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Radio Frequency Spectrum Overview

The document discusses various topics related to communications including: 1. It describes the radio frequency spectrum and different frequency bands used for communication. 2. It provides information on different types of satellites including their orbit heights, velocities and operating frequencies. 3. It summarizes key aspects of sound including human hearing ranges, loudness levels, and optimum room reverberation times. 4. It outlines AT&T and CCITT's frequency-division multiplexing hierarchies for organizing voice channels into groups and supergroups.

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Bernard Catampongan Irinco
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15 views5 pages

Radio Frequency Spectrum Overview

The document discusses various topics related to communications including: 1. It describes the radio frequency spectrum and different frequency bands used for communication. 2. It provides information on different types of satellites including their orbit heights, velocities and operating frequencies. 3. It summarizes key aspects of sound including human hearing ranges, loudness levels, and optimum room reverberation times. 4. It outlines AT&T and CCITT's frequency-division multiplexing hierarchies for organizing voice channels into groups and supergroups.

Uploaded by

Bernard Catampongan Irinco
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOC, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Communications

The Radio Frequency Spectrum


ITU propagation
Band name frequency wavelength
ABBR band mode
< 3 Hz > 100,000 km -
Extremely low frequency ELF 1 3–30 Hz 100,000 km – 10,000 km -
Super low frequency SLF 2 30–300 Hz 10,000 km – 1000 km -
Ultra low frequency ULF 3 300–3000 Hz 1000 km – 100 km -
Very low frequency VLF 4 3–30 kHz 100 km – 10 km Ground Wave
Low frequency LF 5 30–300 kHz 10 km – 1 km Ground Wave
Medium frequency MF 6 300–3000 kHz 1 km – 100 m Ground Wave
High frequency HF 7 3–30 MHz 100 m – 10 m Sky Wave
Very high frequency VHF 8 30–300 MHz 10 m – 1 m Space Wave
Ultra high frequency UHF 9 300–3000 MHz 1 m – 100 mm Space Wave
Super high frequency SHF 10 3–30 GHz 100 mm – 10 mm Space Wave
Extremely high frequency EHF 11 30–300 GHz 10 mm – 1 mm Space Wave
Tremendously high frequency THF 300 GHz 3000GHZ < 1 mm

Satellites
Geostationary /
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
Geosynchronous (GEO)
Orbit Height 100 - 300 mi 6,000 - 12,000 mi 22,300 mi
Orbital velocity 17,500 mph 9580 mph 6879 mph
Orbital time (period) 1.5 hours 5-12 mph 24 hours
Satellite Availability 15 min per orbit 2 - 4 hours per orbit 24 hours per orbit
Operating Frequency 1.0 GHz to 2.5 GHz 1.2 GHz - 1.66 GHz 2 GHz - 18 GHz
Motorola's Iridium Satellite system (66-
satellite constellation for mobile phone GPS, NAVSTAR
system)

Satellite classification to size Loudness level


Size Mass Cost 0 - 15 dB very faint
Large Satellite > 1,000 kg > $ 100 M 15 - 30 dB faint
Small Satellite 500 - 1,000 kg $ 50 - 100 M 30 - 60 dB moderate
Mini Satellite 100 - 500 kg $ 5 - 20 M 60 - 80 dB loud
Micro Satellite 10 - 100 kg $2-3M 80 - 130 dB very loud
Nano Satellite < 10 kg <$1M 130 dB deafening

Microwave frequency bands 10 Octaves of human hearing


Band Frequency in GHz 1st octave 20 - 40 Hz
L 1-2 2nd Lower Bass
40 - 80 Hz
S 2-4 octave
3rd octave 80 - 160 Hz
C 4-8 Upper Base
4th octave 160 - 320 Hz
X 8-12
5th octave 320 - 640 Hz
Ku 12-18
6th octave 640 - 1280 Hz Lower Midrange
K 18-27
7th octave 1280 - 2560 Hz
Ka 27-40
8th octave 2560 - 5120 Hz Upper midrange
Millimeter 40-300
9th octave 5120 - 10240 Hz
Sub-millimeter >300 Treble
10th octave 10240 - 20480 Hz

