WAE320H: Supplementary notes to Chapter 6
Chapter 6: Flow measurement
Textbook: Study p111 - p126, p130 and p134 - p138
Textbook problems: 6.4,6.5,6.6,6.9,6.10 & 6.12
Reservoirs
The stream, which may carry little or no water during portions of the year, often becomes
a raging torrent after heavy rains and a hazard to all activities along its banks.
A storage reservoir can retain such excess water from periods of high flow for use during
periods of drought.
A reservoir can be defined as a natural or artificial water retaining structure used as a
water source.
Classified according to their size (large, medium, small) or use.
According to purpose(s), they can be classified as follows:
- storage or conservation reservoirs;
- flood control reservoirs;
- distribution reservoirs; and
- multi-purpose reservoirs.
Characteristics of reservoirs
Most important physical characteristic of a reservoir is its storage capacity: the amount
or volume of water, which can be stored in the reservoir.
Capacity of a reservoir of regular shape can be computed mathematically.
Capacity of reservoirs on natural sites (of irregular shapes) must be determined from
topographical surveys, which are from contour (elevation) maps of the area.
Area enclosed within each contour (within the reservoir site) can be measured with a
planimeter.
Contour elevations and the areas enclosed at respective elevations can be plotted in
the form of a so-called area-elevation curve.
Integral of area-elevation curve is the capacity-elevation curve for reservoir
Reservoir yield: amount of water that can be drawn from a reservoir in a certain
time interval
- Time interval may vary from a day (for small distribution reservoirs) to a month or a
year (for flood control reservoirs) to several years (for storage reservoirs).
Safe or firm yield: maximum amount of water that can be supplied from a reservoir
with a firm commitment or with full guarantee, during the worst dry periods (critical
periods)
Critical period is generally taken as being the period of lowest natural flow recorded
for a specific stream or river.
- However, there is a definite possibility that a drier period may occur and the yield may
even be less than the guaranteed firm yield.
Determination of reservoir capacity for a given yield (demand)
The most important aspect of a storage reservoir design is the analysis of the relation between
the reservoir’s yield and its capacity.
In general, two main problems can be distinguished:
- Determination of the reservoir’s capacity for a given yield.
- Determination of the reservoir’s yield for a given capacity.
During the design process of a reservoir numerous factors and data need to be
considered such as: geological and topographical data, streamflow data, water
demand patterns, climatic conditions, water losses, and sedimentation processes.
The capacity and yield of a reservoir are governed by the storage equation:
INFLOW - OUTFLOW = INCREASE IN STORAGE
Mass and demand curves (rippl diagram)
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The required storage capacity of a reservoir for a given (constant) outflow pattern and a
fluctuating inflow can be approximately calculated with the help of a Rippl diagram or mass-
demand curve.
It is necessary to have a streamflow hydrograph at the (proposed) dam site for a large
number of years (25 or more) and, of course, the outflow pattern.
A hydrograph (see figure ‘a’ below) is a plot of discharges for a period of time, and a mass
curve (see Figure ‘b’ below) is a plot of accumulated flows.
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(a) A Stream Hydrograph (b) A Mass Curve
A mass curve continuously rises as it is the plot of accumulated flows.
- Horizontal lines on the mass curve would represent periods of no inflow.
- Slope of the mass curve at any given time is a measure of the flow rate at that particular
moment. For a constant flow, the mass curve will be a straight line having a slope
equal to the flow rate.
Determination of reservoir capacity for a constant out flow & varying inflow using the
graphical method
Simplest method to determine a reservoir’s capacity for a given constant demand and a
varying inflow is the Rippl diagram or mass-demand curve. Straight forward constructing
procedure
The diagram shown in the Figure below is a graph of the cumulative runoff versus time (the
inflow mass curve the solid line corresponding with Figure (b) above) and the cumulative
demand versus time (the Uniform Use Rate (UUR) curve; the dashed line in the Figure).
In constructing the cumulative demand line it is assumed that the demand is constant and
that it can be treated as a UUR.
In interpreting the mass diagram, we assume that a hypothetical reservoir is in place.
Furthermore, we assume that the reservoir is empty at zero time (point ‘a’).
When the slope of the inflow mass curve is equal or greater than the slope of the
UUR curve (for example, from point ‘a’ to point ‘b’), then inflow is equal or greater than
demand and the reservoir is being filled up.
