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Robert Katz Publications Research Papers in Physics and Astronomy

1-1958

Physics, Chapter 29: The Magnetic Field

Henry Semat
City College of New York

Robert Katz
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, rkatz2@[Link]

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 29
The Magnetic Field

29-1 Natural and Permanent Magnets

Natural magnets, called lodestones, have been known since ancient times.
The lodestone, a magnetic oxide of iron called magnetite (Fea04), was men-
tioned by Thales of Miletus. By the eleventh century the magnetic com-
pass was known to the Chinese, and in the twelfth century references to

.====t Fig. 29-1 Iron filings cling to the poles

of a bar magnet.

the compass were made in Western Europe. The lodestone is capable of

attracting pieces of iron and of imparting permanent magnetism to other
pieces of iron so that these too could at-
tract iron filings. If an iron bar is mag-
netized, as the result of being near a
piece of lodestone, and is then dipped
into iron filings, the filings will cling
mostly to the ends of the bar, as shown
in Figure 29-1. These ends are called the
poles of the magnet.
The use of the magnet as a compass Fig. 29-2 A simple magnetic com-
depends upon the fact that if a perma- pass needle.
nent magnet is suspended so that it can
swing freely in a horizontal plane, the magnet will set itself in nearly a
north-south direction. The end which points toward the north is called
the north-seeking pole, or simply the north pole, while the other end is
called the south pole. A line joining the south to the north pole is called
the axis of the magnet. A simple magnetic compass is shown in Fig-
ure 29-2. When such a compass is mounted upon a sheet of cork and is
floated in water, the cork sheet remains at rest, implying that the net force
on the compass is zero.
539
540 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-1

A ship's compass, a somewhat more elaborate instrument, is shown in

Figure 29-3. It consists of a compass card fastened to a set of parallel
magnets with their north poles facing in the same direction and mounted

Fig. 29-3 A ship's compass. The compass card is mounted on four parallel magnets.

so that the whole assembly rotates freely in a horizontal plane. The case
housing the compass is mounted in a set of bearings so that it can remain
horizontal even when the ship rolls and pitches. A marker on the case
housing the compass shows the direction in which the ship is headed.

29-2 Coulomb's Law of Force

Suppose that a bar magnet is suspended from its center by a string so that
it can swing freely in a horizontal plane. If the north pole of a second bar
magnet is brought near the north pole of the first one, there will be a force
of repulsion between these poles. The suspended magnet will move so that
its north pole goes away from the north pole of the approaching magnet.
On the other hand, there will be a force of attraction when the north pole
of one magnet approaches the south pole of the other one. In his book,
De Magnete, William Gilbert (1540-1603) first showed that the earth could
be considered as a huge spherical magnet with two poles, and that the com-
pass needle was oriented by the forces exerted by the earth's magnetism.
About two centuries later Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)
measured the law of force between the poles of two magnets. A long thin
magnet was suspended from a fine wire, and the pole of another thin magnet
was brought near a like pole of the suspended magnet, as shown in Figure
§29-2 COULOMB'S LAW OF FORCE 541

29-4. Because of the force between these two poles, the suspended magnet
experienced a torque which caused it to rotate about the wire as an axis,
thus twisting the wire. Coulomb
studied the force between the poles
of two magnets as a function of the
distance between them; he also
studied the force between mag-
nets of different strengths, keeping
the distance between poles con-
stant. He found that the force
between two poles of two magnets
varied inversely with the square of
the distance between them, and
varied directly with the strengths
of the poles. The results of Cou-
lomb's experiments could be
summed up by stating that the
force between the two magnetic poles
is proportional to the product of the
strengths of the poles and inversely
proportional to the square of the
distance between them, or

(29-1)
Fig. 29-4 Coulomb type torsion balance.
NS, magnet of pole strength PI, is sus-
in which PI is the pole strength of pended from elastic fiber. N'S' is another
the first magnet, pz is the pole magnet of pole strength P 2.
strength of the second magnet, r
is the distance between the poles, kl is a constant of proportionality, and
F is the force between them. The force between the two poles is directed
along the line joining the two poles; it is attractive between unlike poles
and repulsive between like poles.
Following the analogy of Coulomb's law for electric charges, we may
write this proportionality in the form of an equation, but we must first
define either the constant of proportionality k l or the magnitude of the unit
pole. As before, in the cgs system of units, the constant of proportionality
kl is set equal to 1, when the medium is vacuum, and the subsequent equa-
tion is used to define a unit pole. The units based upon this equation are
then called the cgs electromagnetic units (abbreviated emu). In the form
of an equation, we have

cgs emu (29-1a)

