Final Review

Lecture 24

 Humans cannot break cellulose

 Hemicellulose is 20% of biomass in plants
o Shorter branched chains
 Lignin
o Cross linked phenolic polymers in formation of cell walls
 Brown rot fungi
o Breaks down cellulose and hemicellulose but leave lignin behind
 Most common in conifers
 White rot fungi
o Breaks down cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin
 Common in all trees
 Peat is the remains of decayed plant and is carbon sink
o Acidifies swamps and reduces fungal abundance so this prevents break down of dead
plants
 Undecomposed peat turns into coal
 Fungal body is mycelium and consists of hyphae
o High SA to volume ratio
o Extracellular enzymes are synthesized and secreted
o Products of extracellular digestion are absorbed across the hyphal wall
 Metabolism is diverse but only a few are capable of using the simple or complex substrates
 Saprobes break down dead organic matter and is essential to nutrient cycling
o Composting is driven by saprobes and can be hot
 Lives as active foragers and high surface to volume ratio makes it susceptible to dying
 Can happen at very large scales
o Patterns arise because there is active growth outside, then regular growth occurs,
creating a pattern
 Predaceous fungi
o Traps down prey and secretes enzyme for digestion
 Mycorrhizae are ancient symbioses with embryophytes
o To plants:
 Protection from root pathogens
 Increased longevity of fine roots
 Protection from heavy metal in soil
 Linkages between plants
 Fungi serves as
o Decomposers
o Pathogens
o And mutualists
 Synapomorphies
o Flagellum is single and posterior
o Absorptive nutrition
 o Chitin in cell walls

Lecture 25

 Microsporidia
o Intracellular parasites
o Thought they were related to jellyfish but are not
o Infect anthropods and vertebrates
o No mitochondria
o Makes spores that allow them to live outside of the host
o Only recently placed in fungi
 Chytrids
o Non-monophyletic group
o Swimming spores and gametes
o Swimming spores are lost in other fungal lineages
o Multicellular diploid stage goes through meiosis to produce haploid spore which makes
haploid multicellular gametophyte
o Fossils occur in Devonian fossil bed called Rhynie Chert
 Some were parasites on rhyniophytes
o Associated with the decline of amphibians
o In water and penetrate wet soft skin of amphibians
 Due to global warming, we are allowing chytrids to thrive
 Pseudogymnoascus destructans
o Fungus responsible for “white nose syndrome” and decimating bats throughout the US
o Can live in bats but also lives on decomposing animals and plants, keratin, chitin, and
cellulose
o Changes behavior by making bats fly during the day
 Cryptomycota
o Small and form close associations with many organisms
o Only detected through genomic analyses
o Attach, engulf, or live in other cells to feed by phagocytosis
 As opposed to feeding by osmosis, as by other fungi
o Lack chitin in the cell walls of their feeding stages
o They do carry chitin synthase gene
  Synapomorphy of dikarya is dikaryon with ploidy (n+n)
o Two, genetically distinct haploid nuclei in each cell
o Does not act as gametes
o Hyphal fusion with nuclei acting as gametes
o No real gametic stage
 Ascomycota
o Largest group of fungi
o Spore structure
 Ascus
o Variety of fruiting bodies, many cup like
o Sexual or asexual reproduction
o Many yeasts and molds are ascomycetes
o Fruiting bodies include truffles and morels
o Filamentous sac fungi produce mitospores
o Molds are ascomycetes that lack sexual reproduction in their life cycle
o Mitospores called conidia are produced via mitosis (asexually)
 Basidiomycota
o Spore structure: basidium (club-like)
o Fruiting bodies are variable but most look like a typical mushroom
o They spend most of their lives as a hyphae
o Basidiospores are on the outside; each gill is lined with basidia
o Some basidiomycota make no fruiting bodies
 Rust fungi feeds off of plants
 Smut is not toxic and is a delicacy
 Truffles are brought underground to prevent desiccation
o Primarily dispersed by animals
 Yeast are unicellular fungi
o Some can alternate between unicellular and multicellular depending on environment
o Bread yeast domesticated at least 4000 years ago
o Are chemoorganotrophs
 Snowflake yeast experiment
o Everything small will float and big will sink
o Kept the sinked ones and redid again and again
o Recognized a snowflake pattern
 Experiment 2
o Single mutation prevents mother daughter cell division
o Creates snowflake yeast body plan
o One cell always snaps off to make a new colony
o Interpretation is that there is no genetic conflict

