Construction Practice for Technician & Diploma Students -Volume One

This compilation is made by Ansah Nana Benyi, Construction Technician Instructor,

Accra Polytechnic, Accra, Ghana

PRELIMINARY SITE WORKS

These are the initial operations carried out on the site before the commencement of the
actual structure. They include:

1. Access to the site

2. Clearing the site
3. Access on the site
4. Fencing and hoarding
5. Datum establishment
6. Provision of hutments
7. Provision of services
8. Soil investigation

Access to the site

Usually, roads are integral part of the contract especially if it is a housing estate or a
factory. This means no special requirements will be necessary for the provision of access
to the site. Otherwise if no permanent roads are required it is important to construct
temporary roads.

Factors to consider when constructing access to the site:

1. Distance to site location

2. Correct lay – out of hutments
3. Area size of the site
4. Sign post erection

Site clearance

This involves demolition existing structures (if any), grubbing out of roots, bushes, stumps
etc. and topsoil removal. The depth of the vegetable topsoil may vary according to the
geographical strata and information. The site may cleared using two one of two methods or
both. This may be either mechanical or manual. The skimmer and grader are popularly used
for this purpose. On small sites hand tools such as shovels, pick axes, cutlasses etc. are
used for this purpose. The topsoil must not be used for any hardcore filling but for only
agricultural purposes.

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Reasons for the removal of vegetable top soil

1. To provide a hard level surface for the commencement of the building

2. Vegetable soil contains the organisms and chemicals necessary for the growth of
plants
3. It has unreliable bearing capacity
4. Vegetable top soil is also removed to prevent plants from growing underneath the
ground floor and encourage dry rot
5. It is unstable and cannot be compacted into a solid natural foundation

Temporary roads

A hard dry surface must be provided to enable vehicles to be driven to the site. The
materials for the road surfaces to be provided may include:

i. Ballast, hogging or hardcore

ii. Patent fabric of welded steel
iii. Timber sleepers

Ballast, hogging or hardcore

This can be laid and rolled into a hard surface if good drainage is provided, this road can
be most efficient and economical, provided it is laid on a hard dry surfaces.

Camber 50mm hogging or75mm hardcore

drainage trench

4m
road surfaced with hogging or hardcore

Patent fabric

This gives an excellent riding surface and can be laid on a ground which is a little bit soft.
The material also allows heavy vehicles to move safely on slightly soft ground. The ground
is shaped and cambered to shed water. The edges of the fabric must be pinned down to

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prevent the edges from curling up, which could cause damage to lorry tires personnel
tripping off.

fabric pegged down at dges

patent fabric Camber
drainage trench

4m
road surfaced with patent fabric

Timber sleepers

Timber is expensive but can be used to an advantage. The ground is prepared and two
channels cut, one on each side. The sleepers are then laid and nailed to the lower members
to prevent dislodging.

Methods of Enclosing The Site & Their Protection

There are two methods of site enclosure:

a. Fencing
b. Hoarding
The type of protection and enclosure chosen will depend on the

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1. Degree of security required

2. Cost implications
3. Type of neighbourhood
4. Duration of contract
The hoarding is erected when the work has started on the site for the following reasons:

1. To prevent the public from having free access

2. To safeguard the structure
3. To safeguard the building materials
4. To prevent the public from dust and noise associated with construction activities

The fence is used for the following purposes:

1. Defines boundary
2. Limits the site
3. Serves as a barrier for protection
4. Restricts movement
5. Limits or stops view
6. Forms visual link/feature between unit blocks.
Example of Fences

1. Chain link
2. Woven wire
3. Strained wire
4. Cleft chestnut pale
5. Close boarded.
6. Wooden palisades
7. Metal continuous bar
8. Woven wood wattle panel
9. Concrete panel

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The fan hoarding

The fan hoarding fulfils the function of directing falling debris back towards the building
or scaffold. It is placed at a level above the normal traffic height. If hoarding is above
public footpath it should be lined with polythene or similar sheeting.

