Copyright © IFAC Control of Industrial Systems.

Belfolt. France. 1997

INDUSTRIAL CONTROL, TECHNOLOGY TRENDS AND THE SKILL BASE

M.A. Hersh* and M.A. Johnson**

*Centre for Systems and Control & Department ofElectronics and Electrical
Engineering,
University ofGlasgow, Glasgow G12 8LT, Scotland
reI: -"-441413394906. Fax: ~44 141 3304907. E-mail: MHersh@[Link]

**lndustnal Control Centre, University ofStrathclyde, Glasgow G1 1QE.

reI: ~44 1415524400 Extn.2279 Fax: +441415484203.
E-mail: mjohnson@[Link]

Abstract: Over the last twenty years a range of new automation and control technology
has been introduced into the workplace. However investigation of the effects of this
technology has generally been from an economic or social science, rather than
engineering, point of view and concentrated on information technology and automation,
rather than control. In this paper a detailed classification is given of control technology
now in use and the adequacy of the existing skill base and the effects of the introduction
of this technology into the work place on the skill base are discussed.

Resume: Pendant les dernieres vingt annees on a introduit une gamme de technologie
d'automation et de comrnande dans les lieux de travail. Cependant ce sont les specialistes
des sciences sociales et les economistes plutot que les ingenieurs qui etudent les effets de
cette technologie et l'accent est plutot sur l'automation que sur la comrnande. Cet article
presente une classification detaillee de la technologie utilisee actuellement et discute la
competence de la base existante des connaissances et les effets de l'introdution de cette
technologie dans les lieux de travail sur la base de connaissances.

Key words: industrial control, skilling, deskilling, polarisation, training

1. INTRODUCTION power was steam and electricity respectively. In the

second stage continuous-flow assembly lines and
Since the eighteenth century technological change processes were also introduced.
has been part of the process of industrialisation
(McLoughlin and Clark 1988). This process has In the third stage, tertiary mechanisation, electronics
occurred in a number of stages, starting with based information and computing technologies,
mechanisation, in which human labour was replaced including control, were introduced to co-<>rdinate
by machines and moving on to automation, which and control processes. Thus the introduction of
can be divided into three phases (Gill, 1985), control technology into industry can be seen as part
distinguished by the types of power and control of the latest stage in process automation. As will be
strategies. In the first two stages, primary and discussed further in subsequent sections industrial
secondary mechanisation, the machinery was control technology has also itself gone through a
controlled solely by human operators and the motive number of stages of development.

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The other main topic to be considered here (in event d)namical systems (DEDS) and the product is
sections 5-8) is the match or mismatch between the the global outcome of a sequence of accurately timed
technology and available skillbase and the effects of discrete sub-processes outcomes or events.
the technology on the skillbase. This is a very
important topic, since, despite the putative prospect Discrete manufacturing processes may be further
of the 'workerless factory', in the foreseeable future, sub-divided into three types characterised by the
control (as all other) technology \\'ill be dependent throughput volume (Viswanadham and Narahari,
for its effective and efficient operation on the 1992): Job Shops, Batch Production and High
availability of an appropriate skillbase. Thus, as Volume Production Lines.
already indicated, the paper is divided into two main
parts, with control technology considered in the first The automation of discrete processes is sometimes
part (sections 2-4) and its effects on the skill base in called manufacturing automation to distinguish it
the second part (sections 5-8). Conclusions are from process automation. However the
presented in section 9. technological distance between process and
manufacturing automation is diminishing.

2. MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
3. COMPlITER INTEGRATED ENfERPRISES
2.1 Introduction (CIE'S)

Manufacturing processes are inherently structured The development of computer systems and
and sequential. The chain of operations can be communications networks has lead to the closer
continuous or discrete. In most cases it is a mixture integration of all the different functions of a
of the two, so that the process line is often a discrete commercial enterprise, sales, production,
sequence of continuous operational units. The warehousing, management and personnel. This has
process line hardware is usually highly capital led to the concept of the computer integrated
intensive, with an expected life-time of decades. enterprise (CIE) which is highly responsive to the
Decisions to invest or develop a new hardware commercial and business environment. It is also
technology in the manufacturing industry have to be having far reaching design, procurement and
carefully investigated as part of a long term company operational implications (Gobbrick and Legge,
strategy. 1996).