Lecture 26

 Fungi involved in many important mutualism with plants, animals, and algae/cyanobacteria
o Ectomycorrhizae forms symbiosis outside of roots
o Arbuscular mycorrhizae penetrates the roots and forms symbiosis
  Plant gives carbon whereas fungi gives minerals and nutrients
 5 levels of sophistication
o Lower
o Coral fungus
o Yeast
o Higher
o Leaf cutter
 Lichens
o Symbiosis between ascomyota and algae or cyanobacteria
o Formed from fungal hyphae
 Photobiont
o 100 species of green algae and cyanobacteria can form lichens
o Has to be in the upper edge of symbiosis to receive light
o Lichen fungi are obligately dependent on photobiont but not the other way around
o Symbiosis could be between yeast cell as well which releases enzymes to protect the
whole biont as a whole
o Being used as antibacterial medicine
 Fungi and bacteria live together so there might be some resistance
 Rice Blast Disease
o Caused by magnaporthe grisea and can be devastating on global staple crop
o Treatment is limited because fungi spreads quickly and develops resistance
 Claviceps
o Invades grasses and creates ergotamine and lysergic acid
o Humans can develop St. Anthony’s fire because of severe vasoconstriction
o Neurotopic effects are hallucinations and convulsions, even death
o Used to induce abortions, stop migraines, stop bleeding after childbirth, treatments for
Parkinson’s disease
 Cordyceops
o Attach to arthropods and take control of their muscle to modify behavior
 Few fungi are toxic but some are hallucinogenic and modifies behavior
 Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus and can have lethal effect on animals; causes liver
cancer
o Mycotoxins secreted by fungi may have important impact on human health, through
secondary or chronic exposure
 Pathenogenic fungi are successful partly due to dimorphism in life cycle
 Difficult to treat fungi without harming host because we are closely related
o Possibility is that we can focus on disrupting chitin

Lecture 27

 Things that define animals

o Multicellularity, diplontic life cycle, unique cell-to-cell junction, blastula stage in
development
 Choanoflagellates and sponges use a similar cell type called choanocyte
o Flagellum moves water into filter and food particle is trapped in filter
 To determine which were ancestor of chanoflagellates and animals, a test to
o Screen for organisms that could make colonies and those that could not
o Found if c-type lectin was missing, it could not form colonial body
 C-type lectin occurs in animals but is still unsure if it is homologous to
chanoflagellate lectin
o Other potential candidates are integrins
 Integrins help organisms move
 Integrins are recycled
o Unsure how cell-to-cell adhesion came to be in multicellularity
 Types of junctions
o Tight junction
o Desmosomes
 Strong bonds but material can still move around cells in the intercellular space
o Gap junctions
 Allows for communication between adjacent cells
 Sponge features
o All aquatic, mostly marine
o Adults sessile, larvae motile
o Mostly filter feeders on microscopic particles, captured on microvilli, digested
intracellularly
o Porifera are sometimes called “vacuum cleaners of the sea”
o Recognize how efficiently water particles move through itself without any brain or
specialization
o Have a few types of cells
 Archaeocyte
 Migrate through the tissue
 Pinacocyte
 Forms outside of the cell
 Collencyte
 Secretes collagen for stiffness
 Mesohyl
 Choanocyte
 Spicules
o Sponge filters lots of water because of principle of continuity
 Reducing cross-sectional area of an outflow results in increased velocity
 Cross section area 1 x velocity 1 = cross section area 2 x velocity 2
o Many small inputs and fewer outputs so water exits very quickly
o Sponges need to be small because if they are big, they create dead space and they need
water to filter through so it is not efficient
o Asconoid sponge
 Simple vase shape
o Syconoid sponge
 Wavy edges and shots water fast and faraway so they do not take it in again
o Leuconoid sponges
  Lung like

