MEMORY PRACTICAL

AIM
To examine autobiographical memory related to positive & negative events.

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis 1: Positive affect will lead to recall of specific memories.

Hypothesis 2: Negative affect will lead to recall of general memories.

BASIC CONCEPTS

MEMORY

Memory refers to the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve
experiences and information. (Passer and Smith, 2009). Memory is the means by which
we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present
(Sternberg, 1999). Memory is the process of maintaining information over time. (Matlin,
2005) Memory adds richness and context to our lives, but even more fundamentally, it
allows us to learn from experience and thus adapt to changing environments.

MEMORY AS INFORMATION PROCESSING

Information Processing Model

This model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) assumes the processing of
information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a
series of three stages. It consists of three basic stores: sensory memory, short term
memory/working memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM). Information can also be
lost from each point. However, some modifications have been made to the above model
with the STM being substituted for working memory.

Sensory Memory: Information enters the human information processing system via the
different senses (e.g. eyes, ears). Information is held very briefly (for a few seconds) in a
"buffer" memory, called sensory memory. The basic characteristics of sensory memory
are as follows:

1) Encoding: Input to the sensory store can occur regardless of whether or not the
subject is attending to the information; that is, sensory stores are preattentive. No
recognition of the information has taken place. A sensory memory exists for each
 sensory channel: Neisser (1967) proposed that the representation for a brief visual
sensory store should be called an ‘icon’ (‘icon’ means an ‘image’). Sensory
register for aural/sound stimuli is called echoic memory. Haptic memory is the
sensory register for touch

2) Storage: Duration and capacity

 Duration: Information is held in the sensory register for a very brief period i.e.
about 0.5 to 4.0 seconds depending upon the sensory store. Classical
Experiments by George Sperling (1960) found that the icon has duration of less
than 1 second. Darwin, Turvey, and Crowder, 1972) found that the sensory
register for echoic memory has a duration between 1 to 4 seconds.
 Capacity: unlimited

3) Forgetting: rapid decay

Short-term Memory (STM) / Working Memory (WM)

If information in the sensory memory is attended to, then it enters short term memory or
‘working memory’ which holds a limited amount of information for a short period of
time (about 18 seconds).

1) Encoding: Once information leaves sensory memory and enters STM it needs to
be converted into a ‘code’. A ‘code’ is a mental representation of some type of
information or stimulus. It can be a visual code (based on images),
phonological/acoustic code (based on sound), or semantic code (based on
meaning). Research has shown that the most important type of coding in WM is
phonological or auditory coding. Though encoding in WM is usually phonological
it may at times be visual as well as when some people remember the information
in terms of images. This ability occurs in children who are known to have ‘eidetic
imagery’.

2) Storage: Capacity and duration

 Capacity: Working memory is measured through the digit span test. For
e.g the experimenter speaks a list of digits and the participant has to recall
the digits in the exact order. The maximum number of digits recalled
indicates the digit span or capacity of the subject. WM has limited capacity
of 7 + 2 chunks (or groups) called the "magical number seven" as stated
by Miller (1956). According to Miller, chunking occurs when we combine
 individual letters or numbers into a larger meaningful unit, for example
your phone number. Chunking is done in the following e.g. by grouping
alphabets in the first row:

 Duration: Without rehearsal, the information in WM stays for about 18 to

20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959) and can sometimes be extended to
30 seconds. However, by rehearsing information one can extend the
duration of WM.

3) Forgetting: Information in the WM simply decays with time. However, some

forgetting may also take place because of displacement i.e., old items are displaced
by new items. Because STM presents severe limits on the amount of information
that can be held in mind, STM has been described as the ‘bottleneck of the human
information processing system’.

