A GUIDE IN THE STUDY OF

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

PART ONE
The Need for the Study of Society and Culture

For as long as humans have been on earth, people have needed answers to questions
about who they are, where they came from, why they act the way they do, or even
where they are leading to. Understanding the context of one’s existence would lead to
better consciousness of how to live a life with others, whatever his or her background is.
People usually see their world as a world of facts. That is, they accept everything
around them as true. They believe because everybody else does, without question. A
critical look at these things around them would give people different perspectives and
understanding the how’s and why’s of commonly held beliefs and ideas.
Understanding how society operates will enable people to take a more active
participation in shaping their lives as part of the group. Identifying patterns of social
dynamics and evaluating their systems are necessary in this endeavor.

Lesson 1 - The Study of Society and Culture

There are several key concepts that we must understand first before starting our
examination of society and culture. Familiarizing ourselves to these terms shall be
important as they will be mentioned in most parts of this material.
Three concepts are central in this endeavor. These are the notions of society,
culture and community. The ideas are very much interrelated to one another that it is
inevitable to describe the other two to understand one.
 Society can be simply defined as a collection of individuals who occupy a specific
locality or area and who share the same way of life or cultural traditions
(Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000; Ember and Ember, 1993; Panopio [Link], 1994).
  Culture is a set of norms or standards that produce behavior falling within a
range of variance the society considers proper and acceptable. It is a system by
which society operates (Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000; Ember and Ember, 1993;
Panopio [Link], 1994).
 Community refers to the state or condition where the society is situated and
where its members interact and share their ways of life (Haviland, 1990; Kottak,
2000; Ember and Ember, 1993; Panopio [Link], 1994).

In Filipino, society is lipunan which came from the root ipon which means
collection or gathering. Thus, lipunan is the gathering or collection of people. Culture is
more appropriately translated as kalinangan from the Filipino linang meaning to
cultivate or to develop. Therefore, kalinangan refers to the aspects of life that are
developed by people for their everyday survival. Community is pamayanan which came
from bayan or settlement. Hence, pamayanan is the settlement of people inhabiting
together.
Society is referring to people, their grouping and their life as a group. Culture, on
the other hand, is their way of life - how these people in a group live together.
Community then is the locality or place, where such a group of people live and share a
common way of life.
The Social Sciences
Various disciplines are interested in how societies work and operate. Each one is
looking at social phenomena from different perspectives. These subjects are collectively
called the social sciences. This includes the following:
 Anthropology – the holistic study of human kind and particularly interested in
understanding culture.
 Economics – the analysis of the way how society utilizes its resources, including
the processes of its extraction, production, distribution and consumption.
 Geography – concerned with understanding the earth and its spatial and
physical dynamics with human societies.
  History – the systematic recordings and understanding of past events.
 Linguistics – looks at the cognitive and social context of human language.
 Political Science – the study of power systems and power relationships.
 Psychology – the scientific study of human behavior.
 Sociology – the scientific study of society. The term is derived from two Latin
words – socius, meaning group and logia, meaning study.

This material particularly deals with the concepts of anthropology and sociology.
Nonetheless, ideas and perspectives from the other fields may also be included in some
or in most parts.

Areas of Concern in the Study of Society and Culture

Different areas and aspects of society and culture concerns social scientists in
their studies. These are:

1. Physical and cultural anthropology – Physical anthropology is concerned with

understanding humans as biological organisms. It applies most concepts and
ideas from the biological and biochemical disciplines. Cultural anthropology, on
the other hand, focuses on the patterns of life of a society. It describes and
explains human behavior within a social, or cultural, context. The two areas are
very much intertwined as culture is rooted in our biological natures. Thus,
physical anthropology provides a necessary framework for cultural anthropology.