Lecture 28

 Zygote is 200x larger than the regular body cell

 Cleavage is orderly process of cell division
o Brings you to blastula with a surrounding space called blastocoel
o 2 major cleavages, spiral and radial
 Blastula stage has single layer of cells
o Sponges do not develop beyond a blastula
 2 layers of tissue in gastrula
o Ectoderm and endoderm
 Cnidarians are diploblastic animals
o Blind gut so they eat and poop from same hole
o Embryonic ectoderm becomes adult epidermis
o Embryonic endoderm becomes adult gastrodermis
o Blastopore becomes the mouth
o Radial symmetry
o 4 major groups
 Anthoza
 Only have polyps, do not have medusae
 Polyps can make clones or gametes
 Hydrozoa
 Medusa is made to reproduce sexually then larvae settles down to form
polyp and polyp gives off medusa
 Scyphoza
 Medusa forms zygote to form larvae
 Larvae forms a polyp and through strobilation, polyps produce medusae
through asexual budding of the mature polyp and each layer becomes a
medusa
 Cubozoa
 Have eyes
 Sting is very toxic
 Paralyzes muscles leading to respiratory failure
o Synapomorphy of cnidaria is cnidocytes
 Cells that shock
 Used in defense and prey capture
o Mesoglea is the nonliving substance that forms the jelly of jellyfish
o Can asexual reproduce
 They can bud and buds stay attach as a colony
 This will share the same gut as parent
 Food sharing makes specialization possible due to common gut
o Polyps will feed (gastrozooids), others reproduce (gonozooid),
while others are defensive (dactylozooids)
 They can bud and bud detach, creating a new polyp
  They can do fission and split off as clones
o Medusa is made asexually but functions to reproduce sexually
o Sometimes, polyps can make colonies
o Corals contain dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae and they leak carbon products to
coral
 Coral, in return, give them carbon
 Ctenophores (comb jellies)
o Unknown position
o Radial symmetry
o Diploblastic development
o Complete gut
o Body is propelled by cilia in rows called ctenes or comb rows
o Do not make cnidocytes

Lecture 29

 Mesoderm lies between ectoderm and endoderm

 True mesoderm is derived from endoderm
 Mesoderm usually creates muscles
o Creates most organs and organ tissues
 Longitudinal circular to be longer or skinner
 Diagonal muscle to bend or twist
 Two options for mesoderm
o Line the edges of blastocoel
o Or fill the blastocoel
 Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)
o Acoelomate
 Mesoderm fills up the whole blastocoel
o Free-living flatworms (planaria)
o Flukes
 Have multiple asexual stages and occupy two hosts
 One is a snail and the other is vertebrate
 Humans get lung or liver fluke
 Asexual reproduction takes place in the snail and sexual reproduction takes
place within the vertebrate
 Schistomosiasis
 A fluke’s life cycle
o Tapeworms
 Have attachment organ called scolex and many boxes that releases fertilized
eggs
 Have no guts or heads and may be 40 feet long
o Monecious and can self fertilize but usually sexually reproduce
 Roundworm (nematoda)
o Pseudocoelomate
 Mesoderm does not fill up the blastocoel but lines it
  Trichinella spiralis causes trichinosis
 Earthworm
o Coelomate
 Programmed cell death
 Gut held by mesoderm between fluid filled cavity
o In earthworm
 Coelom is in every segment and functions as hydrostatic skeleton
o Coelomate seen in proteostomes and deuterostomes

