Chapter II
Review of Related Literature and Studies
Being always present in class and getting to school on time are two
of the crucial determining factors of a student’s success, not just as a
student but as a person who will be managing his/her own life in the future.
Given the importance of being punctual, this study aims to explore and find
out the factors that affect the punctuality of UP students. In this chapter, we
will be discussing about the background of our study. It includes facts about
tardiness, the different factors that causes it and its effect to the students as
students and as bearer of their own lives in the future. From reliable
research materials like online journals and research papers, we will provide
some facts and theories from authors, teachers and notable people in order
to have a concrete justification of our study.
First, we will give a definition of tardiness and present some theories
and facts about it. Next, we will discuss he various factors that causes the
students to come to school late, the psychological theories, the observation
of the teachers and the personal reasons of the students. Lastly, the effects
of tardiness to students, not just to himself/herself but also to his/her future
and to other people, will be discussed.
Tardiness
As UP students, we are expected to perform well with excellence in
everything that we do, most especially in the academic aspect. One factor
that dictates the quality of performance of a student is his/her punctuality
that is, getting to school on time or being tardy. As cited by Nakpodia and
Dafiaghor (2011), “lateness” can be defined as the “situation where an
individual arrives after the proper, scheduled or usual time (Oxford Advance
Learners’ Dictionary, 5th ed., 1995), Lauby (2009) puts it as a term used to
describe “people not showing up on time” and Breeze et al. (2010)
contributed by saying that, lateness is synonymous with “tardiness”, which
implies being slow to act or slow to respond, thus not meeting up with
proper or usual timing. Lastly, Weade (2004) defined tardiness as “being
late for any measurable length of time past the stated or scheduled start
time for work or school.” In most schools, a student is considered tardy
when he/she is not present when the school bell rings or when the first
teacher starts to give instructional materials for the first subject in the
morning class.
One of the most recurring and the most “frustrating problem” that the
schools are having with their students nowadays is tardiness (Sprick and
Daniels, 2007). It creates problems, not just to the students but also to
the teachers (Cowan Avenue Elementary School Community, 2007, para 1).
Cowan Crier, the official School Publication of CAESC, also states that while
having “occasional tardy” isn’t a big deal, unfailing tardiness is and it gives
students problems including being ill-prepared for the job market. According
to the results of the study of the U.S. Department of Education on “truancy”,
which is related to tardiness, being present and on time in going to school
are big factors on the “success and behavior” of the students (Zeiger, 2010,
para 1). Thus, it is a lot important to value time and practice being on time
while being a student.
According to CAESC (2007) and Zeiger (2010), the most
essential learning time of the day for the students lies in the morning,
specifically between 8:00 to 9:30 AM. It is because the students are most
mindful and observant at this time of the day. It is also the reason why the
most important lessons and subject matters are discussed during this time.
So when students are late or are not present during this time of the day,
they, in effect, miss out most of the important lessons to be noted and
learned.
Factors affecting Punctuality
Reasons for being late in class and other factors affecting the
punctuality if a student vary. There had been some theories that pointed out
that tardiness is caused by the personality of a person. Santillano (2010)
stated that psychological theorists considered some “personality traits,
including low self-esteem and anxiety” as triggering factors of tardiness
(para 2). She also mentioned that while some theorists considered
tardiness as an “inborn quality” since our being early or late is “partially
biologically determined”, which she also agreed, other experts also believed
that some people are “chronically tardy” for the reason that they consciously
and unconsciously get good things from it (para 3).
In the book cited by Santillano, “Never be late again: 7 cures for the
punctually challenged”, the author Diana DeLonzor suggested that some
personality traits could most likely lead to a person being often late. Some of
the traits included were “struggling with self control”, “feeling nervous or
uncomfortable with social situations” and “getting distracted easily” (para 4).
Santillano also discussed about the study conducted by DeLonzor at San
Francisco State University in 1997 in which she surveyed 225 respondents
about their habits that makes them late from their appointments. It was also
a test on the personalities of the respondents that affect their habits.
According to the results of DeLonzor’s study, those respondents that were
often tardy apt to be anxious and gets distracted easily.
