Electrical Materials
and
Technology
By : Gebremariam Fisseha
2009 E.C
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Chapter-1: Review of Atomic Theory of Matter
1.1 Introduction
Materials used in the field of Electrical Engineering are called the Electrical Engineering
materials. An electrical engineer should know the properties of materials like mechanical,
electrical, magnetic, thermal, chemical, and physical used in electrical engineering. The
properties of a material are its qualities which define its specific characteristics of behavior. This
Knowledge helps him to choose the correct material for a given application. Hence, the materials
available can be employed effectively and economically for a specific purpose.
Some of the factors that must be considered in selecting the most suitable material for an
engineering application are:
a) Cost: The material should have a low cost so that it can easily be purchased and used. This
is an economic consideration.
b) Availability: the material should be easily available in the market so that it can be
purchased when required.
c) Ease of manufacturing methods: The material should have the quality of being
manufactured easily and should not involve complicated and time-consuming operations.
To understand how materials behave as conductor, semiconductor, and insulator or magnetic, it
is necessary to refer to atomic structure of materials. It is due to internal bonding of atoms in a
material which causes it to behave as; conductor, semiconductor, or insulator.
1.2 Atomic Theory
All matters(any thing that has mass and volume) whether solid, liquid or gas is made up of
smallest bits called atoms .An element (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Gold etc…) is defined as a substance (a
particular kind of matter with uniform properties) that can’t be simplified into other substances
by ordinary chemical means. The smallest amount of an element is called atom. A molecule is
formed when two or more atoms join together chemically (H2, O2, N2, H2O, etc...), while a
compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements (H2O, C6H12O6, etc...).Thus we
can say that all compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.
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According to modern atomic theory the central part of the atom is called "Nucleus" and contains
protons and neutrons. Proton is positively charged particle and neutron has no charge. Hence,
nucleus of an atom bears positive charge.
The nucleus is surrounded by a number of negative particles called electrons. They are spinning
around themselves and also are revolving around the nucleus in orbits or shells. Each proton
possesses as much positive charge as an electron possesses negative charge (16 x 10-16C).Hence,
the atom is electrically neutral.
The electrons are kept in the atom by the attraction exerted on them by the positive nucleus. In
fact, the electrons can be regarded as arranged and revolving in successive orbits or levels
around the nucleus. The electrons in each orbit or level are associated with a definite amount of
energy. Thus, the orbits are referred to as energy levels. The energy levels are denoted by the
letters K, L, M, N, O, P, etc. The K-level is nearest to the nucleus.
To remove the electron from its orbit some definite amount of energy is required. Thus, since the
electrons nearer to the nucleus are more firmly held than those farther from it, the energy to
remove one electron from the first orbit is more than the energy to remove one electron from the
second orbit and so on. That is, electrons posses a definite amount of energy, called quantum,
depending on the [Link], orbits are referred to as energy levels. The valency of an element
is determined by the number of electrons it can receive or give away from its outer most sub
shell to another element in a [Link] elements having 3 or less valency electrons,give away
these electrons but elements having 5 or more valency electrons,will receive such electrons to
make the total as 8,for [Link] valency electrons are very loosely held and contribute to the
properties of the [Link] the valency orbit contains8 electrons,the atom is complete and
stable;if it contains less than 8,the atom is unstable and very easily gives out or receivesvalency
electrons from neighbor to complete its valency orbit.
The number of electrons that can be accommodated in any orbit or level is given by the formula
2n2, Where 'n' is the number of orbit or level. But there is some limitation to the above formula
that the outermost level or orbit of any atom cannot have more than 8 electrons and the last but
one orbit of the atom cannot have more than 18 electrons.
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Examples:
*** Na- has 11 electrons: K, L &M Shell is occupied by 2, 8 & 1 electrons respectively.
*** Cl- has 17 electrons: K, L &M Shell is occupied by 2, 8 & 7 electrons respectively.
*** K- has 19 electrons: K, L, M &N Shell is occupied by 2, 8,8& 1 electrons respectively.
*** Ca- has 20 electrons: K, L &M Shell is occupied by 2, 8,8& 2 electrons respectively.
The electrons in the outermost shell (orbit), called the valence orbit or valence ring, are called the
valence electrons. It is the valence electrons that determine most of the properties of the
elements and form bonds to hold the material together. The valence electrons are comparatively
loosely bound to the rest of atom and may be removed by various means. E.g. by applying
electrical voltage to the material.
1.3. Atomic models
Nowadays, we know that atoms are made up of a positively charged nucleus in the centre
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. However, in the past, before the structure of the
atom was properly understood, scientists came up with lots of different models or pictures to
describe what atoms look like.
