CT5125: Steel bridges – file <bridge-components>

6. Bridge components

6.1 General
Today’s bridge designers are essentially striving to achieve the same goals, as their counterparts were many
years ago:
• long-tem serviceability
• low maintenance characteristics
• economy of construction
• appearance of construction.

The considerations in the design of bridge structures can be summarised as:

• functional performance
• suitability and availability of materials
• methods of construction
• support the loads with adequate safety
• not have excessive deflection of vibration
• durability
• compatibility of materials
• the form should be appropriate to the site
• aesthetically pleasing
• minimum cost
• must be able to be analysed
• and more…

The main bridge components are:

Abutments
Bearings
Deck
Drainage
Footing/foundation
Joints
Parapets
Piers
Wing walls

6.2 Choice of abutment

Abutments must be compatible with
the bridge approach roadway. They
must have backwalls to keep the
embankments from covering up the
beam-ends and to support possible
approach slabs. They usually have
wing walls to keep slide slopes
away from the structure and to
transitions between the guard-rail
and the bridge rail. For small span
bridges, current practice is to make
decks integral with the abutments.
The objective is to avoid the use of joints over abutments and
piers. Expansion joints are prone to leak and allow the ingress
of de-icing salts into the bridge deck
and substructure. In general all bridges
are made continuous over intermediate
supports and decks under 60 metres
long with skews not exceeding 30° are
made integral with their abutments.
Open Side Span. Solid Side Span.

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Usually the narrow bridge is cheaper in the open abutment form and the wide bridge is cheaper in the solid
abutment form.
The exact transition point between the two types depends very much on the geometry and the site of the
particular bridge. In most cases the open abutment solution has a better appearance and is less intrusive on the
general flow of the ground contours and for these reasons is to be preferred. It is the cost of the wing walls when
related to the deck costs which swings the balance of cost in favour of the solid abutment solution for wider
bridges. However the wider bridges with solid abutments produce a tunnelling effect and costs have to be
considered in conjunction with the proper functioning of the structure where fast traffic is passing beneath. Solid
abutments for narrow bridges should
only be adopted where the open
abutment solution is not possible. In
the case of wide bridges the open
abutment solution is to be preferred,
but there are many cases where
economy must be the overriding
consideration.

Fig. 1. Typical abutment details.

Fig. 2. Cross section B-B of fig. 1.

Although generally more

economical, stub abutments are
associated with certain maintenance

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problems. The well known “bump at the beginning of the bridge”, caused by fill settlements, is hard on
abutments.

Fig. 3. Two main types of abutments.

Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment are:

• vertical loads from self weight of deck and live loading conditions
• horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc and wind
• horizontal loads from breaking and skidding effects of vehicles.

In more detail, the following classes of loads for bridges should be taken into account:

Dead loads
• Weight of the structure itself plus non-structural elements that are unlikely to vary during construction
and use (parapets, kerbs, etc.)
Superimposed dead loads
• Weight of non-structural elements that are likely to vary during construction and use (road surfacing,
pipes and utility services, etc.).
Traffic loads
• Loads caused by vehicles, pedestrians, trams
• Dynamic loads caused by the movement of traffic on the bridge
• Centrifugal forces on curved bridges
• Braking forces
• Collision loads.
Other loads
• Wind load
• Thermal effects
• Forces due to flowing water and debris
• Earthquake earth pressure (abutments)
• Friction forces in the bearings
• Shrinkage, creep and prestress forces in concrete bridges
• Differential settlement of the supports
• Construction loads
• Etc.

Most of these loads are carried by the bearings, which are seated on the abutment-bearing platform. The
horizontal loads may be reduced by depending on the coefficient of friction of the bearings at the movement joint
in the structure. However, the full breaking effect is to be taken, in either direction, on top of the abutment at
carriageway level.
In addition to the structure loads, a horizontal pressure exerted by the fill
material against the abutment walls is to be considered. Also a vertical
loading from the weight of the fill acts on the footing. Vehicle loads at the
rear of the abutments are considered by applying a surcharge load on the
rear of the wall. For certain short single span structures it is possible to use
the bridge deck to prop the two abutments apart. This entails the abutment
wall being designed as a propped cantilever.
6.3 Choice of bearings
Bearings transfer loads from the superstructure to the substructure. There
are two basic types of bearings, fixed bearings and expansion bearings.

