CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this modern society, electricity is used for carrying out most daily activities at

homes and industries for carrying out operations or tasks that depends on electric

power. Electricity can be generated from public supply to consumers in different

ways including the use of water, winds or steam energy to drive turbines and more

recently the use of gas. Generators, solar energy, and nuclear energy are also

source of electricity (Adeyanju, 2003).

However, in most countries today it is hard to maintain a consistent supply of

electricity from power generating stations which depends on the use of winds,

water, etc. to operate turbines of power generating plant. This has led to the

increased use of alternative solutions such as the use of electric power generators,

uninterruptible power supply (UPS) and inverters. An inverter offers a better

additional power source to generators as well as UPS considering its long duration,

cost effectiveness and maintainability (Gurdjian and Maxwell, 2000).

1.1.1 Inverter
Inverter is an electronic device that has the ability to convert the direct current

(DC) from the battery or solar cells (Panels) into an alternating current (AC) which

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is the conventional way most electrical appliances are powered today. Inverter can

be broadly classified into three different categories which are:

i. Square wave inverter

ii. Modified sine wave inverter

iii. Pure sine wave inverter

Pure sine wave inverters are the most affluent in terms of efficiency and accurate

timing. The power supplied by industrial generators and public distribution

companies is usually pure sine wave. But commercial inverters could give output

ranging from square wave to pure sine wave. Although pure sine wave is mostly

preferred for electrical equipment’s, it is usually costly because of the price

involved. The modified square wave is predominant in house hold inverters.

Modified sine wave inverters are more manageable compared to square or pure

sine wave inverters (Donrowe, 2005).

1.1.2 Advantages of Modified Sine Wave Inverter

i. Modified sine wave inverter are usually less expensive than true or pure

sine wave inverters. It is because the technology they use is more cost-

effective than to produce than the latter.

ii. It is ideal for equipment that runs on non-sinusoidal current.

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1.1.3 Disadvantages of Modified Sine Wave Inverter

i. Modified sine wave inverters are less efficient compared to other

types of inverter because the total harmonic distortion from the motors

are too high, thus leading to loss of energy

ii. A modified sine wave would often cause a disturbing buzz sound to

be heard from audio devices and sometimes other appliances like

ceiling fans and microwave ovens.

This project focus on the design and construction of a modified sine wave inverter.

The various applications of the inverter include the powering of electrical

appliances like light bulbs, TVs, charging laptops etc.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Power failure is the total loss of utility power. It may be caused by the tripping of a

circuit breaker, power distribution failure and excessive demand on the power grid.

Also effects of object on the power transmission line can cause the circuit breaker

to trip. In order to avoid this inconsistency, supply of electricity from a different

means of generating electricity such as solar energy can be employed.

In Nigeria, the problem of inconsistent power supply has always been a problem.

This has led to a widespread usage of electric power generators and power supply

from uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems. Inverters however are more
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efficient and better means of generating power but due to lack of knowledge on

how inverter systems are designed and constructed, they are not generally

considered as the best alternative means of generating power (Okere, 2015).

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

which is rated 1kw and is powered by a 12v battery. The frequency of the inverter

would be 50Hz.

The specific objectives of the project are:

i. To study the working principle of a modified sine wave inverter,

ii. To study the components of a modified sine wave inverter,

iii. To apply the principle from (i) and results of (ii) to design a modified

sine wave inverter,

iv. To couple the components together and construct a modified sine wave

inverter according to the design in (iii).

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

So far in Nigeria, and Africa at large, there seems to be no end to the persistent

problem of power interruption by the main suppliers of electricity. Also majority of

the available alternative solutions available are costly, difficult to maintain or not

sufficiently efficient. In this project it would be demonstrated how a simple less

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expensive alternative means of generating power, a modified sine wave inverter,

can be developed. The sun has the ability to give lots of energy, through the

inverter a consistent supply of electricity can be generated for powering satellite

receivers, printers, computers etc.

1.5 BRIEF METHODOLOGY AND SYSTEM DESIGN

The following components were used in constructing the modified sign wave

inverter: 12V battery (DC source), transistors, capacitors, resistors, diode (Light

emitting diode, LED), rectifiers, breakers, a transformer and an integrated circuit

(IC). Full details of the calculation used to obtain parameters for the design are

fully discussed in chapter 3.