Model is a simplified representation of a system in the real word. Models help us to understand
systems and their properties. For example, an atomic model represents what the structure of an
atom could look like, based on what we know about how atoms behave. It is not necessarily a
true picture of the exact structure of an atom.
1.2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Model
John Dalton proposed that all matter is made of very small, indivisible and indestructible objects
called atoms. Thus, when Dalton proposed his model electrons and the nucleus were unknown.
Fig 1.1: Dalton's atomic model
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1.2.2 Thomson’s Atomic Model
After the electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897, people realized that atoms were
made up of even smaller particles than they had previously thought. However, the atomic
nucleus had not been discovered yet and so the “plum pudding model” was put forward in 1904.
In this model, the atom is made up of negative electrons that float in a “soup” of positive charge,
much like plums in a pudding or raisins in a fruit cake (Figure1.2). However, even with the Plum
Pudding Model, there was still no understanding of how these electrons in the atom were
arranged.
Fig 1.2: Thomson's plum pudding atomic model
1.2.3 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Rutherford carried out some experiments which led to a change in ideas around the atom. His
new model described the atom as a tiny, dense, positively charged core called a nucleus
surrounded by lighter, negatively charged electrons. Another way of thinking about this model
was that the atom was seen to be like a mini solar system where the electrons orbit the nucleus
like planets orbiting around the sun. A simplified picture of this is shown alongside. This model
is sometimes known as the planetary model of the atom.
Fig 1.3: Rutherford’s atomic model
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1.2.4 Bohr’s Atomic Model
There were, however, some problems with Rutherford's model: for example it could not explain
the very interesting observation that atoms only emit light at certain wavelengths or frequencies.
Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing that the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in
certain special orbits at different energy levels around the nucleus.
Fig 1.4: Bohr’s atomic model
1.2.5 James Chadwick’s Atomic Model
Rutherford predicted (in 1920) that another kind of particle must be present in the nucleus along
with the proton. He predicted this because if there were only positively charged protons in the
nucleus, then it should break into bits because of the repulsive forces between the like-charged
protons! To make sure that the atom stays electrically neutral, this particle would have to be
neutral itself. In 1932 James Chadwick discovered the neutron and measured its mass.
Neutrons were found to have the same mass as protons which accounted for more of the mass of
the atom and allowed the known mass of an atom and the known mass of its particles to match.
The common understanding of an atom was now a nucleus containing positively charged protons
and neutral neutrons with the rest of the atom being space in which negatively charged electrons,
with a mass so small compared to that of the nucleus "orbit" the nucleus on energy levels
corresponding to the amount of energy the electrons hold.
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Fig 1.5: James Chadwick’s atomic model
1.4. Quantization of electron energy
Fig 1.6: Quantization of electron energy
The quantization of energy refers to the absorption or emission of energy in discreet packets, or
quanta. The quantization of energy, also known as "quantum theory," describes how energy can
only be lost or gained in multiples of a smallest possible unit of energy, which is referred to as a
"quantum."
The energies of the electrons can only have certain values. When an electron was to go from
lower energy state to higher energy state, it can only do so by absorbing a photon containing the
exact energy difference. Likewise, when it were to jump from higher to lower energy state it
releases again the exact energy difference in the form of photon. Thus, electrons can only gain
and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting
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electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ν determined by the energy difference of the levels
according to the Planck relation: ΔE=Ei-Ef=hv
Thus,According to Bohr’s model of atom ,for an electron in a hydrogen atom:
Energy of the electron => En=-RH//n2 =-13.6eV/n2 where RH =2.179x10-18 J
1eV= 1.602176565x10-19 J
Energy of emitted/absorbed photon =>E=|ΔEn|=hv=|-RH ( )|
Example-1: What is (a) the frequency (in KHz) and (b) wave length of light emitted when the
electron in a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from level n=6 to level n=2? h=6.63x10-34J.S
, RH=2.179x10-18J ,c=3.00x108 m/s
Solution:
(a) hv=|-RH ( )|6.63x10-34v =|-2.179x10-18(1/22 -1/62) | v=7.303x1011KHz
(b) v=c/ʎ ʎ=c/V=3.00x108 /7.303x1014=0.411x10-6 m
1.5. Schrödinger equation
In classical mechanics we describe a state of a physical system using position and momentum.
For example, if you’ve got a table full of moving billiard balls and you know the position and the
momentum of each ball at some time , then you can know all about the system at that time :
where everything is, where everything is going and how fast. In quantum mechanics, the science
that explains the behavior of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and
subatomic particles, we ask the same question, but the answer is tricky because position and
momentum are no longer the right variables to describe the system. The problem is that the
objects quantum mechanics tries to describe don't always behave like tiny little billiard balls.
