Origins and

Structure of the
Universe, The
Solar System, and
the Earth
CHRISTIE VICTORIA S. ARCEGA
Subject Team Leader – EarthSci

VICTOR ANGELO HERMOSO, CHRISTINE BAJIO,

IHRWYNE REYES
Instructors – EarthSci
PRELIMINARY: SCIENCE VS.
RELIGION
 Quotes to ponder…

“Science and Religion were not enemies, but rather allies –

two different languages telling the same story, a story of
symmetry and balance…”
- Dan Brown, Angels and Demons (2000)

“Science can purify Religion from error and superstition;

Religion can purify Science from idolatry and false
absolutes. Each can draw the other into a wider world, a
world in which both can flourish.”

- St. Pope John Paul II (1988)

 Quotes to ponder…

“Science tells me God must exist. My mind tells me I will

never understand God. And my heart tells me I’m not
meant to.”

- Dan Brown, Angels and Demons (2000)

 The Nature of Science and
Religion
Science Religion
• An investigation of the • An exploration of the
natural world spiritual and supernatural
• Based on fact • Based on faith
• Belief in a systematic • Belief on the existence of
progression of things a creator
• There are many • There is a predetermined
outcomes to everything in and singular end for all
life things
 Where the Lines Get Blurred…

• There is no universal belief system for both

Science and Religion; it is solely based on human
perception
• There are scientists that are religious, and there
are religious leaders that are scientists
• Established laws attuned to the nature of life does
not always follow the moral norms or scientific fact
• Both factions present an ambiguity; there are
existent facts that are beyond the explanation of
either Science or Religion
Putting Everything in Perspective:
Michaelangelo’s Painting
 It all comes down to one
thing… it is the TRUTH that
you believe in
PART I: THE UNIVERSE
 The Universe

• Alternately called as the

cosmos
• It is a continuously
expanding space in
which all matter is
contained.
– Galaxies
– Stars
– Planets and Moons
– Other cosmological
objects
How Old is the Universe?

• 13.8 billion years

• What was the basis?
– The measurements of
the densities of matter
present in the universe
and the existing
energies determined
how fast the universe
expanded.
THE BIG BANG THEORY: Birth
of the Universe
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Planck Era
– Zero to 10-43 seconds into the
explosion
– The least understood era of the Big
Bang
– Physicist theorize that, during this era,
the forces needed to bind the universe
together was “synthesized” or “born”
– Existent forces
• Strong forces
• Weak forces
• Electromagnetic force
• Gravity
– Towards the end, these forces were
combined into a single, unified force
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Grand Unification Era
– 10-43 to 10-35 seconds into the
explosion
– At this point of the Big Bang,
gravitational force was
differentiated and separated from
the other three fundamental
forces
– This separation caused a
significantly large amount of
energy to be released, causing
the universe to expand rapidly
– This expansion also marked the
end of this era
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Electroweak Era
– 10-35 to 10-10 seconds into the
explosion
– Strong Forces separated from the
Weak Forces, causing the universe
to inflate faster than the speed of
light
– The energies released from this era
and the previous era interacted,
causing the formation of the most
basic particles of matter: photons,
gluons, and quarks
– This era ended when another force,
the Electromagnetic Force,
separated from the Weak Forces.
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Elementary Particle Era
– 10-10 to 0.001 seconds into the
explosion
– Given that the fundamental particles
of matter were born, the opposing
antimatter particles that came into
existence along with the matter
particles collided, causing
annihilations
– As these annihilations were occurring,
the universe, previously under high
temperature, began to cool down
– This cooling down caused the ff:
• The depletion of antimatter particles, as they
were being annihilated gradually without
being replaced, causing an asymmetry
• The binding of quarks through nuclear forces
that formed the subatomic particles
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Nucleosynthesis and Nuclei
Era
– 0.001 seconds to 380,000 years into the
explosion
– As the name of the era suggests, the
now-existing protons and neutrons
combined, forming the first atomic nuclei,
which is that of Hydrogen
– Some of these nuclei combined, forming
the nuclei of Helium and Lithium
– The universe continued to cool down to
the point that it can no longer support
particle fusion
– When this era ended, the universe was
abundant with Hydrogen and Helium
nuclei with traces of Lithium and
Deuterium nuclei
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Atom Era
– 380,000 to 1 billion years into the
explosion
– The universe was full of nuclei with
free electrons suspended in plasma at
the start of this era
– The universe, by this time, had cooled
down fully, allowing atomic nuclei to
attract electrons
– The photons, since they were trapped
in the middle of the universe from the
time that the annihilations ended, was
finally allowed to move freely when
the electrons became bound with
atomic nuclei, causing the universe to
become transparent for the first time
What Exactly Happened when
the Universe was Born?
• Galaxy Era
– 1 billion years into the
explosion to present time
– The abundant Hydrogen
and Helium atoms formed
stars via thermonuclear
fusion
– These stars then
coalesced to form the
protogalaxies and,
eventually, fully realized
galaxies
 THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look