542 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-2

for the force in dynes between two poles in vacuum (or in air for which this
equation is very nearly correct). In Equation (29-la) F 2 is the force on the
pole P2 in dynes, r is the distance between the poles in centimeters, and the
unit vector 1r is directed from the pole PI to the pole P2. The pole strength
is expressed in unit poles, writing a north pole as positive and a south pole
as negative. A cgs unit pole is implicitly defined in Equation (29-la) as one
which, placed one centimeter from a like pole in vacuum, will repel it with a
force of one dyne.
In the mks system of units, the constant of proportionality is written
1
as - - , so that Coulomb's law becomes
471"J.'o

mks units (29-1b)

The constant J.'o is assigned the value 471" X 10-7, for reasons which must
be deferred until a subsequent chapter. Equation (29-lb) implicitly defines
an mks unit pole called a weber. In Equation (29-lb) F 2 is the force on pole
P2 expressed in newtons, PI and P2 are expressed in webers, and r is ex-
pressed in meters. An mks unit pole of strength one weber is one which,
placed one meter from a like pole in vacuum, will repel it with a force of
107 /(471")2 nt. This is a force of 1012 /(471")2 dynes. From Equation (29-lp
two cgs unit poles placed 1 m apart repel each other with a force of 10- 4
dyne. Thus we see that
1 weber = 108/(471") cgs poles. (29-2)

In a form appropriate to Equation (29-lb) the value of J.'o may be

gIven as
2
7 weber
J.'o = 471" X 10- --2-· (29-3)
ntm
As the theory of magnetism is developed, other dimensions will be stated
for J.'o which are equivalent to the dimensions given above.
The properties of a magnet and of magnetic poles appear to be similar
to the properties of electric charge, and yet there are extremely significant
differences. For example, when a long magnetized needle is broken in two,
new poles appear at the broken ends, so that each piece of the needle is
observed to contain a north pole and a south pole. An isolated magnetic
pole has never been observed in nature. Poles always occur in pairs. In
calculating the forces on a magnet due to the presence of other magnets,
we must always take into account the forces due to the north and the south
poles of the magnets generating the force.
§29-3 INTENSITY OF MAGNETIC FIELD 543

In a Coulomb type of experiment however, it is possible to use magnets

long enough so that when two poles are placed near each other, the other
poles are far enough removed so that they do not appreciably affect the
result. The pole of a magnet is simply a small region of the magnet which
acts as a center of force rather than the location of isolated magnetic charge.
In spite of the fact that we shall find it convenient to speak of the magnetic
field in terms of magnetic poles, we must always bear in mind that the
smallest element of magnetism observed physically is not a magnetic pole
but a magnetic dipole.

29-3 Intensity of Magnetic Field

Because of the effect that a magnet produces on magnetic materials placed

anywhere in its neighborhood, we can say that a magnetic field exists in the
neighborhood of a magnet. We can make a quantitative statement of the
intensity of the magnetic field at some point in space by placing the north
pole of a long, thin, needlelike magnet at this point. If the pole strength
of this magnet is p, its north pole will experience a force F. The magnetic
field intensity H at this point is defined as the force F divided by the pole
strength p, or, in the form of an equation,

(29-4)

