ENERGY LINE & HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
Piezometric
Head
Piezometer
taps
ENERGY LINE & HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
• If the fluid velocity changes along the streamline, the hydraulic grade line will not be
horizontal.
• If viscous effects are important (as they often are in pipe flows), the total head does
not remain constant due to a loss in energy as the fluid flows along its streamline. This
means that the energy line is no longer horizontal.
ENERGY LINE & HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
ENERGY LINE & HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
• If the pipe lies above the hydraulic grade line, the static pressure is negative (below
atmospheric).
• Thus, a scale drawing of a pipeline and the hydraulic grade line can be used to
readily indicate regions of positive or negative pressure within a pipe.
ENERGY LINE & HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE
Example 3.14 (Munson)
Water is being siphoned with valve open at the end of pipe. A leakage is detected at point (1) in
the siphoning pipe
To Find: Whether water will come out or air will trap in at this point of leakage?
Application of Bernoulli
Theorem and its Limitations
ME230: Fluid Mechanics I
Lecturer: Danish Rehman
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
• (1) is upstream i.e. before there is a change in
flow area and (2) is downstream i.e. after the
interference
• Change in flow area causes change in speed V of
the fluid (Continuity Equation)
• A change is speed V is then associated with
change in static pressure (Bernoulli’s Theorem)
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
Sluice Gate
• Used to measure flow rate of open channel flows
Natural Engineered
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
Sluice Gate
• Used to measure flow rate of open channel flows
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
Sluice Gate
• Used to measure flow rate of open channel flows
Where Z2 can be found out by taking contraction
coefficient as Cc= a/Z2=0.61
However, in case we ignore the KE upstream i.e.
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
Sluice Gate
Example 3.12 (Munson)
• To find: Flow rate per unit width
Cc= a/Z2=0.61
Application- Flow Rate Measurement
Sluice Gate
Example 3.12 (Munson)
• To find: Flow rate per unit width
Cc= a/Z2=0.61
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Compressibility Effects
• Density of the fluid was assumed to be constant i.e. incompressible flow
• However if there is a big difference between dynamic pressure and static
pressure, the density change would no more be negligible
• Compressibility effects need to be catered for in derivation of Bernoulli
theorem
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Compressibility Effects
• Difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure
is dynamic pressure provided density stays constant
(Bernoulli’s Theorem)
• Divide by P1 use gas equation
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Compressibility Effects
• Incompressibe and Compressible
equations agree to within about 2% uptil
M=0.3
Therefore, it is safe to assume flow as incompressible
below Mach 0.3
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Unsteady Effects
• Velocity was assumed to be function of distance i.e. V=V(s,n)
• Whereas in reality V is also function of time.
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Rotational Effects (rotational flow)
• Rotational Flow: A flow is said to be rotational if fluid particles while moving in the
direction of flow rotate about their mass centers
• All real fluids exhibit rotational flow because of shear layers developed, however flow
can be considered as irrotational where viscous effects are relatively less
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Rotational Effects (rotational flow)
• If the flow is also rotating along the streamline (spinning), Bernoulli’s theorem can only
be applied along streamline and can’t be applied across streamline
Limitations- Bernoulli Theorem
Other Limitations
• Flow has to be inviscid otherwise total energy would not stay constant along the
streamline as suggested by developed Bernoulli’s equation
• System would be non conservative. (i.e. energy losses due to friction)
• There is no addition and subtraction of energy (Source and Sink) along the streamline.
• In case of pumps and turbines which are mechanical devices that could increase or
decrease the energy along a streamline, energy equation (Bernoulli’s theorem) needs to
be altered.