Vesto Albert Alexander Edwin George

Slipher Einstein Friedmann Hubble Lemaitre

• Was the work of five of the most

celebrated Physicists of the early 20th
Century which spanned two decades
THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look
• Vesto Melvin Slipher (1912)
– Was the first to provide evidences
on the then-known expanding-
universe theory
– Using the established
understanding on the Doppler
Effect and his research on the
spiral movement of galaxies, he
deduced that stars and all other
heavenly bodies are moving away
from a “central point” to which all
matter in the universe came from
 THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look
• Albert Einstein (1921)
– Famous for the development of
the Theory of Relativity
– States that, in a vacuum, light
travels at the same acceleration
as everything else (Photoelectric
Effect)
– Given that the universe is under
such a state, it was deduced that
every body in it moves at a
constant speed regardless of its
physical size and mass
THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look
• Alexander Friedmann (1922)
– Refined Einstein’s Relativity
Theory to fit into the physics of
the cosmos
– Derived equations from
Einstein’s very own equations
(known as the Friedmann
Equations) which further
boosted the notion that the
universe, unlike Einstein’s
proposition, is a continuously
expanding entity
 THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look
• Edwin Hubble (1924)
– Famous for the invention of the most powerful
telescope in the world, the Hubble Space Telescope
– From his observations using this invention, he studied
the correlation between a heavenly body’s distance to
a central point, and recessional velocity
• The farther the heavenly body is to its central point, the
higher is the recessional velocity
– This correlation was determined from the elongation
of the wavelength of red light relative to the distance
of heavenly bodies, which eventually became known
as the Red Shift Hypothesis
• The farther the object is from a central point, the farther
is the elongation of the wavelength of red light
– The establishment of this correlation through the Red
Shift Hypothesis became the basis of one of
Astronomy’s cornerstone laws known as Hubble’s
Law
THE BIG BANG THEORY: An
In-Depth Look
• George Lemaitre (1927)
– Using both Einstein’s and
Friedmann’s results, he independently
concluded that the more you go back
in time, the smaller is the size of the
universe is
– Moreover, as the universe on every
time point back in time gets smaller,
he argued that the universe was once
concentrated in one single “mass”
– This argumentations would be then
eventually called as the Big Bang
Theory
 Evidences of the Big Bang
• The evidences point out to a key event
that distinguishes our universe: its
EXPANSION
• Evidence 1: The Redshift of Galaxies
– As explained by Hubble’s Law and
supported by the Redshift Theory, the
universe is expanding symmetrically away
from a relative center
– As red light travels the farthest, the redder
the object, the older it is and the farther it is
from the relative center
– This is currently supported by the discovery
in 2012 of galaxy clusters within the realm
of the observable universe that have been
estimated to be 8 billion years old NASA’s Composite of the Observable
Universe
 Evidences of the Big Bang