Optimum volume per person for various types of hall /person (m3)
Type of Hall Optimum Volume concert halls 7.1
Italian-type opera faintest audible sound 0
4.2 - 5.2
houses whisper 20
churches 7.1 - 9.9 Quiet residence 30
cinemas 3.1 Soft stereo in residence 40
Rooms for speech 2.8 Speech range 50-70
cafeteria 90
Pneumatic jack hammer 90
Loud crowd noise 100
Accelerating motorcycle 100
Sound Pressure Levels Rock concert 120
Source SPL (dB) Jet Engine (75 feet away) 140

Optimum reverberation (@500 to 1kHz) Super Group Carrier Frequency


Room Function Reverberation time (s) L600 Mastergroup U600 Mastergroup
Recording and Carrier Carrier
broadcasting studios 0.45 - 0.55 Supergroup frequency Supergroup frequency
(kHz) (kHz)
Elementary classrooms 0.6 - 0.8
1 612 13 1116
Playhouses, intimate
drama production 0.9 - 1.1 2 Direct 14 1364
Lecture and conference 3 1116 15 1612
rooms 0.9 - 1.1 4 1364 16 1860
Cinema 0.8 - 1.2 5 1612 17 2108
small theaters 1.2 - 1.4 6 1860 18 2356
High school auditoriums 1.5 - 1.6 7 2108 D25 2652
General purpose 8 2356 D26 2900
auditoriums 1.5 - 1.6 9 2724 D27 3148
Churches 1.4 - 3.4 10 3100 D28 3396

AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy


VB channels Groups supergroups mastergroups jumbogroups
Group 12 - - - -
supergroup 60 5 - - -
mastergroup 600 50 10 - -
Jumbogroup 3600 300 60 6 -
Superjumbogroup 10800 900 180 18 3

CCITT’s FDM Hierarchy


VB channels Groups supergroups mastergroups
Group 12 - - -
supergroup 60 5 - -
mastergroup 300 25 5 -
Jumbogroup 900 75 15 3
TV channel Frequency allocation
channel Frequency band
Digital Multiplexing Hierarchy (North # (MHz)
American) 2 54 - 60
Digital Bit rate Channel # 3of T1 Services
60 - 66Offered Medium
Line Type
Signal (Mbps) Capacity 4 66 - 72 Low VHF Channels
DS0 64Kbps 1/24 of T-1 twisted pair
5 76 - 82
T1 DS1 1.544 24 1 VB telephone twisted pair
6 82 - 88
48 2 VB telephone twisted pair,
T1C DS1c 3.152 88 - 108 FM band
microwave
7 174 - 180
T2 DS2 6.312 96 4 VB tel, picture phone Coax, microware
8 180 - 186
672 28 VB tel, picture phone, Coax, fiber optics
T3 DS3 44.736 9 186 - TV192
High Band VHF
T4M DS4 274.176 4032 10
168 same192
as T3-but
198more capacity fiber optics
Channels
Japanese Multiplexing Hierarchy 11 198 - 204
Level Data Rate (Mbps) Channel Capacity 12 204 - 210
13 210 - 216
14-83 470-890 UHF
1 1.544 24
2 6.312 92
3 32.064 480
4 97.728 1140
5 565.148 7680

European standard
Channel time
Level Data Rate (Mbps)
Capacity slots
E-1 2.048 30 32
E-2 8.448 120 128
E-3 34.368 480 512
E-4 139.264 1920 2048
E-5 565.992 7680 8192

ELECTRONICS
Summary for all 2-input gates Resonant – Circuit Feedback Oscillators
Oscillator Type X1 X2 X3
Inputs Output of each gate
Hartley L L C
A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR
Colpitts C C L
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Clapp C C Series LC (net L)
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Pierce Crystal C C Crystal (net L)
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Typical Characteristics of IC Logic Families


Power Propagation Noise
IC Logic Family Fan Out Dissipation (mW) Delay (ns) margin (V)
Standard TTL 10 10 10 0.4
Schottky TTL 10 22 3 0.4
Low power Schottky TTL 20 2 10 0.4
ECL 25 25 2 0.2
CMOS 50 0.1 25 3

