Metallic materials for aeronautics

- a self-explaining title

- a challenging task for 2 main reasons:

i) enormous subject-matter coverage
ii) coping with limited materials-science background
w/o giving up a knowledge-based vs. phenomenological/empirical approach

- method:
i) maximise interactions (with other courses and between students & professor)
ii) understand the basics ⇒ “think metallurgy” vs. “remember & use metallurgy”
(taking the fundamentals for granted)
 Structure of the course
Unit 1 - Introduction to the course
Units 2, 3 – Elements of applied physical metallurgy
Unit 4 - Steels for aeronautics
Unit 5 - Elements of fracture mechanics
Unit 6 - Aluminium alloys for aeronautics
Unit 7 - Titanium alloys for aeronautics
Unit 8 - Superalloys for aeronautics
Unit 9 - Notions of mechano-electrochemical corrosion
 UNIT 1

Introduction to the course

 Relevance of metals for aerospace applications

Mechanical
be strong, don’t break, stay strong Other functionalities

functional
(piping Chemical
structural
containers (energy storage)
(i.e. explicitly
load bearing) valves) Electrical
strength allied Insulation (Faraday cage)
to lightness trasmission (radio, signal)
i) strength (proof & ultimate σ) control (transduction, actuation)
ii) fatigue strength
iii) not lean to crack formation & propagation
iv) formability
 Relevance of metals for aerospace applications

Mechanical
be strong, don’t break, stay strong Other functionalities

functional
(piping Chemical
structural
containers (energy storage)
(i.e. explicitly
load bearing) valves) Electrical
strength allied Insulation (Faraday cage)
to lightness trasmission (radio, signal)
i) strength (proof & ultimate σ) control (transduction, actuation)
ii) fatigue strength
iii) not lean to crack formation & propagation
iv) formability

Required properties have to be guaranteed over lifetime:

corrosion and metal protection
 the properties of metals come from their structure on several lengthscales
structure/property relationships are key to understanding

assembly of grains

atomic

nanoparticle

grain / grain boundary

Aircrarft design & production can be broadly divided into three key areas:

A1) Airframe: fuselage (nose to tailcone), wing, stabilizers, pylon

A2) Propulsion: jet engine

A3) Landing gear

To which two crucial ancillary issues are related:

B1) Auxiliary devices

fuel-handling systems, electrical/electronic systems, batteries

B2) Protection & durability issues incl. life-extension actions

Metals are widely employed in all of them.

Notwithstanding their often profound differences

the different metals employed in such diverse components
exhibit several methodological commonalities:
this is the key point to be grasped to contribute to:
understanding / maintainance / design / R&D.
 The key aeronautic alloys

Aluminium alloys Steel

Al-Cu (2000) high-strength
Al-Zn(-Mg-Cu) (7000) stainless
Al-Mg-Si (6000) Maraging
Al-Li (8000) PH
pure Al cladding

Titanium alloys Superalloys

Ti-6V-4Al Ni-base
Co-base
 Context and (critically) pre-supposed knowledge

Metallurgia (BSc course: we shall critically revise/extend/update the key contents)

batteries
Interacting with:
 Airframe

Scarselli

Al, Ti, steel

Airframe
Esempi di Componenti
Strutturali
Pannelli (Sheet, Panel, Membrane,...)
Correnti (Stringers)
Centine (Ribs)
Ordinate (Frames)
Longheroni (Spars)
Materiali
Leghe di Alluminio (2000 (Al,Cu);
7000 (Al, Zn – generalmente anche
Mg)), Acciai, Leghe al Titanio,
Compositi
Al, Ti, steel
why Cu, Zn, Mg
Metodi di Collegamento
Rivettatura (Riveting) alloyed with Al?
Incollaggi (Bonding)
Saldatura (Welding)
Airframe

Al

composition ⇒
structure/property relationships

properties:
mechanical: static
mechanical: dynamic
chemical
Airframe
Why?
Al

reasons underlying such a rich scenario of alloys

Airframe
compare with previous slide Maffezzoli

1) «Metallic» properties of composites (C is in many respects a «metal»

2) Coupling of metals to composites (e.g. Ti vs. Al rivets)
3) Electrical continuity requirements of extensive composite-panel based structures
Airframe

Why chemical milling?

Which metals can be chemically milled?