2. Social organization – It is concerned with how society arranges its different

aspects or parts in such a way that these parts form a meaningful and acceptable
structure which is perceived and accepted effective and efficient for the
operation of society. Such is the system of kinship or family.
 3. Social change – Change is produced when one system or component of a system
is subjected to an external or internal factor causing it to manifest an altered
characteristic or function. The study of change focuses on the effects of the
introduction of new means to a system, causing alteration or conflict within the
system, to its structure or organization. A positive change is called development.
A negative one should make the social conditions static.

4. Demography or population studies – The study of human population is

important in understanding the characteristics of the society, as a whole or as in
its parts or sections. Demographic studies provide significant information of the
population that enables social scientists to grasp the varied social conditions
occurring within and around the society. These also help in dealing with
concerns of allocation and planning in the management of resources available
for the society.

5. Human ecology – This is the study of understanding social phenomena in the

context of its ecology, either with social ecology, cultural ecology or natural
ecology. It is concerned with the process of how society adjusts or adapts with
the characteristics of its environment.
Pioneers in the Study of Society and Culture
There are several names and personalities that are considered pioneers in the
study of society and culture. Their contributions and studies paved way in establishing a
scientific study of society and culture that is sociology and anthropology. Some names
are noteworthy to mention such as the following.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) – introduced the idea that society was formed following
the notion of a social contract. That is, people agreed to live together because they
realized they have a common goal. (Curtis, 1981)
John Locke (1632 – 1704) – reasoned that science can be applied equally to the study of
natural bodies and to human behavior. He argued that predictions of both should be
based on better observation, measurement and reason. (Curtis, 1981)

Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) – identifies land, labor and capital as the three factors of
production. He also discussed the benefits of division of labor for a nation. He viewed
economy as a self-regulating system that satisfies the need of the people. It is like an
invisible hand that motivates the people to fulfill their interests, which in turn gratifies
the interest of society as a whole. (Solidum, 1994)

Henri Saint-Simon (1760 – 1825) – introduced the concept of a social physiology, a

concept he pulled from the idea of social physics. For Saint-Simon, society involves
forces acting upon one another producing observable patterns of interaction and
relationships. (Bernard, 1994)

August Comte (1798 – 1857) – established the positivistic science of humanity he called
sociology, for that he was called “The Father of Sociology”. Comte’s positivism brought
the idea that the scientific method is the surest way to produce effective knowledge of
society. (Panopio [Link], 1994)
Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) –posited history as a product of conflicting forces and ideas,
and society is always with struggles between classes. He believed the economy is at the
center of any social dynamic. Together with Frederick Engels, he published The
Communist Manifesto which became a critical foundation of most conflict perspectives
in the social sciences. (Solidum, 1994)

Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) –presented the idea of society as an organic system. He
believed that, like biological organisms, society has parts or organs which can be
observed and investigated. He also tried to apply the concepts of evolution to the study
of social conditions, with the notion of “survival of the fittest”. (Haviland, 1990)
Edward B. Tylor (1832 – 1917) –formulated the widely accepted definition of culture as
a holistic body of ideas and knowledge. He also provided an alternative concept of
“savages” which for him are intellectuals but only with limited information. (Haviland,
1990)

Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) – introduced the idea of social solidarity as he compared
the conditions in an organic society to the state of a mechanical society. He also
instituted the concept of division of labor in society, as well as the idea of anomie as the
cause of abnormal social phenomena. (Panopio [Link], 1994; Solidum, 1994)

Franz Boas (1858 – 1942) – particularly initiated a relativistic approach in the study of
culture and society. For Boas, culture should be judged according its own norms rather
that from the perspective of the investigator. (Haviland, 1990)

Max Weber (1864 – 1920) – emphasized the goal of value-free inquiry (relative and
subjective) and the need for understanding the world through one’s perspective.
(Solidum, 1994)

A. R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881 – 1955) – maintained the belief that society has a particular
function that serves to perpetuate the structure of that society. This enabled social
scientists look at society and culture as systems and how their parts function in
maintaining that system. (Haviland, 1990)