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Fixed bearings allow rotation of the superstructure but resist translation of the superstructure. Expansion bearings
allow both rotation and translation of the superstructure. For a designer, the most relevant items to consider are:

1. bearings are designed to transmit all loads and to accommodate all translations and rotations from the deck
to the substructure and foundations
2. bearings are detailed to facilitate repairs and/or replacement.

Bearings are arranged to allow the deck to expand and contract,

but retain the deck in its correct position on the substructure. In
highway bridges, bearings movements are accommodated by the
basic mechanisms of internal deformation (elastomeric), sliding
(PTFE), or rolling. A large variety of bearings have evolved
using various combinations of these mechanisms.

Elastomeric Bearing Plane Sliding Bearing Multiple Roller Bearing

The functions of each bearing type are:

Elastomeric
Elastomeric bearings shall be laminated neoprene (polychloroprene). Solid steel sheet or plate is used
for laminates. The elastomeric bearing allows the deck to translate and rotate, but also resists loads in
the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Loads are developed, and movement is
accommodated by distorting the elastomeric pad.
Plane Sliding
Sliding bearings usually consist of a low friction polymer, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), sliding
against a metal plate. This bearing does not accommodate rotational movement in the longitudinal or
transverse directions and only resist loads in the vertical direction. Providing mechanical keys can
accommodate longitudinal or transverse loads. The keys resist movement, and loads in a direction
perpendicular to the keyway.
Roller
Large longitudinal movements can be accommodated by these bearings, but vertical loads only can
generally be resisted. The designer has to assess the maximum and minimum loads that the deck will
exert on the bearing together with the anticipated movements (translation and rotation). Bearing
manufacturers will supply a suitable bearing to meet the designer’s requirements.

Combination on movements’ mechanism can be achieved using so-called pot and disc bearings.

See also file <bridge-dictionary-bearing>.

Some examples of bridge bearings in The Netherlands.

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Fig. 5. Veghel highway bridge.

Fig. 4. Demka railway bridge.

6.4 Choice of deck

The principal function of a bridge deck is to provide
support to local vertical loads (from highway traffic,
railway or pedestrians) and transmit these loads to the
primary superstructure of the bridge, Fig. 6(1). As a
result of its function, the deck will be continuous along
the bridge span and (apart from some railway bridges)
continuous across the span. As a result of this
continuity, it will act as a plate (isotropic or
orthotropic depending on construction) to support
local patch loads.
Continuity ensures that whether or not it has been
designed to do so, it will participate in the overall
structural action of the superstructure.

Fig 6. Structural actions of a highway bridge deck.

The overall structural actions may include:

• Contributing to the top flange of the
longitudinal girders, Fig. 6(2).
• Contributing to the top flange of cross
girders at supports and, where present in
twin girder and cross girder structures, throughout the span, Fig. 6(3).
• Stabilising longitudinal and cross girders, Fig. 6(4).
• Acting as a diaphragm to transmit horizontal loads to supports, Fig. 6(5).
• Providing a means of distribution of vertical load between longitudinal girders, Fig. 6(6).

It may be necessary to take account of these combined actions when verifying the design of the deck. This is
most likely to be the case when there are significant stresses from the overall structural actions in the same
direction as the maximum bending moments from local deck actions, e.g. in structures with cross girders where
the direction of maximum moment is along the bridge. The passage of each wheel load causes a complete cycle
of local bending stresses. The number of significant stress cycles is, therefore, very much higher for the deck
than for the remainder of the superstructure. In addition, some of the actions of the deck arising from its
participation in the overall behaviour are subject to full reversal; an example is the transverse distribution of
vertical load between girders. For both these reasons, fatigue is more likely to govern the design of the bridge
deck than the remainder of the superstructure.

In selecting the correct bridge type it is necessary to find a structure that will perform its required function and
present an acceptable appearance at the least cost. Decisions taken at preliminary design stage will influence the
extent to which the actual structure approximates to the ideal, but so will decisions taken at detailed design stage.
Consideration of each of the ideal characteristics in turn will give some indication of the importance of
preliminary bridge design.

