J.

MAHESH YADAV EEE

UNIT–V: COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER

SYSTEMS
Need of computer control of power systems. Concept of energy control centre (or) load dispatch
centre and the functions - system monitoring - data acquisition and control. System hardware configuration –
SCADA and EMS functions. Network topology – Importance of Load Forecasting and simple techniques of
forecasting.

1.0 Tie Lines

Usually, neighboring power companies are interconnected by one or more transmission lines
called Tie Lines. The objective is to buy or sell power with neighboring systems whose operating
costs make such transactions profitable. Also, even if no power is being transmitted over ties to
neighboring system, if one system has a sudden loss of a generating unit, the units throught all
the interconnection will experience a frequency change and can help in restoring frequency

Advantages of interconnected system

• Reduces Reserve Capacity – thus reduces installed capacity
• Capital Cost/kW is less for larger Unit - in India single unit can support >500MW
because of interconnection
• Effective Use of Generators
• Optimization of Generation – installed capacity is reduced • Reliability
Disadvantages of interconnected system
• Fault get Propagated – calls for fast switchgear
• Proper management required – EMS and it must be automated
• CB rating increases
1.1 National Regional ElectricityBoards :
• Northern Regional Electricity Board
• Western Regional Electricity Board
• Southern Regional Electricity Board
• Eastern Regional Electricity Board
• North-east Regional Electricity Board
NEED OF COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

 Increase in unit size, growth of interconnected and the need to maintain the
system in normal mode require sophisticated control, instrumentation and
protection.
 The multiplicity of monitering instruments in the control room and their distance
apart make the observation of more than a few vitaloncs almost impossible,
especially during the intense activity of plant start up.

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 The operation of changing plot parameters and take critical decisions.

 These requirements led to the development and application of more advanced
solid state modular electronic instruments, computer based direct control and date
processing systems.

2.0 OPERATING STATES OF POWER SYSTEM:

For purpose of analyzing power system security and designing appropriate control systems, it is
helpful to conceptually classify the system operating conditions in to the following five states.
1. Normal state. 2. Alert state 3. Emergency state 4. Extremis state 5. Restorative state

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Normal state:
A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is one in
which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints.
Alert state:
 A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated.
 When the system security level falls below a certain level or the probability of
disturbance increases, the system may be in alert state.
 All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the
system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied.
 If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state. To bring
back the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried out.
Emergency state:
 The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied .
 In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
 The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective
actions, disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.
Extremis state:
 When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then
it goes to either emergency state or extremis state.

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 In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied, this result is
islanding
 Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity.
 So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to
the emergency state or normal state.
Restorative state:
 From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state
.The latter is a slow process.
 Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and then to the
secure state .
 This is done using restorative control action.

Description of operating states

3.0 ENERGY LOAD CENTRE

The function of the energy load center is to control the function of coordinating the
response in both normal and emergency conditions. Digital Computers are very
effectively used for the purpose. Their function is to process the data, detect
abnormalities, alarm the human operator by lights, buzzers, screens etc., depending on
the severity of the problem.

Control Centre of a Power S ystem

• Human Machine Interface – equipped with
• CRT presentations
• Keyboards – change parameters
• Special function keyboards- alter transformer taps, switch line capacitors etc.,
• Light-Pen cursor – open or close circuit breakers
• Alarm lights, alarms, dedicated telephone communications with generating
stations and transmission substations, neighboring power utilities
Control Features – ControlCentre

• System Commands – Mode of contro

• Units – base / peak load
• AGC – Automatic Generation Control
• Data Entry
• Alarms – To find source of alarm and necessary action

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• Plant/Substation selection
• Special Functions - To send/retrieve data etc.,
• Readout control – Output to CRT/printers etc.,
• CPU control – Selection for the computer Functions of ControlCentre
• Short, Medium and Long-term Load Forecasting
• System Planning
• Unit Commitment and maintenance Scheduling
• Security Monitoring
• State Estimation
• Economic Dispatch
• Load Frequency Control
4.0 SCADA –
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition One of key processes of SCADA is the ability
to monitor an entire system in real time. This is facilitated by data acquisitions including
meter reading, checking statuses of sensors, etc that are communicated at regular
intervals depending on the system. A well planned and implemented SCADA system not
only helps utilities deliver power reliably and safe ly to their customers but it also helps
to lower the costs and achieve higher customer satisfaction and retention.

SC ADA – Why do we need it?