struts @ 600c/c
sheeted deck

supports @ 600 c/c hole through existing

wall for support

fan hoarding details

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Demolition

This is the complete destruction of the structure. It is the reverse order of construction.
The method of demolition a particular structure would be determined by

1. The size of the building

2. Its type and method of construction
3. Its location within the site boundary
4. The distance away from surrounding buildings
5. He amount of recoverable or salvageable materials
6. The expertise of a particular contractor

Reasons for demolition

1. Structural failure - that is the structure is unsafe because of degeneration

2. Progress of society – no longer required due to changes in demand
3. Economic use of land
4. Economic consideration (the structure will cause too much to be repaired)

This is a specialist operation and must be done by a specialist contractor. By employing

an expert numerous advantages would be achieved, thus

1. He can salvage some of the materials

2. He can appreciate the factor affecting safety
3. He will also have adequate insurance cover in the event of any mishap

There are two types of demolition

1. Total demolition
2. Partial demolition

Total demolition

This is where the whole structure is demolished.

Partial demolition

This is where only part of the structure is removed.

Demolition techniques

1. Hand demolition

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2. Fragmentation

Hand demolition

This involves progressive dismantling of the building in the reverse order to its
construction. This may be used where there are severe site restrictions and/or partial
demolition is required. This is employed where salvageable materials are valuable. The
work is done with hand held tools plus lifting appliances to support main members as they
are released and to lower them to the ground when freed. No debris should be allowed to
fall free unless the point of fall is at least 6.0m or half the height from which it is
dropped away from a public highway or adjoining property.

Fragmentation

This is the process of reducing a building to a heap of rubble by the cheapest methods
available. The methods available are

1. Pusher arm
2. Deliberate collapse
3. Rope pulling
4. Explosives
5. Demolition ball
6. Bursting
7. Thermal methods

Pusher arm

This is done using a steel or timber beam attached to a mechanical excavator and pushes
over sections of the structure rather than dismantling it. The machine should be operated
from outside the building so that the debris falls inwards. This method is suitable for
relatively low structures within the reach of the pusher arm.

Deliberate collapse

This technique reduces the building to a heap of rubble by the removal of a number of key
structural members. It is quick and reasonably safe in expert hands but produces a lot of
noise, vibration and dust. The removal of the key members may be effected by pulling
them out by wire rope or blowing them out with explosives.

Rope pulling

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This uses a wire rope which is well anchored winched or tracked or heavy vehicle pulling to
pull over successive portions. It is suitable for masonry buildings over 21m. The pulling
rope should always be of length such that the horizontal distance from the winch to the
building is twice the height of the building being demolished.

Explosives

This is the most dramatic method. Charges of explosives are placed at the base of the
structure and detonated to cause partial or complete collapse. For a larger structure
there may be controlled succession of blasts which brings it down in stages.

Demolition ball

This method employs a weight, suspended from a crane and swung against or dropped onto
the structural members. It is highly skilled operation and should only be carried out within
clearly defined limits to avoid overloading or overstressing the crane. Usually the roof is
removed, 50 to 75 percent of floors removed by hand before balling work starts.

A CRANE & A DEMOLITION BALL

Bursting

A cavity is formed in critical members of the building and are forced to enlarge . causing
the members t fracture, leading to a controlled collapse. The force is applied by either a
gas-expansion or hydraulic burster. The gas-expansion burster is made up of a cylinder
filled with gas which, when ignited by electrical charge expands rapidly into the cavity.

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Thermal methods

This method combines thermal reaction on structural steel members in conjunction with
wire rope pulling. The beam or stanchion to be severed has a mixture of metal oxide and a
reducing agent applied around critical point. When the mixture is ignited it liberates
enough heat to soften the metal sufficiently to allow the member to be pulled down.

Provision of Hutments

These are usually wooden structures erected on site to provide for a simple temporary
accommodation or for leisure activities and offices etc.

Classification of hutments

1. Mobile
2. Semi-mobile
3. Framed
4. Sectional
5. Portable framed
6. Air house

Factors to consider when erecting hutments:

1. Duration of contract
2. Availability of space
3. Location of site
4. No of employees
5. Size of contract

These hutments may also be used for storing the materials on site.