Ti
Why a Ti insert in an Al framework?
Airframe

Del Prete

Al
Why forged? Which Al alloys can be forged?
Airframe Same comments apply for components for the …

Del Prete
Airframe

Metal dominates in fixed structures …

Wing tip
 Airframe

special type of corrosion

on wings
Airframe
Airframe
 Propulsion

De Giorgi / Ficarella
 Propulsion
Jet Engine Materials
• Higher Operating Temperatures
• Higher Rotational Speeds
• Lower Weight Engine Components
• Longer Operating Lifetime
• Decreased Failure Occurrence
 Propulsion

Materials Requirements
• thousands of operating hours at temperatures up to 1,100°C
• high thermal stresses caused by rapid temperature changes and
large temperature gradients
• high mechanical stresses due to high rotational speeds and large
aerodynamic forces
• low- and high-frequency vibrational loading
• oxidation
• corrosion
• time- , temperature- and stress-dependent effects such as creep,
stress rupture, and high- and low-cycle fatigue.
 Propulsion

Regions of the Engine

• Cold Sections
– Inlet/Fan
– Compressor
– Casing
• Hot Sections
– Combustor
– Turbine/Outlet
 Propulsion

Cold Section Materials

Requirements
• High Strength (static, fatigue)
• High Stiffness
• Low Weight
• Materials:
– Titanium Alloys
– Aluminum Alloys
– Titanium intermetallics and composites
 Propulsion
Applications of Polymer
Composites Graphite/Kevlar
Specific gravity: ~1.6 (wrt to 4.5 for Ti & 2.8 for Al)
Can only be used at low temperatures < 300 °C

All the rest: Ti or Al

 Propulsion

Titanium alloys used for critical

cold section (<600°C) components
typical alloy:Ti-6Al-4V

• Fan
disks/blade
• Compressor
disks/blades
 Propulsion

Titanium Properties
• Specific gravity of 4.5 ( 58 % that of
steel, 160 % that of Al)
• Titanium alloys can be used up to
temperatures of ~ 590 °C
• Good oxidation/corrosion resistance
• High strength alloys hard to work:
many engine components are cast
 Propulsion

Titanium Aluminide Ti3Al

• An intermetallic alloy of Ti and Al
• Extends the temperature range of Ti
from ca. 600 °C to 700-800 °C
• Suffers from embrittlement due to
exposure to atmosphere at high
temperature - needs to be coated.
 Propulsion

Titanium Composites (MMC)

• Titanium matrix with SiC fibers
• Decreases weight while increases
strength and creep strength

TYPICAL Ti/SiC COMPOSITE

100X
Propulsion
Hot Section Materials
Requirements
• High Strength
(static, fatigue,
creep-rupture)
• High temperature
resistance
850 °C - 1100 °C

• Corrosion/oxidation resistance
• Low Weight
Propulsion

High Temperatures - 1100 °C

• Creep becomes a critical factor when the

operating temperature reaches approximately
0.4 Tm

• Conventional engineering metals at 1100 °C:

»Steel ~0.9 Tm
»Aluminum ~1.4 Tm
»Titanium ~0.7 Tm
Propulsion

Superalloys
• Nickel (or Cobalt) based materials
• Can be used in load bearing
applications up to 0.8Tm
• High strength /stiffness
• Specific gravity ~8.8 (relatively heavy)
• Over 50% weight of current engines
Propulsion

Typical Compositions of
Superalloys
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, WEIGHT PERCENT
Ni Cr Co Mo W Ta Cb Al Ti C Zr Hf

TURBINE BLADE ALLOYS

ALLOY 713C BAL 12.5 4.2 2.0 6.1 0.8 0.12 0.10

MAR-M 247 BAL 8.2 10.0 0.6 10.0 3.0 5.5 1.0 0.20 0.09 1.5

CMSX - (SC) BAL 8.0 4.6 0.6 8.0 6.0 5.6 1.0 0.1

TURBINE DISK ALLOYS

WASPALOY BAL 19.5 13.5 4.3 1.3 3.0 0.006 0.06

RENE’ 95 BAL 14.0 8.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 0.01 0.05

COMBUSTOR ALLOYS

HASTELLOY X BAL 22.0 1.5 9.0 0.6

INCONEL 617 BAL 22.0 12.5 9.0 1.0

Chromium yields corrosion resistance

Propulsion

Microstructure of a Superalloy
• Superalloys are dispersion hardened
• Ni3Al and Ni3Ti
in a Ni matrix
• Particles resist
dislocation motion and
resist growth at high
temperatures
Propulsion

Controlled grain structure in

turbine blades:

Equi-axed Directionally Single Crystal

solidified (DS) (SX)
Propulsion

Performance of superalloy
parts enhanced with
thermal barrier coatings
• Thin coating - plasma sprayed
• Ni/Co-Cr-Al-Y coating materials
• Increased corrosion/oxidation
resistance
Propulsion