Sometimes it is better to think of them as waves.
Thus, in quantum mechanics we simply cannot talk about the location or the trajectory of a
particle. Hence, we don’t have exact answers to questions like ’where is the electron at time ?.
In other words, all you can expect from the mathematical representation of a quantum state, from
the wave function, is that it gives you a probability.
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At the beginning of the twentieth century, experimental evidence suggested that atomic particles
were also have wave-like in nature. For example, electrons were found to give diffraction
patterns when passed through a double slit in a similar way to light waves. Therefore, it was
reasonable to assume that a wave equation could explain the behavior of atomic particles.
Schrodinger was the first person to write down such a wave equation. The Schrodinger equation,
shows the entire wave like properties of matter. When we treat as a wave the wave function
represents the displacement or amplitude of the wave produced by the electron. If we treat the
system as a particle, then the wave function is used to give us the probability of finding the
particle at some point(|ψ|2)
1.6. Atomic bonding
A chemical bond, a lasting attraction between atoms ,hold atoms and molecules of substances
together. When it comes to bonding, everything is based on how many electrons an element has
or shares with its compound partner or partners. The octet rule is followed by most elements,
and it says that to be stable, an atom needs to have eight electrons in its outermost shell.
Elements that do not -H, He, B, Li and Be, should follow the duet rule which says that the atoms
only need two valence electrons to be stable. When bonding, stability is always considered and
preferred. Therefore, atoms bond in order to become more stable than they already are. The
outermost orbit, which contains the valence electrons, is comparatively unstable. It can become
stable either by acquiring more electrons to bring the total up to 8 or by losing all its electrons to
another atom. This is how atomic bonds are formed.
Not all atoms bond the same way, so we need to learn the different types of bonds that atoms can
[Link] are three types of bonds: Ionic,covalent and metallic.
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a)Ionic Bond-Electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite charge.
Electrons are transferred
Between metals and non metals.
In ionic bond atoms of different elements(metals and non metals) transfer electrons from one to
the other so that both have stable outermost orbits. At the same time both become ions, one
positively and the other negatively charged. The electrostatic force between the two gives rise to
the [Link] electrostatic force is strong enough that even a large amount of energy might not
break it and make the valence electrons available for conduction. These materials are most of the
time insulators.
Example: NaCl
b)Covalent Bond-Sharing of electrons between two atoms.
Electrons are shared
Between non metals.
A covalent bond results from sharing of pairs of valence electrons by two or more atoms of the
same element(between non metals). The atoms of materials having four or more than four
electrons revolving in their outermost orbits must share their electrons with the neighboring
[Link] is because an atom must have at least 8 electrons in the outermost orbit in order to be
stable.
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In this bond, each atom is charged alternatively positive and negative. Due to unlike charge the
two atoms attract each other with an electrostatic force. The electrons are so tightly bound in
their orbits that a large amount of energy is required to remove them from covalent bonding.
Certain materials of this type normally behave as insulators but allow for more valence electrons
to be available for conduction by thermal energy. These materials are known as semi-conductors
and have 4 valence electrons. Ex: Ge, Si, etc.
Examples: CH4, NH3, H2O, H2,Cl2 …
c) Metallic Bond-attraction b/n closely packed metal ions and “sea” of delocalized electrons.
Free flow of electrons
Between metals
Elements which have one, two, or three valence electrons are very unstable. Atoms of such
elements give up their valence electrons to form an electron cloud (delocalized
electrons,electrons not attached to any atom) throughout the space occupied by the atoms. After
giving up their valence electrons, positive ions are left. The material is now held together by the
electrostatic force between the positive ions and electron cloud. This type of bond is found in
elements having small number of valence electrons which are loosely held so that they can easily
be released to join the common electrons cloud. Solids which are held together by this type of
bond have properties like good electrical conductivity.
If a potential difference is applied across such a material the electrons are easily attracted
towards the positive terminal due to the following two reasons.
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1. Electrons are far removed from the positive ions
2. Electrons are subjected to force of repulsion from other electrons.
The deficiency of the electrons thus created is made good by the inflow of the electrons through
the negative terminal. The metallic bond acts between identical atoms, as in pure metals or
between chemically similar atoms, as in alloys.
Note: From the above discussion (a, b & c), we can understand that inter atomic bond determine
the electrical behavior of an element.