Level of Integration Motors


max
Level Of Integration No. of gates per chip Motor
temperature
Small Scale Integration (SSI) less than 12 class
(0C)
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) 12-99 A 105
Large Scale Integration (LSI) 100-9,999 B 130
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) 10,000-99,999 F 155
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) 100,000 or more H 180

Amplifier Mode identification for Multivibrator


conduction input signal CN1 CN2 Mode
Amplifier class efficiency
angle used Resistor Resistor Bistable
A 50% 360° 100% Resistor Capacitor Monostable
AB 51-99% 181° to 359° > 50% < 100% Capacitor Capacitor Astable
B 78% 180° 50%
C 85% 0° to 179° 50% Electron
Distress Frequency 2n2 of Sound
Capacity =Velocity
Energy Electron aeronautical Water 121.5
5000MHz
ft/sec
Level Shell Capacity Steel
MaritimeMax(radiotelegraphy)
Length 2182 kHzm/s
5150
(Principal Letter Specifications Cable Type
Quantum
Data rates modulationCB technique
(40 channels, Wood
(m) 8Km)Application 3300 m/s
26.965-27.475 MHz
Number)

1 K 2 GPRS 10BaseT Unshielded


170 kbps Twisted
QAM Pair
- PSK 100 Digital Microwave
2 L 8 10Base2 Thin Coax Cable GFSK 180 (DECT)Cordless phone
EDGE 384 kbps
3 M 18 10Base5 Thick(Precise
Coax Cable & Standard
GMSK 500 GPRS
3G 2 Mbps
10BaseF Fiber optic cable 2000
4 N 32 Bluetooth 720 Kbps Positioning Service) Magnetic Field Intensity
8PSK EDGE
5 O 18 Fiber100BaseT Unshielded TwistedBPSK
GPS
Pair
PPS
100
SPS
CDMA
Equator 32,000 nT
100BaseTX 10 Gbps
Unshielded Twisted Pair
∏/4-DQPSK 220 D-AMPS
6 P 8 Optics horizontal 22 m 100 m
North Pole 64,000 nT
7 Q 2 vertical 27.7 m 156 m
Broadband wireless access for fixed, nomadic, mobile: (MHz) Monolithic IC (µm)
<1 1-2 2-3 3-5 5-10 > 10
transistor 20 x 12
450-470 1900-1910 2400-2483 3400-3600 5150-5350 10150-10650
resistor 6 x 30
- 1980-1990 2500-2700 - 5470-5850 - IMTdiodes
2000 maximum
10 x 15
data rate Commonly magnetized alloys
Slow moving vehicles? 384 kbps Permalloy 22% iron and 78% nickel
High speed vehicle? 144 kbps Hipernik 40% Fe and 60% Ni
Flicker noise Voltage Perminvar Ni 43%, Iron 34%, Cobalt 23%
Wire-wound resistor? 0.01 µV to 0.2µV Constantan 40-60% copper / thermocouples
Carbon-composition? 0.1µV to 2µV Nichrome 15-20% chromium and has high electrical resistance