Nakpodia and Dafiaghor attribute lateness or tardiness to a lot of
factors or causes. Going late to bed and waking up late next morning are the
most common. The authors added film-watching late at night as a cause for
tardiness. The student may forget that he/she needs to be in school the next
day. The distance between the student’s home and school or solely the
school’s location is also considered by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor as a possible
cause for tardiness. Not just because it takes more time to get to school, but
according to the authors, the student is susceptible to more distractions and
hindrances along the way. Parent’s untimely tasks and commands are also
reasons that students come late to school. Habitual tardiness can also be
learned from other members of the family, especially from the older ones.
Lack of a firm and consistent policy on punctuality also encourages students
to come late at school since there are no consequences attached to lateness
or tardiness. These causes of tardiness will lead to serious effects.
Another study was the one conducted by Enamiroro Oghuvbu in
Nigeria. The objective of the study was to determine the causes of the
absenteeism and lateness among the secondary students in Nigeria and to
seek for solutions to the growing problem. According to Oghuvbu (2008),
female students are more likely to be late than male students because of
“their involvement in domestic activities by their parents” (para 7). Also, as
cited by Oghuvbu, “distance to school, school discipline, family background
and school location” (Emore, 2005) are some of the common causes for
the tardiness of the secondary students.
Oghuvbu collected the data from a sample size of 17, 417 Nigerian
respondents from 2005-2006. The sample was made up of 20 principals and
50 each from a set of teachers, parents and students. The means of
collecting data was through a thirty-item questionnaire answerable by either
strongly agree (SA), agreed (A), disagree (D), and strongly disagreed (SD).
The questionnaire had four questions, one of which was about the causes of
lateness among the secondary students of Nigeria.
The study revealed that the causes of lateness among the secondary
students in Nigeria were “going late to bed because of watching films and
home movies, resulting into wake up late in the morning, distance to school
and keeping friends who are not students” (Oghuvbu, 2008). These results
went consistent with the results of Oghuvbu’s reference studies which proves
that tardiness among students have been a growing problem and that it is
caused, not just because of the students but also because of the lack of
imposing discipline from the parents.
Another research partly studied about tardiness but tackled a
specific reason or factor. A study by Pimentel and Quijada (2011)
focused on the frequency of use by the UP Cebu freshmen students of
Facebook and a part of the study tackled about the effect of the famous
social networking site to UP Cebu students’ punctuality and academic
performance.
For their study, Pimentel and Quijada collected 60 respondents and
provided them with questionnaires. The questionnaires contained questions
that ask the respondents about their use of Facebook and its effects. A
certain question asked the respondents if late-night use of Facebook has an
effect on their punctuality. According to the results of the study, three out of
60 respondents are always late, eight said they are sometimes late, 12 said
they are seldom late and 37 said that they never get late due to late-night
use of Facebook. Generally, the results showed that the respondents are
seldom late in class because of late-night use of the social networking site.
Ledoux, as cited by Pimentel and Quijada, said that lack of sleep causes
neural malfunctions and further affects a person’s behavior. In the study’s
case, it is a student’s punctuality that is affected.
Sometimes, it is not solely the students’ fault why they keep on being
late in coming to class. Another factor that could affect the punctuality of a
student is the response of the teachers to tardy students. Sprick and
Daniels (2007) stated that the range of the teachers’ response was “from
ignoring them to sending them to office” (p. 21). This variation could lead
the students to confusion as to how important it is to be on time in going to
class. Another reason is the lack of motivation. Students who come to school
on time are not given incentives or rewards. Also, responses to tardiness are
lenient, that is nothing is done until the tenth strike or more. Another reason
is “giving the student the impression that they won’t be missing anything if
they are late” since in some classes, no important activities or instructions
and no lessons are being done for first few minutes. Lastly, crowded
hallways could create traffic, thus blocking the way of other students and
making it hard for them to pass through.
Effects of Tardiness
Tardiness among students has its own negative repercussions.