• If we did not have SCADA, we would have very inefficient use of human resources
and this would cost us (Rs,Rs,Rs)
• In today’s restructured environment SCADA is critical in handling the volume of data
needed in a timely fashion
• Service restoration would involve travel time and would be significantly higher
• It is essential to maintain reliability
SC ADA - Architecture
• Basic elements are sensors which measure the desired quantities
• Current Transformers CTs – measure currents and Potential Transformers PTs-
measure voltages.
• Today there is a whole new breed of Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
• This data is fed to a remote terminal unit (RTU)
• The master computer or unit resides at the control center EMS

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Functions of SCADA Following functions are carried out:

a) Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to operate.
b) Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close circuit
breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
c) Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents
unauthorized operation.
d) Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating conditions. Alarms
are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology. Acknowledgment maybe
required
e) Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected in formation.
f) Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in response to
system emergencies.
g) Trending: Plots measurements on selected timescales

SCADA - Process
 Master unit scan RTUs for reports, if reports exist, RTU sends back the data and the
master computer places it in memory
 In some new substation architectures there could be significant local processing of
data which could then be sent to the control center.
 The data is then displayed on CRTs and printed SCADA – Logging
 The SCADA provides a complete log of the system
 The log could be provided for the entire system or part of the system
 Type of information provided
 Time of event
 Circuit breaker status
 Current measurements, voltage measurements, calculated flows, energy,
etc.
 Line and equipment ratings
SCADA as a System

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 There are many parts of a working SCADA system. A SCADA system usually includes
signal hardware (input and output), controllers, networks, user interface (HMI),
communications equipment and software. All together, the term SCADA refers to the
entire central system. The central system usually monitors data from various sensors that
are either in close proximity or off site (sometimes miles away).
 For the most part, the brains of a SCADA system are performed by the Remote Terminal
Units (sometimes referred to as the RTU).
 The Remote Terminal Units consists of a programmable logic converter. The RTU are
usually set to specific requirements, however, most RTU allow human intervention, for
instance, in a factory setting, the RTU might control the setting of a conveyer belt, and the
speed can be changed or overridden at any time by human intervention. In addition, any
changes or errors are usually automatically logged in and/or displayed.
 Most often, a SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes to function
optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop systems and run with relatively
little human intervention.
 SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Usually each
point is a monitor or sensor. Usually points can be either hard or soft. A hard data point
can be an actual monitor; a soft point can be seen as an application or software
calculation. Data elements from hard and soft points are usually always recorded and
logged to create a time stamp or history
User Interface – Human Machine Interface (HMI)
 A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes controls
where the individual can interface with the SCADA system.
 HMI's are an easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple RTU's or
PLC's (programmable logic controllers).
 Usually RTU's or PLC's will run a pre programmed process, but monitoring each of them
individually can be difficult, usually because they are spread out over the system.
Because RTU's and PLC's historically had no standardized method to display or present
data to an operator, the SCADA system communicates with PLC's throughout the system
network and processes information that is easily disseminated by the HMI.
 HMI's can also be linked to a database, which can use data gathered from PLC's or RTU's
to provide graphs on trends, logistic info, schematics for a specific sensor or machine or
even make troubleshooting guides accessible. In the last decade, practically all SCADA
systems include an integrated HMI and PLC device, making it extremely easy to run and
monitor a SCADA system.
 A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power
reliably and safely to their customers, but it also helps to lower the costs and achieve
higher customer satisfaction and retention.
Modern SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities
towards achieving :
o New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
o Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
o Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer satisfaction.

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o Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue

5.0 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM is the process of monitoring, coordinating and

controlling the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at
center called system control centres by a computer system called Energy Management System
(EMS)

Evolution of EMS: The evolution of EMS has a long past. It has started with control centers in 1960s to
fully developed energy management systems

1960 – Termed as Control Centre’s (CC) These control centers were initially termed a load dispatch
centres. The important task was to control the power generation and load demand as to match the
generation with load demand. Even today, the term load dispatch centre’s are widely used in various
state electricity boards as well as energy control centre’s.

1970 – Energy Control Centre’s. Here the main task was to control the energy rather than the power.
Here energy monitoring is of main concern the matching of energy of power demand from that of power
generation is of main concern.

1990 – Energy Management Systems (EMS) In EMS, the main task was to manage the energy through
various techniques like load management (LM), demand side management (DSM), distribution
management systems (DMS). EMS are computer based programs hat perform both computational tasks
as well as decision making tasks so as to assist the operator for real time operation and control.

EMS functions are:

[Link] load forecasting-Hourly energy, 1to7days.
ii. Unit commitment-1 to 7days.
iii. Fuel scheduling to plants.
iv. Hydro-thermal scheduling-up to 7days
v. MW interchanges evaluation-with neighboring system.
vi. Transmission loss minimization.
vii. Security constrained dispatch.
viii. Maintenance scheduling.
ix. Production cost calculation

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5.2 Objectives of EMS:

There are primary and secondary objectives of energy management system. The primary
objectives are related to the security and stability of the system, while the secondary
objectives relate to the Primary Objectives: Security and Stability of the system Secondary
Objectives: Economic Operation and Control Tertiary Objectives: Optimization, Operational
Planning and Maintenance Scheduling
Primary Objectives:
1. Maintaining the power system in a secure and stable operating state by continuously
monitoring the power flowing in the lines and voltage magnitudes at the buses.
2. Maintaining the frequency within allowable limits.
3. Maintaining the tie-line power close to the scheduled values.
Secondary Objectives:
1. Economic Operation of the power systems through real time dispatch and Control
2. Optimal control of the power system using both preventive and corrective control actions.
3. Real time Economic Dispatch through real power and reactive power control
Tertiary Objectives:
1. Optimization of the power system for normal and abnormal operating scenarios.
2. Optimal control of the power system by appropriate using both preventive and corrective
control actions
3. Maintenance scheduling of generation and transmission systems.