Long-term Memory (LTM): If information in the working memory is rehearsed then it

enters a relatively permanent store which has an almost unlimited capacity called the
LTM. Evidence that the LTM is distinct from STM comes from studies on ‘Serial
Position Curve’. When a list of words or Non sense syllables (NSS) are presented and
the subject is required to recall the list in any order, then it is observed those words in the
beginning ‘(primacy effect’) and the end of the list (‘recency effect’) are easiest to recall.
this results in a U shaped curve called the serial position curve. This was first observed
by McCrary and Hunter and is therefore is known as the McCrary Hunter phenomenon.
The graph below shows the results:
a) Encoding:

 Semantic coding: Semantic coding or coding based on ‘meaning’ takes place

in LTM. Subjects are shown a list of words (i.e. original words) and then
asked to recall the words several hours later. It has been found that if the
original word on the list is boat then the intruder is much more likely to be
ship than bud or boar (Baddeley and Dale, 1966) indicating that semantic
coding takes place in LTM.
 Effortful and automatic encoding: LTM may involve either effortful
processing or automatic processing. Effortful processing requires conscious
attention while automatic occurs without intention and requires minimal
attention (for e.g. spatial location of a stimulus)
 Levels of processing: Levels of Processing is an influential theory of memory
proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972) which proposed that the deeper we
process the information, the better we will remember it. Craik & Lockhart
(1972) proposed that stimulus inputs undergo successive processing
operations. The early stages of processing are “shallow” and involve
analyzing the stimulus in terms of its physical characteristics (e.g. the visual
characteristics of the letters i.e. Structural encoding or the acoustic features of
a sound i.e. phonemic encoding). “Deep” processing involves analyzing the
stimulus in terms of its meaning. The Levels of processing theory also
 emphasized rehearsal – especially elaborative rehearsal – which leads to better
recall.
 Organization of memory: This view emphasizes the importance of memory
organization during encoding. Bower & Clark (1969) found that the list,
which was organized hierarchically was recalled two to three times better than
the list arranged randomly
 Mnemonics are devices that can be used to improve encoding in LTM.

(b) Storage :

In contrast to the short-term memory, long-term memory refers to the ability to hold
information for a prolonged time and is possibly the most complex component of the
human memory system. The Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory (Atkinson 1968)
suggests that the items stored in short-term memory moves to long-term memory through
repeated practice and use. Long-term storage may be similar to learning—the process by
which information that may be needed again is stored for recall on demand.. Scientists
speculate that the hippocampus is involved in the creation of long-term memory. It is
unclear where long-term memory is stored, although there is evidence depicting long-
term memory is stored in various parts of the nervous system. Long-term memory is
permanent. Memory can be recalled, which, according to the dual-store memory search
model, enhances the long-term memory. Forgetting may occur when the memory fails to
be recalled on later occasions.

TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORY

There are different types of memory which store different types of information:

1. Implicit memory and explicit memory: The distinction between implicit and
explicit memory was given by Daniel Schachter (Graf and Schacter, 1985)
Explicit memory involves conscious or intentional memory as when you
consciously recall or recognize something. Implicit memory occurs when memory
influences our behaviour without conscious awareness – a kind of nonconscious
memory.

2. Declarative (semantic and episodic) and Procedural memory: Declarative

memory (‘knowing that’) is memory of factual information such as dates, words,
faces, events, and concepts. Declarative memory is usually considered to be
 explicit because it involves conscious, intentional remembering. Declarative
memory depends on the hippocampus. Declarative memory is of two types:
semantic and episodic.

* Episodic memory is recall of specific personal facts (when, where and what happened
in our lives). Recalling the ‘rules for playing cricket’ uses semantic memory while
recalling what happened in the last game of the World Series uses episodic memory

* Semantic memory is recall of general facts about the world and language, including
memory for words and concepts. Like episodic memory, semantic memory is also a type
of 'declarative' (explicit, consciously recalled) memory. However, the conscious recall
here is of facts that have meaning, as opposed to the recall of past life events associated
with episodic memory. It has sometimes been said that episodic memory involves a kind
of mental time travel (Tulving, 2002).

Procedural memory (‘knowing how’) is recall of how to do things such as swimming or

driving a car. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit because people don’t
have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills. Procedural memory
depends on the basal ganglia.

Types of implicit memory:

 Priming is another type implicit memory. Priming occurs when an earlier

stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. Suppose, for example, someone
speaks at length about the virtues of satellite dishes. Later, you hear the word
dish- You are probably more likely to think of a satellite dish, as opposed to a
dish served at dinner, than is someone who did not hear the prior conversation
about satellite dishes. The strongest evidence that suggests a separation of implicit
and explicit memory focuses on studies of amnesic patients. In case of amnesia,
priming is intact even though they have no explicit memory.