Lecture 30

 Annelida
o Marine, freshwater and terrestrial
o Two major body types
 Polychaetes
 Lots of bristles
 Oligochaetes
 Little bristles
o 2 major clades
 Errantia and sedentaria
o Synapomorphy is clitellate
o Bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protostomes with following features
 Segmented (metameric) body
 Each segment with paired bundles of chitinous setae
 Also in mushroom
 Each segment with parapodia (polychaetes only)
 Parapodia are almost feet
 Marine ones have parapodia
 Body wall with inner longitudinal and outer circular muscles
 Presegmental head and postsegmental terminal part (pygidium)
o Metmerism=segmentation
 Body is composed of repeating units
 Each unit contains locomotory, reproduction, excretory, and respiratory
structures
 Gut is not repeated
o Segmented body develops by
 Addition of new segments in front of pygidium to the trochopore larva, each
adding its own mesodermal bands
o Septum separates one band from another
o With a fluid filled coelom and metameric body,
 Shape change for efficient locomotion including crawling and burrowing
 Each segment can change shape independently
 Circular muscles make it long and skinny
 Longitudinal muscle make it short and fat
o Hydrostatic skeleton: fluid filled cavity surrounded by muscles
  Contraction of circular muscles: elongation
 Contraction of longitudinal: shortening
 Bristles serve as anchor point while moving
 Circular muscles contract, then anchors, then longitudinal muscles contract to
make it move
 Sedentary polychaetes
o Sticks in holes with water one end and sand the other
o Uses fans to pull water in to feed
o Spaghetti worms
 Lives under a rock and sticks tentacle out
 Tentacles serve as gills and has circulatory system to distribute O2 to all parts
 Yellow green color means coracoran instead of hemoglobin
o Beard worms
 Gutless worms
 Lives in chitinous tubes
 Inhabit hydrothermal vents to fix carbon as chemoautotrophs
o Osedax
 Worm that feeds on whale carcass
 Have symbiosis that can break down oil and protein of whale carcass
 Dieocious
 Takes a long time to digest and whale carcass are often
 Clitellata-oligochaetes and leeches
o Presence of clitellum
 Thickened band of middle body that secretes a cocoon for protection of young
 Only visible during reproductive season in leeches
o Freshwater and terrestrial
o Lacks parapodia and tentacles
o Earthworms are monecious but they still swap sperm so they never mate with
themselves
 Oligochaetes
o Have 5 hearts
o Wet skin exchange for O2
o Crop for food storing and gizzard for grinding
 Leeches
o Predators and blood-sucking ectoparasites
o 3 jaws make Y shaped cut
o Lack setae and have anterior and posterior suckers for attachment
o They produce anesthetic, anticoagulant, and a vasodilator

Lecture 31

 Mollusck
o Bilaterally symmetrical coelomate protostomes with
 Complete gut
 Reduced coelom
  Open circulatory system in most well developed nervous system
 Hemocoel
o Where blood are in pools
 Synapomorphy
o Trochophore larva
 Not a synapomorphy though
o Mantle
 Could line the shell and grows out of the back and helps secrete the shell
 Produces and contains sense organs
 Produces and enfolds respiratory organs
 Encloses a space called the mantle cavity used for respiration and storage
o Foot
 Helps move around
o Radula
 Push or move food inside mouth
 Radula sac produces new teeth
 Moves like a conveyor belt so the teeth alternates
 4 classes
o Chitons (polyplacophora)
 7-8 plates that hold plates on the animal
 Have repeated gills
o Slugs and snails (gastropoda)
 Shell is reduced or lost
 All go through torsion and some later de-tort
 Synapomorphy: Torsion is the movement of the anus from bottom to the top
 Adult larva has head with anal cavity
 To clean feces off, they need to poop firmer feces
 Continuous water supply to clean
 Those that de-tort loses shell
o Squids, octopus, cuttlefishes (cephalopoda)
 Shell is in the remain of pen in cuttlefish and squid
 Mantle is modified for jet propulsion
 Pulls and contracts colored sacs for squid
 Radula becomes beak