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Safety
The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying the loading required of it
with the appropriate factor of safety. This is more significant at detailed design stage as generally any
sort of preliminary design can be made safe.
Serviceability
The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure, from excessive deflection or
vibration, and it must not interfere with sight lines on roads above or below it. Detailed design cannot
correct faults induced by bad preliminary design.
Economy
The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost as little as possible to
build and maintain. At preliminary design stage it means choosing the right types of material for the
major elements of the structure, and arranging these in the right form.
Appearance
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials are made at preliminary
design stage; the sizes of individual members are finalised at detailed design stage. The preliminary
design usually settles the appearance of the bridge.

Constraints
The construction depth available should be evaluated. The economic implications of raising or lowering any
approach embankments should then be considered. By lowering the embankments the cost of the earthworks
may be reduced, but the resulting reduction in the construction depth may cause the deck to be more expensive.
Headroom requirements have to be maintained below the deck; the minimum standards for bridges are given in
codes.
If the bridge is to cross a road that is on a curve, then the width of the opening may have to be increased to
provide an adequate site line for vehicles on the curved road.

Selection of bridge deck type

The following table is intended to be a rough guiding to the useful span ranges of various types of deck.

Table 1. Guiding on the relation between span range and type of deck.

Preliminary Design Considerations

1. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating construction depths.
2. Continuity over supports
Reduces number of expansion joints.
Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth or the material used.
Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
3. Factory made units
Reduces the need for scaffolding; useful when headroom is restricted or access is difficult.
Reduces site work, which is weather dependent.
Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
Specials tend to be expensive.

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Special permission needed to transport units of more than approx. 29m long on the highway.
4. Length of structure
The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length of the structure the embankment,
retaining wall and abutment costs may be reduced, but the deck costs will increase.
5. Substructure
The structure should be considered as a whole, including appraisal of piers, abutments and foundations.

Alternatives on deck systems

Reinforced concrete decks

The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are:

Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or
multi-span bridges and are easily adaptable for high skew.
Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are used for larger,
single or multi-span bridges. In circular voided decks the ratio
of [depth of void] / [depth of slab] should be less than 0.79;
and the maximum area of void should be less than 49% of the
deck sectional area.

Prestressed concrete decks

There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete:
Pre-tensioned beams with in-situ concrete.
Post-tensioned concrete.

The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the tendons are tensioned before
the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred to the concrete when suitable cube strength is reached.
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned after the concrete has reached a
suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against the hardened concrete immediately after prestressing.

Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks

Pre-tensioned bridge decks are composed of prestressed beams, which have been prestressed off site, together
with in-situ concrete forming a deck slab

Types of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams

and Y beams. Inverted T-beams are generally used for spans
between 7 and 16 metres and the voids between the beams are
filled with in-situ concrete thus forming a solid deck. M-Beams are
used for spans between 14 and 30 metres and have a thin slab cast
in-situ spanning between the top flanges. The Y-beam was
introduced in 1990 to replace the M-beam. This lead to the
production of an SY-beam that is used for spans between 32 and 40
metres.

T-Beam M-Beam Y-Beam

Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of in-situ concrete in which ducts have been cast in the
required positions.

T-Beam Voided Slab Box

20m < Span < 35m 20m < Span < 35m Span >30m

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When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the tendons are threaded through the ducts and tensioned by
hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the member. The ends of the tendons are then anchored. Tendons are
then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after the stressing has been completed. It is possible
to use pre-cast concrete units, which are post-tensioned together on site to form the bridge deck. Generally it is
more economical to use post-tensioned construction for continuous structures rather than in-situ reinforced
concrete at spans greater than 20 metres. For simply supported spans it may be economic to use a post-tensioned
deck at spans greater than 20 metres.

Composite decks
Composite Construction in bridge decks usually refers to the interaction between in-situ reinforced concrete and
structural steel. Three main economic advantages of composite construction are:
• For a given span and loading system a smaller depth of beam can be used than for a concrete beam
solution, which leads to economies in the approach embankments.
• The cross-sectional area of the steel top flange can be reduced because the concrete can be considered as
part of it.
• Transverse stiffening for the top compression flange of the steel beam can be reduced because the restraint
against buckling is provided by the concrete deck.

Typical Composite Deck.