To comprehend the implications of technology 3.1 Automation Hardware

changes it is necessary to define the basic
terminology and establish a classification of the The classification of manufacturing processes into
manufacturing area. discrete and continuous flow processes can also be
used to describe the automation hardware.
Definition 1 (Viswandharn and Narahari, 1992).
Manufacturing is a transformation process by which Manufacturing Automation: The discrete nature of
raw materials, labour, energy and equipment are the three classes of manufacturing processes, and the
brought together to produce goods of a desired fact that these processes are predominately used to
specification or quality. assemble the end product from components has
meant that manufacturing automation has become
2.2 Manufacturing System Configurations almost synonymous \\'ith the production line:
computer numerically controlled machine (CNC)
The broad definition of manufacturing encompasses centres, assembly stations, inspection machines. and
two classes of manufacturing systems : continuous the sophisticated range of material handling
flow processes and discrete manufacturing processes. equipment: robots, conveyors, and AGV's. Thus
today, manufacturing automation as a discipline
Continuous Flow Processes: Continuous flow comprises the strategic problems of running an
processes are characterised by a bulk refined automated manufacturing system, for which the
material or energy output, such as power generation, supervisory, scheduling and performance issues are
which results from a series of continuous process of increasing importance.
units; typically these are primary industrial
processes. Process Automation : The primary processes of
industry usually produce the inputs to assembly
Discrete Processes Discrete Manufacturing orientated manufacturing processes. In continuous
processes are used to produce discrete goods, such as flow processes, automation is less about the process
white goods. Technically these processes are discrete line plant items and far more about the local control

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of actuators and global control of the entire process /microcomputers, LANlLong distance bus and main
line using the hardware and software of the frame.
distributed computer control system. This technology
can be discussed under two sub-headings as follows:
4. TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS AND SKILLS
Digital Control and the Distributed Control System:
In the context of the distributed control system, the 4.1 Trends and Skills
key to understanding the implemented digital control
is the DCS applications software. Each installed Advances in Industrial Control Technology: Small
digital control algorithm is likely to use proprietary improvements in the technology used at each layer of
software, based on a set of PID and/or classical the operational hierarchy are increasing the global
control algorithms. Therefore much of industrial efficiency and effectiveness of the industrial
control appears to be based on existing designs enterprise. For instance a self-validating sensor for
rather than careful re-assessment for the specific temperature measurement is a typical improvement.
installation. Often it is not advanced control, but In the specialist area of single controller units for
rather an effective control loop structure, using the process control, technological developments appear
available actuators and sensors, which is required. to have removed the need to understand PID tuning
Expert input and good engineering studies are rules. However it is still an open question whether
needed for this work. the installer skillbase is able to utilize the advanced
features, (Hersh and Johnson, 1966).
Single Controller Units: The use ofPID for process
control meant that the pot tuned analogue PID Global Industrial Systems Engineering : Potential
controller was the dominant technology for a very enhancements of control designs at the digital
long time. In the mid-eighties the technology control level are becoming increasingly less
changed dramatically with Hagglund and Astrom's important in terms of rapid economic return for
(1985) introduction of the relay experiment into the production plant. The problem is now how to make
PID tuning process. The culture of push-button the most effective use of the information processing
automatic tuning (autotune) for PID controller capabilities of the enterprise network to enhance
hardware followed. Many devices went further and economic performance of the process plant
incorporated even more advanced features. For
example, OMRON market a device based on PID Role of the Process Operator : The process
and fuzzy logic. operator's position has also changed due to the full
integration of individual process units into the plant
3.2 The Use ofInformation Highways wide computer system. However, it is now necessary
for the operator to fully understand the global
Using information highways to inform, control and implications of local process unit actions. This has
monitor sequential plant processes creates a global lead to the installation of process simulators with
yet tightly integrated framework for process and associated operator training to perfect the control of
industrial control. On an enterprise level this means particular process units.
that commercial operations like Sales, Warehousing
and Distribution can be more closely integrated with An Interim Summary: Present technological trends
the manufacturing plant. support the notion of enhanced enterprise integration
using the increasing capabilities of information.,
3.3 The Operational Hierarchy ofCIE'S computing and communications technology. The
technological implications for the skillbase appear to
The hardware used to control a large scale industrial be two fold:
process is a Distributed Computer Control System
(popovic and Bhatkar, 1990). As the cost of (1) : A high level of professional engineering
computer hardware and software has fallen and its skills is required to support the analysis, design,
capabilities increased, advanced computer systems installation and maintenance of this distributed
for process plant have been developed to encompass computer control system technology. The skillbase
the individual process units right through each must contain specialist expertise in production
production site to the higher management levels of engineering, communications, computing. control,
an industrial enterprise. Thus the basic operational and instrumentation. as well as generalist engineers
hierarchy is mirrored by a computing and able to specify and configure such systems in
communications hardware network and an conjunction with specialist engineers.
information hierarchy. For example, the computing (2) : The introduction of new industrial control
hardware and information hierarchy is: Field bus technology seems to have increased the level of
technology and PLC's, System bus and process operative skills required.
microcomputers, System bus and mini