o Clams, oysters, mussels (bivalves)
 Foot is ax shaped and creeping out of the shell
 Has large gill for respiration and filter feeding
 Shell in two parts
 Mostly sedentary and no radula
 Food and water brought in through siphon
 Gill used for feeding and respiration
 Gill secretes mucus to attract food particles
 Retractor muscles hold shells together and runs longitudinally
  Problems with life on land
o Internal fertilization and hardened eggs so young do not dry
o How to get o2 and how to get sperm that swim
o Gills would dry out in air so needed an internal cavity
 Mantle cavity has mantle with an enhanced blood supply = vascularized mantle
cavity = lung
 Lung opening should be large because of o2 intake
 Lung opening should be small because they want to prevent drying out
 Similar plant structure

Lecture 32

 Phylum nematoda
o Pseudocoelomate worms with a cuticle that is molted
o Free living or parasitic in plants and animals
o Trichinosis
 Infection from eating undercooked pork
o Elephantiasis
 Engorged limbs
o Heartworm
o Hookworm
o River blindness
 Phylum arthropods
o Annelid cuticle is composed of protein and polysaccharide fibers; relatively soft
o Arthropod cuticle is composed of chitin; it is tough and insoluble in water or weak acids
o Comes from calcium
 Called exoskeleton
o Metameric body plan
 Homonomous
 Dipling segments “segmented”
 Heteronomous
 Different parts of body does different functions “regionalized”
 Tagmatized
 Regions of body are all fused together
o Tracheal system delivers O2 from trachea to the rest of the body
 All cells are within 5mm of tracheole
 Wet lining of tubes for oxygen diffusion
o Invaginations of cuticle produce joints and tracheae
o Evaginations of the cuticle produce wings and appendages
o Consequences of exoskeleton
 Support for walking on land
 Sites for muscle attachment
 Protection against predators
 Chitin reduces water loss
o Hard exoskeleton reduces growth
  Molting means that external growth occurs in stages
 Called instars
o Has open circulatory system as opposed to a closed system
 Blood enters open space and goes back into blood vessels so blood is not tightly
controlled
o No circulatory o Open circulatory o Closed system
system system
o Porifera o Mollusca except o Annelida
in cephalopods
o Cnideria o arthropods o Echinodermata
o Platyhelminthes o onychophora o Chordata
o Nematoda o o
Lecture 33

 Subphylum trilobite
o Extinct group of marine arthropods
o Abundant and diverse 250-500 million years ago
o Bottom dwellers, probably scavengers
 4 major groups
o Chelicerata
 Arachnids, horse shoe “crab”
 Probably the first terrestrial arthropods
 First two pair are chelicerae
 Used to impair its prey with venom
 Second pair are pedipalps
 Used at mouth guard or reproduction
 Males have balls at pediapalps
 Two tagmata, 4 pairs of walking legs
 Prosoma=cephalothorax
 Opisthosoma=abdomen
 Spiders are considered filter feeders
 Mite, ticks, and horseshoe crabs
 Horseshoe crabs only found in atlantic
o Myriapoda
 Centipedes, millipedes
 Tagmata is head and trunk
 Millipede
 Two legs per segment
 Does not hunt
 Releases musk that is cyanide based
 Chemical dependent
 Centipede
 Predators
o Crustacea
 Crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles, etc.
 o Have three tagmata
 Abdomen, thorax and head
o Some have carapace that covers the head and thorax
 Pretty much an extended exoskeleton
o Have nauplius larvae
 3 pairs of apendages
 Feeding larva can survive for much longer than nonfeeding larvaes
 Each time they molt, it becomes more and more like the animal that it
becomes
 Small crabs have these spikes that allow them to get spit back out as
larvae
o Hexapoda
 Insects and allies
 Only marine arthropod
 3 tagamata and 6 legs
 One pair of antennae )two pairs in other crustaceans)
 3 pairs of legs (located on the thorax)
 Respiration by tracheae (system of air tubes extending into body)
 First great radiation was when they developed wings and Insects had
the air to themselves until the dinosaurs and then not until the birds
 Gene study shows wings evolved from dorsal appendages at
legs
 Crustaceans use this to respirate
 Second radiation is pollination syndrome
 Mouthpart diversification
 Drinking and sucking parts
 Add piercing parts
 Bot fly cycle
 Chews skin and won’t come off until it pupates
 Barnacles
o Sessile and two types
 Acorn or goose neck
o Have classic crustacean tagmata
o Makes nauplius larvae that is free swimming
o Turns into new larvae and cements itself to a rock lying on its back
o Builds little plates on its back and feet protrudes
o Acorn can embed to skin of animals and this increases drag
 Also affects ship
o Larvae are chemically attracted to sites that already have barnacles
o Penis size is 30x and sends it on the top of the shell and inserts sperm
o They are monecious
o Rolly polly
 Indent cuticle to make air sacs
 These are independently evolved
Lecture 34