carbon film 0.05µV-3μV CATV


Cable TV:
metallic film (wire) 0.02µV-0.2µV Class I TV Channel/Station-- off-the-air channels, DBS feeds
matching (RF) 16 dB
Class II w/o auxiliary equipment – scrambling
terminal isolation 28 dB
Class III w/ auxiliary equipment
N0N Un-Mod carrier, No info Moore’ssound Law carrier
(bps)isolator 40 dB
A1A Telegraphy Class IVradiation rejection
spurious provides signaling
60 dB path CATV, PPV
Abraham Abesamis Chairman 2015
NTC 2050
C3F VSB Tx for TV signal 1 Billion
Calculated 500
cross
the radius Trillion
modulation
and 80 dB
Neil
F1BBhor FSK adjacent channel isolation
velocity of electron -60 dB
F8E Rutherford
FM stereo Mux signal
Curie temperature (0C)
Ernest Measure atomicaudioradiussignal level 1 dB
Cobalt 1130
A3C
Christian AM Fax
Hulsmeyer Radar video SNR for modulator 36 dB
Phosphor Iron 770
F3C
Theodor FM Fax
Maiman Developed LASER
Nickel 358
A3E
Backham AM Telephony, DSB
& KAO MPEG 1 CD/internet P1
Clad glass fiber Green Oscilloscope
Gondolinium 16
F3E Anderseen
Marc FM Telephony MOSAIC MPEG 2 (DCT) - DVD -P4 SVCD ripper White Monochrome
G3E Taniguchi
Norio PM Telephony MPEG 3 HDTV P22 RGB colored
Nanotech Mobile Phones (W)
H3E Smith
Burell SSB FC MPEG 4 DivX
MAC Mother Board P31 Green Oscilloscope
- Analog Digital
J3EKhanSSB
Bob SC
& Vinton Cerf Designed TCP/IPMPEG 7 Multimedia content Description Interface Class I 0.6 4
R3E
Ted Hoff SSB RC MPEG 21 Multimedia Framework
Designed Microprocessor Class II 1.6 1.6
Gilbert Hyatt Invented Microprocessor
Class III 3 0.6
Isaac Asimov 3 law of “Robotics”, 1969
Karel Čapek coined Robot, 1920
Tim Bernes-Lee designed HTTP Names and Accomplishment secondary Brain cell
waves:
battery
Tomas Watson IBM founder lead-acid Δ – < 3 Hz
William Gibson Cyberspace nickel cadmium
θ – 4 to 8 Hz
Douglas Engelbart Mouse
OP AMPS
silver-zinc
α – 8 to 12 Hz
Bob Metcalfe LM 101 General purpose OP-Amp
Ethernet silver-cadmium
β – 13 to 30 Hz
Larry Robert LM 741C Industries Standard
Arpanet
John Barger OP 177A Ultra Precision Amp
Web-log
Brattain and Bardeen Inventor Transistor
John Pierce Coined "transistor"
Vinton Cerf
Packaging
FTP/Father of internet
Level 0 Resistor, diodes (non repairable parts)
Jack st. Claire Kilby IC
Level 1 Sub-modules attached to circuit cards
Ted Nelson Coined “Hyper text”
Level 2 circuit cards, mother boards etc.
Jack Raskin Founder of Macintosh Blackout
Seymour Roger Cray
Commercials
Level 3 (minutes) Drawers
IC types
Super Computer R1 Weak black out
ProgramLevel 4 Cabinets
Bob Noyce & Gordon Moore Intel fair child Types of Robots duration
R2 MLA
10 mins OUT-MLA Film
Giovanni Caselli Pantelegraph Semi-Autonomous R3Needs 60 some < human
ASIMO 17 Hybrid
hour intervention
115 Honda
Antonio Meucci 1st Inventor of theAutonomous
telephone R4Needs
30 no QRIO
human
1-27.5 intervention
hours 8.5 Monolithic
Sony
Vic Hayce Father of Wi-Fi Tele-Operated R5Remote
15 controlled
more HUBOthan
3.5 2 hours 4 Korea
World 1st Computer Androids -ResembleRobosapien
humans GPS GLONASS
toy like robot
Agusta Ada Bryon 5 15sec 1.5
Programmer Cyborgs Satellites Mixture ofBang-banghuman and 24 Robot
machine 21 Limit
parts stop
(3 spare)
Steve Jobs, Steven Wozniak Apple computer Automatons
- AC (mA) at 60 Hz DC (mA) Automatically
Orbital Planes follow 6programmed instructions
3
Edwin Armstron Superheterodyne (radio)
Perception 0 to 1 0 to 4 Satellites / Planes Colpitts 4 tapped capacitor
8
Mark Tilden Robosapien SUF for 3G (MHz/
Plane Separation
million):
Hartley tapped inductor
Surprise 1 to 4 4 to 15 600 1200
Harry Nyquist Negative Feedback Amplifier IS-41
Frequency paired Roaming
unpairedMicrophones
IC
Reflex action 4 to 21 15 to 80 Satellite Separation Armstrong
600 Magnetic Coupling
45 0
Carl Beredicks discovered germanium in 1915 IS-54
5 MHz P 5M D-AMPS
0 P packaging
3M Low Z
Mascular inhibition 21 to 40 80 to 160 Inclination Clapp 55 series LC64.8High
0 Z
Dr Carl Zener development of zener diode spike IS-95
5-10 6000v in8M sec CDMA 6MOne TO
dynamic crystal
Respiratory failure 40 to 100 160 to 300 Orbital Period 12 Hours 11 Hours & 15mins
Dr Leo Esaki invented tunnel diode surgeIS-136
10-15 10MNorth American
TDMA,
110% 8MFlatpack
Digital Cellphone
Fatal Over 1600 300mA Altitude 20,200 km carbon 19,100 condenser
km
Randall and Boot Inventor of Magnetron IS-136.2
dip / sag >15 80% - 85 15M roaming,
% ∏/4-DQPSK
12M DIP
ribbon electret
Richard Feynman subatomic to atom manipulation
V.32 9600 bps
V.34bis 33.6 kbps
V.90 56 kbps

