1.
1 – Measurements in physics
Fundamental and derived units
Fundamental SI units
Quantity SI unit Symbol
Mass Kilogram kg
Distance Meter m
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole mol
Temperature Kelvin K
Derived units are combinations of fundamental units. Some examples are:
m/s (Unit for velocity)
N (kg*m/s^2) (Unit for force)
J (kg*m^2/s^2) (Unit for energy)
Scientific notation and metric multipliers
In scientific notation, values are written in the form a*10^n, where a is a number
within 1 and 10 and n is any integer. Some examples are:
The speed of light is 300000000 (m/s). In scientific notation, this is expressed as
3*10^8
A centimeter (cm) is 1/100 of a meter (m). In scientific notation, one cm is expressed
as 1*10^-2 m.
Metric multipliers
Prefix Abbreviation Value
peta P 10^15
tera T 10^12
giga G 10^9
mega M 10^6
kilo k 10^3
hecto h 10^2
deca da 10^1
deci d 10^-1
centi c 10^-2
milli m 10^-3
micro μ 10^-6
nano n 10^-9
pico p 10^12
femto f 10^15
Significant figures
For a certain value, all figures are significant, except:
1. Leading zeros
2. Trailing zeros if this value does not have a decimal point, for example:
12300 has 3 significant figures. The two trailing zeros are not significant.
012300 has 5 significant figures. The two leading zeros are not significant. The two
trailing zeros are significant.
When multiplying or dividing numbers, the number of significant figures of the
result value should not exceed the least precise value of the calculation.
The number of significant figures in any answer should be consistent with the
number of significant figures of the given data in the question.
FYI
In multiplication/division, give the answer to the lowest significant figure (S.F.).
In addition/subtraction, give the answer to the lowest decimal place (D.P.).
Orders of magnitude
Orders of magnitude are given in powers of 10, likewise those given in the
scientific notation section previously.
Orders of magnitude are used to compare the size of physical data.
Distance Magnitude (m) Order of magnitude
Diameter of the observable
universe 10^26 26
Diameter of the Milky Way
galaxy 10^21 21
Diameter of the Solar System 10^13 13
Distance to the Sun 10^11 11
Radius of the Earth 10^7 7
Diameter of a hydrogen atom 10^-10 10
Diameter of a nucleus 10^-15 15
Diameter of a proton 10^-15 15
Mass Magnitude (kg) Order of magnitude
The universe 10^53 53
The Milky Way galaxy 10^41 41
The Sun 10^30 30
The Earth 10^24 24
A hydrogen atom 10^-27 -27
An electron 10^-30 -30
Time Magnitude (s) Order of magnitude
Age of the universe 10^17 17
One year 10^7 7
One day 10^5 5
An hour 10^3 3
Period of heartheart 10^0 0
Estimation
Estimations are usually made to the nearest power of 10. Some examples are
given in the tables in the orders of magnitude section.
1.2 – Uncertainties and errors
Random and systematic errors
Random error Systematic error
Caused by fluctuations in measurements Caused by fixed shifts in measurements away
centered around the true value. from the true value.
Can be reduced by averaging over repeated Cannot be reduced by averaging over repeated
measurements. measurements.
Examples:
Fluctuations in room temperature Examples:
Equipment calibration error such as the zero
The noise in circuits offset error
Human error Incorrect method of measurement
Absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties
Physical measurements are sometimes expressed in the form x±Δx. For
example, 10±1 would mean a range from 9 to 11 for the measurement.
Absolute uncertainty Δx
Fractional uncertainty Δx /x
Percentage uncertainty Δx/x*100%
Calculating with uncertainties
Δy=Δa+Δb (sum of absolute
Addition/Subtraction y=a±b uncertainties)
Δy/y=Δa/a+Δb/b (sum of
Multiplication/Division y=a*b or y=a/b fractional uncertainties)
Δy/y=|n|Δa/a (|n| times fractional
Power y=a^n uncertainty)
Error bars
Error bars are bars on graphs which indicate uncertainties. They can be
horizontal or vertical with the total length of two absolute uncertainties.
Uncertainty of gradient and intercepts
Line of best fit: The straight line drawn on a graph so that the average distance
between the data points and the line is minimized.
Maximum/Minimum line: The two lines with maximum possible slope and
minimum possible slope given that they both pass through all the error bars.
The uncertainty in the intercepts of a straight line graph: The difference between
the intercepts of the line of best fit and the maximum/minimum line.
The uncertainty in the gradient: The difference between the gradients of the line
of best fit and the maximum/minimum line.
1.3 – Vectors and scalars
Vector and scalar quantities
Scalar Vector
A quantity which is defined by its magnitude A quantity which is defined by both is magnitude
only. and direction.
Examples: Examples:
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Time Acceleration
Energy Force
Combination and resolution of vectors
Vector addition and subtraction can be done by the parallelogram method or the
head to tail method.
When resolving vectors in two directions, vectors can be resolved into a pair of
perpendicular components.
FYI
The relationship between two sets of data can be determined graphically.
Relationship Type of Graph Slope y-intercept
y=mx+c y against x m c
y=kx^n logy against logx n logk
y=kx^n+c with n given y against x^n k c