Physics Project

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 CONTENT
S:NO TOPICS PAGE:NO:

1. Introduction 3-8

2. Projectile Motion 8-13

Application of
3. Projectile Motion 13-14

4. Conclusion 14-15

5. Bibliography 15-15

Introduction
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GALILEO'S WORK ON PROJECTILE MOTION

In Aristotle's theory of motion, projectiles were pushed along by an external force

which was transmitted through the air. His medieval successors internalized this force
in the projectile itself and called it "impetus." This impetus caused the object to move
in a straight line until it was expended, at which point the object fell straight to the
ground. While objects projected through small distances may appear to behave in this
manner, under closer inspection and when viewing projectiles traveling greater
distances, it becomes clear that projectiles do not behave in this manner.

During the Renaissance, the focus, especially in the arts, was on representing as
accurately as possible the real world whether on a 2 dimensional surface or a solid
such as marble or granite. This required two things. The first was new methods for
drawing or painting, e.g., perspective. The second, relevant to this topic, was careful
observation.

With the spread of cannon in warfare, the study of projectile motion had taken on
greater importance, and now, with more careful observation and more accurate
representation, came the realization that projectiles did not move the way Aristotle
and his followers had said they did: the path of a projectile did not consist of two
consecutive straight line components but was instead a smooth curve.

Now someone needed to come up with a method to determine if there was a special
curve a projectile followed. But measuring the path of a projectile was not easy.

Using an inclined plane, Galileo had performed experiments on uniformly accelerated

motion, and he now used the same apparatus to study projectile motion. He placed an
inclined plane on a table and provided it with a curved piece at the bottom which
deflected an inked bronze ball into a horizontal direction. The ball thus accelerated
rolled over the table-top with uniform motion and then fell off the edge of the table
Where it hit the floor, it left a small mark. The mark allowed the horizontal and
vertical distances traveled by the ball to be measured.

By varying the ball's horizontal velocity and vertical drop, Galileo was able to
determine that the path of a projectile is parabolic.

A projectile is any object that is cast, fired, flung, heaved, hurled, pitched, tossed, or thrown.
(This is an informal definition.) The path of a projectile is called its trajectory. Some examples of
projectiles include…
 a baseball that has been pitched, batted, or thrown
 a bullet the instant it exits the barrel of a gun or rifle
 a bus driven off an uncompleted bridge
 a moving airplane in the air with its engines and wings disabled

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 a runner in mid stride (since they momentarily lose contact with the ground)
 the space shuttle or any other spacecraft after main engine cut off (MECO)
The force of primary importance acting on a projectile is gravity. This is not to say that other
forces do not exist, just that their effect is minimal in comparison. A tossed helium-filled balloon
is not normally considered a projectile as the drag and buoyant forces on it are as significant as
the weight. Helium-filled balloons can't be thrown long distances and don't normally fall. In
contrast, a crashing airplane would be considered a projectile. Even though the drag and buoyant
forces acting on it are much greater in absolute terms than they are on the balloon, gravity is
what really drives a crashing airplane. The normal amounts of drag and buoyancy just aren't
large enough to save the passengers on a doomed flight from an unfortunate end. A projectile is
any object with an initial non-zero, horizontal velocity whose acceleration is due to gravity
alone.

An essential characteristic of a projectile is that its future has already been preordained. Batters
may apply "body English" after hitting a long ball, but they do so strictly for psychological
reasons. No amount of leaning to one side will make a foul ball turn fair. Of course, the pilot of a
disabled airplane may regain control before crashing and avert disaster, but then the airplane
wouldn't be a projectile anymore. An object ceases to be a projectile once any real effect is made
to change its trajectory. The trajectory of a projectile is thus entirely determined the moment it
satisfies the definition of a projectile.

The only relevant quantities that might vary from projectile to projectile then are initial velocity
and initial position