Examples: Bonds between crystals of Ag,Au,Cu…
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1.7. Classification of Electrical Engineering Materials
Based on properties and area of applications, Electrical Engineering materials can be classified
as shown below:
Electrical Engineering
materials
Conductors Semi-conductors Insulators Magnetic Materials
Intrinsic Ferromagnetic
matrerials
Semi-conductors
Semi-conductors
Paramagnetic
Extrinsic matrerials
Semi-conductors Diamagnetic
matrerials
Antiferromagnetic
matrerials
Ferrites
Fig 1.7: Classification of electrical engineering materials
1. Conductors: These are those materials which offer such a small resistance that they allow
the electrical current to flow through them easily. All metals and their alloys are good
conductors of electricity. Carbon in solid and powder form is also good conductor. Pure
water does not conduct electricity, but acidic water conducts electricity. Silver is the best
conductor of electricity, then copper and at third place is aluminum.
2. Semi conductors: They occupy an intermediate position between conductors and
insulators. E.g. Germanium, Silicon etc. These are commonly used for electronic devices,
for example rectification, amplification, switch etc.
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3. Insulators: Those materials which offer such a high resistance that they do not allow
current to pass through them. Their resistance is usually in M . Examples of insulators
are rubber, cotton, silk, paper, mica, glass, porcelain etc.
4. Magnetic Materials: are materials which can affected by magnetic field.
1.8. Energy band theory and classification of electrical materials
We have seen that every shell is associated with an energy level. An electron orbiting very close
to the nucleus in the first shell is very much tightly bound to the nucleus and possesses only a
small amount of [Link],first shell has lowest energy level. The greater the distance of an
electron from the nucleus,the greater is its energy. Hence,the energy level of outermost shell is
highest. Due to such high energy,the valance electrons in the outermost shell can be easily
extracted out and hence such electrons take part in chemical reactions and in bonding together.
Now this discussion is related to the electrons and shells of one isolated atom only.
In solids,atoms are brought close [Link] such a case,outer shell electrons are shared by more
than one atom. So these electrons come under the influence of forces from other atoms too. The
valence electrons are now shared by forming a covalent bond with valence electrons of adjacent
atom. Thus valence electrons are not free under normal conditions. But, since these valence
electrons are coupled and possess highest energy level, their associated energy levels merge into
each other. This merging forms an energy band.
Similarly the energy levels of various electrons present in the first orbit,second orbit [Link]
merge to form the various energy bands. So instead of the presence of widely separated energy
levels as that of the isolated atoms, the closely spaced energy levels are present in a solid, which
are called energy bands(a range of energies associated with the quantum states of electrons in a
crystalline solid).The graphical representation of the energy bands in solid is called energy band
diagram. Because of the unit joule is very large for discussions of such energies associated with
electrons, energy bands, the energy associated with bands is measured in electron volts, eV.
1eV=1.6 x 10-19J
Out of all the energy bands, three bands are most important to understand the behavior of solids.
These are: Valence band, Conduction band & Forbidden band or gap.
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Fig 1.8: The general energy band diagram of solid material
1) Valence band:
Is the energy band formed due to merging of the energy levels associated with the
electrons in the last shell (valence electrons).
Under normal conditions, electrons on this band form covalent bond are not free as
mentioned earlier. But when certain energy is imparted to them, they become free.
2) Conduction band:
Is the energy band formed due to merging of the energy levels associated with the free
electrons.
Under normal condition this band is emptyand once energy is imparted,the valence
electrons jump from valence band to conduction band and become free.
While jumping from valence band to conduction band , the electrons have to cross an
energy gap.
3) Forbidden band/gap:
Is the energy gap which separates the conduction band and valence band .
The energy imparted to the electrons must be greater than the energy which is associated
with the forbidden gap,EG ,to extract the electrons from valence band and transfer them
to conduction band.
Note: electrons cannot exist in the forbidden gap.
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For any type of material the forbidden energy gap may be large, small or non-existent. The
classification of materials as insulators, conductors or semiconductors is mainly dependent on
the widths of the forbidden energy gap.
Fig 1.9: energy band diagrams of different materials
Fig 1.9a: Shows the energy band diagram of conducting materials. Here there is no forbidden
zone existing between valence and conduction bands. In good conductors, the conduction and the
valence bands may even overlap each other. Electrons from the valence band may be even
moved to the conduction band by very small amount of energy. There will be a large number of
electrons flow when voltage is applied across such material.
Fig 1.9b: Shows the energy band diagram of insulating materials. Here the forbidden zone
between the valence band and the conduction band is quite large,15eV. In order to move the
valence band electrons in to conduction band large amount of external energy is applied which is
equal to the forbidden gap. But in insulators, this is practically impossible to move the valence
band electrons in to conduction band.
Fig 1.9c: Shows the energy band diagram of semiconducting materials. In this case the forbidden
zone is very small,1eV. At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with
electrons and conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence band does not have
enough energy to move in to conduction band. When the temperature is goes on increasing, the
number of valence band electrons moving in to conduction band is also increases. This shows
that electrical conductivity of the semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.
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