The three objectives are executed at different levels by the operator in a control centre. While
the first objective is automatic or closed loop control without the intervention of the operator,

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the secondary and tertiary are performed with the aid of the operator. In energy management
systems, voltage magnitudes and power flows over the lines are continuously monitored
through SCADA, to check for violations. The violations in voltage are addressed by
preventive control actions, while the power flow violations are addressed by means of
corrective actions. The tie line power flows at scheduled values will be maintained by
adjusting the MW outputs of the AGC generators so as to accommodate fluctuating load
demands.
6.0 ELECTRIC LOAD FORECASTING:

• Load forecasting is the predicting of electrical power required to meet the short term,
medium term or long term demand.
• Electrical load forecasting is an important process that can increase the efficiency and
revenues for the electrical generating and distribution companies
• .It helps them to plan on their capacity and operations in order to reliably supply all
consumers with the required energy.
load forecasting requires a certain ‘lead time’ also called forecasting intervals. Nature of
forecasts, lead times and applications are summarised in Table below

• A good forecast reflecting current and future trends, tempered with good judgement,
is the key to all planning, indeed to financial success.
• The accuracy of a forecast is crucial to any electric utility, since it determines the
timing and characteristics of major system additions.
• A forecast that is too low can result in low revenue from sales to neighbouring
utilities or even in load curtailment. Forecasts that are too high can result in severe
financial problems due to excessive investment in a plant that is not fully utilized or
operated at low capacity factors.

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Advantages of load forecasting

1. Enables the utility company to plan well since they have an understanding of the future
consumption or load demand.
2. Minimize the risks for the utility company. Understanding the future long term load helps
the company to plan and make economically viable decisions in regard to future generation
and transmission investments.
3. Helps to determine the required resources such as fuels required to operate the generating
plants as well as other resources that are needed to ensure uninterrupted and yet economical
generation and distribution of the power to the consumers. This is important for short,
medium, and long term planning.
4. The load forecasting helps in planning the future in terms of the size, location and type of
the future generating plant. By determining areas or regions with high or growing demand,
the utilities will most likely generate the power near the load. This minimizes the
transmission and distribution infrastructures as well as the associated losses.
5. Helps in deciding and planning for maintenance of the power systems. By understanding the
demand, the utility can know when to carry out the maintenance and ensure that it has the
minimum impact on the consumers. For example, they may decide to do maintenance on
residential areas during the day when most people are at work and demand is very low.
6. Maximum utilization of power generating plants. The forecasting avoids under generation or
over generation.

SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL:

Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions of a power system. It
requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well as a means for the on line
determination of network topology involving an open or closed position of circuit breakers. A state
estimation has been developed to get the best estimate of the status .the state estimation provides the
database for security analysis shown in fig.5.6.

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Load Dispatch Centre

A load dispatch center (or more appropriately, an Energy Management Centre) enables a system operator and supporting
engineers to monitor a power system in real time and includes facilities to capture the current operating state of the system and
instruct a generating plant or any other controllable system components so that a system operates with good quality and
security.

The major components of a load dispatch centre are:

a) Engineers for carrying out scheduling and monitoring

b) Software programs to carry out monitoring and scheduling functions

c) Displays for adequate visualization

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Sequence means sequential execution of programs that perform the following steps:
Topology processor: Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical
connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
• State estimator: Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the „„best‟‟
estimate of the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and reports overload
conditions
. • Power flow: Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network for a
specified generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and flows across the
entire system. Contingency analysis: Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state
of the power system and identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit
violations.
Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified objective function
(such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of power system operating constraints.
• Security enhancement: Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an
existing or potential overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost. EE2401
Power System Operation & Control SCE 99 EEE
• Preventive action: Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to occur.
• Bus load forecasting: Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the
electrical connectivity (bus) model of the power system network
• Transmission loss factors: Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1 MW.
• Short-circuit analysis: Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for
fault locations across the entire power system network

Automatic Generation Control 

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor functions that
operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at minimum cost.

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 The major functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each of which is
described below.
 The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the system;
interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and other similar
monitoring and recording functions
Load Frequency Control Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives,
which are stated below in priority order: 1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value 2. To
maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at the scheduled values 3. To
maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values

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