 Procedural memory (‘knowing how’) and Perceptual motor skills: (e.g. riding a
cycle, driving a car). These tasks do not require explicit recollection of a specific
previous episode. Bicycle riders remember how to balance a cycle even though
they cannot explicitly retrieve that information.
  Classical conditioning is another form of implicit memory. For example, about a
week ago Cliff had a frightening accident in which a red SUV smashed into his
car. He escaped without serious injury, but was emotionally shaken. Now, when
he sees a red SUV or even red cars, he begins to feel anxious, just as he felt
immediately after the accident. Because of classical conditioning, the previously
neutral cars have taken on new properties.

Types of explicit memory

Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it involves conscious,

intentional remembering.
 Episodic memory
 Semantic memory

EPISODIC MEMORY:

Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated

emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be
explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred
at a particular time and place. For example, if one remembers the party on their 6th
birthday, this is an episodic memory. They allow an individual to figuratively travel back
in time to remember the event that took place at that particular time and place.

Tulving has seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection.
These are a subjective sense of time (or mental time travel), connection to the self, and
autonoetic consciousness. Autonoetic consciousness refers to a special kind of
consciousness that accompanies the act of remembering which enables an individual to
be aware of the self in a subjective time. Aside from Tulving, others named the important
aspects of recollection which includes visual imagery, narrative structure, retrieval of
semantic information and the feelings of familiarity.

Events that are recorded into episodic memory may trigger episodic learning, i.e. a
change in behavior that occurs as a result of an [Link] example, a fear of dogs after
being bitten by a dog is a result of episodic learning.
One of the main components of episodic memory is the process of recollection.
Recollection is a process that elicits the retrieval of contextual information pertaining to a
specific event or experience that has occurred.
A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment
and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally
arousing) news was heard. The term "flashbulb memory" suggests the surprise,
indiscriminate illumination, detail, and brevity of a photograph; however flashbulb
memories are only somewhat indiscriminate and are far from complete. Evidence has
shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the
memories can be forgotten.
Flashbulb memories are one type of autobiographical memory. Some researchers believe
that there is reason to distinguish flashbulb memories from other types of
autobiographical memory because they rely on elements of personal importance,
consequentiality, emotion, and surprise. Others believe that ordinary memories can also
be accurate and long-lasting if they are highly distinctive, personally significant, or
repeatedly rehearsed.
Flashbulb memories have six characteristic features: place, ongoing activity, informant,
own effect, other effect, and aftermath. Arguably, the principal determinants of a
flashbulb memory are a high level of surprise, a high level of consequentiality, and
perhaps emotional arousal.

People also may form flashbulb memories of important personal events, such as hearing
about the death of a family member or witnessing an unusual trauma such as a disaster.
Emotions play such an important role in flashbulb memory that the amygdala,
responsible for emotions, triggers them faster than our conscious awareness. What makes
the flashbulb memory special is the emotional arousal at the moment that the event is
registered to the memory. It is the emotions elicited by a flashbulb memory event that
increase the ability to recall the details of the event. One reason that the flashbulb
memories are remembered is because these memories tend to be retold over and over
again. Sometimes, though, these memories are not necessarily accurate. Accuracy
reduces during the first 3 months and levels at about 12 months.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY

Autobiographical memories are our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our
own lives. Autobiographical memories encompass the episodic memories we hold about
ourselves (Rubin, 1999; Sutin & Robins, 2007). For example: We tend to forget
information about our past that is incompatible with the way in which we currently see
ourselves. One study found that adults who were well adjusted but who had been treated
for emotional problems during the early years tended to forget important but troubling
childhood events, such as being in foster care. College students misremember their bad
grades, but remember their good grades.
Autobiographical memory, like an autobiography, refers to memories which are unique to
the personal experience of an individual and how that individual experienced an event or
incident, both personally and semantically; for example, an individual who remembers an
incident where they fell from a tree as a child is remembering both semantically–
remembering that it was a tree they fell from, remembering the color of the tree was
green, and so on–and episodically, such as remembering that their neighbor ran to their
aid and remembering that their mother screamed as it happened. The combination of
these memories creates an autobiographical memory that, like an incident recorded in a
literary autobiography, is unique to an individual’s personal experience.
Specific autobiographical memories are memories, which contain specific, detailed
information about an event, while generic autobiographical memories contain only vague
information about an event or experience. For example: A specific memory about a party
might recall the food being served, the music being played, the conversations which were
had, and so on, while a generic memory about that same party might remember that the
party occurred, there was dancing, conversation, but nothing too specific can be recalled.