Nakpodia and Dafiaghor (2011) emphasized that lateness or tardiness is
not just the problem of the late student but it affects the surrounding
people. A student coming late in class distracts the rest of the students and
disrupts the flow of the teacher’s discussion. It is even a burden to the
student/s whom the late students ask for what to catch up with. The rest of
the effects given by Nakpodia and Dafiaghor are about the welfare of the
whole school, its productivity and revenue. Knowing the possible effects of
lateness or tardiness, it is necessary for solutions to be executed.
Studies have revealed that those students with “perfect or near-
perfect attendance” have good grades compared to those students who
misses classes often and late-comers (Cowan Avenue Elementary School
Community, 2007, para 3). Moreover, as mentioned by Zeiger (2010), the
results from the survey report conducted by teachers show that students
with high tardiness rates have “higher rates of suspension and other
disciplinary measures” (National Center for Education Statistics
Indicators of School Crime and Safety [NCESISCS] (2007). It also
causes the students to have behavioral problems and to drop out. Lastly,
Zeiger (2010) stated that “Students who are frequently tardy to school are
also more apt to be fired from a job for showing up late” (para 5).
A study conducted by Barbara Lee Weade on 2004 tried to
"determine if school tardiness is a predictor of work tardiness" (Weade,
2004). It provided a lot of literature that observes correlations and factors
affecting a student's tardiness. As cited by Weade, the 3rd most common
cause for the failure of a student is "excessive tardiness and unexcused
absences" (Ligon and Jackson, 1988). "Inconsistency of school rules"
(Britt, 1988) and situations such as “crowded halls, limited opportunities for
social interaction, irrelevant course content, and teacher indifference”
(Damico et al., 1990) are also factors that affect a student's attendance and
punctuality. As mentioned by Weade, personal values, financial security and
lack of parental guidance (Payne, 2001) as well as family background
(Featherstone et al., 1992) influence tardiness and absences of students.
Weade gathered data from the schools of participating students.
First and foremost, she asked consent from the students and their parents in
order to gain permission to collect their school records. She collected and
studied the attendance and punctuality records of these students based on
the number of unexcused absences and minutes of tardiness. Her study
showed that among high school students, the grade point average is
correlated with absences and tardiness. This means that students with better
attendance and punctuality have higher grade point averages and vis-à-vis.
Her study was also able to show that attendance and punctuality of students
are not consistent throughout the year. There were more absences and
tardiness at the latter part of the year. Gender has also shown to be a non-
factor in the attendance and punctuality of high school students.
The study was very comprehensive in its subject matter. It tackles
not just school tardiness but its implications on work tardiness. It shows that
"students who are on-time for school classes are also likely to be on-time at
work while students who are tardy frequently at school will probably also be
tardy at work" (Weade, 2004). The study requires a lot of data but Weade
was able to gather a sufficient amount. Though some possible correlations
were not established, it is outside the scope of this research.
Due to the fact that tardiness has been giving negative effects on
the students nowadays, the most important thing to do is to develop a firm,
consistent and functional policy that addresses late students. There must be
defined sanctions and penalties for late students. Nakpodia and Dafiaghor
(2011) stated that school administrators must lead by example. They should
be punctual in their own meetings and classes to avoid students to think that
being late is just alright since even the authoritative persons are doing it.
They should as well teach it and integrate it in every lesson. The effort on
the remedy on lateness or tardiness does not start and end with the school.
It must begin with the parents of the students and the government must
take part as well. Transportation must be improved in order to avoid
students getting stuck in traffic or encountering other obstacles down
the streets.
Some schools have already started finding solutions that would
effectively minimize and/or eliminate tardiness among students. One of the
solutions made by some schools is implementing tardiness policies, wherein
they take steps in approaching the students and parents for them to solve
the problem. CAESC has their policy worked this way. Other schools initiated
interdisciplinary curriculum that integrates discipline and conduct in
academics. Cordogan (as cited by Weade, 2004), said that a school in
Chicago, Illinois adapted a similar curriculum and yielded positive results.