The magnetic field intensity H is a vector quantity, whose magnitude

is given by the magnitude of the force on a unit north pole, and whose
direction is the direction of the force on a north pole. Algebraically, it is
conventional to represent a north pole as a positive pole and a south pole
as a negative pole. In cgs emu the force is stated in dynes, the pole strength
is cgs unit poles, and H is given in oersteds. If the intensity of the magnetic
field H is known at a particular point in space, the force that would be
experienced by each pole of a magnet placed at this point is given by Equa-
tion (29-4). For example, if the north pole of a long thin magnet having a
pole strength of 2 cgs poles is placed at a point where the intensity is 45
oersteds, the force on it is 90 dynes.
Illustrative Example. A bar magnet 24 cm long has a pole strength of
800 cgs unit poles. Calculate the intensity of the magnetic field at point A
16 cm from the magnet, measured along the line which is the perpendicular
bisector of the bar.
Referring to Figure 29-5, we note that the point A is 16 cm from the center
C of the bar and 20 cm from each end, Nand S. For purposes of calculation,
let us imagine a long thin magnet of unit pole strength with its north pole at A,
544 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-3

and apply Coulomb's law to calculate the force exerted on it by each of the poles
of the bar magnet. The force of repulsion on the unit north pole at A due to
the north pole N is, from Equation (29-1a)
800 X 1
F = dynes = 2 dynes
400
directed away from N along N A. The force of attraction on the unit north
pole at A due to the south pole S is also 2 dynes but is directed toward S along
AS. Adding these two forces vectorially, we
get 2.4 dynes acting parallel to the axis of the
magnet as the force on a unit north pole at A.
The intensity of the magnetic field at A is
therefore
2.4 dynes
H = = 2.4 oersteds.
cgs pole
If the north pole is taken away and if a south
pole is placed at A, it will experience an equal
force in the opposite direction. A magnet so
small that it can be considered as though both
Fig. 29-5 poles are practically at A will line up parallel
to the direction of the field at A, with the
north pole pointing in the direction of the field. A magnetic field may there-
fore be mapped by small compass needles, which will orient themselves par-
allel to the direction of the field.

When iron filings are introduced into a magnetic field, the filings
become magnetized. The magnetized filings orient themselves in the
direction of the field. Figure 29-6 shows a typical arrangement of iron
filings in the neighborhood of a bar magnet as seen in one plane.
As we shall see in a subsequent chapter, a magnetic field may also be
generated by a wire carrying current, and, in fact, this is the most common
method for the generation of a magnetic field. This has been recognized
in the choice of the units of magnetic field intensity H in the mks system
where H is generally stated in units of amperes per meter. Until we have
developed the concepts appropriate to the generation of the magnetic field
by current in a wire, we shall represent the magnetic field in units of newtons
per weber in the mks system of units, a form appropriate to the definition
of H in Equation (29-4). The relationship between the mks and cgs units
of the magnetic field intensity H may be stated as
nt
1 - - = 47r X 10-3 oersted. (29-5)
weber
This conversion factor may be verified by recalling that
1 nt = 10 5 dynes,
§29-4 MAGNETIC MOMENT 545

Fig. 29-6 Pattern formed by iron filings in the neighborhood of a bar magnet.

108
and I weber = - egs poles.
47l'
nt I nt 105 dynes I weber
Thus I -- = -- X X ---,-----
weber weber I nt lOS/47l' egs pole

= 47l' X 10-3 dyne

egs pole
= 47l' X 10- 3 oersted.

29-4 Magnetic Moment

If a bar magnet of length s and pole strength p is placed in a uniform

magnetic field of intensity H, its north pole will experience a force Hp in
the direction of the field, while its south pole will experience an equal force
in the opposite direction, as shown in Figure 29-7(a). If the magnet is not
parallel to the field, the magnet will experience a torque tending to rotate
it so that its alignment is parallel to the field. The magnet will experience
two forces equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, so that the net
force on the magnet is zero.
Following the terminology developed in electrostatics where we called
an assemblage of two equal and opposite charges an electric dipole, we call
a magnet with its two equal and opposite poles a magnetic dipole. The
magnetic dipole moment m is a vector quantity directed from the south pole
546 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-4

of the magnet to its north pole and is of magnitude given by the product
of the pole strength p by the separation of the poles s. In the form of an
equation the magnitude of the dipole moment is given by
m = ps. (29-6)

y G=mxH
>-

S
~:p
e
F=Hp
)-

/
ACH
t1
>-H /
/
/
/
-< /
F=-Hp S X
>-

(a) z (b)
Fig. 29-7 (a) Forces on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field. The plane of the
paper is the x-y plane. (b) When the magnetic moment vector m and the magnetic
field H lie in the x-y plane as shown, the torque G on the magnet is parallel to the z axis.