Construction Methods
It is possible to influence the load carried by a composite deck section in a number of ways during the erection of
a bridge. By propping the steel beams while the deck slab is cast and until it has gained strength, then the
composite section can be considered to take the whole of the dead load. This method appears attractive but is
seldom used since propping can be difficult and usually costly. With continuous spans the concrete slab will
crack in the hogging regions and only the steel reinforcement will be effective in the flexural resistance, unless
the concrete is prestressed. Generally the concrete deck is 220mm to 250mm thick with beam or plate girders
between 2.5m and 3.5m spacing and depths between span/20 and span/30. The transfer of horizontal shear forces
between the concrete deck and steel via shear studs, which are welded to the steel girder, develops composite
action.
Many possibilities exist about alternatives on deck systems. In fact, each bridge (road traffic, railway traffic) can
be considered as unique, having it’s own characteristics. Some examples for a railway bridge are given below.

Fig. 7. Example steel deck girder bridge.

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Fig. 8. Example steel through girder bridge.

The disadvantage of integrated construction is that repair or replacement of the deck is difficult and usually
requires prolonged closure of the bridge.

Orthotropic steel decks

From separation to integration of functions.

Partly because of limited understanding of behaviour and
methods of analysis, and partly because it suited
historical methods of construction, early decks were
separated from the remainder of the superstructure. The
steel "battle-deck" shown in Figure 2(a) comprised plate
panels welded to rolled beams as stiffeners that were
supported by and spanned simply between cross-girders
which, in turn, spanned between the principal girders.
The deck construction was relatively deep but could still
fit within the overall depth of the truss. A similar
approach can be seen in the concrete deck slab in Figure
2(b). The slab acts compositely with the stringers but
does not contribute to overall bending.
Although this separation reduced the overall efficiency
of the design, it is noteworthy that it does assist bridge
repairs. For example, the entire deck of the Golden Gate
Bridge in San Francisco was replaced during nighttime
possessions, permitting the bridge to continue to be used
during the day.
Fig. 9. Early highway bridge decks.
Modern decks in both materials are fully integrated into the overall
superstructure as shown in Figure 10. These integrated decks improve
the economy of the primary structure considerably. In all - steel
construction the cross girders and main girders do not need separate top
flanges. With a concrete deck, rolled sections (used for cross girders and
main girders for short spans) will be considerably lighter. The top
flanges of plate girders will typically be half the cross-section that would
have been needed for non-composite construction.

Mostly, a steel deck is chosen where lightweight is important, like a

movable bridge, poor soil conditions or where a long span is required.

Fig. 10. Modern highway bridge decks.

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Fig. 11. Example of a box girder with an Fig. 12. Asphaltetic surface layering.
orthotropic steel deck.

A material in which the behaviour in each direction is independent of the others is referred to as anisotropic. A
subset of anisotropic materials are orthotropic materials in which the behaviour varies in mutually perpendicular
directions (X and Y only).

The complex stress field in the components of an orthotropic steel deck is the result of three actions:
• The stresses arising from the ‘main girder effect” are called the primary stresses. The membrane stresses
are due to bending of the main girder, when the orthotropic the orthotropic deck is simply considered as the
upper flange.
• Taking into account the orthogonal behaviour, and the distribution of the loads corresponding to the
rigidities of the ribs and crossbeams, secondary stresses can be computed.
• Finally, the local bending of the isotropic plate elements under direct wheel loading causes tertiary stresses.

Orthotropic steel decks are frequently used in case of cable stayed bridges and suspension bridges.

Fig. 13. Cable stayed bridge: example using an orthotropic steel deck.

6.5 Drainage systems

The design of the bridge deck inlet is important because it removes water from a bridge deck within the limits of
allowable spread. An inlet is a common location for debris to collect and potentially clog a drainage system.
From the hydraulic point of view, inlets should be large and widely separated. From a structural point of view,
inlets should be avoided or made as small and as few as possible. In designing a system to remove water from
the bridge deck, the engineer must develop solutions that:

• Control the spread of water into traffic lanes, as well as the depth of water available to reduce tire traction
• Do no interfere with the architectural beauty or structural integrity of the bridge
• Will function properly if clogging is maintainable

That means:

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Minimisation of spread
As water accumulates and spreads across the width of the gutter and into the traffic lane, it can reduce
service levels and cause safety problems. Inlets must be adequately sized and spaced to remove rainfall-
generated runoff from the bridge deck before it encroaches onto the travelled roadway to the limit of a
design spread.
Avoidance of hydroplaning
Precipitation produces sheet flow on pavement, as well as gutter flow. If sheet flow or spread is of
sufficient depth, the tire can separate from the pavement surface. To reduce the risk of motorist
hydroplaning, the drainage system must be designed to prevent the accumulation of significant depths of
water.
Integration into structural dimensions
The drainage system must conform to the structural requirements of the bridge. Drainage details affect
structural design: inlets for reinforced concrete bridge decks must fit within the reinforcing bar design.
In addition, the drainage system should prevent water, road salt, and other corrosives from contacting
the structural components.