Maxwell Bridge Medium Q


Hay Bridge High Q

Mechanical Configurations of Industrial Robots Velocity Factor


Articulated arm or joined- arm configuration Coax 0.66 / 0.6-0.8
Spherical configurations up, down, left, right, pivot at certain angle Twin lead 0.8
Cylindrical configuration 360 Open wire 0.9

Cartesian or rectilinear up/down/left/ right


SCARA (Selective Compliance 4 axis robot with rotating elements that move Proton 2 up quarks 1 down quark
Assembly Robot Arm) in single plane Neutron 2 down quarks 1 up quark

RFID frequency bands


13.553 MHz 13.567 MHz SCR NPN + PNP Erlang B do not reappear during test period
918 MHz 920 MHz Diac two 4-layer SCR Erlang C Held in the system until satisfied
2446 MHz 2454 MHz Triac two SCR back-to-back Poisson satisfied or abandoned

FAX
- Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 IP version Addresses
Mins / page 6 3 6-15 sec / page IPv4 232
Standard Fine Superfine IPv6 2128
scan lines / inch 90 100 100 or 98 200 or 196 400 or 392

Bluetooth
Maximum Permitted
class
dB Power (mW/dBm)
Range Turns Ratio of Transformer
class 1 100 mW (20dBm) ~100m step up less than unity
class 2 2.5 mW (4dBm) ~10m step down greater than unity
class 3 1 mW (0dBm) ~1m

Welding Type
Carbon Arc Welding Occurrence of blow holes
Electron Beam Welding Vacuum tube/ high velocity electrons applied in the materials
Spot Welding a type of resistance welding
MIG (metal inert gas) high deposit rate/uses consumable wire electrodes
TIG (tungsten inert gas) Uses non-consumable wire electrodes
Plasma arc Welding wine glass / shielding gas
Pressure Welding atom-atom bond
Electric Resistance Seam Welding uses disc electrodes

Common questions

Powered by AI

IC logic families display varying characteristics based on their integration level. Standard TTL has a fan-out of 10, consuming more power (10 mW) with a propagation delay of 10 ns. Schottky TTL increases power dissipation to 22 mW but reduces the delay to 3 ns. Low power Schottky TTL further decreases power to 2 mW and maintains a 10 ns delay. Conversely, CMOS technology offers high fan-out (50), low power dissipation (0.1 mW), and longer delays (25 ns), making it ideal for high integration levels like Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).

Motor class ratings, from A to H, significantly impact application choice based on maximum temperature tolerance. Class A motors, with a max temperature of 105°C, are suitable for low-demand environments. Class B (up to 130°C) and F (up to 155°C) offer increased thermal endurance, ideal for moderate industrial use. Class H motors, withstanding up to 180°C, are chosen for high-temperature applications, ensuring durability under extreme conditions. Thus, the temperature rating affects reliability and operational suitability across diverse environments and workloads .

