PRECISION MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Several measuring devices and techniques are standard tools of mechanics.
They will be introduced here so that you will understand them well enough to
use them when the need arises in this course.
THE VERNIER CALIPER
Fig. 1. Vernier Caliper.
In 1631 the French mathematician-inventor Pierre Vernier invented the
measurement principle which bears his name. The Vernier scale has a beautiful
simplicity, neatly solving the problem of reading fractions of small divisions on
a measuring scale.
Suppose the main scale of a length measuring instrument is divided so that its engraved
marks are one millimeter apart. The distance between these marks is so small that it
would not be practical to divide them into tenths of millimeters. Even if such small
divisions could be engraved accurately, they could not be easily read without a
magnifying lens.
Fig. 2. Use of the Vernier Caliper.
Parallel to the main scale is a movable scale with a number of engraved marks
This is the Vernier scale. One of these, the index mark, points to a position on
the main scale indicating the length reading. For example, if the index mark
was lined up exactly with the 3.7 mark on the main scale, the length reading is
approximately 3.7 mm. But we want to do better than this!
The metric Vernier scale has ten or more equally spaced marks. Their spacing
is not the same as that of the marks on the main scale. If you look at these
closely you will see that ten divisions of the Vernier scale occupy a length
interval equal to nine of the smallest main scale divisions (millimeters).
Obviously, in this case, the Vernier scale markings are engraved 9/10 millimeter
apart.
A metric Vernier scale usually has ten divisions, requiring 11 engraved marks
(ten plus the index mark). In general, a Vernier scale will have at least one more
mark than it has divisions. Sometimes they have a few more marks at one or
both ends, just for convenience. An Englishmetric length scale, with the main
scale marked in 1/16 inch intervals, may use a Vernier scale with 8 divisions,
capable of
measuring to
(1/8)(1/16) =
1/128 inch.
In the instrument Fig. 3. Principle of the Vernier scale.
called theVernier
caliper a movable jaw slides linearly along the main scale. The main scale is
rigidly attached to the other jaw. To make a measurement, the jaws are gently
closed down upon the object being measured.
On most Vernier instruments the scale divisions are not labeled in any way. The
index mark may be labeled 0, "zero." If the "zero" mark is not labeled, it may
be easily identified as follows:
When the instrument's jaws are fully closed, the Vernier scale mark which lines
up with the main scale "zero" mark is the index mark. This index mark is to be
considered the "zero" Vernier mark, and the other vernier marks are numbered
in order from it, one through ten.
Now if the jaws are opened just 1/10 mm, the Vernier marks all move together
that far, which brings the first vernier mark into coincidence with the main
scale's 1 mm mark. Each time the jaws are moved 1/10 mm wider, the next
higher valued Vernier mark lines up with a main scale mark.
This illustrates the principle of the Vernier scale and tells us how to read a
Vernier caliper. The jaws are first gently closed on the object to be measured.
Observe where the index mark points to the main scale, and write down this
reading, rounded down to the next smaller main scale mark. Finally, to read the
actual fraction of the main scale division, observe which of the Vernier marks
lines up best with a main scale mark. The number of that vernier mark
represents the fraction of a main scale division which must be added.
It doesn't matter which main
scale mark lines up best with a
Vernier mark. It is the Vernier
marknumber which you record.
Here's an example. Fig. 4 shows a
Vernier scale for measuring on a Fig. 4. A centimeter Vernier scale.
centimeter scale to ten fractions of a millimeter.
The index mark (zero) falls between main scale marks 4.5 and 4.6. Mentally
remember (or write down) 4.5. The vernier mark which lines up best with a
main scale mark is 6. Therefore the actual reading is 4.5 + 0.06 = 4.56.
Fig. 5 shows another setting of the same scale. What is its reading?
Not all Vernier scales have ten
divisions (11 marks). The
smallest main scale division can
be divided into any number of
smaller divisions. Angle-
measuring Vernier scales are Fig. 5. A metric example.
often built with the main scale divided to half-degree intervals. The Vernier
then has 30 divisions, dividing each half-degree into minutes of arc. [60
minutes of arc equal one degree of arc.] The principle underlying this is
obviously the same as that described above.
Here's a puzzle for you. Consider
the Vernier scale shown in Fig. 6.
We'll give you this much hint.
The main scale reads in inches,
the smallest divisions are 1/16 Fig. 6. English Vernier scale.
inch. (The illustration is enlarged.)
a) Which scale (upper or lower) is the Vernier scale? How did you determine
this?
b) What is the smallest fraction of an inch which can be read on the Vernier
scale?
c) What is the reading of the instrument?
THE MICROMETER CALIPER
Fig. 8 shows a typical micrometer caliper. The object to be measured is placed between
the fixed jaw (A) and the movable jaw (R) and the jaw is gently closed on the object. The
movable jaw (R) of the micrometer caliper is driven by a precise and uniform screw. A
typical metric instrument has the main scale marked to 1/2 millimeter. The circumference
of the rotating handle (the thimble, T) is subdivided into 50 equal subdivisions. One
rotation of the handle carries the screw a distance of 1/2 mm along the main scale (S).
Therefore the markings on the thimble allow one to read hundredths of millimeters.
Fig. 7. Principle of the micrometer.
In Fig. 7 the reading on the main scale is more than 5.5 mm but less than 5.6
mm. The thimble reading is 27.5, so the instrument's length reading is 5.5 +
0.275 = 5.775 mm.
You must practice so that
you are sure whether the
reading lies in the lower
or upper half of a
millimeter. If it is in the
upper half, be sure to
include the extra half
millimeter in the final
value.
Fig. 8. Micrometer caliper.
On most micrometers, the
half-mm marks are on the opposite side of the line from the mm marks. This
makes the scale easier to read. Fig. 7 shows this style.
Special care must be exercised when using this instrument. Close the jaws on
an object, then tighten the jaws using the slip clutch (H) only. This ensures
sufficiently snug closure, but prevents the jaws being closed so forcefully that
the instrument might be bent, and the jaws thrown out of alignment.
Zero correction. Always check whether full closure of the jaws actually gives a
zero reading. Special wrenches are available to set the zero reading exactly.
Alternatively, the zero reading may be treated as a correction value to be added
to (or subtracted from) all readings made with the instrument. This value is
called a "zero correction."
Other measuring instruments use these
principles. Fig. 9 shows a spherometer, used
for measuring the radius of curvature of
spherical surfaces, such as the surface of an
optical lens. Three outer legs hold the
instrument in position. The center leg moves
up and down, as a micrometer screw.
PARALLAX
Fig. 9. A spherometer.
Whenever a pointer or index mark must be read against a scale, it is best to have the two
in exactly the same plane. Good quality instruments are designed to ensure this. But in
some cases this is not possible, as with the movable needle on a voltmeter or ammeter.
The needle must be slightly above the calibrated scale, to avoid the needle touching the
scale. The marks around the thimble of a micrometer caliper can not touch the scale on
the main shaft, for the same reason.
Fig. 10. Parallax in reading a scale.
Whenever the index mark and scale lie in different planes, the "reading" you
observe can change as you move your head to different positions. This effect is
called "parallax." To eliminate its effect on measurements, be certain that your
line of sight is exactly perpendicular to the scale.
Some electrical meters have a mirror beneath the scale so that you can first line
up your eye so that the pointer and its image seem to coincide. This ensures that
your line of sight is perpendicular to the scale.