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 5. A BRIEF DISCUSSION categorised according to five levels of cognitive
OF TIlE TERM 'SKilL' functions as doing, controlling, learning, designing
and valuing (Hirschhom and Mokray, 1992).
Before investigating the effects of advanced However AMT often requires skills in different
manufacturing technology (AMT) on the skillbase, it areas, making it very difficult to determine whether
is useful to clarify what is meant by 'skill' and, more up- or deskilling has occurred. It can also be argued
particularly, how changes in levels of skill are that this focus on changes in skill levels is detracting
measured or even recognised. Although the term attention from the real issues of the development and
skill is \\-idely used and generally understood, there effective use of the full range of all employees'
is no one generally accepted measure of skill levels. skills.
However indicators of job skill level include the
prerequisite qualifications and length of training
period, the time required to learn to do the job well, 6. ADVANCED MANUFACTURING
the extent of direct responsibility for supervision of TECHNOLOGY AND TIlE SKll..L BASE:
other workers (GaIlie, 1994), and the requirement SKll..LING OR DESKll..LING
for special skills or qualities.
Despite the increasing importance of advanced
There are also differences between the concepts of control technology in industry, there has been little
'skill' and 'skilled job', although the two are investigation of the introduction of this technology
sometimes confused. 'Skill' focuses on workers' on the workforce or the adequacy of the existing
aptitudes, the complexities of particular tasks and skillbase. However the effects of advanced
the abilities required to perform them, whereas manufacturing technology (AMT) and
definition of a job as 'skilled' is often as much a microelectronics technology, of which control
function of social perceptions, high rates of pay and technology is a particular category, on the work
high status as the technical complexity of the tasks it force have been extensively investigated, though the
consists of. majority of these investigations have been carried
out solely by economists -with little input from
Skill is not only defined in the technical sense of engineers, possibly resulting in some
ability to perform a particular task or sequence of misunderstanding of the technology involved.
tasks, but is also a social construct, depending on
factors such as gender (Rose et al, 1994) and the There are three main theories of the affect of
politics of the workplace. While it is the technical technology on the workforce (Gallie,1994).
side of skill that determines whether the available Deskilling assumes that capitalist production
workforce will be able to make new technology requires a constant transformation of the technology
perform satisfactorily, the social construct element of production, with increasing mechanisation and
of skill is equally important in determining automation, and leads to displacement of skills and
productivity and the overall success of the increased control over all parts of the profit making
introduction of new technology, since this largely process (Braverman, 1974). Upskilling assumes that
determines status, reward and job satisfaction. A the technological developments of advanced
case in point is the perception of women's work, industrial society give rise to steadily more complex
which is often skilled in terms of job content but types of work, requiring higher skill levels. The
rarely perceived, graded or rewarded as such compensatory theory of skilling assumes that a
(Knights and Wilmott, 1986; Walby, 1986). change in the skill profile occurs, with some skills
being upgraded and others doMlgraded, often
Although training, qualifications, wage rates, job leading to a polarisation of the work force between
classification and skill levels are all highly those who benefit economicaIly from technical
interrelated, in most cases the relationships and innovations and those trapped in low skilled jobs.
boundaries are generally blurred. However this is
not always the case and one example of an industry For many years deskilling was the dominant theory,
\\-ith a very well defined job classification, largely due to Braverman's highly influential
qualification and wage structure is given by the Marxist analysis (1974), as well as understandable
metal industry in Australia (Ogden, 1992). fears on the part of many trade unions. However
available survey evidence contradicts this theory.
Much of the debate round the effects on new Although care has to be taken in interpreting the
technology on the skillbase has centred on whether it results of surveys, the fact that almost all the surveys
leads to increases (upskilling) or decreases show that more upskilling than do\\-nskilling, often
(deskilling) in skill levels. In order to determine accompanied by a polarisation of the work force,
this, a categorisation of skills or skill levels is occurs, is strong evidence. Indi\iduaIs firms often
required. Thus, for instance, skills have been expect numbers of workers and their qualification