If s is the displacement vector directed from the south pole of the magnet
to its north pole, the magnetic dipole moment vector m is given by the
equation

(29-60)

which may be compared to the corresponding definitions in electricity

given in Equation (25-11). The cgs electromagnetic units of magnetic
dipole moment are cgs pole centimeters, while the mks units of dipole moment
may be expressed as weber meters.
Let us calculate the magnitude of the torque G about the center of the
magnet due to the effect of the magnetic field H upon the magnetic dipole
m, as shown in Figure 29-7(b). If the dipole-moment vector makes an
angle fJ with H, the torque is
G = Hpssin fJ,
or, in terms of the magnetic moment m as defined in Equations (29-6), the
torque is given by
G = Hm sin fJ. (29-7)

As shown in the figure, the torque tends to rotate the magnet in the clock-
wise direction. Following the right-hand rule, the torque vector is in the
§29-4 MAGNETIC MOMENT 547

-z direction. Using the notation of the vector product developed in

Section 7-4, we may write

(29-7a)

We may apply this result to the measurement of the magnetic field.

If a small bar magnet of moment of inertia I is suspended in a magnetic
field H, the torque on the magnet will be given by Equation (29-7), and if
the angle made by the magnet with the field direction is small, we may
replace sin 0 by O. Observing that the direction of the torque vector is
opposite to the direction of the angular displacement, we obtain
G = -HmO (29-8)

By comparing Equation (29-8) with Equation (12-2), we see that the

magnet is subjected to an elastic restoring torque which is proportional to
the angular displacement 0 and opposite in direction. The magnet will
therefore vibrate in simple harmonic motion. The period of the motion T
will be given by Equation (12-17) as

T = 211" I I .
'\JmH
(29-9)

Thus the magnetic field intensity H may be determined by measuring the

period of vibration, T of a magnet of known magnetic moment M and
moment of inertia I.
Illustrative Example. A bar magnet 8 cm long has a mass of 20 gm and a
pole strength of 60 cgs unit poles. Determine (a) its magnetic moment and (b)
its period when placed in a field whose intensity is 100 oersteds.
(a) The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is, from Equation (29-6),
m = 60 poles X 8 cm = 480 pole cm.
To determine the period it is necessary to find the moment of inertia. The
moment of inertia of a uniform bar about an axis through its center of gravity
is given by the expression
1= l2ML2,
where M is the mass of the bar and L is its length. Therefore
I = l2 X 20 gm X 64 cm 2 = 106.7 gm cm 2 •
(b) Substituting these values in Equation (29-9), we find

~
106.7
T = 211" sec = 0.296 sec.
480 X 100
548 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-5

29-5 Atomic Magnetic Moments

When a small magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it experiences
a torque. When the magnet is placed in a nonuniform field, the field acting
at the south pole of the magnet may be given by H s , while that acting at
the north pole of the magnet may be given by H n = H s + I1H, as shown
in Figure 29-8, where I1H is the vector
L1H difference between the fields at these
two poles. The net force on the mag-
net is due to the change in the field
p I1H, for if p is the pole strength of the
magnet, the force on the magnet is
F = pH n - pHs = p I1H.
Let us suppose that the magnet is
physically small, of length 118. We
multiply and divide the right-hand
side of the equation above by the
quantity 118 to find
I1H
F = p 118-'
Fig. 29-8
118
The product p 118 is the magnetic mo-
ment m of the magnet, while the quantity I1H/118 is the rate of change
of the magnetic field directed from the south to the north pole. Thus we
have, in the limit of extremely small magnets,