Aesthetics
A pipe system conveying water from deck inlets to natural ground can be affixed to exterior surfaces of
a bridge or encased within structural members. Exposing piping can be unsightly.
Minimization of maintenance
An ideal solution is no inlets. The drainage design engineer should first consider whether or not bridge
drains are essential. If drains are required, the system design should provide means for convenient
maintenance.
Bicycle safety
The design engineer should also consider the hazards that inlets themselves present to cyclist.

The bridge deck drainage system includes:

• The bridge deck itself
For the bridge deck, mostly a 1- to 2-percent cross-slope is used as a minimum.
• Bridge gutters
That portion of the edge of the bridge deck that is utilised to convey storm runoff water next to the curb
• Inlet chamber
A typically cast-iron, welded steel, or formed concrete compartment
• Pipes
• Downspouts
• Bridge end collectors

As shown in figure below, there are numerous approaches to the design of bridge deck inlets and scuppers.

Fig. 14.
Left: detail of slab reinforcement modification
Middle: vertical scupper showing beam clearance
Right: horizontal scupper.
A good design requires surface water to be drained away from earth retaining structures or backfill. Any water
percolating through the fill is collected in a perforated drainpipe, not less than 150mm diameter, which is located

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at the rear of the vertical stem of the wall at the level of the top of the footing. Access to the pipe should be
provided for rodding purposes from inspection manholes positioned at the foot of the wall. Weep holes are often
provided as a safeguard in the event that the drainpipe is blocked; they also provide a visual check that the
system is working.

Fig. 15. Lack of maintenance.

Fig. 16. Example bridge end drain.

Fig. 17.
Example of drainage installation for a
segmental superstructure.

6.6 Choice of Footings and Foundation

Choice of Foundation
Selection of foundation type (piling, drilled shaft or spread footing) is based on a comprehensive study and
analysis of:
• subsurface soil conditions
• field and laboratory test data
• environmental, structural and economic considerations.

The selection of the foundation is influenced by the following factors:

• Design load
The magnitude of the design load dictates the required size of the foundation
• Subsurface formations
The depth and strength of subsurface formations determine the type of foundation chosen. Very hard
material at of near the surface makes driven pile installation difficult.
• Soil characteristics
Soil characteristics such as being unstable during excavation may make excavating for drilled shafts or pilot
holing for piping difficult.

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• Corrosive conditions
Salts, chlorides and sulfates are detrimental to foundations. Where these conditions exist, preventive
measures should be taken. Like, using the use of special type of cement and epoxy coated steel.
• Economic considerations
Cost comparisons of the foundation types should be made. The cost of a drilled shaft foundation, for
instance, may be less than piping. It may be feasible to use fewer piling at higher design loads, or fewer
drilled shafts with larger diameters to maximise economy.
• Aesthetics
Aesthetics of certain structural features sometimes affect foundation type selection. A good example is a
trestle piping type versus a column footing type.
• Special design requirements
Special designs are sometimes necessary to straddle another structure or utilise and may require a different
type of foundation than that for the rest of the structure.

Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:

• Piled foundations
• Drilled shaft foundations
• Spread footing foundations

Piled foundations
Some alternatives on piled foundations as frequently are:
• Displacement piling
• Displacement piling, like concrete piling, is generally considered for friction conditions; however, they
perform well in point bearing or any combinations of the two methods of load transfer. They require large
hammers to be driven efficiently due to the piling’s high mass.
• Preformed Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and
filling the tube with concrete.
• Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and filling the
tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.

Fig. 18.
Left: Constructing pile footings.
Right: Large multiple pile footing.