When the slope of the inflow curve is less than the UUR curve (for example, point ‘b’
to point ‘c’), then demand exceeds inflow and the reservoir is being depleted.
From point ‘c’ to point ‘d’ the slope of the mass curve exceeds the slope of the UUR
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curve, then the reservoir is filling up again.
At point ‘d’ the reservoir is full. From point ‘d’ to point ‘e’ the reservoir is overflowing.
The greatest draw-down (lowering of the water level) occurs at point ‘c’.
The vertical distance labelled S (approximately 90*106 m3) gives the volume of storage
required to meet this draw-down.
Point ‘b’ can be found by transferring the UUR curve (upwards) until it becomes a tangent
to the mass curve.
Point ‘c’ can be found by transferring the UUR curve (downwards) till it also becomes a
tangent to the mass curve.
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Example 1
Determine the average flow in the river using the velocity area method, using the following current
meter readings taken along a river.
Position Distance from left bank Actual flow depth Current meter reading
(No) (m) (m) Rotations per minute (RPM)
0.000 0.000 0.000
1.000 3.000 0.300 50.000
2.000 6.000 1.000 150.000
3.000 10.000 1.300 210.000
4.000 12.000 2.000 300.000
5.000 15.000 3.000 600.000
6.000 18.000 3.300 650.000
7.000 22.000 2.900 400.000
8.000 25.000 1.500 200.000
9.000 28.000 0.800 85.000
The river is 30 m wide. The current meter reading can be converted to velocity in m/s, using the
following equation:
V = 0.7n + 0.001 where n is in rotations per second.
Example 2
The table below shows flow measurements at measured gauge heights. The gauge has a datum
of 100 m.
(i) Determine the rating equation in the form: Q=k(GH-D)m, where GH = gauge height and D
= datum)
(ii) Use the equation to determine the flow at a gauge height of 125 m
(iii) Use the equation to determine the gauge height for a flow of 150 000 m 3/s.
Gauge height (m) Q (m3/s)
101 2.5
103 202.5
105 1562.5
107 6002.5
109 16403
111 36603
113 71404
115 126563
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Example 3
Hours Inflow
(106 m3/4hrs)
0 0
4 3.2
8 2.1
12 2.2
16 0.5
20 0.7
24 0.6
28 0.7
32 0.8
36 0.7
40 0.4
44 0.8
48 0.3
52 0.2
56 0.6
60 1.4
64 2
68 3.2
72 3.5
76 2.8
80 2
Given the above inflow hydrograph, calculate the following:
(i) Average, maximum and minimum inflow in m3/s.
(ii) Minimum reservoir size based on an outflow equal to the average inflow in (i).
(iii) The spillage in (ii) if the reservoir is 100% full in the beginning.
(iv) The spillage in (ii) if the reservoir is 80% full (of min reservoir size) in the beginning.
(v) What is the constant flow that can be maintained, if a reservoir of 15 x 10 6 m3 is built?
(vi) What is the spillage in (v) if the reservoir is 100% full in the beginning?