All components used for the construction were sourced locally and adequate

adjustment were made on all substitute components in order to achieve the best

result. The design was made in such a way that when the AC (alternating current)

mains is not available, the battery provides DC (direct current) supply which is

then converted into 220V AC supply output at the inverter socket. The circuit

charges and discharges the battery when the AC mains is not available respectively

and when there is no AC mains supply respectively.

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 Fig 1.1: schematic diagram of an inverter system

1.6 THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

The project is concerned with the construction and design of modified sine wave

inverters. Hence the procedures and design specifications used in this project

applies only to modified sine wave inverters. The designed frequency of the

inverter is set at 50Hz, also the designed capacity is set at 1kw.

The procedures applied in the project can also be applied, with little or no

alteration, in the construction and design of any modified sine wave inverter

irrespective of the designed specifications.

1.7 REPORT LAYOUT

This report is written in five chapters. Chapter one contains the introduction, aims

objectives, significance of the project and the scope and limitations of the project.

In chapter two, the literature review is discussed. Chapter three highlight the

methodology which includes the relevant information about the design and the
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calculations carried out while chapter four contains information on the results

obtained, and the discussion of those results. Finally, chapter five discusses the

conclusions and recommendations.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Metal-oxide-semi-conductor field-effect transistor: (MOSFET) is a type

of field-effect transistor most commonly used fabricated by the controlled

oxidation of silicon

 Resistor-capacitor circuit: (or RC filter) is an electric circuit composed of

resistors and capacitors driven by a voltage or current source.

 Bi-stable Multi vibrators is another type of two state device. They have

two stable state and maintain a given output state indefinitely unless an

external trigger is applied forcing it to change.

 Astable multi vibrators have only one stable state.

 Multi vibrators: is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of

simple two state devices such as relaxation oscillators, timers and flip-flops.

It consist of two amplifying transistors or valves, each with its output

connected to the input of the other, which produces an oscillatory signal.

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Total Harmonic Distortion: is a measurement of the harmonic distortion present

in a signal and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic

components to the power of the fundamental frequency.

Direct current: is an electric current flowing in one direction only.

Alternating current: is an electric current which periodically reverses direction.

Sinusoidal: means having the form of a sine curve.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 HISTORY OF INVERTER

The quest to convert direct current (DC) power to alternating current (AC) power

has been since the late 19th century and from then to the mid-20th century, DC-to-

AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor

generator sets (M-G sets). In the early 20th century, vacuum tubes and gas filled

tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The origin of

electromagnetic converters explains the source of the term inverters. Early AC-

to-DC converter use an induction and synchronous alternating current motor

directly connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generators commutators

reversed its connection at exactly the right moment to produce direct current (DC)

(Gurdjian and Maxwell, 2000).

2.1.1 EARLY INVERTERS

[Link] First Generation of Inverter

From the invention of inverters, a switching device is usually made use as a means

to switch the transformer to ON/ OFF state in order to generate fast rate frequency.

Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is an example of a switching solid electronics

component adopted to ensure the switching of the system to ON/ OFF state at a

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considerable faster rate compared to a manual switching. SCR consist of three

main terminals namely; Anode, Cathode and Gate.

When two SCR are connected to a center tapped transformer, current will flow in

positive half cycle (ON current) and negative half cycle (OFF current). This is the

same as the application of Silicon Controlled Rectifier as full wave rectifier.

[Link] Second Generation

This generation made use of multi-vibrator, amplifier and transformer. The process

takes input from 12VDC source, and runs from the supply to the multivibrator, and

from the multivibrator to the amplifier, and finally to the transformer which gives

AC voltage as output.

This is inverted to a 240V AC, the multivibrator used may be bistable or astable

which have two stage cycles useful for generating square waves and pulses. The

12V DC source serves as the power supply to the inverter.

[Link] Third Generation

In this generation, two 555 timer ICs were used for generating oscillations of equal

frequency. An astable multi-vibrator is used to switch ON/ OFF, to generate

constant frequency of 50Hz. The frequency generated by each 555 timer ICs is

controlled by the input configuration of the RC circuit. The output from the ICs is

amplified by drivers and then fed to the gate of the metal-oxide-semiconductor

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field-effect transistor (MOSFET).

The NE555 timer IC was used to replace the first generation and second generation

inverters due to some difficulties experienced and the inefficiency of its

components (Mojibola, 2016).