Provision of services

The services which may encountered on or around a site are

1. Water
2. Gas
3. Electricity
4. Telephone
5. Sewerage
6. Oil

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7. Television

All the services listed are classified into three areas:

1. National
2. Regional
3. Local

The appropriate board must be notified before any connection can be made. The following
information must be communicated to the local authority and permission granted before
work commences.

1. Name and address of the developer

2. Location of the land to be developed
3. Description of the proposed development
4. Previous use of land
5. Whether a new access would be required from the highway
6. Plan to which the permission refers
7. 1:100 or 1:200 drawing to give a clear picture of the new building or alteration

Storage and protection of materials

The type of storage facilities required of any material depends on the following factors:

1. Durability – whether it needs protection from the elements

2. Vulnerability to damage
3. Vulnerability to theft

Cement

Cement is supplied in bulk, bags or in drums. Bulk cement is delivered to site by tankers
and blown into storage silos by compressed air.

Bagged cement, delivered on a wagon having a tarpaulin cover, should be stored in a close
cabin, the floor of which is at least 150mmabove the ground. The bags should be stored
closely together to prevent the circulation of air.

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weather
boarded shield
without
windows tarpaulin covering

cement storage

Aggregates

Aggregate should be stored on a hard, clean free draining surface. They may be stored in
bins or hoppers so that the stockpiles do not mix thus ensuring that different aggregates,
types and sizes are kept separately.

Bricks and Blocks

These may be supplied loose or strapped in unit loads and stored on raised timber pallets.
Facing and coloured bricks should be covered to prevent contamination.

Timber and Joinery

These should be stored horizontally and covered and provision made for air circulation.
Timber sizes should be kept separately and raised off the ground to prevent
contamination.

Drainage pipes

Should be supplied loose or strapped on timber pallets. It should be stored horizontally

with the ends reversed in alternate rolls.

Location of plants

Plants must be placed at the most convenient and strategic points so that maximum
benefit could be achieved from their use. Points to consider:

i. Headlights should be set up truly horizontal

ii. They should be securely fixed to a firm and solid base.

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iii. Cranes should be positioned so that they are able to reach all materials that need
to be hoisted; e.g. cement, aggregate etc.
iv. Mixers and mortar pans should be specially sited to keep the distance to wheeling
concrete or mortar as short as possible.
v. Batching plants should be set up in a central position on the site to be readily
accessible for Lorries to discharge aggregates etc appropriately.

Factors to be considered when allocating plants on site

1. The availability of space

2. Working room requirements
3. Mobility on site
4. Servicing requirements

Provision for workers welfare and safety on site

It is essential to have the interest of all workers on site and to provide the best facilities
for their upkeep. Advantages from such provisions may include

1. It reduces pilfering
2. It serves as an incentive to the operatives
3. Boost workers morale
4. Increases productivity

Welfare and safety provisions include:

1. Notices and fees to local authorities – this include fees for water supply, public
services and all other fees which may be demandable by the local authority.
2. Watching and lighting – to provide all requisite day and night watching.
3. Maintenance of public and private roads – there should be no damage to roadways,
footpaths and all other properties.
4. Water for the works – the contractor must supply water for the site and
responsible for the protection of meters and cocks.
5. Lighting and power – artificial lighting and power must be provided on the site for
all personnel, including subcontractors and nominated subcontractors.

Difficulties encountered when working in bad weather

Rain, high winds, low temperatures, poor daylight levels are some of the weather effects
that can seriously affect construction activities.

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The worse effects obviously occur when more than one of these occurs simultaneously.

Shelter is required for the men during bad weather and somewhere to deposit the clothes
not worn during working hours.

Lessening of difficulties in hot weather

1. In very hot weather, the freshly laid concrete should be shielded from the direct
sun until seven days to prevent rapid evaporation due to temperature, relative
humidity and wind.
2. Mixing water and the materials must be kept as cool as possible.
3. Aggregate should be protected from the sun and sprayed with water to cool down
immediately.