Fig. 19.
Left: Driving pile piling
Right: Constructing pile
trestle bent.
• Steel H Piling

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Steel H piling is considered non-displacement piling and are ideal for driving into or through soils such
as dense sand and gravel which are difficult to penetrate with displacement piling. H piling are best
suited for points bearing designs, however they may also be used in frictional design.

Drilled shaft foundation

Drilled shafts are constructed by first excavating a hole with auger equipment and then placing
reinforcing steel and concrete in the excavation. Casing and/or drilling slurry may be needed the
excavation stable. Bored piles are generally end bearing and are often of large diameter. To increase
their bearing capacity the bottom can be under-reamed to produce a greater bearing area

Fig. 20.
Left: Drilled shaft excavation.
Right: Drilled shaft construction site showing
completed shaft.

Spread Footings
The overall size of strip footings is determined by considering the effects of vertical and rotational loads. The
combination of these two must neither exceed the safe bearing capacity of the stratum nor produce uplift. Spread
footings are seldom used due to considerations such as swelling or erodible soils and lateral stability.
All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear failure in the soil and no excessive settlement; piled
foundations also have to meet these criteria. There are well-established methods for ensuring that the first
criterion is met, but the second presents more of a problem. The working load of an individual pile is based on
providing an adequate factor of safety against the soil under the toe failing in shear and the adhesion between the
shaft and the soil surrounding it passing its ultimate value and the whole pile sinking further into the ground.
There are basically four methods for assessing this effect:
• Rough soil parameters i.e. summing shaft friction and bearing capacity. The ultimate bearing capacity is
usually modified to compensate for the driving effect of the pile.
• By means of test piles. By means of dynamic formulae i.e. Hiley formulae which equates the energy required
to drive the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.
• Piling contractors 'know how'.

6.7 Choice of the deck joint

Bridge deck joints needed special care during design and construction, and require detailed attention while being
maintained throughout the life of the bridge.
Some main characteristics are:
• Joint systems consist of components arranged to accommodate imposed translation and rotation at joints.
• Joint systems provide for the smooth passage of traffic and are designed and constructed to minimise
impairment of the riding characteristics of the roadway.
• Joint systems are watertight to prevent damage to underlying structures from water, de-icing chemicals and
debris.
• All joints are tested for water tightness after installation.
• Joints are made so that they can be dismantled for ease of maintenance and repair.

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During the past 20 years there have been many different deck joint designs. Where it is intended not to use road
salts, or the deck and substructure have been designed to incorporate deck joints then the following guidance is
given in BD 33/94 for the range of movements that can be accommodated by the various joint types:

The minimum of the range is given to indicate when the type of joint may not be economical.
* Maximum value varies according to manufacturer or type.

Fig. 21. Examples

of bridge deck joints.

Fig. 22.
Left:Tooth joint;
Right:Reinforced
elastomeric joint.

Considering the aspects on bridge deck drainage, there are two types of expansion joints:
• So-called water-proof type, properly maintained, do no allow flow beneath the bridge deck
• Open of finger-joints type that requires an underlying trough.

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Fig. 23.
Finger joint with elastometric
sheet to catch drainage.

Fig. 24. Example of a finger

joint.

6.8 Choice of parapet

The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges BD 52/93
defines a Parapet as "A protective fence or wall at the
edge of a bridge or similar structure. Manufacturers
have developed and tested parapets to meet the
containment standards specified in the codes. Much of
the earlier testing work was involved with achieving a
parapet which would absorb the impact load and not deflect the vehicle back into the line of adjacent traffic. The
weight of vehicle, speed of impact and angle of impact influence the behaviour of the parapet. Consequently a
level of containment has been adopted to minimise the risk to traffic using the bridge (above and below the
deck). The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges BD 52/93 Specifies a Group Designation for various
containment levels as follows:

The Group Designation in the

table above have the equivalent
level of containment as defined in
BS 6779 as follows :

• P1 & P2 (113): Normal level

of containment.
• P2 (80): Low level of
containment.
• P5 (excluding Footbridges):
Normal level of containment.
• P6: High level of
containment.

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Design Considerations
Normal and low level of containment strength requirements for parapet posts and rails are given in terms of the
products of the plastic moduli of their geometric sections and the minimum yield stress of the material used.
Consequently the parapet will deform to absorb the impact load. Higher loads than the designed containment
load will fail the member at impact. If the parapet post fails then the rails will mobilise lengths of the parapet
adjacent to the failed section to retain the vehicle.