ENCODING, STORAGE & RETRIEVAL

Encoding:

Semantic coding:
Semantic coding or coding based on ‘meaning’ takes place in LTM. subjects are shown a
list of words (i.e. original words) and then asked to recall the words several hours later. It
has been found that if the original word on the list is boat then the intruder is much more
likely to be ship than bud or boar (Baddeley and Dale, 1966) indicating that semantic
coding takes place in LTM.

Effortful and automatic encoding:

LTM may involve either effortful processing or automatic processing. Effortful

processing requires conscious attention while automatic occurs without intention and
requires minimal attention (for e.g. spatial location of a stimulus)

Levels of processing:

Levels of Processing is an influential theory of memory proposed by Craik and Lockhart

(1972) which proposed that the deeper we process the information, the better we will
remember it. Craik & Lockhart (1972) proposed that stimulus inputs undergo successive
processing operations. The early stages of processing are “shallow” and involve
analyzing the stimulus in terms of its physical characteristics (e.g. the visual
characteristics of the letters i.e. Structural encoding or the acoustic features of a sound i.e.
phonemic encoding). “Deep” processing involves analyzing the stimulus in terms of its
meaning. The Levels of processing theory also emphasized rehearsal – especially
elaborative rehearsal which leads to better recall.

Organization of memory: This view emphasizes the importance of memory organization

during encoding. Bower & Clark (1969) found that the list, which was organized
hierarchically was recalled two to three time better than the list arranged randomly
.Mnemonics are devices that can be used to improve encoding in LTM.

Storage:

A number of network models have been proposed as to how information is organized

in LTM:

1. Associative network models or spreading-activation network models of memory:

(Collins & Loftus, 1975): These models postulate that ‘concepts’ (e.g. fire engine)
are stored as ‘nodes’ in memory, which are connected through ‘associative links’ with
shorter links indicating stronger associations. Activation is spread automatically along
those links, in such a way that association strength determines the rate of activation
spread. For example, by thinking of “Milk” some concepts may immediately spring to
mind, such as the white, drink cow etc. as these concepts are strongly linked to “Milk”
concept, while other concepts (e.g. the brown color, fattening) may not be linked strongly
enough to become activated.
2. Parallel Distributed processing models or PDP models (Rumelhart and McClelland
1986):

This approach to understanding human cognition uses computer software to model the
functioning of actual neural networks in human brains. First, a collection of software
“neurons” are created and connected together, allowing them to send messages to each
other. Next, the network is asked to solve a problem, which it attempts to do over and
over, each time strengthening the connections that lead to success and diminishing those
that lead to failure. These models typically consist of interconnected networks of simple
units exhibiting learning. Within such networks, each item of knowledge is represented
by a pattern of activation spread over numerous units rather than by a single location.

Neural networks (or parallel distributed processing models or connectionist models)

are examples of computational modelling. A distinction needs to be made between
computational modelling and artificial intelligence. Computational modelling involves
programming computers to model or mimic aspects of human cognitive functioning. In
contrast, artificial intelligence involves constructing computer systems that produce
intelligent outcomes but may do so in ways bearing little resemblance to those used by
humans. Consider Deep Blue, the chess program that defeated the World Champion
Garry Kasparov on 11 May 1997. Deep Blue considered up to 200 million positions per
second, which is vastly more than any human chess players. A major benefit of the
computational models developed in computational cognitive science is that they often
provide an exploratory and predictive basis for a phenomenon. Most computational
models focus on relatively specific aspects of human cognition. However, some
computational models are more ambitious. This is especially the case with cognitive
architectures, which are “cognitive models that are domain-genetic [cover many domains
or areas] and encompass a wide range of cognitive applicabilities” (e.g. cognitive
architectures of Anderson et al. (2004) Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R).