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884 – 1942) – pointed the efficiency of ethnographic fieldwork

as an approach, particularly participant observation, in understanding social phenomena
through his works among a group of indigents in the Pacific. (Haviland, 1990)
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908 – 2009) – led the idea of structuralism, which sees culture
and society as representations of underlying mental structures that are influenced by
their experiences and environment. He also posited the notion of binary opposition,
that is, people usually think in contrastive pairs of polar opposite. (Haviland, 1990)

Pierre Bourdieu (1930 - 2002) – formulated the theory of habitus and practice in
understanding culture. For him, culture is only a suggestion, a pattern of operational
standards that members of a society develop through their history, and that members
of society have conscious role and capability of altering and choosing the aspects of
culture which they think fit for their purpose. (Bernard, 1994; Moore and Sanders, 2006)
Lesson 2 – Theories and Methods
The study of society and culture uses a number theories and methodologies in
understanding different social phenomena. These diverse lights allow social scientists to
look at the conditions of society from distinctive points, thus giving people a greater and
much encompassing meaning of what society and culture are and how they really
operate.

Schools of Thought in the Social Sciences

There are several ways how social sciences look at any social phenomena. They
follow certain theoretical perspectives in understanding and interpreting different social
conditions. These are the evolutionary, structural-functional, conflict, symbolic
interaction and modern and post-modern views (Bernard, 1994; Panopio [Link], 1994).

Evolutionary Perspective
Evolution postulates that any system or organism started from simpler forms
and developed to much more complex structures as a result of gradual and
continuous change in the process of adapting to the need required by the
surrounding environment (Haviland, 1990). Society and culture, as systems,
follow such pattern of change as a mechanism for adaptation and survival.

Structural – Functional Perspective

This school believes that society has a structure which is composed of parts or
organs. Each of these parts of the structure has a certain purpose or function for
the operation of the whole society as a system (Haviland, 1990; Panopio [Link],
1994). Consensus among the parts, as well as their respective purposes, should
make for effective function of the system, and conflict results in disorganization
or dysfunction (Bernard, 1994).
 Social Conflict Perspective
Conflict perspective sees society as a struggle between forces and ideas
(Haviland, 1990; Panopio [Link], 1994; Solidum, 1994). Struggle leads to change or
stagnation, depending on the perceived differences among the forces and ideas
acted upon by the members of society.

Symbolic Interactionism
People use symbols in interacting with one another (Haviland, 1990; Kottak,
2000; Panopio [Link], 1994). Understanding the underlying meanings of these
symbols as used in the related context shall lead to better understanding of the
whole society.

Modern and post-modern perspectives

Modern perspectives believe that understanding society and culture should not
follow any conventional theoretical framework. Rather, different norms and
standards operate in different systems and conditions (Bernard, 1994). Post-
moderns, however, try to break the traditional frame how people look at society
and culture.

Approaches in the Study of Society and Culture

There are three main approaches in the study of society and culture. These are
qualitative, quantitative and mixed approaches (Bernard, 1994).

1. Qualitative Approach
Qualitative research deals with recording, analyzing and understanding the
meaning and purpose of human behavior and experience. It is concerned with
features and characteristics that are not quantified, or that are not measured or
 represented numerically. These features may include perceptions, descriptions
and imageries, narrations, and commentaries.
2. Quantitative Approach
Quantitative research is collecting and translating data into numerical form that
will be calculated statistically to make conclusions. The aim of quantitative study
is to know the relationship between factors or conditions involved in a
phenomenon, called variables. It can either be a descriptive study which shows
association between variables; or an experimental investigation which roots
causality between variables.
3. Mixed Approach
The mixed approach is concerned with using the method that is best suited to
the research problem. It allows the investigator to use any quantitative or
qualitative methods, techniques and procedures. Every method has limitations
and the different approaches can be complementary.