Students under the interdisciplinary program exhibited more positive
behaviors from students not from the curriculum. Interdisciplinary students
showed less absences and tardiness, as well as higher grades. Other schools
made smaller academic changes such as developing personality works and
cooperative learning activities, such as creation of portfolios and tutorial to
younger students. These taught the students better goal-setting, decision
making skills and time management. In return, students under these
behavior modification programs yielded less tardiness and higher grades.
To summarize, many studies have shown the reasons and factors
that may contribute to the tardiness of a student. One of the mentioned
reasons of tardy students was waking up late in the morning, which can also
be attributed to late-night activities, such as social networking, watching
movies and television shows, as well as untimely academic and domestic
errands. As proven by several studies, sometimes, it’s not also the act of the
student that leads to his/her tardiness. The heavy traffic, the teachers, the
school surroundings and policies may also serve as influences to the
tardiness of students.
Many studies have also shown the effects of tardiness on the
students, the teachers, the school and the society. According to these
studies, the tardiness of a student consumes his/her learning time as well as
disturbs other students and teachers. The tardy student also poses as a
threat to the school as an educational and professional institution and the
student may be one of the less productive members of the society.
A lot of studies as well gave testimonies to effective remedies on
tardiness. These studies promoted integration of personality development
and interdisciplinary programs into school curriculum to aid students
enhance positive behavior and personality leading to the decrease of
tardiness.
A study by Hammill Institute on Disabilities (Caldarella,
Christensen, Young & Densley, 2011), looked at decreasing tardiness in
primary school-aged students using teacher-written praise notes.
The researchers found that students who are frequently late to school
often miss out on important opening announcements and academic
activities.
‘Teachers can become frustrated as late students disrupt instruction, often
requiring reteaching of what they have missed. Tardy behavior can also
negatively affect the overall classroom environment,’ the study says.
Arriving late to school can also mean that students miss out on activities
designed to build connections with their peers, potentially impacting their
social interactions and creating a greater sense of alienation from their
classmates.
Respect
Showing up to late to class, especially multiple times, can have the
effect of other people losing respect for you. Your teacher and
student peers can see that you do not show up on time, which can
often imply that you feel a sense of apathy or disregard for your
education.
Students are tardy for a variety of reasons, but being late to class
can become a habit that can have a negative effect on their success
in school. Schools often establish an attendance policy that includes
punishment for multiple tardies. A firm policy ca n help schools
promote student punctuality and accountability -- traits that
students can carry with them even after they finish school.
Discipline
Disciplinary actions are often taken upon students who are tardy to
classes. Students may be given a detenti on for the first couple
offenses, but then the discipline may become more severe with a
suspension. Students may also lose points towards their final grade
in the class if they are late on numerous occasions.
Students are tardy for a variety of reasons, bu t being late to class
can become a habit that can have a negative effect on their success
in school. Schools often establish an attendance policy that includes
punishment for multiple tardies. A firm policy can help schools
promote student punctuality and accountability -- traits that
students can carry with them even after they finish school.
School Work
Students who are late to classes may fall behind in their classroom
work. If a student misses the first part of a lecture, for example, he
may miss the notes that he will need to study for an upcoming
exam. Some teachers do not accept late homework, so they will not
permit a student to turn in a homework assignment if he is tardy.
This can result in an incomplete or failing grade for the work.
Students are tardy for a variety of reasons, but being late to class
can become a habit that can have a negative effect on their success
in school. Schools often establish an attendance policy that includes
punishment for multiple tardies. A firm policy can help school s
promote student punctuality and accountability -- traits that
students can carry with them even after they finish school.
Preparation
Students who are late to class are less likely to feel organized and
prepared when they enter the class after a lesson i s already in
session. The student may be embarrassed for his classroom
disruption upon entering late and may not be able to take out his
necessary materials without causing further disruption. Also, he may
not be aware of what page the classroom is reading in a textbook,
for example, or whether there will be a quiz on the material the
class is studying. Problems with Tardiness
The most crucial learning hours of a school day are the morning hours,
because they are when students are most attentive. Students who are tardy
miss the beginning of their morning classes, and they also cause a
distraction when they arrive late to class.
Academics and Achievement
Students who are frequently tardy have lower GPAs, lower scores on
standardized assessments, and lower graduation rates. Chronic tardiness in
elementary and middle school is also linked to failure in high school.