Materials for F109 engine

F109 FAN MODULE MATERIALS
Propulsion
F109 HP COMPRESSOR MATERIALS

201-T6 Aluminum INCO 625 (side plates) HAST X

INCO 718 (vanes) 17-4 PH

Ti 6-4 INCO 718 Ti 6-2-4-2

Propulsion
F109 COMBUSTOR/MIDFRAME MATERIALS
Co-base HS 188
+ TBC INCO 718 HS 188 300 SS INCO 718
INCO 718

HS 188 HAST S HAST X INCO 600

Propulsion

F109 HP TURBINE MATERIALS

INCO 738 MAR-M 247
MAR-M 247
MAR-M 247 MAR-M 247
HAST X HAST S INCO 738

HAST X INCO 718 WASP B

Propulsion
F109 LP TURBINE MATERIALS

INCONEL 625
HAST X
HASTELLOY X
INCONEL 625
HASTELLOY X
EQUIAXED MAR-M 247
MAR-M 247

EQUIAXED MAR-M 247

HAST X
HASTELLOY X

WASPALOY WASPALOY

WASPALOY WASPALOY

WASPALOY
Propulsion: overview of key points of previous slides

Materials Requirements
for jet engines
• thousands of operating hours at temperatures up to 1,100°C
• high thermal stresses caused by rapid temperature changes and
large temperature gradients
• high mechanical stresses due to high rotational speeds and large
aerodynamic forces
• low- and high-frequency vibrational loading
• time- , temperature- and stress-dependent effects such as creep,
stress rupture, and high- and low-cycle fatigue.
• corrosion
Propulsion: overview
High Temperatures - ~1100 °C
• Creep becomes a critical factor when the operating
temperature reaches approximately 0.4 Tm
• Conventional engineering metals at 1100 °C:
» Steel ~0.9 Tm
» Aluminum ~1.4 Tm
» Titanium ~0.7 Tm

Superalloys
• Nickel-based
• Bear load up to 0.8Tm
• Specific gravity ~8.8 (>50% weight of engines)
Propulsion: overview

Regions of the Engine

• Cold Sections (<300°C)
– Inlet
– Casing
– Al and/or composites

• Intermediate-T sections (<600°C)

– Compressor
– Ti alloys

• Hot Sections (850-1100°C)

– Combustor
– Turbine/Outlet
– superalloys
Propulsion: overview
Specialised materials
i) Intermetallics (e.g. titanium aluminide Ti3Al):
TM,alloy>TM,components)
ii) Metal-matrix composites with ceramic dispersoids (MMC),
(e.g. Ti/SiC)
iii) Single-crystal / columnar alloys
 Landing Gear
Materials
- Ultra-High Tensile Steels are already being integrated
into the A400M and the B-787 landing gear, replacing
the low-alloy steels.
- Research into organic matrix composites and metal
matrix composites using titanium are promising, though
still very expensive.
Corrosion
- Many modern aircraft have cadmium in the landing gear
to prevent corrosion and chromium plating to reduce
friction wear.
- Advancements in stainless steels and titanium will
replace the cadmium in landing gear.
 Fuel tanks
The smaller fuel tanks are made of thin sheet steel coated with an alloy of lead
and tin (called terneplate).

Terneplate sheets are formed into the shapes needed to construct the tank and
the seams are folded.
Solder is sweated into the seams. This provides a good leak-proof joint and the tanks
are relatively low cost.
The weight of a terneplate tank is more than that of an aluminium alloy tank.

The larger fuel tanks aluminium alloys 3003 (Al-Mn) or 5052 (Al-Mg).
Most wings have large empty spaces, and with the availability of appropriate sealants,
it has become standard practice to seal off a portion of wing to form a fuel tank.
In this case, the tank is made of Al alloys.
 Fuel lines and fittings
The metal tubing usually is made of aluminium alloy,
and the flexible hose is made of synthetic rubber or Teflon.

Most of the rigid fuel lines used in an aircraft are made of 5052 (Al-Mg) aluminium alloy,
but in some aircraft the lines that pass through the wheel wells and some of the lines
in the engine compartments are made of stainless steel as insurance against damage
from either abrasion or heat.
CORROSION
COATINGS
 COATINGS

Green-aircraft issues

Cr, Cd
ENERGY STORAGE: BATTERIES & SUPERCAPS
 ENERGY STORAGE: BATTERIES & SUPERCAPS

Electrical-aircraft projects
NEXT GENERATION: FUEL CELLS
Programmi triennale (Leo / Cavaliere) Leo

CRISTALLOGRAFIA
strutture cristallografiche
sistemi cristallografici o di Bravais-geometrici
A.3) piani e direzioni cristallografiche
A.4) densità lineare, planare, volumetrica, strutture a massimo impacchettamento
sistemi di scorrimento
monocristalli e policristalli (cenni sulle strutture di solidificazione)