I1H dH
F=m-=m-, (29-10)
118 d8

where the direction in which we take the derivative of the magnetic field
intensity is the direction of the magnetic moment.
A method of measuring atomic magnetic moments devised by Stern
and Gerlach (1921) was to generate a beam of atoms, to send them through
a nonuniform or inhomogeneous magnetic field of known inhomogeneity,
and to observe the deflection of the beam. In the Stern-Gerlach experiment
a beam of silver atoms was obtained by heating silver to a high temperature
in an oven in vacuum. A narrow beam of silver atoms coming from an
oven 0, Figure 29-9, after passing through defining slits 8 1 and 8 2 , was
allowed to pass through an inhomogeneous magnetic field and strike a
plate P. The inhomogeneous field was produced by an electromagnet with
specially designed pole pieces. One pole piece was in the form of a knife-
edge, while the other pole piece had a channel cut in it parallel to the
§29-5 ATOMIC MAGNETIC MOMENTS 549

knife-edge. From the pattern on the photographic plate, shown in Figure

29-10, and a knowledge of the speed of the particles, the magnetic moment

Cross section of
pole pieces

Fig. 29-9 Arrangement of apparatus in Stern-Gerlach experiment.

of silver could be calculated. The magnetic dipole moment of silver, mAg,

is now known to be
mAg = 0.93 X 10-20 emu.

It may be remarked parenthetically that the magnetic moment of the

silver atom, as measured in the Stern-Gerlach experiment, is actually the
magnetic moment of the valence electron of silver. A glance at Table 5
of Appendix A shows that silver, in the normal state, has a single electron,

Fig.29-10 Type of pattern made

by a beam of silver atoms (a) with-
out magnetic field on; (b) with
magnetic field on.

(0) (b)

an s electron outside of a closed, stable configuration of the other 46 elec-

trons. The sum of the magnetic moments of these 46 electrons is zero.
The magnetic moment of an electron is ascribed to its intrinsic spin. One
interesting result of the above experiment was that the silver atom was
deflected in only one of two possible directions, as indicated by the splitting
of the line into two lines. The interpretation of this is that a spinning
electron, when in a magnetic field, cannot have any arbitrary direction in
space. The spin of an electron may be considered as a vector quantity,
since there is an angular momentum associated with it directed along the
axis of spin. The magnetic moment is also a vector quantity directed
along this axis. When an electron enters a magnetic field, its axis can take
only one of two possible orientations, either parallel to the direction of the
550 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-6

magnetic field or antiparallel, that is, oppositely directed, depending upon

the direction of its spin. This limitation of the possible orientations of the
axis of spin of an electron is called space quantization.
Measurements of the magnetic moment, by the methods of Stern and
Gerlach and by other methods developed subsequently, have been made Qf
atoms, molecules, and subatomic particles such as electrons, protons,
neutrons, and many nuclei. These measurements are an important part
of our knowledge of the properties of matter.

29-6 Terrestrial Magnetism

We have already shown that a bar magnet, when suspended so that it can
swing freely about a vertical axis, will ultimately come to rest in an approxi-
mately north-south position. The use of a compass is based upon this

20·
W

15·
W

10·
W

Fig.29-11 Chart showing isogonic lines for the United States, 1955. From the 1955
edition of chart 3077, of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, showing distribution of
magnetic declination throughout the United States. (Courtesy of Coast and Geodetic
Survey.)

observation. It is important, however, to know how much the magnetic

north-south direction differs from the geographic or true north-south
direction. Various surveys have been made to determine this difference for
various points of the earth's surface. This difference is termed the declina-
tion of the magnetic from the geographic north-south direction. It differs
from point to point on the earth's surface and also is found to vary in a
 §29-7 A MOLECULAR THEORY OF MAGNETS 551

complex manner with time. Charts are plotted for any region of the earth's
surface with lines showing equal declinations, or isogonic lines, marked on
them. One such chart is shown in Figure 29-11. In New York the declina-
tion is about 11 oW, in Detroit it happens to be 3°W, while in San Francisco
it is about 18°E.
The declination gives the direction of the horizontal component only
of the earth's magnetic field at anyone point. The fact that there is a
vertical component to the earth's magnetic field can be shown by the follow-
ing simple experiment. A long unmagnetized steel needle is mounted so
that it can pivot about a horizontal axis through its center of gravity. It is
balanced in the horizontal position and pointed in the direction in which a
compass needle would point. The needle is now magnetized by means of a
strong magnet and then allmved to swing freely. It will be found that the
magnetized needle no longer balances in the horizontal position but dips
with its north pole downward. The angle of dip
varies from place to place over the earth. At New
York the angle of dip is 72° with the horizontal,
near the equator it is almost 0°, and at the mag-
netic pole in the Northern Hemisphere it is 90°.
In this manner the earth's magnetic poles are H
located. v
When the dip needle is properly used as de-
scribed above, its direction is that of the earth's
magnetic field at the given place. The horizontal Fig.29-12 Angle of dip.
component H H of the intensity of the earth's mag-
netic field can easily be determined by means of an oscillating horizontal
magnet, as described above. By means of a simple vector diagram, illus-
trated in Figure 29-12, the total magnetic field intensity H and its vertical
component H v can be computed.
The earth behaves as though it contained a very large magnet with its
south pole in the Northern Hemisphere located at and below Boothia
Peninsula in northern Canada, and the other pole in the Southern Hemi-
sphere near Ross Sea in Antarctica. The origin of the earth's magnetic
field is at present unknown. The hypothesis that seems most reasonable
is that the earth's magnetic field is produced by electric currents within the
earth, probably within its core. If the above hypothesis is accepted, one
must explain the source of these electric currents.