2.2 REVIEW ON ELECTRICITY

important role in socio-economic and technological development. Electricity can

be transmitted in two different ways, namely: Alternating current (AC) and Direct

Current (DC). Alternating current is the form obtained from power outlets in

homes and offices. It consists of a sinusoidal voltage source in which a continuous

change in the direction of flow of voltage (and current) can be used to power

magnetic components (Cooks et al, 2001).

Direct current is electricity flowing in a constant direction, and/or processing a

voltage with constant polarity and is appropriate for short-range transmission.

Direct current is the form stored up in batteries. It uses are limited and it depends

on AC power (Nergaard et al, 2001).

A common difference between AC and DC involves the amount of energy that

each can carry. Direct current has a voltage level and travel very far until losses

energy. AC is safer to transmit over a long distance (Nergaard et al, 2001).

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2.3 INVERTER TECHNOLOGY

Power Inverters are devices which can convert electrical energy of direct current

(DC) form to that of alternating current (AC). They come in all shapes and sizes,

from low power functions such as powering a car radio to that of backing up a

building power system in case of power outage. The input voltage, output voltage

and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific

device or circuitry. The inverter doesn’t provide any power, the power is provided

by the DC source0 (Mansour and Abdelati, 2018)

2.3.1 APPLICATIONS OF INVERTER

In general inverters are utilized in applications requiring direct conversion of

electrical energy from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) or indirect

conversion from AC to AC. DC to AC conversion is useful for many fields,

including power conditioning, motor drives, and renewable energy grid-integration

( Mohan et al, 2002).

i. In facilities that require energy at all times, such as hospital and airports,

UPS systems powered through an inverter are utilized to instantaneously

restore power.

ii. Inverters are also vital to many renewable energy applications. In

photovoltaic purposes, the inverter gets fed by the DC electrical energy

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 output of a photovoltaic module or array. The inverter then converts this

into an AC voltage to be interfaced with either a load or the utility.

iii. In power systems, it is often desired to eliminate harmonic found in line

currents. Voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be used as active power

filters to provide this compensation.

2.3.2 Types of Inverter

Inverter can be broadly classified into three categories which are (Mohan et al,

2002):

i. Square wave inverter: derives its name from the shape of the output

waveform. Square wave inverters were the original electronic inverter.

The first versions use a mechanical vibrator type switch to break up the

low voltage DC into pulses. Square wave can produce humming sound

when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable for

electronics.

ii. Modified sine wave inverter: The addition of an extra winding

transformer along with \a few other parts allows output of a modified

square wave. The modified sine wave is the sum of two square waves one

of which is phase shifted 90 degrees relative to the other. The modified

sine wave inverter provides a cheap and easy solution to powering

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 devices that needs AC power. It does have a drawback as not all devices

work properly on a modified sine wave.

iii. Pure sine wave inverter: a power inverter which produces a multiple step

sinusoidal AC waveform is referred to as a pure sine wave inverter. It

convert the DC supply into a near perfect or pure sine wave, replicating

the supply attained from a domestic AC power source such as a plug. The

sine wave has very little harmonic distortion resulting in a very clean

supply and makes it ideal for running electronic systems such as

computers, digital fax racks and other sensitive equipment without

causing noise or problems.

Fig 2.4: Square, Modified, and Pure Sine Wave. ([Link], 2015).

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2.3.3 Input and Output Characteristics of an Inverter

i. Input Voltage:

A typical power inverter device or circuit requires a relatively stable DC

power source capable of supplying enough current for the intended power

demands of the system (Rashid, 2007). The input voltage depends on the

design and purpose of the inverter. Example include:

a) 12V direct current (DC) for smaller consumer and commercial

inverters that typically run from a rechargeable 12V lead battery or

automotive electrical outlet.

b) 24, 36, and 48V DC, which are common standards for home

energy systems.

c) 200 to 400V DC when power is from photovoltaic solar panels

d) 300 to 450V DC when power is from electric vehicle battery packs

in vehicle-to-grid systems.

ii. Output Frequency

The alternating current (AC) output frequency of a power inverter device

is usually the same as standard power line frequency, 50 or 60Hz. If the

output of the device or circuit is to be further conditioned (for example,

stepped up) then the frequency may be much higher for good transformer

efficiency (Rashid, 2007).

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 iii. Output voltage

The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the

same as the grid line voltage, typically 120 or 240VAC at the distribution

level, even when there are changes in the load that the inverter is driving.

This allows the inverter to power numerous devices designed for standard

line power (Rashid, 2007).

iv. Output power

The power rating of an inverter is generally expressed in watts or

kilowatts. This describes the power that would be available to the device

the inverter is driving and, indirectly, the power that would be needed

from DC source (Rashid, 2007).