Lessening of difficulties in cold weather

1. All aggregate should be pre-heated by perforated steam pipes to prevent the

attack of frost.
2. Mixing water must be heated to a temperature not exceeding 80˚C with a water
cement ratio of 0.5.
3. Concrete must be cured for longer periods due to the fact that low temperatures
retard concrete hardening and strength gain.
4. Additional Portland cement, high curing temperatures (steam curing), high early
strength cement and other known methods may be employed to obtain high-early
strength.

Site & Soil Investigation

The basic objective of site investigation is to collect systematically and to record all the
necessary data which will be required in the design of the proposed work and their
construction. Site investigation is thus all embracing, taking into account such factors as
topography, location of existing services, means of access and any local restrictions.

Soil Investigation specifically relates to the subsoil beneath the site under investigation
and could be part of or separate from the site investigation. It is usually a means of
obtaining data regarding properties and characteristics of sub-soils by providing samples
for testing or providing a means of access for visual inspection.

Methods of soil classification

i. Physical properties

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ii. Geological origin

iii. Chemical composition
iv. Particle size distribution

Generally soils are defined as coarse - grained or fine – grained each resulting in different
properties.

Coarse – grained soils

These include sands and gravels having a low proportion of voids, negligible cohesion when
dry, high permeability and slight compressibility which takes place almost immediately upon
the application of load.

Fine – grained soils

These include cohesive silts and clays having a high proportion of voids, high cohesion, very
low permeability and high compressibility which takes place slowly over a long period time.
There is however several soils which can be described between these two extremes and
are divided into particle size as follows:

1. Clay particles less than 0.002mm

2. Silt particles between 0.002 and 0.06mm
3. Sand particles between 0.06 and 2mm
4. Gravel particles between 2 and 60mm
5. Cobbles between 60 and 200mm

Purpose of Soil Investigation

a. Determine the suitability of the site for the proposed project.

b. Determine an adequate and economic foundation design
c. Determine the difficulties, which arise during the construction process and period.
d. Determine the occurrence and or cause of all changes in subsoil conditions.

Factors Affecting Method or Choice of Soil Investigation

a. The size of the contract

b. Type of proposed foundation
c. Type of sample required
d. Type of subsoil to be encountered
Main methods of soil investigation

The methods of soil investigation are

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Trial pits – small contracts where foundation depths are not likely to exceed 3.0m

Bore holes- - medium to large contracts with foundations up to 30.0m depth.

Trial Pit

Primarily to obtain subsoil sample for identification, ascertaining the subsoil

characteristics and properties. Trial pits and auger bore holes may also be used to
establish the presence of any geological fault and upper or lower limit of the water table.

Trial pit can also be used to expose and /or locate underground services.

The trial holes are used purposely to:

1. Know the thickness of each layer of the subsoil

2. Know the composition of each stratum
3. Know the size of various particles of which the subsoil is composed in each stratum
4. The condition of each stratum
5. The water table level
6. The quantity of water below ground level

Disadvantages

i. Difficult to operate in high water tables and very loose soils

ii. There is the need to provide for pumps for and timbering to provide dry land

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Bore hole

These are carried out using either a hand auger (shallow bore hole) or mechanical auger
(deep bore hole) to determine the suitability of a particular type of soil for a project. A
shell boring tool consist of a cylindrical steel shell which is dropped into the soil causing
soil to be forced into the cylinder either by friction in the case of cohesive soil or non-
return flap in the case of non-cohesive soil.

The diameter of the samples obtained varies from 100mm – 200mm according to the
method employed in extracting the sample. Undisturbed soil samples can be obtained from
cohesive soils 450mm long x 100mm diameter sampling tubes which are driven into the soil
to collect the sample within itself, upon removal the tube is capped, labeled and sent to
laboratory for testing.

Purpose of Auger Hole

Primarily to obtain subsoil structure for identification, classification and ascertaining the
subsoil characteristics and properties.

