fluid column accounts the bottomhole pressure is equal to the
for most of the pressure, but pressure to move hydrostatic pressure on the annular side, plus
fluid up the annulus also acts on the walls. In the annular pressure loss, plus the rotating
larger diameters, this annular pressure is small, head backpressure.
rarely exceeding 200 psi (13.79 bar). In smaller
diameters it can be 400 psi (27.58 bar) or higher. CIRCULATING A KICK OUT
Backpressure or pressure held on the choke also Bottomhole pressure is equal to hydrostatic
increases bottomhole pressure, which can be pressure on the annular side, plus annular
estimated by adding up all the known pressures pressure loss, plus choke (casing) pressure. (For
acting in, or on, the annular (casing) side. subsea, add choke line pressure loss.)
Bottomhole pressure can be estimated during
the following activities.
 C HAPTER 1
1-18

MOVING PIPE – Swab

SURGE/SWAB Pressure
The total pressure acting
Pipe Movement
on the wellbore is affected by
pipe movement upwards or
downwards. When tripping
out swab pressure is created,
reducing the pressure on the
wellbore. Swabbing occurs
because the fluid in the well
does not drop as fast as the
string is being pulled. This
creates a suction force and Sand Fluid Properties
reduces the pressure below Swab
the string. This force can be
compared to a plunger in a
syringe, with formation fluid
being pulled into the wellbore.
When lowering the string too fast, surge Using fluid density adjustments for a trip
pressure is created because the fluid does not or safety margin requires good judgement. Too
have a chance to get out of the way. Since liquids large a margin can cause lost circulation. Too
do not compress to any appreciable degree, small a margin may allow the well to kick. The
pressure throughout the well can increase and margin depends on hole size, condition, pipe
cause leak-off or fracture. Both surge and pulling speed, fluid and formation properties.
swab pressures are affected by the rate of pipe
movement, clearances between pipe and hole
and fluid properties.
While it is often impossible to avoid these
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
pressures, they can be minimized by slowing
the tripping speed. Calculations are available The difference between the formation
to estimate maximum trip speed and surge pressure and bottomhole hydrostatic pressure
and swab pressures, but these calculations are is differential pressure. These are classified as
outside the scope of this manual. overbalanced, underbalanced and balanced.
Swabbing OVERBALANCED
occurs because Overbalanced means the hydrostatic
the fluid in the TRIP/SAFETY MARGINS pressure exerted on the bottom of the hole is
well does not greater than the formation pressure:
drop as fast as Unless there is an excess of fluid weight to
HP > FP
the string is compensate for swabbing, formation fluid can
being pulled. enter the well and a kick can occur. The UNDERBALANCED
trip margin is an estimated increase in fluid Underbalanced means the hydrostatic
density prior to a trip to compensate for loss pressure exerted on the bottom of the hole is
of circulation pressure (ECD). A safety margin less than the formation pressure:
also compensates for swabbing pressures as pipe HP < FP
is pulled from the well.
P RESSURE B ASICS
1-19

BALANCED SUMMARY
Balanced means the hydrostatic pressure
exerted on the bottom of the hole is equal to
There are two main opposing pressures in
the formation pressure: a well. These are the fluid column hydrostatic
HP = FP
pressure and the formation pressure. If one
Most wells are drilled, and worked, in bal- pressure overcomes the other, then a kick or Kicks are
anced to overbalanced conditions. If circulating lost circulation may occur. prevented by
or drilling, friction and cuttings contribute to Since hydrostatic pressure is a function of people able to
the effective pressure on bottom. the density of the working fluid in the well, work quickly
its value may be controlled. By making careful and decisively
calculations and by manipulating the formula under stress.
for hydrostatic pressure, it is possible to test
Overbalanced cement jobs, to estimate formation integrity,
HP > FP
to project maximum mud weights and to
control kicking wells.
Kicks and blowouts are prevented by peo-
ple who are able to work quickly and decisively
under stress. An important part of the train-
ing required for blowout prevention is an
understanding of pressure concepts and the
ability to perform accurate calculations. t

Differential pressure is
the difference
between formation
pressure and
bottomhole
hydrostatic pressure.

Underbalanced B alanced
HP < FP HP = F P