Data Gathering Methods

The study of society and culture employs the scientific methodology. The
following methods are used in gathering data in social investigation (Bernard, 1994).
1. Observation – The method of gathering information using the five bodily senses
namely sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
2. Participant observation – It is similar to the typical observation of using the five
senses in gathering information, but different from it because there is a need for
the investigator to do the observation as part of the group or the phenomenon.
As a participant, the investigator is actually an active mover in the phenomenon,
thus providing a new perspective in looking at the social conditions – the
insider’s point of view. This allows the researcher to interpret his observation
beyond the use of his senses and including his feelings, intuitions and cognition.
3. Interview and survey – Both interviews and surveys are methods that do inquiry
directly to the subject. Questions are directed to the concerned subject in
 getting the needed information. There are some basic differences, though,
between the two. Interviews are primarily concerned with qualitative
information while survey requires quantitative data. Following this fact,
interviews usually need a few informants and survey mostly wants a significant
number of respondents. With their inquiry, interview uses a set of guide
question referred to as interview protocol while survey has a structured set of
questions called survey questionnaire. Information gathered from interviews is
processed using a coding system, a method of classifying and differentiating the
answers given by several informants to come up with a more substantial
knowledge. Statistical treatment is needed for the data generated from survey to
make more significant qualitative figures.
4. Experimentation - This allows the investigator to generate information by
simulating conditions regarding social phenomena or their part or parts.
Experiment is concerned with several factors involved in the phenomenon
investigated called variables, holding all variables in constant except one. That
one varied condition is the experimental variable, and all constant conditions are
called controlled variables. The goal in experiment is to test the effect of the
experimental variable to the phenomenon studied.
5. Case study - It is an intensive and rigorous examination of a particular social
condition or phenomenon, called case, over a significant period of time. In the
case study, all conditions and events are carefully recorded and consequently
analyzed and evaluated against certain assumptions or hypotheses. Mostly, case
study employs other data gathering techniques in combination with one another
in generating results.
6. Ethnography - This is a systematic and holistic description of a culture based on
first hand observation and inquiry in the field. It requires the researcher to live
among the people under study and gather information through participant
observation. These techniques enable the investigator to look from a far greater
perspective in understanding society’s ways of life.
Name:_CAMPOSAGRADO, KURT HOMER M. ___________________ Score: ______
Section/ Schedule: ___B148/TTH 5:30-7:00___ Date: __SEPTEMBER 9, 2019______

Exercise 2

Choose a public area where many people are found. Observe the dynamics of the
people the area. Record fifteen salient features or descriptions of their behavior you
have observed.

1. Students in Perez park do a lot of practices for their school work

2. Many people go there to date

3. People are very carefree in the park

4. People tend to stay in one place for long periods

5. Many street vendors come to sell their products

6. People treat this place as a resting area

7. People talk to each other here a lot

8. Children play in the playground despite the burning sun

9. A lot of beggars stay there

10. Many people are employed to clean the area

11. People stay here to eat snacks

12. Students use the area as a lounging and studying area

13. Most people come to relax

14. People share gossips and stories

15. People come to just pass the time

Lesson 3 – Nature and Nurture
The composition of humans is influenced by the two great factors of nature (biology)
and nurture (culture). Human potentials are given by nature by means of heredity; the
growth and development of human potentials are learned through cultural
opportunities and socialization.