Could be used if required to obtain subsoil samples at a depth beyond the economic limit of
trial hole.

clay
Sand or auger
gravel
auger

hand
augers

Advantages

i. Generally cheaper
ii. Simpler than trial hole

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Setting out

This is the process whereby the outline of the building on plan is transferred to the
ground for excavation works to be done. Setting out should be carried out by competent
persons and check by different persons with different methods.

The setting out of the building can be divided into two distinct operations:

 Establishing the position of the building and setting up the profile.

 Establishing a datum peg and the transferring the required levels to various
positions.

Equipment For setting out

i. Steel tape
ii. Builders’ square
iii. Crosscut saw & nails
iv. Pegs
v. Plumb bob/spirit level
vi. Site square
vii. Line

Datum establishment

The datum (TBM) is a basic level established on the site from which all measurements
and/or levels for the building to be erected on the site can be taken. The level of the TBM
is usually set to that of the ground floor level which is fixed in relation to other known
levels in the vicinity, preferably an (OBM). A peg is driven down until the top reaches the
desired height and other levels are transferred from it. One method of transferring this
is by using a long leveling board and a spirit level.

hardwood peg(top level

equals ground level).

concrete

site datum or
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Transferring levels

The level of the site datum can be transferred to other parts of the site in several ways.
One method is using the straight edge and the spirit level. The straight edge and the
spirit level must be reversed in the next move to cancel out minor errors that may occur.

straight edge& spirit

level reversed

3.0m straigt edge

ground line

datum peg
peg

transferring levels-straight edge spirit level method

Requirements of setting out:

1. Should be in the correct position

2. Be at the correct level
3. Be erected vertically

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ll
wa th
d
wi
saw kerf
tre
wid nch
th

arrangement for
a corner profile

Sequence of operation

Note: all setting out is done from a building line.

1. Drive in pegs on the side boundary at the correct distance from and parallel to the
centre line of the road
2. Strain a line between two nails placed at the centre of the pegs
3. Drive two pegs C and D along the building line to indicate the front corners of the
building.

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4. Set out lines at right angles to peg C and D and establish pegs E and F. Drive nails
at the centres of the pegs and stretch lines between the four pegs.
5. Measure along lines CE and DF to establish pegs G and H in the far corners of the
building.
6. Check diagonals CH and DG

Note:

Base line is the line on which the building commences

Building line is the an imaginary line drawn from the centre of the road to the base
line

Frontage line is the line in front of which no other development is permitted by the
local authority (and can be the building line or the base line).

Setting out Curves

To set out circular shape the easiest method is to determine the centre or striking point
of the curve. Then a trammel or measuring tape is used to mark out the curve by securing
the trammel at the centre point and swinging around in an arc.

Using template

1. This method is applicable if the radius of the curve is short.

2. Mark out the chord AB and rise CD
3. Fix nails at points A B and C.
4. Nail battens together so that the first batten touches points A and C and the
second points B and C

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5. Nail the spreader across the two battens

6. Draw the curve by moving the frame so that it keeps in contact with points A and B
with a pencil at the intersection.

Setting out right angles

3:4:5 method

1. Mark out a triangle of sides 3:4:5

2. Measure three and four units respectively on the front and side lines

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3. Position the side lines so that the distance between the two marked points is five
units.

Builders’ square

1. Using a large builders’ square set it up on pickings so that one leg is against the
building line.
2. Position the side line so that it runs parallel to the other leg of the square.
3. Read off the right angle at the corner.

3:4:5 method

builders’ square method

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Using the site square

1. Set out the base or building line with pegs at the required distance
2. Set the site square at the head of nail at the peg marking the corner to be set out
3. Sight onto the nail in the next peg along the base line and obtain the dead on
position
4. Measure the required distance approximately at right angles to the peg from the
peg from which the instrument is set up. Signalthe assistant to move pe sideways
until it is on spot.
5. Place a nail at the top of the peg ensuring that the nail is at the centre and that
the distance is the exact required.
6. Repeat the operations on all pegs to set out the corners of the structure.