Behavior Problems
In the National Center for Education Statistics 2007 Indicators of School
Crime and Safety, teachers surveyed reported that students who are
frequently tardy have higher rates of suspension and other disciplinary
measures. Tardiness causes students to feel disconnected with school,
leading to behavior problems and dropouts.
Job Performance
Students who are frequently tardy to school are also more apt to be fired
from a job for showing up late.
Effect on Others
When students are tardy, they negatively impact their teachers and other
students. Teachers are often required to allow tardy students to make up
work, which often requires them to restructure their lessons or re-teach
missed material. Tardiness also takes other students' attention away from a
teacher's lesson, leading to more behavior problems and missed instruction.
How to Encourage Punctuality
Studies have shown that using praise as a positive reinforcement is an
effective strategy for student attendance. However, family participation is
also key to good attendance for younger students. Some of the Athlos tips
for good attendance include:
Establishing and keeping a schedule; children thrive on routine
Going to bed and waking up earlier
Preparing for the morning the night before by laying out outfits,
packing backpacks, and pre-packing lunches
If work schedules conflict, investigate other means of transportation,
such as carpooling with other families
If your family consistently struggles with school attendance, professionals
suggest tracking the average time you’re late by and adding that time
accordingly to your schedule. For example: if you are consistently 15 to 30
minutes late in the morning, set your alarm 15 to 30 minutes earlier. Doing
this creates a cushion of extra time for unexpected delays.
On Time Students Are Successful Students
Student attendance is one of the most common predictors of academic
achievement. Students who consistently miss school hours develop habits
that will lead into their adult life, affecting their education, career, and social
connections. In contrast, students who participate fully in school activities
will have more opportunities to achieve academically, make healthy and
informed lifestyle choices, and develop Performance Character traits.
Absence and tardiness in the classroom are some of the most challenging
and powerful factors to student success, but through careful self-
examination and a little grit, Athlos families will find what can be done to
improve attendance in the classroom.
A schoolwide plan
At a secondary school level, chronic tardiness can significantly reduce the
minutes of instruction for all students enrolled in the class, not just the
tardy student.
A US study titled Schoolwide intervention to reduce chronic tardiness at
the middle and high school levels found that ‘instructional time lost to
widespread tardiness is likely to significantly affect the capacity of the
entire student population to meet rigorous academic standards’.
The research suggests that a system-level intervention is required to
combat student tardiness, to ensure guidelines are current and
consequences for tardy behaviour is implemented and effective.
The report recommends a preventative schoolwide plan include the
following:
active supervision of students in common areas during all transition
periods
clear definition and explicit teaching of expectations for behaviour
during transition periods
immediate and consistent consequences for tardiness
data-based decision making with respect to intervention planning
and monitoring of outcomes (Tyre, Feuerborn & Pierce 2011).
The impact on other students
In his 2014 academic paper – The achievement effects of tardy
classmates: Evidence in urban elementary schools – Michael Gottfried
explores the impact of tardy students’ behaviour on their peers.
Gottfried acknowledges that if teachers respond to the educational needs
of late students by reallocating regular class time, then other students are
adversely affected and classroom instruction is slowed by this disruption.
‘With tardy students entering the school day at abnormal times and
potentially missing a large number of cumulative instructional hours,
teachers must divert their attention away from regular teaching time and
towards remediation,’ he says. ‘As such, there are negative effects on
achievement generated when one student’s actions impede learning for
other classmates.’
References:
Caldarella, P., Christensen, L., Young, K. R., & Densley, C. (2011).
Decreasing tardiness in elementary school students using teacher-written
praise notes. Intervention in School and Clinic, 1053451211414186.
Gottfried, M. A. (2014). The achievement effects of tardy classmates:
Evidence in urban elementary schools. School Effectiveness and School
Improvement, 25(1), 3-28.
Tyre, A., Feuerborn, L., & Pierce, J. (2011). Schoolwide intervention to
reduce chronic tardiness at the middle and high school levels. Preventing
School Failure, 55(3), 132-139.