The Beginnings of Culture

Human beings as biological organisms belong to the primate order, which
includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys and apes (Haviland, 1990). They share common
features with these primates in anatomy as well as behavior. This idea conceived the
notion of human evolution. With our similar characteristics with other primates, fossil
evidences found by early scholars affirmed the view that humans probably underwent a
slow and gradual process of change (Haviland, 1990). This process of change is a way of
adaptation.
Anthropologists listed a number of similar characteristics common to all
primates, including humans. Anatomical adaptations among humans are characterized
by brain size and skeletal and dental structures. Behavioral adaptations include
language, social organization, and culture (Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000). All these
adaptive characteristics account in the development of humans as separate from other
animals.
One key feature that separates humans from other animals is culture and
language. Only humans have a sensible language systems and a way of life with a
definite purpose. It began with simple tool-making and symbolic communication, and
eventually developing into complex cultural and language systems (Kottak, 2000).
The Nature of Culture
Culture as a system of social operations can be described according to a number
of characteristics. Some of the main attributes of culture includes the following:
1. Culture is the total way of life (Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000). Culture can be
defined as everything people have, think, and do as members of a society.
This refers to the three major components of culture – material assets
(everything people have), values and dispositions (everything people think),
and behavior and practices (everything people do). Thus, all cultures
comprise material objects, ideas, values, dispositions, and patterned ways of
behaving. It is the totality of society’s way of life.

2. Culture is learned (Haviland, 1990; Panopio [Link], 1994; Kottak, 2000).

Culture is not transmitted genetically, that is instinct. Culture is an invention
of man and it is learned. Members of society learn culture from their elders.
The process of learning culture is called enculturation.

3. Culture is a shared phenomenon (Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000). Behavior or

idea is cultural if it has a meaning shared by most people in a society. With a
common culture people shall like according to the same set of standards and
norms.

4. Culture is adaptive and dynamic (Haviland, 1990). Culture is ever changing. It

is always adapting to the conditions of its environment. The patterns of
behavior passed on from generation to generations are continuously in the
process of modification to adapt to the changing needs of time and demands
of people.

5. Culture is symbolic (Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000). Symbols are anything that
carries a particular meaning recognized and shared by members of a group.
 Aspects of culture are conveyed among members of society using symbolic
representations such as language, gestures and material representations.
Components of Culture
Culture is composed of several aspects (Jocano, 1999). These are resources that
describe the characteristics and features of a way of life. These include values, beliefs
and norms.
 Values are culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty.
 Beliefs are statements or ideas that people accept to be true.
 Norms are rules and expectations prescribed by the society to its members. They
can be mores or folkways.
o Mores – these are the society’s standards of proper moral conduct.
o Folkways – these are society’s customs for routine and casual interaction.
 Traditions are components of culture that have been passed on from generation
to generation.

Belief among Filipinos somewhat corresponds to diwa which refers to an inner

meaning emanating from our beings. To make things effective, diwa should be clearly
and accurately translated into appropriate sets of behavior we call asal, which roughly
relates to customs and mores. This notion of proper manifestations of belief in conduct
makes for effective and functional performance. This expression of asal from diwa shall
be founded steadily over the bases of Filipino core values or pagpapahalaga. (Jocano,
1998; 1999)

Forms of Cultural Assets

Culture is considered asset because it is an important component of society
shared among its members. It can either be tangible or intangible forms of asset (Kottak,
2000; Ember and Ember, 1993).
 1. Tangible – Material culture. These are the things that people use in their
everyday life as members of society like books, buildings, clothing, vehicles and
food.
2. Intangible – Nonmaterial culture. These may be composed of abstract ideas or
concepts appropriated by members of society in their interaction and relation
with others. Examples of which are beliefs, practices, songs, dances and customs.

Attitudes towards Culture

People look at culture differently. Most of the time, they see culture and its
purpose in relation to their own ways and standards. Some of the attitudes towards
culture are ethnocentrism, xenocentrism and relativism (Ember and Ember, 1993;
Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000; Panopio [Link], 1994).
 Ethnocentrism – people consider their own culture as superior to others and
apply their standards for evaluating the patterns of behavior of others.
 Xenocentrism – people consider their own culture as inferior to others and see
other cultures as ideal.
 Cultural Relativism – it is the attitude of judging a culture by its own standards.