Setting out acute angles

To setout 45˚

1. Set out right anles using any known methods

2. Measure equal lenths from the vertex topoints B and C
3. Measure carefully halfway the length BC

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4. Pull a line from A through the mid point of BC and this forms 45˚ to either of the
lines forming the right angles.

To setout 60˚

Measure any convenient distance between points A and B

Hammer in pegs at these points

A third point C is driven in from both points A and B

Pull lines from peg A through peg B and from peg A through peg C

The two lines will form 60˚

When this angle is halved 30˚, 15˚ and 7.5˚ can be set out

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Timbering to trenches

Timbering is the method used to support the ground when excavating is done.

Factors to consider when timbering

1. The nature of the soil

2. The pressure to be supported
3. The depth of cutting
4. The water table level

Purpose of timbering

To prevent the sides of the trench from collapsing

To safeguard the operatives working in the trench

To save excessive excavation as in battered trenches

Causes of collapse of timbering

1. Variation of the bearing pressure

2. Changes of angle of repose due to moisture content differences
3. Failure due to heavy loads placed near the edges of the trench
4. Overloading timbering members

Methods of support

1. Timbering
2. Sheet piling
3. Battering
4. Cofferdams
5. Retaining walls
6. Caisson

Safety requirements

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1. Must be inspected by competent persons

2. Timbering must be done as the work proceeds
3. Suitable barriers should be provided

STAIRS

A stair is a series of steps leading from floor to floor, floor to landing or landing to
landing.

A stair case or stair way is the complete system of treads, risers, strings, balustrades,
and other component parts in one or more successive flights of stairs.

The space occupied by a staircase is called a stairwell. The vertical distance between the
floors served by a staircase described as the lift.

Function

The primary functions of any stairway are:

1. To provide the movement of people and goods from one floor level to another
2. To provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire

Types of stairs

i. Straight flight
ii. Dogleg or half space landing
iii. Open well
iv. Geometrical
v. Spiral
vi. Helical

Straight flight

This the simplest form of stair and consists of a straight continuous flight or run of
parallel steps.

Dogleg

A dogleg or half turn stair has one flight rising to an intermediate half-space landing, with
the second flight travelling in the opposite direction to the first.

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Open-well or Open newel

This stair contains a central well with newels at each change of direction and two or more
flights of steps around the outside of the well.

Geometrical stair

This is a stair which takes the form of a spiral with the face of the steps radiating from
the centre of a circle which forms the plan of the outer string and incorporates an open
well.

Spiral stair

This is a form of geometrical stair without a well.

Helical stair

This is a stair which contains a helix round a central void.

Regulations and Requirements

1. The pitch of a private stairway must not be more than 42˚.

2. The pitch of a common stairway must not be more than 38˚.
3. The rise per step of a common stairway must not be more than 190mm.
4. Maximum rise per step should be 220mm.
5. Minimum going should not be less than 225mm.
6. Twice the rise plus the going shall not be less than 550mm and not more than
700mm. (2R + G = 550 -700mm).
7. The minimum headroom shall not be less than 2m, measured vertically the pitch line.
8. The nosing of any tread in an open riser stair shall overlap the back edge of the
tread below not less than 16mm.
9. Stairs with open risers shall be constructed such that the spaces between the open
risers do not permit the passage of a 100mm sphere.
10. A stairway should not have more than 16 risers in a flight.

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quarter - space landing landing between two straight

flights (fly landing)

dog-leg stair
open newel stair

Straight flight Dog-leg Open Well Geometrical

sectional elevation

Geometrical
Up

Pre- Cast Concrete Spandrel Stair

(triangular section)