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Example 1 (answer)
Flow Panel Mean Mean
Position Distance Depth RPM RPS velocity width depth Area velocity Q
(No) (m) (m) (m/s) (m) (m) (m2) (m/s) (m3/s)
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
3.000 0.150 0.450 0.292 0.131
1.000 3.000 0.300 50.00 0.83 0.584
3.000 0.650 1.950 1.168 2.277
2.000 6.000 1.000 150.00 2.50 1.751
4.000 1.150 4.600 2.101 9.665
3.000 10.000 1.300 210.00 3.50 2.451
2.000 1.650 3.300 2.976 9.821
4.000 12.000 2.000 300.00 5.00 3.501
3.000 2.500 7.500 5.251 39.383
5.000 15.000 3.000 600.00 10.00 7.001
3.000 3.150 9.450 7.293 68.916
6.000 18.000 3.300 650.00 10.83 7.584
4.000 3.100 12.400 6.126 75.962
7.000 22.000 2.900 400.00 6.67 4.668
3.000 2.200 6.600 3.501 23.107
8.000 25.000 1.500 200.00 3.33 2.334
3.000 1.150 3.450 1.664 5.739
9.000 28.000 0.800 85.00 1.42 0.993
2.000 0.400 0.800 0.496 0.397
10.000 30.000 0.000 0.000
Total Q
(m3/s) 235.40
rps x 0.700 width 30.000
const 0.001
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Example 2 (answer)
Gauge
height Href (m) Q (m3/s) Ln(href) LnQ
(m)
101 1
INTERCEPT=0.916=ln(k) => k=2.5 2.5 0 0.916291
103
SLOPE = 4; m = 4 3 202.5 1.098612 5.31074
105 5 1562.5 1.609438 7.354042
107 7 6002.5 1.94591 8.699931 (i) Q=2.5
(GH-
109 9 16403 2.197225 9.70522
100)4
111 11 36603 2.397895 10.50789 (ii) Q=2.5
113 13 71404 2.564949 11.17611 (125-
100)4
115 15 126563 2.70805 11.7485 =
976562.5 m3/s
(iii) 150
000=2.5(GH-100)4 => GH = ? m
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Example 3 (answer)
Full % 100%
Inflow Outflow Cumulative Cumulative CUM IN -
Time xE6 xE6 Volume IN Volume OUT CUM
(hrs) m^3/4hrs m^3/4hrs E6 m^3 E6 m^3 OUT
0 0 0
4 3.2 1.44 3.2 1.435 1.77 spill
8 2.1 1.44 5.3 2.87 2.43 spill
12 2.2 1.44 7.5 4.305 3.20 spill
16 0.5 1.44 8 5.74 -0.94 emptying
20 0.7 1.44 8.7 7.175 -1.67 emptying
24 0.6 1.44 9.3 8.61 -2.51 emptying
28 0.7 1.44 10 10.045 -3.24 emptying
32 0.8 1.44 10.8 11.48 -3.88 emptying
36 0.7 1.44 11.5 12.915 -4.61 emptying
40 0.4 1.44 11.9 14.35 -5.65 emptying
44 0.8 1.44 12.7 15.785 -6.28 emptying
48 0.3 1.44 13 17.22 -7.42 emptying
52 0.2 1.44 13.2 18.655 -8.65 emptying
56 0.6 1.44 13.8 20.09 -9.49 emptying
60 1.4 1.44 15.2 21.525 -9.52 emptying
64 2 1.44 17.2 22.96 -8.96 fill
68 3.2 1.44 20.4 24.395 -7.19 fill
72 3.5 1.44 23.9 25.83 -5.13 fill
76 2.8 1.44 26.7 27.265 -3.76 fill
80 2 1.44 28.7 28.7 -3.20 fill
(i) ave inflow 0.36 E6 m3/h 99.65 m3/s
min
(ii) inflow 0.06 E6 m3/h 0.22 m3/s
max
(iii) inflow 0.84 E6 m3/h 2.91 m3/s
(iv) min size 9.52 m3/h
(v) Spill 3.20 E6 m3
(100%
full)
(v) Spill (80% 1.29 E6 m3 20% of 9.52 = 1.90 E6 m3
full)
Constant 0.47 E6 m3/h
(vi) outflow
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Additional problem – Mass curves
The following flow measurements in a river was recorded over a 10 month
period.
Month Flow Cum Volume
(Ml/month) (Ml)
Sep 0 0
Oct 200 200
Nov 250 450
Dec 350 800
Jan 150 950
Feb 100 1050
Mar 50 1100
Apr 100 1200
May 400 1600
Jun 300 1900
Draw a mass curve (4)
and answer the following questions from the graph:
i. The average draw-off in l/s that can be maintained over the
full 10 month period. (2)
ii. Calculate minimum volume of a reservoir required if the
reservoir needs to cater for a uniform draw-off of 210 Ml/day.
The volume must include a reserve capacity of 50 Ml.
(2)
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iii. Calculate the spillage for a reservoir, if it is full in the
beginning and a draw-off of 210 Ml/day is maintained. (2)
iv. If the capacity of the reservoir in (iii) is 450 Ml, and the dam
is 80% full in the beginning of the period, calculate the
spillage. (3)
v. If a reservoir of 200 Ml is built, what uniform draw-off can be
maintained over the full period. (2)
vi. What would be the spillage for (v) if the reservoir is full at the
beginning of the period. (3)
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