aglasem

CBSE  ICSE / ISC STATE BOARDS  NCERT  MOCK TESTS STUDY MATERIAL  OLYMPIADS  SCHOOL ADMISSION


ENTRANCE EXAMS  OTHERS 

AglaSem Schools Admission Career CutOffs News Hindi Bengali Mock Test Docs ATSE    

aglasem CBSE  ICSE / ISC STATE BOARDS  NCERT  MOCK TESTS STUDY MATERIAL  OLYMPIADS  SCHOOL ADMISSION ENTRANCE EXAMS

Home  Schools / Boards  CBSE

CBSE Class 11 Chemistry Notes :

States of Matter
by Anuj William — April 22, 2019 in CBSE 11 min read 0

Ad

Play your favorite PUBG Mobile fast

and fullscreen on your PC for free

Tencent Game Buddy Download

Top Three

0 493  Share on Facebook  Share on Twitter   CBSE Class 11

SHARES VIEWS
Chemistry Notes :
States of Matter
 APRIL 22, 2019

Hitherto five states of matter are known, viz, solid, liquid, gas, plasma and Bose-
Einstein condensate. Out of these solid, liquid and gas are commonly found while Jawahar
remaining two are found only under specific Navodaya
Vidyalaya
conditions.
Application Form
2020 – Apply
Interconversion of States of Matter Online
 JULY 4, 2019
These stateS are interconvertible.

NCERT Solutions
(i) Melting point This is the temperature at which a matter converts from its solid
for Class 12 Maths
state to liquid state. It decreases in the presence of impurity.
 APRIL 22, 2019

(ii) Boiling point This is the temperature at which the vapour” pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. It increases in the presence of
impurity and with rise in pressure. Boiling point of water is 100°C.
SPONSORED SEARCHES

density measurement

force measurement

absolute value

12th chemistry notes

temperature measurement

 Ad

Play your favorite PUBG Mobile fast and

fullscreen on your PC for free

Download

(iii) Freezing point At this temperature, a matter converts from its fluid state into
solid state.

Freezing point of water is 0°C.

(iv) Evaporation It is the process of conversion of a liquid into vapours at any

temperature.

Due to evaporation,

(a) water droplets appear on the outer surface of a glass containing ice-cold water.

(b) water kept in earthen pot becomes cool during summer.

(c) desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day.

In short,

The temperature and pressure at which all the three states of a substance can
exist together in equilibrium is called triple point, e.g.,
ice, liquid water and water vapours can coexist

(i. e., ice ⇔ water ⇔ vapour) at 0.0098°C and 4.58 mm.

Plasma

It is a state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the gaseous

particles are ionised. Because of the average strength of the electrical forces, the
plasma is neutral. It is commonly found in the universe.

On earth, plasma is naturally occurring in flames, lightnings and the auroras.

Bose-Einstein Condensate

A Bose-Einstein condensate is a gaseous superfluid phase formed by atoms cooled

to temperature very near to absolute zero.

This state was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924-
25. Such first condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman in 1995. It
can be thought of as the opposite of a plasma.

Factors Deciding Physical State of a Substance


For gaseous state,

Forces of attraction << thermal energy For liquid state, Forces of attraction >
Thermal energy

For solid state,

Forces of attraction >> Thermal energy

Intermolecular Forces

The forces of attraction existing among the molecules of a substance (gaseous,

liquid or solid) are called intermolecular forces

[Greater the intermolecular forces, higher is the melting and boiling point.

Attractive intermolecular forces are known as van der Waals’ forces.]

The different types of intermolecular forces are briefly explained below

(i) Dipole-dipole interactions Dipole-dipole forces act between the molecules

possessing permanent dipoles.

The interaction is stronger than London forces and weaker than ion-ion
interaction.

(ii) Dipole-induced dipole forces Dipole-induced dipole forces act between the
polar molecules having permanent dipole and the molecules lacking permanent
dipole

(iii) Dispersion forces or London forces Dispersion forces or London forces are
present among non-polar atoms and molecules, e.g., among the atoms or chlorine
molecules. These are the weakest intermolecular forces. These forces increases
with

(i) increase in number of electrons in molecules,

(ii) increase in molecular size

The Gaseous State

This is the simplest state of matter. Characteristics of this ‘state of matter are

1. In gases, the intermolecular forces are weakest.

2. Gases are highly compressible.

3. Gases exert pressure equally in all directions.

4. Gases have much lower density than the solids and liquids.

5. The volume and the shape of gases are not fixed.

6. Gases mix evenly and completely in all proportions without any

mechanical aid.

Measurable Properties of Gases


(i) Mass It is expressed in gram or kg.
(ii) Volume It is equal to the volume of the container and is expressed in terms of
litre (L), millilitre (mL), cubic centimetre (cm3), cubic metre (m3) or cubic decimetre
(dm3).

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3

1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 106 cm3 = 106 mL = 103L

(iii) Pressure Gas pressure is measured with manometer and atmospheric

pressure is measured by barometer.

1 atm = 76 em of Hg = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr

1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 101325 Pa = 101.325 Nm-2 = 1.01325 bar

1 bar = 105 Pa.