The classification of the radio frequency spectrum bands is determined by frequency range and propagation mode. Extremely low frequency (ELF) bands range from 3 to 30 Hz and span wavelengths over 100,000 km, typically using ground wave propagation. As the frequency increases through very low frequency (VLF), low frequency (LF), medium frequency (MF), and high frequency (HF), the wavelengths decrease, and propagation modes vary, transitioning from ground wave to sky wave. High frequency (HF) bands, up to 30 MHz, use sky wave propagation, while very high frequency (VHF) and beyond, up to extremely high frequency (EHF), utilize space wave propagation, adapting to their respective frequencies' characteristics .

Microwave frequency bands vary from L (1-2 GHz) to millimeter waves (>300 GHz), with different applications influenced by their properties. Lower bands like L and S (2-4 GHz) are preferred for long-distance communication due to their large wavelengths and penetration capabilities, which are essential for radar and satellite services. Higher frequencies, like those in the K band (18-27 GHz), offer high data throughput and are used in high-capacity communication systems but suffer from higher atmospheric attenuation. Millimeter waves provide extreme resolution but are primarily used in short-range applications, including advanced security screenings and emerging 5G networks .

Moore's Law states computing power doubles approximately every two years, driving exponential improvements in processors, memory, and technology capabilities. This progression, from a few thousand transistors to billions on a chip, has enabled advancements in AI, IoT, and data processing. As physical limits loom, innovative technologies like quantum computing and 3D chip architecture are explored to sustain growth. The implications include accelerated tech advancements, reduced costs, and increasingly powerful devices, impacting industries from automotive to healthcare .

Digital multiplexing hierarchies, such as the North American (e.g., DS1 at 1.544 Mbps) and Japanese systems, differ in bit rates and channel capacities. The North American system offers high capacity (up to 4032 channels with DS4) at varying bit rates (DS1 at 1.544 Mbps, DS3 at 44.736 Mbps). In contrast, Japan's lower rate system starts at 2 Mbps with fewer channels (up to 30 with E1). The choice depends on infrastructure and application requirements, such as compatibility with existing systems and scalability for future expansions. Trade-offs involve balancing cost, complexity, and performance, considering geographic and regulatory differences .

Wireless communication techniques differ significantly in data rates and applications. GPRS offers 170 kbps, suitable for basic internet browsing. EDGE, at 384 kbps, enhances performance, supporting richer multimedia services. 3G, reaching up to 2 Mbps, enables high-speed internet, video streaming, and teleconferencing. These differences dictate the technology's applications, aligning GPRS with low-data demands, EDGE with improved mobile internet services, and 3G with high-demand, modern communication needs .

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites operate at altitudes of 100-300 miles with high orbital velocities of about 17,500 mph, completing an orbit approximately every 1.5 hours, which translates to limited satellite availability (about 15 minutes per orbit). These orbits are used for applications needing low latency, such as the Iridium satellite phone system. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites orbit between 6,000 and 12,000 miles, traveling slower at 9,580 mph, and are utilized by systems like GPS for longer availability (2-4 hours per orbit). Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites are positioned at 22,300 miles with a 24-hour orbital period, maintaining a fixed position relative to the Earth's surface, useful for continuous services like broadcasting and weather monitoring .

Robot configurations such as articulated, spherical, cylindrical, Cartesian, and SCARA cater to different industrial tasks based on mechanical movement abilities. Articulated arms provide flexibility and reach for complex assembly tasks. Spherical robots, with pivoting capabilities, handle intricate movements in limited spaces. Cylindrical configurations offer 360-degree rotation, crucial for pick-and-place operations. Cartesian robots enable precise, linear movements, ideal for applications requiring high accuracy. SCARA robots deliver rapid movement in a single plane, suitable for assembly line automation. These diverse capabilities facilitate tailored robotic solutions for specific industrial needs .

Reverberation time is crucial for sound quality, varying by room function. Recording and broadcasting studios require short reverberation (0.45-0.55 s) for clarity. Lecture rooms benefit from moderate reverberation (0.9-1.1 s) to ensure speech intelligibility. High reverberation times in churches (1.4-3.4 s) enhance musical acoustics but reduce speech clarity. Thus, reverberation time must match the room's function to optimize sound quality, balancing echo and clarity .

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