• Concrete parapets are ideal for high containment parapets due to their significant mass.
• Steel parapets are generally the cheapest solution for the normal and low level containment. This is
significant if the site is prone to accidents and parapet maintenance is likely to be regular. The steelwork
does however require painting and is usually pretreated with hot-dip galvanising.
• Aluminium parapets do not require surface protection and maintenance costs will be reduced if the parapet
does not require replacing through damage. The initial cost is however high and special attention to fixing
bolts is required to prevent them from being stolen for their high scrap value. Aluminium also provides a
significant weight saving over the steel parapet. This is sometimes important for parapets on moving
bridges.

6.9 Choice of pier

Wherever possible slender piers should be used so that there is sufficient flexibility to allow temperature,
shrinkage and creep effects to be transmitted to the abutments without the need for bearings at the piers, or
intermediate joints in the deck.
A slender bridge deck will usually look best when supported by slender piers without the need for a downstand
crosshead beam. It is the proportions and form of the bridge as a whole, which are vitally important rather than
the size of an individual element viewed in isolation.

Loads transmitted by
the bridge deck onto
the pier are:
• Vertical loads from
self weight of deck
• Vertical loads from
live loading conditions
• Horizontal loads
from temperature, creep
movements etc and wind
• Rotations due to
deflection of the bridge
deck.

The overall configuration of the bridge will determine the combination of loads and
movements that have to be designed for. For example if the pier has a bearing at its
top, corresponding to a structural pin joint, then the horizontal movements will
impose moments at the base, their magnitude will depend on the pier flexibility. Rail
or river authorities impose sometimes special requirements if piers are positioned
within their jurisdiction. In the case of river authorities a 'cut water' may be required
to assist the river flow, or independent fenders to protect the pier from impact from
boats or floating debris.

Fig. 25. Typical fender configuration.

A similar arrangement is often required by the rail authorities to prevent minor

derailments striking the pier. Where as the pier has to be designed to resist major derailments. Also if the pier
should be completely demolished by a train derailment then the deck should not collapse.

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6.10 Choice of wing wall

A wing wall confines the abutment backfill material and roadway soil at the sides, behind the abutment
backwalls. Wing walls can be cantilevered or founded. The length of the cantilevered wing wall is limited.

Providing the bridge skew angle is small

(less than 20°), and the cutting/embankment
slopes are reasonably steep (about 1 in 2),
then the wing wall cantilevering from the
abutment wall is likely to give the most
economical solution.

Splayed wing walls provide even more of an economy in material

costs but the detailing and fixing of the steel reinforcement is
more complicated than the conventional wall.

Design Considerations
Loads effects to be considered on the rear of the wall are:

• Earth pressures from the backfill material

• Surcharge from live loading or compacting plant
• Hydraulic loads from saturated soil conditions

The stability of the wall is generally designed to resist 'active' earth pressures (Ka); whilst the structural elements
are designed to resist 'at rest' earth pressures (Ko). The concept is that 'at rest' pressures are developed initially
and the structural elements should be designed to accommodate these loads without failure. The loads will
however reduce to 'active' pressure when the wall moves, either by rotating or sliding. Consequently the wall will
stabilise if it moves under 'at rest' pressures providing it is designed to resist 'active' earth pressures.

6.11 Choice of Approach slab

An approach slab is thick lightly reinforced slab that precedes the abutment at the beginning of the bridge, and
follows the abutment at the end of the bridge. Its intended purpose is to provide smooth transitions from roadway
pavement to bridge slab. The use of approach slabs is optional, and some bridge owners have had success with
their use, while others have had success without their use.

If used, it is strongly discourages supporting the approach slab on wing walls. Experience has shown that
compaction of the backfill is difficult, and that the loss of backfill materials can take place. Without the bearing
on the backfill, the approach slab becomes as slab supported on three sides, at the two wing walls and the
abutment wall. He standard approach slab is not reinforced for this situation, not are the wing walls designed to
carry the load. It is suggested that the back wall and the approach backfill only should support the approach slab.
Therefore, an appropriate backfill material is essential

REFERENCES

ESDEP LECTURE NOTE 15.B.1

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

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