• Evidence 2: Cosmic
Microwave Background
Radiation
– At the start of the Big Bang, the
newly-born universe was very hot
– As the universe expanded with
the differentiation of the
fundamental physical forces that
binds the universe, it released
massive amounts of radiation that
NASA’s Anisotropic Scan of the CMB are detectable as microwaves
– These microwaves can still be
seen by probes that roam the
remote corners of the universe
 Evidences of the Big Bang
• Evidence 3: The Mixture of
Elements
– The 94 naturally occurring elements
were created in the universe by order
of the relative heat present in the
universe itself
– Given the its progressive evolution,
the universe consumes differing
amounts of these elements, as they
were necessary to form the
observable objects we now see
within it
– Therefore, the amount of elements
existent in the universe itself, as you
go back in time, the amount of all the The Breakdown of The Composition of the Universe
94 elements created are entirely
different from the amount of existent
elements today, and the composition
of all objects made per time period of
the Big Bang is significantly different
 Evidences of the Big Bang
• Evidence 4: Time and Light
– The most fundamental evidence of the Big
Bang is Time itself
– Previously, this evidence was discussed in
length by the Steady-State Theory
• Steady State Theory – A theory that states
that the universe does not change much
with time
– In recent years, this theory is considered
obsolete because of the element of light
– Because light takes time to travel across
the universe, when you look at two
separate objects with differing distance in
the universe, you are also looking at the
age of those objects (which is a function of
Space and Time in the Universe
the distance travelled by the light they emit)
– In other words, the farthest objects are the
oldest and are significantly different than
those that are nearest to the observer
 The Higgs Boson: The Big Bang’s Validation
and The Scientific Evidence of Biblical Creation

• In the quest to prove the validity of the

Big Bang, Physicists went on a quest to
search for the particles that proved the
truth behind the moment that light
appeared out of “nothing”.
• At Conseil Européen la Recherche
Nucléaire (CERN) in 2013, Physicists
François Englert and Peter Higgs
received the Nobel Prize for Physics for
the discovery of the Higgs Boson, the so-
called “God Particle”
• In simple terms, their research deemed
that the universe contained two particles: Graphical Representation of the Collision of
the bosons moved through a vacuum the Higgs Boson and Fermions: The Virtual
evidence of the “Big Bang” and time zero of
alongside another particle, the fermions the Biblical Creation
 The Higgs Boson: The Big Bang’s Validation
and The Scientific Evidence of Biblical Creation

• In essence, the fermions made up

“antimatter”, and the bosons make up
“matter”, as the fermions bind matter
together and bosons give mass to
matter
• At the moment of creation and the
time zero of the Big Bang, a special
type of boson, the Higgs Boson, a
boson that can “create” matter,
collided with the endless lattice of
fermions surrounding the bosons,
causing the “explosion” that gave Graphical Representation of the Collision of
the Higgs Boson and Fermions: The Virtual
birth to the universe evidence of the “Big Bang” and time zero of
the Biblical Creation
 The Structure of the Universe:
How does It Look Like?
• The most probable answer: IT IS
FORMLESS
• To be more exact, it is an
intricate web of systems without
a definite shape
– Energy transformations formed
stars
– Condensation of matter formed
galaxies
– Collisions formed planets,
planetoids, and planetary debris
– And those that did not react
through any kind of process,
became voids
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe

• It began with the understanding of stars and its relations with worldly
events (i.e. time of planting and harvest, time of coincidental birth,
naming of children, timing of death, the conceptualization of afterlife,
predicting the future)
• Astrology – The imprecise Science of studying the stars for worldly
purposes
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe

• Before the birth of Philosophy, the understanding of the universe was that
the heavens were a living entity, a pantheon that served as the home of
the divinities
• Greeks – first to personify the heavens and develop the concept of gods
in the likeness of human beings
The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Pythagoras and Philolaus
(570 – 495 BCE)
– Gave birth to philosophical
thought, including those about
the universe
– The first to give a model on
how the universe looked like
– Thought that the universe
revolved around an unseen
“central fire”
 IN PERSPECTIVE: The
Pythagorean Model of the Universe
• The model of the universe devised by
Pythagoras is divided into three:
– Earth – Its center
– Ouranos – Realm of the Sky
– Cosmos – Realm of the “Celestial
Octave”, or the place of the Sun,
Moon, and the Planets
– Olympos – Realm of the stars and
the elements that create it
• Outside the universe (beyond
Olympos) is a region of the “unseen
fire”, and beyond it, the realm of
infinity in which the universe itself
The Universe According to Pythagoras
resides
 IN PERSPECTIVE: The
Pythagorean Model of the Universe
• This model worked proposed
the earliest known geocentric
model, and accounts for the
then-known 5 great elements
of the universe: Aether, Fire,
Wind, Water, and Earth
• These five elements are
deemed in this model as the
causal beings, or the beings
that made the universe as it is
The Universe According to Pythagoras
The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Plato (427 - 347 BCE)
– Introduced that the Earth
is the center of the
universe
– First thought of the
sphere as the shape of
perfection, which then
became the understood
shape of the center of the
universe
The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Aristotle and Eudoxus
(384 – 322 BCE)
– Used Plato’s notions to use
the sphere as the shape of
all heavenly bodies
– All heavenly bodies hung
on concentric spheres
around earth and moved
around it
 IN PERSPECTIVE: The System
of Diverse Spheres
• This model was the culmination
of all the philosophies of Plato,
Aristotle, Eudoxus, and later on,
Ptolemy
• This was, up until their time, the
most accurate model of the
universe for the following
reasons:
– All celestial objects were
designated one shape
– Apparent motion was described
for the first time
The Universe Synthesized from the Philosophies
of Plato, Aristotle, Eudoxus, and Ptolemy
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Aristarchus (310-230
BCE)
– The earliest proponent of the
heliocentric model for the
universe
– Proposed that the earth, as
well as the rest of the
heavenly bodies, revolved
around a “stationary sun”
IN PERSPECTIVE: Aristarchus’s
Model of the Universe
• In the Annals of History,
it was Aristarchus, not
Copernicus, to first
propose a Heliocentric
model of the universe
• Although an incomplete
model (as shown in the
picture), it shows an
Earth orbiting the Sun in
a circular manner
IN PERSPECTIVE: Aristarchus’s
Model of the Universe
• Aristarchus was able to show a nearly
accurate model of the universe by using
the concept of a parallax
• He was able to deduce that the Earth is
moving around the sun, not the other
way around, using the concept of a
Aristarchus’s Parallax parallax

A parallax is the difference in apparent

position of a single celestial object
viewed at different lines of sight, and is
measured by the angle between those
lines of sight
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Claudius Ptolemaus
[Ptolemy] (AD 90 – AD
168)
– Most famous for proposing the
geocentricity of the universe
– Proposed that the heavenly
bodies revolved in perfect circles
around the Earth
– His own views were more
favored than that of Aristarchus
IN PERSPECTIVE: How Ptolemy’s Views
were Accepted over Aristarchus’s own

• In the ancient times, works of all

scholars from all walks of
knowledge were stored in one of
the most magnificent libraries of
its time: The Library of Alexandria
in Egypt
• The works that were stored there
were the works of both Ptolemy
and Aristarchus
The Sacking of Alexandria in 48 BC
• Daily work in the library included
copying original works, and the
aforementioned scholars of
astronomy were included in the
list of works that were copied
IN PERSPECTIVE: How Ptolemy’s Views
were Accepted over Aristarchus’s own

• However, in 48 BC, the City of

Alexandria was besieged by Julius
Caesar, whose reasons were
obscured in history
• What was clear was that the city
was needed to be purged of
scholars, thus, the library was
burned to the ground
• The works of both Aristarchus and
Ptolemy were burned with the
The Sacking of Alexandria in 48 BC library
• Aristarchus’s surviving texts, more
often than not, were mistranslated,
hence making it gain less
popularity
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1539)
– A known Canon of the Church
– Rectified the Ptolemaic model of
the universe and was the first to
rediscover heliocentricity
centuries after Aristarchus’ time
– His findings launched a major
scientific revolution in Astronomy
– Was initially accepted by the
Church, but due to a revolution
that gave birth to Protestantism,
the Ptolemaic view was chosen
over his own views
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Copernican Model
and The Scientific Revolution in Astronomy