Cavaliere
SOLIDIFICAZIONE
CRISTALLOGRAFIA
B.1) Cinetica di cristallizzazione
A.1) Reticoli di Bravais e Celle elementari
B.2) Strutture di solidificazione
2) Sistemi Cristallografici e Reticoli
Difetti di solidificazione
A.2) Reticoli CFC, CCC, EC
(v. Tecnologie Meccaniche)
A.5) Indici di Miller e Miller-Bravais
A9.1) Sistemi di Scorrimento
A9.2) Piani di Scorrimento
Resistenza teorica dei cristalli ideali.
 Leo
DIFETTI
A.6) difetti di punto (vacanze di tipo Schotty e Frenkel, atomi interstiziali,
atomi sostituzionali, impurezze e soluzioni solide),

A.7) difetti di linea (generazione di dislocazioni a spigolo, a vite, miste;

classificazione delle dislocazioni mediante il vettore di Burger; disallineamento
degli atomi nell'intorno della linea di dislocazione; loop; ruolo delle dislocazioni
nella deformazione plastica; annullamento di dislocazioni; moltiplicazione di
dislocazioni secondo Frank-Read),

A.8) difetti di superficie (bordi di grano, difetti di impilaggio, twinning e stacking fault).

Cavaliere
DIFETTI
Difetti di punto,
Difetti di linea,
Difetti di superficie,
Movimento ed energia delle dislocazioni,
Difetto di Impilaggio,
Geminati e Bordi di grano.
 Leo
A.11) METODI DI RAFFORZAMENTO
per incrudimento
per affinamento del grano
per soluzione solida
per precipitazione
per dispersione

MECCANISMI DI RAFFORZAMENTO Cavaliere

Soluzioni solide
Incrudimento
∈A11) Relazione di Hall-Petch
Precipitazione di seconde fasi
Rafforzamento per dispersione
 Leo
DEFORMAZIONE A FREDDO
A.10) di un monoscristallo secondo la teoria dei sistemi di scorrimento
 Leo
METALLI AD ALTA TEMPERATURA
B.3) fenomeni connessi alla deformazione a caldo
B.4) cenni al recupero e ricristallizzazione

Cavaliere

DIFFUSIONE
A.12) I e II legge di Fick,
A.13) Percorsi diffusivi preferenziali
Meccanismi di ripristino.
 Cavaliere

DIAGRAMMI DI STATO
C.1) Diagrammi di Stato binari
C1.1) Trasformazioni eutettica e peritettica
Es. Diagramma Cu-Sn
Es. Diagramma Al-Zn
Es. Diagramma Al-Cu
C.2) Diagrammi Ternari
Es. Diagramma Al-Mg-Cu
 Leo
DIAGRAMMA Fe- C
C.5) punti critici
C.6) strutture di equilibrio e loro proprietà
Trasformazioni peritettica, eutettica ed eutettoidica (v. C1.1)

Cavaliere
DIAGRAMMA Fe-C
C.3) Modificazioni allotropiche
C.4) Soluzioni solide di C in Fe
Trasformazione perlitica
Trasformazione bainitica
Trasformazione Martensitica
 Leo

TRASFORMAZIONI DI NON EQUILIBRIO DEGLI ACCIAI

- Trasformazioni isoterme e anisoterme dell'austenite (Curve TTT e Curve CCT)
- microstuttura indotta dalle trasformazioni di non equilibrio in funzione della velocità
di raffreddamento
D.1) struttura martensitica e sue proprietà

Cavaliere
D.2) DIAGRAMMI TTT
Curve di Bain,
D.3) Digrammi TTT di acciai ipo-, iper- ed eutettoidici.
D.4) DIAGRAMMI CCT
D.5) Velocità critica di tempra,
D.6) Temprabilità,
Strutture di non equilibrio.
 Leo

TRATTAMETI TERMICI DEGLI ACCIAI

E.1) Ricottura,
E.2) Normalizzazione,
E.3) Tempra,
E5.1) Cementazione,
E5.2) Nitrurazione,
E.4) Tempra bainitica

Cavaliere
TRATTAMETI TERMICI DEGLI ACCIAI
Ricottura, normalizzazione e tempra
Rivenimento
Trattamenti particolari
Trattamenti termochimici di diffusione
 Cavaliere

(E.6) ELEMENTI DI LEGA

Elementi ferritizzanti e austenitizzanti,
Effetto elementi di lega sulla temprabilità,
Effetto elementi di lega sulla resistenza,
Elementi nocivi.
 Leo
E.7) ACCIAI PROPRIETA’ E APPLICAZIONI
Acciai da costruzione di uso generale
acciai speciali da costruzione
acciai inossidabili