2.4 CAUSES OF INVERTER FAILURE

Power inverters can be completely electronic or combine electronic effects with

electronic circuitry. Since inverters convert DC electricity from batteries, solar

panels or fuel cells into AC electricity, the applications they can be used for are

extremely diverse.

Jonathan Wilkins (2014), explains factors that can cause the failure of an inverter:

i. Capacitor wear: The first reason for inverter failure is electromechanical

wear on capacitors. Inverters rely heavily on capacitors to provide a smooth

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 power output at varying levels of current, however electrolytic capacitors

have a limited lifespan and age faster than dry components. This in itself

alone can cause an inverter failure

ii. Overuse: Using inverters beyond their operating limit can contribute to

inverter bridge failure.

iii. Over and – Under Voltage: If either voltage or current increases to a level

the inverter is not rated for, it can cause damage to components in the

device, most frequently, the inverter bridge. Often this damage would be

caused by excess heat generated by the spike in voltage or current.

iv. Ultrasonic Vibrations: Mechanical stress placed on the inverter caused by

ultrasonic vibrations originating in the cores of inductive components cause

friction, adding to the unwanted heat generated by the device and further

damaging components in the inverter.

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2.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN INVERTER AND ELECTRONIC

POWER GENERATOR

Alternative means of generating electricity when the supply from the mains go off

are the use of inverter, electric power generator or uninterruptible power supply.

2.5.1 Electronic Power Generator

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy at

a desired frequency in alternating current form.

2.5.2 The advantages of using a generator include (Ganiyu, 2004):

i. It doesn’t depend on an existing source of power supply

ii. Depending on the capacity, a generator can supply electricity to a whole

building.

2.5.3 The disadvantages of a generator include (Ganiyu, 2004):

i. Most of the power generator are noisy during operation which causes

disturbance to the neighborhood

ii. The smoke and black oil from the generators pose threats to the

environment as air and soil or water get polluted.

iii. Most generators are bulky in size, thus making the generation of

electricity at far places difficult

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 iv. Cost of maintenance of generator is high compared to the cost of

maintenance of an inverter.

2.5.4 An Inverter

[Link] Advantages of an inverter include (Kumar, 2012):

i. Inverter helps to maintain power supply immediately after a power failure.

ii. Inverter is very convenient for homes and offices.

[Link] Disadvantages of an inverter include (Kumar, 2012):

i. A working inverter is of no use if the battery is drained

ii. Battery maintenance is steadily required

UPS (uninterruptible power supply) only provides serves as a backup and do not

retain or provide power for a long duration.

2.6 MODIFIED SINE WAVE INVERTERS

These inverters have a square wave-like waveform with an additional step or two.

They may work well with most equipment, but compromises the equipment’s

power or efficiency. Some equipment, such as motor pumps, fans, and refrigerator

pumps, consume more power from the inverter because of low efficiency.

Motors usually consume 20% more power because most modified sine

wave inverters have higher frequencies, which motors cannot use. This is why you
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may notice that fluorescent lights are not as bright as usual, or hear some buzzing

or annoying humming noises.

Even appliances with digital clocks and electronic timers will not work properly

because their timing depends on power. As modified sine waves are noisier and

rougher than pure sine waves, the clocks either fun faster or don’t work at all.

2.7 ADOPTION OF INVERTERS IN NIGERIA

In Nigeria, not much research and development has been carried out on solar

thermal energy and associated devices. These devices are yet to become common

household commodities in Nigeria. Their usage are only scantly seen in

universities and research centers. Hence availability of Nigerian made solar energy

generating equipment and accessory has not been achieved. This shows that

Nigeria has a lot of journey to go in the field of solar energy research and device

production (Akinboro, 2010).

The following are the major reasons why:

i. Lack of awareness: Awareness of existence of solar energy as a source of

power in Nigeria is very low. Those that are aware of it think solar energy

can only power a few watt of lighting.

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 ii. Technology equipment and fabrication: Presently, neither the technology or

fabrication of component are on ground in Nigeria, that means virtually all

the solar component are in Nigerian market today that is of commercial

value are foreign. These spare part repair and sometimes broken down solar

components are very difficult to solve.

iii. Component failure: component failure occurs when a fully installed

operational device such as street light or home device becomes in

operational after a short while (Okafor and Joel, 2010).

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