• Using Cicero and Plutarch, famous for

translating surviving works from the Library
of Alexandria, citing much of Aristarchus’s
and Philolaus’s works, he formed his views
on the universe, which portrayed a
heliocentric form
• His heliocentric form of the universe had the
following characteristics:
– The movements of the celestial objects are
uniform and circular
– Center of the universe is near the sun
– Around the sun lies Mercury, Venus, Earth and its
Moon, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars in
that specific order
– Our planet has 3 motions: axis spin, annual
revolution, and axis tilt
– Retrograde motion is also exhibited by our planet
The Universe According to Copernicus
– The distance of each heavenly body is different
from one another
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Copernican Model
and The Scientific Revolution in Astronomy

• His theory was written in length in his book De

Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, and did not
meet any resistance from the Church; in fact, they
accepted it
• With the publishing of his book, the Scientific
Community initially met his theory with criticism,
much on the physics of the universe, but was
eventually accepted
• However, the increasing protestant movement
condemned this book as a a heretic text in 1616, as
it goes against the established beliefs, and for some
obscured reasons, the Catholic Church shifted its
views and banned it during the same year
• The revolution, despite the condemnation of
Copernican beliefs, did not stop, but continued until
its ban lifted in 1815
The Title Page of Copernicus’ “De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium”
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Galileo Galilei (1610)
– Father of Modern Astronomy
– Was the first to invent a working
patent of the telescope
– Confirmed Aristarchus’ and
Copernicus’ own views on
heliocentricity, but was discredited
by the Church
– His steadfast belief on
heliocentricity caused his
permanent house arrest until the
end of his life for heresy
 IN PERSPECTIVE: The Galilean Trials

• Galileo was a staunch supporter of

Copernicus, and so, along with a few
others, he was tried for heresy by the
Catholic Church
• With the invention of his telescope, he
became active in the scientific
community, thus gaining him the
notice of everyone, including the
Church
• In 1615, a complaint was filed against
him and he was brought before the
Roman Inquisition headed by
Galileo before the Roman Inquisition (Painting by Cardinal Rober Bellarmine, which
Cristiano Banti, 1857) resulted in one of the longest
investigations in Church history
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Galilean Trials

• The inquisition resulted in the censure and

prohibition of Copernicus’ book, and
Galileo complied with this edict by keeping
his silence
• In 1623, a new pope was elected, Pope
Urban VIII, who was an admirer of Galileo
• With this election, Galileo broke his silence
by publishing the famous Dialogo, a
manuscript that argues both the Ptolemaic
and Copernican views and weighs the
latter as the more correct way of viewing
the universe
• This caused him to be summoned again in
1633 to another Roman Inquisition that
The Frontispiece of Galileo’s “Dialogo”
resulted in his house arrest for suspected
heresy and the banning of the Dialogo
 The Conceptualization of the
Universe
• Johannes Kepler (1600 – 1630)
– Improved upon Galileo’s design of the
telescope which eventually became the basis
of all other telescopes that came after his
time
– Together with fellow astronomer Tycho
Brahe, one who finally settled the dispute on
geocentricity vs. heliocentricity
– Found out that all planets and other heavenly
bodies revolved around a stationary sun in
elliptical manner, and the planets closer to
the sun moved faster than those far from the
same center point
• His observations became the basis of the
Universal Laws of Planetary Motion, to
which he was famous for
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Universal
Laws of Planetary Motion
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Universal
Laws of Planetary Motion
IN PERSPECTIVE: The Universal
Laws of Planetary Motion
 Continuity (?) of the Universe
• Many believe that the universe is a
timeless entity
• George Lemaitre, the same person
who proposed the Big Bang
Theory, was of another opinion
– The universe would continue to
expand up until it reached its
maximum expansion, and when it
does, the universe would
eventually return to its
concentrated, singular form
• He called this theory the Big
Crunch Theory
PART II: THE HEAVENLY
BODIES
 What are Heavenly Bodies?
• Otherwise known as astronomical
objects
• These are physical, observable objects
that are found within the realm of the
observable universe
• Generally, they are classified into:
– Galaxies
– Stars and Star Clusters
– Planets and Moons
– Planetary Debris
– Pulsars and Quasars
– Black Holes
The Night Sky without
– Dark Matter Interference from Light Pollution
 Galaxies