This is where we run into some linguistic complications. Airplanes, guided missiles, and rocket-
propelled spacecraft are sometimes also said to follow a trajectory. Since these devices are acted
upon by the lift of wings and the thrust of engines in addition to the force of gravity, they are not
really projectiles. To get around this dilemma, it is common to use the
term ballistic trajectory when dealing with projectiles. The word ballistic has its origins in the
Greek word βαλλω (vallo), to throw, and surfaces repeatedly in the technical jargon of weaponry
from ancient to modern times. For example…
 The ballista, which looks something like a giant crossbow, was a siege engine used in medieval times
to hurl large stones, flaming bundles, infected animal carcasses, and severed human heads into
fortifications. Before the invention of gunpowder, ballistas (and catapults and trhêbucets) were the
weapons of choice for conquerors.
 An intercontinental ballistic missile is a device for delivering nuclear warheads over long distances.
At the start of its journey an ICBM is guided by a rocket engine and stabilizer fins, but soon thereafter
it enters the phase of its journey where it is effectively in free fall, traveling fast enough to keep it
above the earth's atmosphere for a while but not fast enough to enter orbit permanently. The adjective
"intercontinental" refers to the long range capabilities, while the largely free fall journey it takes
makes it "ballistic". ICBMs are the ultimate killing machines, but they have never been used in
combat to date.
The wide geographic range as well as the wide historic range of these things we call projectiles
raises some problems for the typical student of physics. When a projectile is sent on a very long
journey, as is the case with ICBMs, the magnitude and direction of the acceleration due to
gravity changes. Gravity isn't constant to begin with, but the variation is not noticeable over

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everyday ranges in altitude. From the deepest mines in South Africa to the highest altitudes
traversed by commercial airplanes, the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity is always
effectively 9.8 m/s2 ± 0.05 m/s2. Similarly, unless you routinely travel medium to long distances,
you aren't likely to experience much of a change in the direction of gravity either. To experience
a 1° shift in "down" would require traveling of the circumference of the Earth — roughly 110 km
(70 mi) or the length of a typical morning commute to work in Southern California. Thus for
projectiles that won't rise higher than an airplane nor travel farther than the diameter of L.A.,
gravity is effectively constant. This covers the first five of the examples described at the
beginning of this section (baseballs, bullets, buses in action-adventure movies, distressed
airplanes, and joggers) but not the sixth (the space shuttle after MECO).
To distinguish such simple projectiles from those where variations in gravity and the curvature of
the Earth are significant, I propose using the term simple projectile. For the remaining problems,
the term general projectile seems appropriate since a general solution in mathematics is one that
also includes the special cases, but I'm less adamant about this term.
Consider an effectively spherical earth with a single tall mountain sticking out of it like a giant
tumor. Now imagine using this location as a place to launch projectiles horizontally with varying
initial velocities. What effect would velocity have on range? Well obviously fast projectiles will
travel farther than slow ones. A basic concept associated with speed is that "faster means
farther", but the relationship is only approximately linear on a spherical earth. For a while,
doubling speed would mean doubling distance, but eventually the curvature of the Earth would
start to mess things up. At some speed our hypothetical projectile would make it a quarter of the
way around the Earth and then half way around and then eventually all the way around. At this
point our general projectile ceases to be an object with a launch point and a landing point and it
starts being a satellite, permanently circling the Earth, perpetually changing direction and thus
accelerating under the influence of gravity, but never landing anywhere. Technically, such an
object would still be a general projectile, since gravity is the primary source of its acceleration,
but somehow this doesn't seem right. Objects traveling through what we call "outer space" hardly
seem like projectiles any more. They seem like they reside more in the realm
of celestial mechanics than terrestrial mechanics. Such distinctions are arbitrary, however, as
there is only one mechanics. The laws of physics are assumed universal until it can be
demonstrated otherwise. The unification of physical law is a theme that surfaces from time to
time in physics.

A projectile and a satellite are both governed by the same physical principles even though they
have different names. A simple projectile is made mathematically simple by an idealization
(basically a lie of convenience). By assuming a constant value for the acceleration due to gravity,
we make the problem easier to solve and (in many cases) do not really lose all that much in the
way of accuracy.

Every projectile problem is essentially two one-dimensional motion problems…

The kinematic equations for a simple projectile are those of an object traveling with constant
horizontal velocity and constant vertical acceleration.

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equation Horizontal vertical

acceleration ax = 0 ay = −g

velocity-time vx = v0x vy = v0y − gt

displacement-time x = x0 + v0xt y = y0 + v0yt − ½gt2

velocity-displacement vy2 = v0y2 − 2g(y − y0)

The equations of motion for a simple projectile

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Finish …

The trajectory of a simple projectile is a parabola.