Cultural Patterns
 Culture Universals are aspects of culture that are present in most societies
(Ember and Ember, 1993; Haviland, 1990; Kottak, 2000).
 Subculture is the cultural patterns that set apart some segments of a society’s
population (Panopio [Link], 1994). Such patterns are related to the general culture
of the society and yet distinguishable from it.
 Counter culture is a subculture that is in active opposition to the dominant
culture (Panopio [Link], 1994). It comprises cultural patterns that resist widely
accepted models within a society.
Name:_CAMPOSAGRADO, KURT HOMER M. ___________________ Score: ______
Section/ Schedule: ___B148/TTH 5:30-7:00___ Date: __SEPTEMBER 9, 2019______

Exercise 3
Make a list of fifteen aspects of your own culture. Identify them as either value, belief,
more or folkway.
Aspect of culture Classification

1. THROWING TRASH IN THE PROPER TRASH BINS MORE

[Link] THE AUTHORITY OF MY PARENTS FOLKWAY

[Link] THE LAUNDRY MORE

[Link] BEFORE GOING TO BED BELIEF

[Link] ERRANDS FOR MY MOTHER VALUE

[Link] MORE

[Link] IN CLEANING THE HOUSE MORE

[Link] MY SCHOOL WORKS MORE

[Link] RESPECT TO THE ELDERLY RELATIVES FOLKWAY

[Link] WAY FOR THE ELDERLY IN PUBLIC TRANSPORT MORE

[Link] RESPECT TO MY PROFESSORS MORE

[Link] MONEY MORE

[Link] EATING PORK CAUSE ITS DIRTY BELIEF

[Link] TO CHURCH IN THE SABBATH BELIEF

[Link] EATING CRUSTACEANS BECAUSE OF RELIGION BELIEF

Lesson 4 – Cultural Inventory
Cultural inventory is a list of cultural assets of a society. This includes recording local
history, identification of landmarks and places of cultural, historical and economic value,
classify local industry present in the area, distinguish local traditions, and recognize
individuals or groups and organizations that give valuable contribution to the said
society.

Purpose of Cultural Inventory

Cultural inventory helps social scientists in providing a thorough description of
the culture of their target society, as well as the physical features of the community.
This information will help societies recognize and celebrate cultural diversity and initiate
active conservation and use of culture for development. Its results can also prepare the
ground for more effective cultural planning and development of society.

Information Gathered in a Cultural Inventory

• Local history
• Landmarks and places of cultural or historical value
• Local industries and livelihood, such as traditional and commercial
• Local traditions and events

Methods Employed in Cultural Inventory

 Interview
 Survey using prepared inventory forms
 Observation and recording

Instruments Needed for Cultural Inventory

 Interview protocol or guide questions
 Inventory form designed according to purpose
 Recording instruments (for pictures, video and/or audio)
Name:_CAMPOSAGRADO, KURT HOMER M. ___________________ Score: ______
Section/ Schedule: ___B148/TTH 5:30-7:00___ Date: __SEPTEMBER 9, 2019______

Exercise 4
Make a cultural inventory of your own society. Fill in all necessary information asked
in the form below.

Local History
Name of source Polilo Local Government Unit

Details The polillo lgu is the main governing unit of the town of polillo

Landmark/ Place of Cultural or Historical Value

Name of Rizal shrine
Landmark/place

Location in the area Beside polillo sports complex

Nature and Description A statue of Rizal situated beside the polillo sports complex
and infront of the LGU office

Local Industry/ Livelihood in the Area

Name of industry/ Fishing and coconut industry
livelihood

Type of industry □ Traditional

□ Industrial
Product/ Services Seafood, copra and coco husk crafts

Local Tradition
Name of Tradition Tariktik festival
Type □ Legends/ Folklore
□ Chants/ Songs
□ Festivals/ Celebrations
□ Rites/ Rituals/ Practices
□ Visual/ Painting/ Sculpture
Details/ Celebrated yearly every 18th of march to commemorate the
Descriptions founding of the town of polillo, a celebration based on the local
polillian hornbilll