Measurement of pressure of gas

(i) Open end manometer, pgas = patom – h

(ii) Closed end manometer, pgas = h

where h is difference in the mercury levels in the two columns of density (d) (of a
gas).

(iv) Temperature It is measured in celsius scale (OC) or in Kelvin scale (K). SI unit of
temperature is kelvin (K), T (K) = t°C+ 273

Standard temperature and pressure (STP or NTP) means 273.15 K (O°C)

temperature and 1 bar (i.e., exactly 105 pascal) pressure. At STP, molar volume of
an ideal gas is 22.71098 L mol-1

Boyle’s Law

The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at

constant temperature.

V ∝ 1 / p or Vp = K

K is a constant and its value depends on mass, temperature and nature of gas.

∴ p1V1 = p2V2

Isotherms Graphs of V vs p or pV vs p at constant temperature known as

Isotherms .

IAirisdense at the sea level because it is compressed by the mass of above it.

Charles’ Law

The volume of the given mass of a gas increases or decrease by 1 / 273 of its
volume for each degree rise or fall of temperature respectively at constant
pressure.

Vt = Vo (1 + t / 273) t constant p

or

The volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute

temperature at constant pressure.

V ∝ T (at constant p), V / T = constant or V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Absolute zero is the theoretically possible temperature at which the volume of the
gas becomes zero. It is equal to O°C or 273.15K.

Isobars A graph of V vs T at constant pressure is known as isobar

Charles’law explains that gases expand on heating, so hot air is less dense than
cold air.

Gay Lussac’s Law

The pressure of a given mass of gas increases or decreases by 1 /273 of its

pressure for each degree rise or fall of temperature respectively at constant
volume.

pt = po (1 + t / 273) at constant V and n

or

The pressure of a given mass of a gas at constant volume is directly proportional

to absolute temperature.

p ∝ T or p = KT or p / T = K at constant V and n or P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

Isochores A graph of p vs T at constant volume is known as isochore

Avogadro’s Law

It states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules.

Mathematically

V infi; n (at constant T and p)

or V / n = K

Molar gas volume The volume of one mole of a gas, i.e., 224 Lat STP(0°C, 1 atm)
i_!S known as molar gas volume

Ideal Gas Equation


◾ V ∝1 / p, T and n constant (Boyle’s law)
 ◾ V ∝ T, p and n constant (Charles’ law)

◾ V ∝ n, p and T constant (Avogadro’s law)

⇒ V ∝ nT / p

or pV ∝ nT

or pV = nRT.

This is known as ideal gas equation. R is known as universal gas constant.

From the ideal gas equation, density.

d = pM / RT (where, M = molecular mass)

◾ ideal gas The gas which obeys the equation pV = nRT at every
temperature and pressure range strictly Is known as Ideal gas.

◾ Real gases Since none of the gases present in universe strictly obey the
equation pV =nRT. hence they are known as real or non-ideal gases. Real
gases behave, ideally at low p and high T.

Graham’s Law of Diffusion

Under Similar conditions of temperature and pressure, the rates of diffusion of

gases are inversely proportional to the square root of their densities.

Mathematically, r1 / r2 = √d2 / √d1 = √M2 / √M1

[Diffusion is the tendency of gases to distribute itself uniformly throughout the

available space while effusion is the movement of gas through a small hole when it
is subjected to pressure].

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

At constant temperature. the total pressure. exerted by a mixture of non-reacting

gases. is the sum of partial pressures of different gases present in the mixture.

p = p1 + p2 + p3 + ….

partial pressure of a gas = mole fraction of the gas * total pressure.

If n1, n2 and n3 are moles of non-reacting gases filled in a vessel of volume V at

temperature T, the total pressure, p is given by

pV = (n1 + n2 + n3)RT

This is the equation of state of a gaseous mixture,

[Aqueous tension It is the pressure exerted by water vapours at a particular

temperature. It depends upon temperature.]

Pressure of a dry gas can be determined by Dalton’s law. When a gas is collected
over water, its observed pressure is equal to the sum of the pressure of dry gas
and the pressure of water vapour (aqueous tension) then 
Pressure of dry gas = pressure of moist gas – aqueous tension.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Main assumptions of this theory are:

1. A gas consists of large number of small particles, called molecules.

2. Volume occupied by gas molecules, is negligible as compared to the total

volume of the gas.

3. There is continuous rapid random motion of gas molecules. The molecules

collide with each other and with the walls of container.

4. The molecules are perfect elastic bodies and there is no loss of kinetic energy
during collisions.

5. There are no attractive forces between the gaseous molecules.

6. The pressure exerted by a gas is due to the bombardment of gas molecules

against the walls of the container.

7. The different molecules possess different velocities and hence, different

energies. The average KE is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

KE = 3 / 2 RT

∴ Average kinetic energy per molecule = 3 / 2 kT

Here k is Boltzmann constant, it is gas constant per molecule.

k = R / NA = 1.38 * 10-23 JK-1 mol-1

From the above postulates, the kinetic gas equation derived is

pV = 1 / 3 mn U2

where, U = root mean square velocity = √3RT / M

Velocities of Gas Molecules

The different velocities possessed by gas molecules are :

(i) Most probable velocity (α) It is the velocity possessed by maximum fraction of
gas molecules at a particular temperature.