Retrieval:

Retrieval Cues: Retrieval involves being able to access the memory so that it can be
recalled. Retrieval from LTM is aided by a ‘retrieval cue’. retrieval cue is a stimulus,
whether internal or external that activate information stored in LTM. The ‘encoding
specificity principle’ or ES (Wiseman & Tulving, 1976) essentially means that recall
depends directly on the similarity between the cues available at the time of encoding and
the cues available at retrieval. Imagine that Aman reads two sentences (1) The man lifted
the piano and (2) The man tuned the piano. Much later when given the retrieval cue
“something heavy”, he is able to recall the first sentence and not the second. Similarly,
the cue “makes nice sounds” would probably help you recall the second sentence but not
the first (Barclay el al., 1974). The greater the overlap between the dues at the time of
encoding and retrieval the better the recall. This means the performance will be optimized
when the same context that was available during encoding is available at the time that
retrieval is attempted.

METHOD

 Participants: The total number of participants who took part in the study was 32
(Males: 15; Females: 17) from Delhi/NCR.

 Design
Independent Dependent Variable Extraneous Control Variable
Variable Variable
Affect, Positive Autobiographical Time of memory Before 6 months
condition and memory (specific & (for all conditions)
Negative condition general memory)
measured by
written personal
account of the
subject.
 Experimental Material: PANAS scale, sheet of paper, pen

 Measures

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a 20-item self-report

questionnaire .The questionnaire is split up into two segments, or mood scales. One scale
measures a person’s positive emotion and the other scale measures the negative. Each
segment has ten items, which can be rated on a scale of 1 to 5 to indicate the extent to
which the respondent agrees that this applies to him. Three American psychologists
developed the PANAS Scale in 1988: David Watson, Lee Anna Clark and Auke
Tellegen. The PANAS Scale has now become a standardized way of measuring changes
in mood. The questionnaire comprises of 20 items, with ten focusing on a positive
emotion and the other ten focusing on a negative emotion. Items 1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16,
17, & 19 indicate positive affect and items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 18, & 20 indicate
negative affect. Initially, the test comprised of 60 terms, but after several testing and
elimination rounds, 20 balanced concepts remained. None of the items were reverse
scored. Higher the score of the positive statements indicates greater positive affect and
higher the score of the negative statements indicates greater negative affect. The total
score was calculated by finding the sum of the 10 positive items, and then the 10 negative
items. Scores range from 10 – 50 for both sets of items.
  Procedure
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) was administered on a 21-year-old
male. The individual was first asked to recall a positive event in the past, which must
have been at least 6 months old, and then was asked to write the account of that event.
After this the PANAS scale was administered on the participant. Then the participant was
asked to recall a negative event from his past, which must have been at least 6 months
old, and then again was asked to write the account of that event. After this the PANAS
scale was administered on the participant. Then at last , the participant was asked to recall
a neutral event from his past for which no specific instructions were given and then again
was asked to write the account of that event. After this the PANAS scale was again
administered on the participant. The participant was then asked to share his experiences
with the task and was then thanked.
Neutral Condition
Positive Condition Negative Condition Personal account of
Personal account of Personal account of subject (No specific
subject subject instructions )
(Positive Event) (Negative event) (Neutral event)

PANAS PANAS PANAS

Introspective Report

“ I really enjoyed doing the task. It was a fun and interesting exercise. It helped me revive
my old memories “

Observation Report
The participant was quite excited to fill the questionnaire and was trying hard to recall his
past memories. While recalling the memories related to a negative event, the participant
also got sad in between but overall seemed to enjoy doing the task.
RESULTS

Table 1: Descriptives of the overall data ( males + Females)

CONDITION Positive Negative Specific General

Affect Condition Memory Memory
MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD
POSITIVE 38.96 6.95 20.65 7.77 4.21 2.58 2.53 2.12
CONDITION
NEGATIVE 25.5 4.49 31.06 7.66 3.53 3.12 2.84 2.37
CONDITION

NEUTRAL 32.25 7.27 22.25 7.27 2.34 2.17 2.28 1.92

CONDITION

In the positive condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific
memory is higher than general memory , so the first hypothesis is being accepted. In the
negative condition, the negative affect is higher than positive affect and specific memory
is again higher than general memory , so the second hypothesis is being rejected. For the
neutral condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is
higher than general memory.