 Echinoderms have calcareous endoskeleton

o Composed of plates or ossicles derived from mesoderm and covered in epidermis
o Can control collagen formation with allows star to be stiff or flexible
 Synapomorphy of echinoderms is water vascular system
o Used for locomotion, respiration, and feeding
 On a pentaradial symmetry so we use oral or aboral axis
 Madreporite is in top of the animal and is connected to the stone canal
 Connects to ring canal around the mouth
 5 radial canals connected to ring canal
 Lateral canal ends in tube foot
 Needs something in the lateral canal so water does not go back in
 Solves this with a valve
 Valve closes and this becomes a hydrostatic skeleton
 This is used to walk
 To suction
o There is longitudinal muscle that run from ampullae to tube feet
 Two stomachs in asteroids
 Hard calcium ossicles in the skin
 Sea stars (asteroidea)
o Combined tube foot forces versus bivalve adductor muscles and the role of the fluffy
cardiac stomach
o Uses tube feet to open bivalves, then uses collagen hardening to keep sea star in that
form, then spits stomach out to digest the insides
 Are diecious with external fertilization
o Problem is they all gotta reproduce at the same time
o Uses environmental cues
 Can also asexually reproduce as long as there is ring canal and one leg is there
 Brittle stars
o Long slender arms
o Suspension feeders if their arms are stretched
o 5 jaws to chew stuff up
o Abundant but avoids light
 Class echinoidea
o Sea urchin, heart urchins, and sand dollar
o 5 jaws on the bottom to chew up prey
o Anus on top
o They have collagen stitches that hold them together so they can grow in a circle
o They add calcium to each plate as they grow bigger
o Sand dollar
 Flattened sea urchin
 Have leading edge so they are heading towards bilateral symmetry
 Reevolution of bilateral symmetry
  Has same design as an airplane wing
 Have holes to break up lift and create turbulence
 Class Holothuroidea
o Sea cucumber
o 5 rows of tube feet longitudinally
o Headed towards bilateral symmetry
o Mouth one end anus the other
o All tube feet are at the bottom so it looks like a foot
o Can squirt guts out so they can escape
o Soft and few plates
o Not cephalized
 For sea urchin
o Calcium plates are activated after the gut pushes through
o Eat lots then go through metamorphosis to feed at the bottom of the ocean
 For sea star
o They bilaterally develop
o Half the larvae becomes pentaradial and then gets rid of the rest of the body
 Bilaterally symmetrical larvae so fossil record believes ancestor was bilaterally symmetrical
 Radial adult body evolved but some evolved back to bilateral symmetry