α = √2RT / M

(ii) Average velocity (v) This is the average of the different velocities of all the
molecules.

v = √8RT / πM

(iii) Root mean square velocity (Urms) It is the square root of the mean of the
square of the different velocities of the molecules.


Deviation from Ideal Behaviour
At high pressure and low temperature, the gases deviate considerably from the
ideal behaviour, Deviation can be expressed in terms of compressibility factor (Z),
expressed as

Z = pV / nRT

In case of ideal gas, pV = nRT, Z = 1

In case of real gas, pV ≠ nRT, Z ≠ 1

Negative deviation In such case. Z < 1, gas is more compressible.

Positive deviation In such case. Z > 1 gas is less compressible.

The factors affecting the deviation are

(i) Nature of the gas In general. the most easily liquefiable and highly soluble
gases show larger deviation.

(ii) Pressure The deviation is more at high pressure. CO2 and N2 show negative
deviation at low pressure and positive derivation at high pressure.

(iii) Temperature The deviation is more at low temperature and H2 and He always
show positive deviations at O°C.

Cause of deviation from the ideal behaviour It is due to two faulty assumptions of
kinetic theory of gases. particularly not valid at high pressure and low temperature

1. Volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible as compared to the total

volume of the gas.

2. There are no attractive forces between the gas molecules

van der Waals’ Equation

After volume and pressure correction, van der Waals’ obtained the following
equation for n. moles of a gas.

where,

b = excluded volume or co-volume = 4 * actual volume of gas molecules

a = magnitude of attractive forces between gas molecules.

The greater the value of ‘a’, the greater the strength of van der Waals’ forces and
greater is the ease with which a gas can be liquefied.

Units for van der Waals’ constant

Pressure correction


Limitation of van der Waals’ equation

There is specific range of temperature and pressure, to apply the equation. It

deviates at very high pressure and very low temperature.

Liquefaction of Gases and Critical Points

The phenomenon of conversion of a gas into liquid is known as liquefaction. The

liquefaction of a gas takes place when the intermolecular forces of attraction
becomes so high that exist in the liquid. A gas can be liquefied by

(i) increasing pressure

(ii) decreaSing temperature

(i) Critical temperature (TC) It may be defined as the temperature above which no
gas can be liquefied. Critical temperature of CO2 is 31.1° C.

Critical temperature (Tc) of some gases, He (5.4), H2(33.2), N2(126.0), CO(134.4), O2

(154.3), CO2(3041), NH4(405.5).

TC = 8a / 27Rb

(ii) Critical pressure (Pc) At critical temperature, the pressure needed to liquefy a
gas is known as critical pressure.

Pc = a / 27 b2

(iii) Critical volume (Vc) The volume occupied by one mole of a gas at critical
temperature and critical pressure is known as critical volume.

Vc = 3b

(iv) Boyle’s temperature (Tb) Temperature at which a real gas exhibits ideal
behaviour for considerable range of pressure is called Boyle’s temperature.

Tb = a / bR

Liquid State

If a substance is having melting point below room temperature and boiling point
above room temperature. the substance is known as liquid. In liquid state, matter
has definite. shape and molecular motion is in between solids and gases.

Properties of Liquids

(i) Vapour pressure The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface
when these are in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is known as
vapour pressure of liquid.

The vapour pressure of a liquid depends on :

(i) Nature of liquid

(ii) Temperature: Vapour pressure increases with increasing temperature.

(ii) Boiling point The temperature at which vapour pressure of liquids becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure, is called boiling point.

At 1 atm pressure, boiling point is known as normal boiling point.

At 1 bar pressure, boiling point is known as standard boiling point. Boiling point
varies linearly with external pressure. 
(iii) Surface tension It is the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the
imaginary line drawn on the surface of liquid. It is denoted γ (gamma);

SI unit : Nm-1

Dimensions: kgs-2

The magnitude of surface tension of a liquid depends on the attractive forces

between the molecules. It is measured with the help of an apparatus, called
stalagmometer.

Surface tension decreases as the temperature increases.

Rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is due to surface tension.

(iv) Viscosity Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to

friction between layers of fluid.

When there is a regular gradation of velocity, in passing from one layer to the next,
it is called laminar flow.

F = η Adv / dz

where, F = forces required to maintain the flow of layers.

A = area of contact

dv/ dz = velocity gradient; (the change in velocity with distance.)

‘η’ is proportionality constant and is called coefficient of viscosity. Viscosity

coefficient is the force when velocity gradient is unity and the area of contact is
unit area. CGS unit of coefficient of viscosity is poise S.I. unit of coefficient of
viscosity is Nsm-2.

ALL CBSE NOTES FOR CLASS 11 CHEMISTRY MATHS NOTES

PHYSICS NOTES BIOLOGY NOTES