Table 2: Descriptives of the data of males

CONDITION Positive Negative Specific General

Affect Condition Memory Memory
MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD
POSITIVE 40.93 4.26 21.6 7.22 5.13 2.49 1.93 2.26
CONDITION
NEGATIVE 27.0 10.60 32.33 7.18 4.06 3.25 2.4 2.52
CONDITION

NEUTRAL 31.86 6.09 22.66 7.65 1.86 1.14 1.8 1.37

CONDITION

In the positive condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific
memory is higher than general memory, so first hypothesis is being accepted. In the
negative condition, the negative affect is higher than positive affect and specific memory
is again higher than general memory, so second hypothesis is being rejected. For the
neutral condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is
higher than general memory.

Table 3: Descriptives of the data of females

CONDITION Positive Negative Specific General

Affect Condition Memory Memory
MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD MEAN SD
POSITIVE 35.38 8.30 19.82 10.39 3.41 4.45 3.06 3.89
CONDITION
NEGATIVE 24.17 10.42 29.94 10.14 3.05 5.0 3.23 4.22
CONDITION

NEUTRAL 32.59 8.40 21.70 26.09 2.75 21.79 2.70 21.2

CONDITION 8

In the positive condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific
memory is higher than general memory, so first hypothesis is being accepted. In the
negative condition, the negative affect is higher than positive affect and general memory
is higher than specific memory, so second hypothesis is being accepted. For the neutral
condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher
than general memory.

DISCUSSION

The aim of the practical was to examine autobiographical memory related to positive &
negative events. The first hypothesis was that positive affect will lead to the recall of
specific memories and the second hypothesis was that negative affect will lead to the
recall of general memories. The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) was
administered on a 21-year-old male. The results show that in the positive condition, the
positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher than general
memory, so the first hypothesis is being accepted. In the negative condition, the negative
affect is higher than positive affect and specific memory is again higher than general
memory, so the second hypothesis is being rejected. For the neutral condition, the
positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher than general
memory. In case of males, In the positive condition, the positive affect is higher than
negative affect and specific memory is higher than general memory, so first hypothesis is
being accepted. In the negative condition, the negative affect is higher than positive affect
and specific memory is again higher than general memory, so second hypothesis is being
rejected. For the neutral condition, the positive affect is higher than negative affect and
specific memory is higher than general memory. For females, in the positive condition,
the positive affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher than
general memory, so first hypothesis is being accepted. In the negative condition, the
negative affect is higher than positive affect and general memory is higher than specific
memory, so second hypothesis is being accepted. For the neutral condition, the positive
affect is higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher than general memory.
On the basis of the data of both males and females, the first hypothesis is being accepted.
This shows that positive events lead to a greater recall of specific memories, and the
individual pays close attention to every detail and is also able to recall specific things
very clearly. Eg : The male participant recalled a positive event as the day he graduated
from his college and described the whole event very clearly , giving a lot of minute
details like the colour of the shirt he was wearing . The second hypothesis is being
rejected in case of males and it is being accepted in the case of females. Paul Loprinzi
(2018) found that females tend to perform better than males in verbal-based episodic
memory tasks, as opposed to spatial-based memory tasks . Females generally access their
memories faster than males , date them more precisely , and use more emotional terms
when describing memories and females outperform males on autobiographical memory
(particularly with high retrieval support via verbal probing , random word recall , story
recall , auditory episodic memory. However the findings obtained in our study are
contradictory. One reason for this could be the small sample size taken. The second
hypothesis was that negative affect would lead to the recall of general memories. Due to
the negative nature of the event, our mind unconsciously tries to repress that memory and
hence we are unable to recall specific details of that particular event. Christien Slofstra
and Maarten Eisma (2017) found that depression is associated with a tendency toward
more negative and less positive memory recall and a more generic, less specific (over
general) nature of memory recall. Mevludin Hasanovic (2010) did a study on trauma
exposure in childhood and found that exposure to potentially traumatizing events at an
early age would give rise to over general recall from autobiographical memory, i.e., recall
of general rather than specific events.

CONCLUSION

The aim of the practical was to examine autobiographical memory related to positive &
negative events. The results indicate that in the positive condition, the positive affect is
higher than negative affect and specific memory is higher than general memory for both
males and females. In case of the negative condition the positive affect is higher than
negative affect and specific memory is higher than general memory only for males, while
for females, general memory appeared to be higher than specific memory. Thus, the first
hypothesis is being accepted in both the cases and the second hypothesis is only being
accepted in case of females.

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