Lecture 35

 Synapomorphies of chordates
o Notochord
o Dorsal tubular nerve cord
 Neural fold indents and then ectoderm closes it to create the dorsal tubular
nerve cord
o Post anal tail
o Endostyle/thyroid
 Secretes mucus to trap particles
 Pharyngeal slits is not a synapomorphy of chordates
 Common ancestor had pharyngeal slits but it was lost in echinoderms but still prevalent in
hemichordates
 Segmented muscles blocks called somites form from mesoderm and on either side of the neural
tube
 Urochordates or tunicates
o Incurrent siphon carries food and O2
o Features are not in adult but in larvae
o Pharngeal slits covered with endostyle so food is trapped in and water exits through the
excurrent siphon
o Notochord is resolved
o Dorsal hollow nerve cord becomes a smaller brain
o Postanal tail is resolved
o Endostyle/thyroid is still there
 Two types of jawless fish left
 o Lamprey
 No bone or jaw
 Sucker like mouth and rasping teeth
 Larvae are mud-dwelling filter feeders
 Have a notochord surrounded by cartilaginous arches
 Have a vertebrate
o Hagfish
 Scavenges on dead animal carcass
 No bone or jaws
 Notochord
 Can tie themselves in a knot for greater leverage
 Lots of slime to protect from bacteria
 Bone first occurred in dermal skull of ostracoderms
 Cartilage is not precursor to bones
o Ex. Mollusk have cartilage and but no bone
 Sharks and relatives had bones but went back to cartilage
 Vertebrae develops by
o Muscles secrete calcium into space between blocks and separates the notochord in
embryo
o Notochord becomes the vertebrate disc
o Two muscle blocks contribute to a single bertebra
 Ostracoderms
o Heavily armored, extinct jawless fish with bony plates in the skin around mouth and gills
o First to evolve bones
 Jaws evolved from bony plates in the skin that held gill slits open so it is made by ectoderm
o Evidence would be :
 the position
 Nerve pattern
 Hinged pattern
 Ectodermal bone
 Placoderms: armor plated predators with jaws and teeth-like structures
o First to evolve jaws
 Chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish) – sharks, skates, rays
o Skeleton made of flexible cartilage (bone lost secondarily)
o Generally predators, some scavengers
o Powerful jaws, excellent swimmers
 Colonization of land involved
o Use of lungs
o Modification of joint fins to be limbs
o Modification of the skin
o Internal fertilization in reptiles
o Shelled eggs with membranes to protect young in reptiles

Lecture 37
 Osteichthyes = bony fish
o Efficient unidirectional flow
 Water goes in the mouth and out the pharyngeal slits
 Lungs evolved via
o Specialized blood supply to a pocket air sac
o Some changed into the lung but others changed into the swim bladder
o Blood can either add or take the gas away
 Tiktaalik roseae has both fish and tetrapod characteristic
 2 ways limbs came about
o From rays of ray finned fishes
o Fins of lobe finned fishes
o Just know that it was similar in the sense that it was one bone to two bones to fingers
 Amphibians require moist environment
o Loses water rapidly through skin
o Early stages often require water
 Fish scales are homologous to teeth (dermal structure) but reptile scales are homologous to
mammal hair or bird feathers (epidermal)
 Amniotic egg is homologous to mammalian placenta
 For birds
o They lost the long reptilean tail
o Small sternum
o Changes in jaw because birds have no teeth
o Interaction between ectoderm and mesoderm creates teeth
o Genes that make teeth are turned off but not gone
 3 major mammalian clade
o Prototherians
 Egg laying mammals
 Egg layers like reptiles
 Young suck milk from tufts of hair
 They have to crawl to the underside to get milk
o Maruspials
 Have placenta but young are born undeveloped
 Moves from birth canal to pouch to complete development
 Usually die easily compared to other convergent eutherians
o Eutherians
 Have placenta and are born developed
 Some went into air others went back into water
 Skulls of babies and chimps are similar but after development, it becomes more
different