29-7 A Molecular Theory of Magnets

An insight into the origin of the magnetic properties of magnetic substances

can be obtained from the following simple experiment. First magnetize a
long steel needle or steel strip; then break the magnet in half. By dipping
552 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-7

these parts in iron filings, it will be found, as sketched in Figure 29-13, that
each half is itself a magnet. By testing the polarity of each part, it will be
found that opposite poles appear on the faces where the break was made.
If one of these parts is again broken in half, we will again have two magnets.
This process can be repeated until the

t======t magnets become too small to handle.

Each part broken from the original

f="'==4I.
Fig.29-13 A bar magnet broken
magnet will always be found to be
magnetized. This suggests that a magnet
is made up of very tiny magnets, perhaps
in half forms two bar magnets. of molecular size.
On this theory of magnetism, mag-
netic substances are assumed to contain little magnets of approximately
molecular size. When the bar of steel is unmagnetized, these molecular
magnets are oriented at random, as
sketched in Figure 29-14(a), so that the
bar shows no polarity and has no net mag- 1;::;::s:\(-'O"'<7~~ Vv I
netic moment. But when the bar of (0)
steel is brought into a magnetic field, its
molecular magnets rotate until they line
--
-- (b)
up with the field, as shown in Figure
29-14(b); the bar thus acquires magnet- Fig. 29-14 (a) Molecular magnets
ization, magnetic poles, and a magnetic in an unmagnetized steel bar have
moment. When the steel bar is removed random orientations. (b) When the
steel bar is magnetized, the molec-
from the magnetic field, most of these ular magnets line up parallel to the
little magnets retain their orientation so external field, producing poles at
that the steel bar remains permanently the ends of the bar.
magnetized, although its magnetic mo-
ment may not be as big as it was when in the magnetic field. Other sub-
stances, such as soft iron, lose most of their magnetism when taken out of
the magnetic field.
Other evidence in support of this molecular theory of magnetism may
be cited. If a magnetized steel bar is dropped, hammered, or otherwise
jarred, it loses some of its magnetism. If it is heated to a temperature
beyond about 800°C, it loses its magnetic properties, probably because of
the fact that the increased vibratory motion of the molecules destroys the
orientation of the molecular magnets. This molecular theory is not, of
course, the complete explanation. One would like to know the origin of
these elementary magnets and why some substances are magnetic while
others apparently are not magnetic. We shall consider this topic again
after we have shown the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
§29-8 A THEORY OF MAGNETISM 553

29-8 A Theory of Magnetism

From Coulomb's law it is possible to develop a theory of magnetism based

upon the magnetic dipole as the basic element of magnetism, and upon the
auxiliary concept of the magnetic pole. Such a theory of magnetism is
quite analogous to the theory of electrostatics developed in earlier chapters.
In this theory the magnetic field intensity H is analogous to the electric field
intensity E. The contribution to the magnetic field intensity at a point due
to a magnetic pole of strength p can be written in an equation analogous
to Equation (23-2) as