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levels to either increase or decrease (Taylor et al, within the same industry. Industries which use
1985). more advanced processes, such as the electronics
industry generally spend 2 - 4 times as much on
One finding is that AMT requires a much \\'ider education and training as more traditional industries
range of skills than previous conventional such as textiles, leather and paper (OECD, 1991). In
technology, giving rise to the concept of multi- Britain training is often aimed at the young,
skilling, which is, however, not the same as professionals and managers. Although appropriate
upskilling (Hendr)', 1990). Multi-skilled operators training depends on national culture, amongst other
are rare and only a minority of workers are skilled in factors, and there is not a unique model to be
both mechanical and electrical tasks. Multi-skilling emulated some countries clearly put more resources
allows increased flexibility with reduced work force into training than others.
levels and may lead to blurring or elimination of
formal demarcation between different types of
workers. Although versatility and skill diversity of 8. CONTROL AND THE SKll..LBASE:
the work force are desirable, it should be recognised CNC AND A PROCESS CONTROL EXAMPLE
that there is a limit to skill acquisition by a given
worker and a survey of a number of companies in The introduction of computer numerical control
1990 showed consensus on seven skill modules as (CNC) machine tools was originally expected to lead
the maximum number that could be assimilated and to deskilling of shop floor workers, but this has not
retained (C1ark, 1993). The introduction of generally occurred. CNC operators generally require
computer based information technology has almost advanced machining skills to a greater extent than
universally led to multi-skilling, with changes in job information technology skills and the most crucial
title, increased teamwork and greater respect for problems, such as tooling and breakdowns, require
machine maintenance, though the specifics depend skills which are directly developed on the machine.
on the given situation. The development of multi The higher skill requirements of CNC operators
disciplinary cross functional project teams is often a result in less demand on planners and programmers.
major part of organisational redesign. In one of the first studies in Britain of the use of NC
and CNC machines in five firms supplying parts and
The skills of the available workforce generally play equipment for the aerospace industry a redistribution
an important role in determining how information rather than elimination of skills was found (Jones,
technology is applied and an inadequate level of 1982) Programming tasks required prior knowledge
qualification will often lead to poor or sub-optimal of metal cutting tools and the materials to be worked
performance of the technology. Unfortunately skill which could often only be acquired by shop floor
shortages are a universal problem, though there are experience.
differences between countries in the scale and details
of the problem. This mismatch between the existing A study into the introduction of computerised
skill base and new technology, including skill process control at United Biscuits (Buchanan and
shortages and under-investment in training is the Boddy, 1983; Buchanan, 1986) illustrates the
main barrier to the introduction of advanced determining effect that management objectives and
manufacturing technology (OECD, 1991). the way technology is introduced can have on the
resulting (changes in) skill levels and job
satisfaction. In the mixing stage the introduction of
7. EDUCATION AND TRAINING computer control replaced manual dough mixing.
The doughrnen lost status as skilled master bakers
Adjustment to AMT is crucially dependent on and were regraded as mixer operators, \\'ith little
adequate training and diffusion of technology within control over the process and no need for their
firms, with reskilling of existing workers as traditional baking skills. Since the doughrnen were
important as hiring new workers \\'ith additional unable to trace and diagnose equipment faults,
skills (OECD, 1991). Many companies, particularly skilled technicians were required for repairs, making
in Germany, are increasingly seeing the merits of them take longer. Operator work became repetitive
retaining and stressing traditional craft skills when and boring, resulting in carelessness and avoidable
introducing new technology. The greatest difficulties mistakes. Thus this is an example of the introduction
have been found in training engineers who design, of computer control resulting in deskilling and non-
implement and support systems, such as CAD/CAM utilisation of available skill. In general management
systems, where innovation and creativity is also can offset the worst effect of technology designed to
required Approaches to education and training vary replace human intervention by redesigning jobs to
greatly between countries, industries and firms incorporate a broad range of tasks.

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 9. CONCLUSIONS Hendry, C. (1990). New technology, new careers,
New technology, work and employment, 5, pp.
A classification of the control technology at present 31-43.
in use in the workplace has been presented and its Hersh, M.A. and M.A. Johnson (1996). A study of
effects on the skillbase, as well as the adequacy of advanced control systems in the workplace,
existing skills have been discussed. Owing to the Submitted to Control Engineering Practice.
lack of detailed investigation of the specific effects of Hirschhorn, L. and J. Mokray (1992). Automation
control technology, many of the conclusions drawn and competency requirements in manufacturing:
are by e>..1rapolation from the effects of more general a case study. In Technology and the future of
AMT, of which control technology is a specific work, S. Adler (00), Oxford University Press.
example. Thus there is a need for research into the Jones, B. (1982). Destruction or redistribution of
specific effects of control technology on the engineering skills? The case of numerical
workforce and skillbase and this will fonn the control. In The degradation of work? S. Wood
subject of further research. (ed), Hutchinson. pp. 179-200.
Knights, D. and H. Wilmott (eds) (1986). Gender
and the labour process. Gower.
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