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Plan

Spiral (helical) Stair

Terms

1) Tread 2)Riser 3) Nosing 4)Going 5)Rise 6)Margin

7) Closed String 8) Cut (open string) 9) Newel 10) Bearer

11) Brackets 12) Trimmer 13) Blocks 14) Handrail 15) Baluster 16) Wedges

going not less than 225mm

rise not less than 190mm

Pitch Line

38°

REGULATIONS FOR COMMON STAIRWAY

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going not less than 212mm

rise not less than 200mm

Pitch Line

0
42

REGULATIONS FOR PRIVATE STAIRWAY

22mm Tread
HousedScotia

Glue Block Glue Block

9mm plywood
16mm Riser
Riser

HOUSED RISER
METHOD OF FORMING STEPS

Newel

galvanised
steel dowel
grouted into
concrete floor

Newel Fixing

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Guarding of stairway

Setting out the stairs

Assume a lift or total rise of 2400mm

Assume a travel or total going of 2925mm

Assume 14 risers

Thus number of treads = 14 - 1 = 13

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Thus: rise = lift/ total rise = 2.400 = 172mm

Number of risers 14

Going = travel/total going 2.950 = 225mm

Number of treads 13

Check: 2R + G = 550 - 700mm; 2(172) + 225 = 344 + 225 = 569mm, thus the stair is
satisfactory.

Factors affecting the design of stairs

1. Purpose or use of the stair

2. Size and shape of the stairwell
3. Economic factors (type of construction, cost, material type etc.)
4. Total height of the building

Defect in stairs

1. Poor fixing of newels and top nosings

2. Flights not rigidly fixed
3. Handrails not sanded smooth
4. Creaking of stairs resulting from poor securing of treads and risers

Unprotected stairs, damage after installation and loosened items such as Disadvantages
of timber stair

1. The main disadvantage is that it will help to spread fire in case of an outbreak.
2. Few timbers are resistant to decay or insect attack, thus for a prolonged life span,
the timber should be preserved which may automatically increase the cost f
construction.
3. Difficulty in the selection of good quality timber

Advantages of concrete stair

1. Non combustible
2. Strong as compared to timber
3. Hard wearing
4. Obtained in in-situ or pre-cast for ready installation.

Disadvantages of tapered steps

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1. Hazard to the aged and the very young, due to the very small tread length at or
near the newel post.
2. Difficult to carpet
3. Difficult to negotiate with furniture
4. Have little or no aesthetic appeal
5. Expensive to construct

Pre-cast concrete stair construction

Basically there are two methods of fixing stairs into walls:

i. as the work proceeds

ii. after the work has been completed

Fixing after completion of the wall

1. Set out the position of the stairway as the wall proceeds to ensure the correct
placement of the sand courses.
2. Remove the sand courses, brush out the indents and dampen the wall
3. Use a height rod to set out position of stair between two floors this should have
the number of steps required marked on it
4. Measure the total going of the steps and divide into the number of steps
5. Use riser and tread gauges to allow for ease of checking
6. Bed the first step in a cement sand mortar (1:2) across the width of the stair, level
in both directions, check for height and build into the wall
7. Wedge the steps at both ends and level the treads
8. Lay a straight edge against the nosings of the stair to check for accuracy
9. Use a line to check the alignment of the steps at their free ends

Fixing the steps as the work proceeds

1. Set out the position of the stairway as the wall proceeds ( no provision of sand
courses)
2. Use a height rod to set out position of stair between two floors this should have
the number of steps required marked on it
3. Measure the total going of the steps and divide into the number of steps
4. Use riser and tread gauges to allow for ease of checking
5. Bed the first step in a cement sand mortar across the width of the stair, level in
both directions, check for height

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6. Lay a straight edge against the nosings of the stair to check for accuracy
7. Use a line to check the alignment of the steps at their free ends
8. If the steps are cantilevered a temporary support must be provided

Square for determining

position of the step ( gauge)
not less than 16mm

upper part of step

reinforced

Methods of checking the accuracy of the position of the steps

OPEN RISER STAIR WAY

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Handrail
waist

cut string Newel

String

treads fixed
to string
open riser stair Fitting Handrail & string
to newel in timber stair