(29-11)

where, in the cgs system of units,

cgs units k1 = 1
in vacuum, and H is expressed in oersteds when p is expressed in cgs unit
poles and r is expressed in centimeters. In the mks system of units,
1
mks units k1 =-- (29-12)
471"MO

in vacuum, and H is expressed in newtons per weber when p is expressed

in webers, r is expressed in meters, and
7 weber 2
Mo = 471" X 10- ---2 .
ntm
In many problems associated with the magnetic fields due to permanent
magnets, it is helpful to define a magnetic potential similar to the electric
potential defined in electrostatics. One essential difference between elec-
trostatics and magnetostatics lies in the fact that there are no conductors
of magnetism. Another difference which we have already emphasized is
that the isolated magnetic pole is a useful mental construct rather than an
experimentally observed entity.
To carry the analogy further, we utilize the concept of magnetic lines
of force, developed as in Section 23-5 for the electric field. There are 471"
lines of force emanating from a cgs unit north pole, and 1/Mo lines of force
emanating from an mks unit north pole of pole strength 1 weber, as in
Equations (23-5). Since the source of the magnetic field is the magnetic
dipole, every volume element must contain as much positive magnetism as
negative magnetism, so that the net number of magnetic lines of force
emerging from any Gaussian surface is zero.
554 THE MAGNETIC FIELD §29-8

In dealing with the magnetic field in the material medium, we define

the magnetization M as the magnetic moment per unit volume, just as, in a
dielectric, we spoke of the polarization P as the electric moment per unit
volume. The magnetic medium differs from the dieleotric medium in that
a permanent state of magnetization is commonly found in magnetic ma-
terials, while the polarization of most dielectric materials is only found in
the presence of an electric field.
It is possible to produce a state of permanent electric polarization in
some waxes by cooling them slowly in an electric field. These permanently
polarized waxes are called electrets, and generate an electric field similar to
the magnetic field generated by magnets. When electrets are left alone for
a time, electric charges, in the form of atmospheric ions, collect on their
surfaces in such a way as to neutralize the electric field generated by the
electret. The electret may be revived by scraping away its surface, remov-
ing the collected ions.. The fact that permanent magnets are not diminished
in strength by exposure to the atmosphere may be cited as evidence that
free magnetic poles do not exist in the atmosphere.
In addition to the permanent magnetization, we describe the induced
magnetization in a magnetic material by the magnetic susceptibility Xm
(chi sub m) so that the induced magnetization could be written as
M = XmH, (29-13)

analogous to Equation (25-12).

Just as it was convenient to describe the electric field in the material
medium by means of the electric displacement D, so it is convenient to
describe the magnetic field in terms of the magnetic induction B, defined
by equations analogous to Equation (25-24) as
B = t-toH + M. (29-140)

In the mks system of units, the magnetization M, the magnetic moment

per unit volume, is expressed in webers per square meter, and the product
t-toH is similarly expressed in webers per square meter. Thus the units of
magnetic induction B are expressed in webers per square meter. We may
describe the relationship between Band H in a linear medium through the
equation
B = t-tH, (29-150)

where t-t = Kmt-tO· (29-16)

In these equations t-t is called the permeability of the medium, and Km is

called the relative permeability of the medium. The value of Km for vacuum
is unity. .
In the cgs system of units Equation (29-14a) may be re-expressed as
cgs units B = H + 4'll"M. (29-14b)
§29-8 A THEORY OF MAGNETISM 555

The units of magnetic induction B are expressed in gausses. The terminology

for this system of units is not so well worked out as in the case of mks units, so
that each quantity in Equation (29-14b) is expressed in different units. Thus
H is expressed in oersteds and M is expressed in cgs poles per square centimeter.
The linear relationship between Band H, for a linear medium, is then expressed as
cgs units B = KmH. (29-1Sb)