Calculus, but not really

max range at 45°, equal ranges for launch angles that exceed and fall short of 45° by equal
amounts (ex. 40° & 50°, 30° & 60°, 0° & 90°)

Use the horizontal direction to determine the range as a function of time…

x = x0 + v0xt + ½axt2

x = 0 + (v cos θ) t + 0

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xfinal = (v cos θ) tfinal

Use the vertical direction to determine the time in the air…

y = y0 + v0yt + ½ayt2
y = y0 + (v sin θ)t − ½gt2
0 = 0 + (v sin θ)tfinal − ½gt2final

2(v sin θ)
tfinal =
g

Combine these two equations…

2(v sin θ)
xfinal = (v cos θ)
g

v2 sin 2θ
xfinal =
g

v2
xmax =
g

Projectile motion
Projectile motion is a form of motion experienced by an object or particle (a projectile) that is thrown near the Earth's surface and moves
along a curved path under the action of gravity only (in particular, the effects of air resistance are assumed to be negligible). This curved path
was shown by Galileo to be a parabola. The study of such motions is called ballistics, and such a trajectory is a ballistic trajectory. The only
force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts downward, thus imparting to the object a downward acceleration. Because
of the object's inertia, no external horizontal force is needed to maintain the horizontal velocity component of the object. Taking other forces
into account, such as friction from aerodynamic drag or internal propulsion such as in a rocket, requires additional analysis. A ballistic missile

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is a missile only guided during the relatively brief initial powered phase of flight, and whose subsequent course is governed by the laws of
classical mechanics.
Ballistics is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, unguided bombs,
rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

Trajectories of a projectile with air drag and varying initial velocities

The elementary equations of ballistics neglect nearly every factor except for initial velocity and an assumed constant gravitational
acceleration. Practical solutions of a ballistics problem often require considerations of air resistance, cross winds, target motion, varying
acceleration due to gravity, and in such problems as launching a rocket from one point on the Earth to another, the rotation of the Earth.
Detailed mathematical solutions of practical problems typically do not have closed-form solutions, and therefore require numerical
methods to address

What is a Projectile?
Projectile is any object thrown into the space upon which the only acting force is the gravity. In other words, the
primary force acting on a projectile is gravity. This doesn’t necessarily mean that the other forces do not act on it, just
that their effect is minimal compared to gravity. The path followed by a projectile is known as trajectory. A baseball
batted or thrown and the instant the bullet exits the barrel of a gun are all examples of projectile.

What is Projectile Motion?

When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it moves along a curved path under constant
acceleration that is directed towards the center of the earth (we assume that the particle remains close to the surface
of the earth). The path of such particle is called a projectile and the motion is called as projectile motion. Air
resistance to the motion of the body is to be assumed absent in projectile motion.
In a Projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous independent rectilinear motions:

1. Along x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal (forward) motion of the particle.
2. Along y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the vertical (downwards) motion of the particle.

Accelerations in the horizontal & vertical direction of a particle in projectile motion: When a particle is
projected in the air with some speed, the only force acting on it during its time in the air is the acceleration due to
gravity (g). This acceleration acts vertically downward. There is no acceleration in the horizontal direction which
means that the velocity of the particle in the horizontal direction remains constant.
Let us consider a ball projected at an angle θ with respect to horizontal x-axis with the initial velocity u as shown
below:

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The point O is called the point of projection; θ is the angle of projection and OB = Horizontal Range or Simply
Range. The total time taken by the particle from reaching O to B is called the time of flight.

For finding different parameters related to projectile motion, we can make use of different equations of motions:

Total Time of Flight: Resultant displacement (s) = 0 in Vertical direction. Therefore, by using the Equation of motion:
gt2 = 2(uyt – sy) [Here, uy = u sin θ and sy = 0]
i.e. gt2 = 2t × u sin θ
Therefore, the total time of flight (t):

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Horizontal Range: Horizontal Range (OA) = Horizontal component of velocity (ux) × Total Flight Time (t)
R = u cos θ × 2u×sinθg
Therefore in a projectile motion the Horizontal Range is given by (R):

Maximum Height: It is the highest point of the trajectory (point A). When the ball is at point A, the vertical component
of the velocity will be zero. i.e. 0 = (u sin θ)2 – 2g Hmax [s = Hmax , v = 0 and u = u sin θ]
Therefore in a projectile motion the Maximum Height is given by (Hmax):

The equation of Trajectory: Let, the position of the ball at any instant (t) be M (x, y). Now, from Equations of Motion:
x = t × u cos θ . . . . . . (1)
y = u sin θ × t – 12×t2g. . . . . . (2)
On substituting Equation (1) in Equation (2):

This is the Equation of Trajectory in a projectile motion, and it proves that the projectile motion is always
parabolic in nature.