Handrail plugged screwed

Handrail screwed through

bracket to plug

Metal Bracket to wall

Fixing handrails

nut & washer baluster bolted tread or

Metal standard of landing
balustrade

End of handrail
flattened and bolted to
nut & washer
side of concrete stair

cement pointing
fixng metal standard to
concrete steps

molten lead caulked into

mortice around standard
standard ragged with
saw cuts

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In-situ reinforced concrete stair details

distribution bars

stair waist
main bars
distribution bars

tension lap

starter bars

struts
soffit board

margin piece
cleat
Straight egde to
props
check nosing

strut cleat
strut

bracing
cleat
joist

outer cut string

to both edges wedges
sole plate

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line of nosing
riser

tread

string
blocks
nosing

scotia mould section through a string

wedges

A handrail
B
top rail grooved
into handrail
plywood panels

B
A bottom rail
capping
string
panelled balustrade

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DOORS

A door is a solid barrier fixed in a doorway or opening in a wall or partition to hinge, pivot
or slide open to close for access to and from buildings and between rooms, compartment,
corridors, landings and stairs.

A door is classified by the way it is positioned in a building, by their function or their

method of construction. The recommended size of a door opening is 900mm x 2100mm.
this gives a door size of 800 x 2000in both width and height.

Functional Requirements

The primary function of a door is the means of access. The functional requirements of a
door when closed are

a. Privacy
b. Strength
c. Stability
d. Weather resistance
e. Durability or freedom from maintenance
f. Fire security
g. Resistance to the passage of heat
h. Resistance to the passage of sound
i. Exclusion of wind and rain (external door)
Selection of Doors

The factors affecting the choice of doors are:

a. Position in the building

b. The order of priority
c. Appearance

The order of priority of the performance requirements of a door are:

i. Weather exclusion
ii. Security
iii. Fire
iv. Thermal/sound insulation
v. Privacy
vi. Durability
vii. Method of operation

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The appearance of a domestic bathroom door is of little importance, whereas the doors to
the office of a Managing Director should create a suitable impression on those entering.

External doors

These are used to close the access to the internal of a building and provide a means of
security. They are thicker and more robust in design than internal doors.

Internal doors

These are used to close through internal walls within the building, partitions etc. they are
made thinner than their external counterparts since weather protection is no longer a
requirement.

Classification (types)

Battened doors –(match boarded doors) - ledge and batten doors, ledge, brace and batten
doors and frame ledge brace and batten doors.

1. Panel doors
2. Glazed doors
3. Flush doors
4. Purpose made doors

Ledge and batten doors

The face of the door is made from tongue and groove boarding which has edge chamfers
to one or both faces, forming a vee joint between consecutive boards. Normally three
horizontal members called ledges, clamp the boards together making it a non standard
form of a door. It is cheap to construct but has a disadvantage of dropping at the closing
edge, thus pulling the door out of square. its use is limited to buildings such as sheds,
outhouses, and small units like trap doors.

Ledge brace and batten doors

This is a standard battened door in which braces are incorporated to resist the tendency
of the door to drop out of square. The braces are fixed between the ledges so that they
are parallel to one another and slope toward the hanging edge.

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Frame ledge brace and batten doors

Another standard door in which mortise and tenon frame surrounds the match boarded
panel, giving the door added rigidity. When the doors are wider, the braces become too low
to be of value as an effective restraint and it must therefore be framed as a diagonal
between the top and bottom rails.

hanging edge

ledge top rail

brace
match board
middle rail

stile

bottom rail

ledged & ledged brace & framed ledged

batten door batten door brace & batten door

top rail
plywood or glazed skeleton
panel framing
middle rail

stile lightweight
core filling

edge lipping

plywood facing
bottom rail
1,2,3,or 4 panelled doors flush door

Treatment to doors in transit

A door irrespective of the soundness of its construction will deteriorate if improperly

treated during transportation, storage and after hanging.

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top rail top rail

plywood or glazed
panel frieze rail
middle rail

stile stile
solid raised panel
intermediate rail

bottom rail bottom rail

purpose made doors purpose made doors

Treatment

1. It should receive wood priming coat of paint before or immediately after delivery,
2. It should be stored in the dry and flat position so that it does not twist before and
immediately after delivery
3. It should also receive finishing coat of paint as soon as practicable after hanging
4. Finished doors should be wrapped in building paper or polythene sheet to prevent
damage to the finished door

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