This neat analogy between the electric field and the magnetic field is
very useful, but it neglects the most important of all magnetic effects, the
generation of a magnetic field by an electric current. It was discovered by
Hans Christian Oersted in 1820 that an electric current in a wire caused a
compass needle to be deflected. Subsequent investigations have shown
that the magnetic field exerts a force on a moving charge, and that a chang-
ing magnetic field induces a current in a wire. The theory outlined above
must be supplemented to include these effects.
In contrast to the case of the electric field in which the electric dis-
placement D plays a minor role, important in simplifying calculations but
not at the foundation of electrostatics, the magnetic induction B is of great
significance, for, as we shall see, B describes the effects of the field on a
moving charge, while H describes the effects of the field upon a pole. From
a fundamental physical viewpoint the pole is a property of bulk matter
and is not a fundamentally significant magnetic parameter. Since isolated
poles do not exist in nature, we are forced to relegate the magnetic field
intensity H to the role of an auxiliary quantity and to think of the magnetic
induction B as the fundamental magnetic-field vector. The sources of the
magnetic field are today understood to be electric currents and the magnetic
dipole moments of the fundamental physical particles, while the probe by
means of which we are enabled to examine the magnetic field is either a
moving charged particle or an elementary magnetic dipole.

Problems

29-1. A bar magnet having a pole strength of 400 cgs poles and a length of
5 cm is placed so that its south pole is at the origin and its north pole is located
at the point whose coordinates are (5 cm, 0). Find the magnitude and direction
of the force exerted by this magnet on the north pole of a long, slender, needlelike
magnet whose pole strength is 20 cgs poles, when that pole is placed at a point
whose coordinates are (a) (0, 10 cm), (b) (-10 cm, 0), and (c) (5 cm, 3 cm).
29-2. A bar magnet having a pole strength of 10- 5 weber is placed along the
y axis so that its south pole is at the origin and its north pole is located at y =
0.1 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by this magnet on
the north pole of a needlelike magnet of pole strength 10- 6 weber when that
north pole is located at a point whose coordinates are (a) (0, -0.2 m), (b) (0.24 m,
0), and (c) (0.03 m, 0.05 m).
556 THE MAGNETIC FIELD

29-3. Two identical bar magnets are placed side by side with their axes
parallel and separated by a distance of 10 cm. Find the magnitude and direction
of the force between them when like poles face each other. The pole strength
of each magnet is 300 cgs poles, and the length of each magnet is 20 cm.
29-4. Repeat the calculation of Problem 29-3 in the case that unlike poles
face each other and the pole strength of the magnets is 10- 5 weber. Perform
yOUI' calculations in mks units.
29-5. What is the intensity of the magnetic field at a point 20 cm from the
north pole of a bar magnet, measured along the axis of the magnet, if the magnet
is 30 cm long and has a pole strength of 400 cgs poles?
29-6. What is the magnetic field intensity generated by the bar magnet at
each of the points indicated in Problem 29-1?
29-7. What is the magnetic field intensity generated by the bar magnet
at each of the points indicated in Problem 29-2?
29-8. A bar magnet 4 cm long, having a pole strength of 12 cgs poles, is
placed in a uniform magnetic field with the axis of the magnet perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field. The intensity of the magnetic field is 45
oersteds. Determine the torque acting on this magnet.
29-9. A small compass needle oscillates with a period of 2.5 sec when placed
at a point where the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is 0.2
oersted. Determine the magnetic moment of the compass needle if its moment
of inertia about the axis of rotation is 24 gm cm 2.
29-10. A bar magnet 6 cm long is suspended by a wire passing through its
center. The magnet is placed in a uniform field with the axis of the magnet
perpendicular to the direction of the field. The torque, as measured by the
twist of the wire, is 1,500 dynes cm. Determine (a) the magnetic moment of
the magnet and (b) the pole strength. The intensity of the field is 50 oersteds.
29-11. A small bar magnet has a period of oscillation of 2 sec when pivoted
in a uniform magnetic field of 36 nt/weber. When it is used to measure the
intensity of a second magnetic field, the period is found to be 0.40 sec. Determine
the intensity of the second magnetic field.
29-12. A uniformly magnetized rod has a pole strength of 10 webers. The
magnet has a cross-sectional area of 1 cm 2 and a length of 10 cm. (a) What is
the magnetic moment of the magnet? (b) What is the magnetization of the
magnet?
29-13. By analogy with the electric field in a material medium (Sections
25-6 to 25-8), write a formula for the magnetic field intensity H due to a magnetic
pole of pole strength p when that pole is immersed in a medium of relative
permeability Km (a) in cgs units and (b) in mks units.
29-14. From the result of Problem 29-13, state Coulomb's law of force
between two poles immersed in a medium of relative permeability Km (a) in mks
units and (b) in cgs units.