More About Projectile Motion:

Projectile motion is a type of two-dimensional motion or motion in a plane. It is assumed that the only force acting on
a projectile (the object experiencing projectile motion) is the force due to gravity.
But how can we define projectile motion in the real world? How are the concepts of projectile motion applicable to
daily life? Let us see some real-life examples of projectile motion in two dimensions.
All of us know about basketball. To score a basket, the player jumps a little and throws the ball in the basket. The
motion of the ball is in form of a projectile. Hence it is referred as projectile motion. What advantage does jumping
gives to their chances of scoring a basket? Now apart from basketballs, if we throw a cricket ball, a stone in a river, a
javelin throw, an angry bird, a football or a bullet, all these motions have one thing in common. They all show
projectile motion. And that is, the moment they are released, there is only one force acting on them- the gravity. It
pulls them downwards, thus giving all of them an equal impartial acceleration of.
It implies that if something is being thrown in the air, it can easily be predicted how long the projectile will be in the air
and at what distance from the initial point it will hit the ground. If the air resistance is neglected, there would be no
acceleration in the horizontal direction. This implies that as long as a body is thrown near the surface, the motion of
the body can be considered as a two-dimensional motion, with acceleration only in one direction. But how can it be
concluded that a body thrown in air follows a two-dimensional path? To understand this, let us assume a ball that is
rolling as shown below:

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 Figure 1 Motion in one dimension

Now, if the ball is rolled along the path shown, what can we say about the dimension of motion? The most common
answer would be that it has an x-component and a y-component, it is moving on a plane, so it must be an example of
a motion in two dimensions. But it is not correct, as it can be noticed that there exists a line which can completely
define the motion of the basketball. Thus, it is an example of motion in one dimension. Therefore, choice of axis does
not alter the nature of the motion itself.

Figure 2 Motion in Plane

Now, if the ball is thrown at some angle as shown, the velocity of the ball has an x-component and component and
also a z-component. So, does it mean that it is a three-dimensional motion? It can be seen here that a line cannot
define such a motion, but a plane can. Therefore, for a body thrown at any angle, there exists a plane that entirely
contains the motion of that body. Thus, it can be concluded that as long as a body is near the surface of the Earth
and the air resistance can be neglected, then irrespective of the angle of projection, it will be a two-dimensional
motion, no matter how the axes are chosen. If the axes here are rotated in such a way that, then and can completely
define the motion of the ball as shown below:

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 Figure 3 Motion in two dimensions

Thus, it can be concluded that the minimum number of coordinates required to completely define the motion of a
body determines the dimension of its motion.

Applications of Projectile
motion:
Ballistics

Ballistics is the study of gunfire patterns for the purposes of crime-solving. Indeed, this application
of ballistics is a significant part of police science, because it allows law-enforcement investigators to
determine when, where, and how a firearm was used. In a larger sense, however, the term as applied
to firearms refers to efforts toward creating a more effective, predictable, and longer bullet trajectory.

From the advent of firearms in the West during the fourteenth century until about 1500, muskets

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were hopelessly unreliable. This was because the lead balls they fired had not been fitted to the
barrel of the musket. When fired, they bounced erratically off the sides of the barrel, and this
made their trajectories unpredictable. Compounding this was the unevenness of the lead balls
themselves, and this irregularity of shape could lead to even greater irregularities in trajectory.

Soccer

In the concept of soccer, the amount of force a soccer player applies to the ball. For example,
how hard the individual kick will determine the initial velocity of how fast the ball will travel.
The acceleration is controlled by how hard the person kicks. Thus, it also determines the angle as
well. The angle of how the soccer player kick the ball also determines the height and distance it
traveled. For example, if the ball is kicked at an angle of 45 degrees it will get the maximum
range. It also affects the vertical and horizontal velocity. for gravity, there is always a force of
9.8 m/s^2 that acts downwards; thus affecting the vertical distance of how fat and high the ball
[Link] size of the object also plays an important role in determining the air drag. The bigger
the projectile, the bigger the air drags. The smaller the projectile, the smaller the airs drag. The
shape of the object will also affect the air drag. That is why soccer ball is sphere instead of a
cube. Sphere has better aerodynamics than cubes do. Overall, projectile motion is very closely
associated with soccer. Projectile motion is associated with almost all types of sports.

Conclusion
The projectile motion of the object followed a constant horizontal velocity and a vertical velocity
that was consistent with the acceleration of gravity. The result showed that there was both and
initial vertical and horizontal velocity. The video computation method using Motion Lab was
able to simulate an equation of velocity of ball thrown by the experimenter to a fairly precise
level of accuracy and the object’s path followed projectile motion formulas. The initial velocity
was determined to be 2.38m/s and the initial angle was calculated to be 40.9°. For future
experiments, to improve the data, a more precise camera with a more precise placement could
have been used with a higher number of images to improve the number of points plotted. The
equations could have been fit using a best fit equation method or even using a computer program

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to fit points to find a more precise equation. Also, the reduction of any air friction may be
another way to improve the data.

Bibliography
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Gulrajprojectile motion weebly. Com
[Link]. Com

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Thank
You

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