• They are the biggest

entities in the universe
• Every other heavenly
body that the common
man observes are
found here
• Defined as a group of
stars, dust, debris, and Milky Way Galaxy

gas held by gravity

 Types of Galaxies

Spiral Galaxy Barred Spiral Galaxy

Milky Way Galaxy Pinwheel Galaxy

• Galaxy characterized as • Similar to a spiral galaxy;

a distinct spiral disk with the only difference is that
a defined nucleus and no it has spiral arms
spiral arms radiating from the nucleus
 Types of Galaxies

Elliptical Galaxy Irregular Galaxy

Andromeda Galaxy Large Magellanic Cloud

• These are galaxies that • Galaxies that have no

are shaped into definite form
elongated ovals
 Stars and Star Clusters

• Stars are the “lights of the night

sky”, and are physical
manifestations of energy in space
• Contrary to popular belief, they
shine but do not twinkle; their
“twinkling” is a result of atmospheric
interference similar to a mirage
• Often found as sisters of other
Subaru Star Cluster
stars, and exist as a group; these
are what we call Star Clusters
Life Cycle of a Star
 Types of Stars

• Main Sequence Stars

– Stars that are relatively stable because it
can maintain a stable nuclear reaction

The Sun

• Red Giant
– Stars that are in their prime of life; the late
phase of a star’s life cycle

Betelgeuse
 Types of Stars

• White Dwarf
– A star which has used up
most of its fuel; last stage of
a star’s life

<<<< Sirius Star System

• Binary Star
– Stars which are bound to each other by gravity; appears as one star in
standard observations
 Types of Stars

• Brown Dwarf
– Protostars that failed to develop
into a true star; can possibly
become a planet
Tyche

• Variable Star
– Stars whose brightness
fluctuate constantly
Mira
(Red-Violet star)
 Planets and Moons

• Planets may either be one of the following:

– A rocky, gaseous, or icy celestial body orbiting a main sequence star
– A protostar that failed to become a true star
– Any massive celestial object whose size is not enough to cause
thermonuclear fusion
 Planets and Moons

Luna Phobos Ganymede Titan Titania Triton

• Moons, on the other hand, are those celestial

objects that orbit a planet, which serves as a
planet’s “satellite”
 Types of Planets
Terrestrial Gaseous Dwarf

Earth Jupiter Pluto

• Also known as rocky • Planets that are made • Planets that are neither a
planets primarily of gas planet nor a moon
• They are minor planets, and
• They are highly dense, and • They have low densities
is not often considered as a
is composed of rock and and rotates faster true planet
metal around the sun
• Their rotation can coincide
• Their rotation around the with other planets
sun is relatively slow
 Planetary Debris

• Planetary debris are

those celestial objects
that are “leftovers” from
planetary formations
• Two known debris:
– Asteroids – Giant floating
chunks of rock in space
– Comets – Giant boulders
of rock and ice
 Pulsars and Quasars

• Pulsars are rapidly

spinning neutron star
<<<< Crab Nebula
emitting a Pulsar which emits radiation
waves in likeness of a
lighthouse
• Quasars, on the other
Centaurus A black
hand, emit radio waves so
hole
Quasar
emitting a
>>>>
strong it creates the most
luminous spectacles in the
universe
 Black Holes

• Black holes are cores of

super massive stars, which
causes a strong pull and
sucks everything into it,
like a vacuum
• Gravitational pull is so
strong that, to escape its
monstrous pull, a physical
body must travel faster
than the speed of light Centaurus A Black Hole
 Dark Matter

• The most enigmatic of all the celestial

bodies
• It is the direct opposite of matter, and is
sometimes referred to as “antimatter”
• It is said that the collision of matter and
antimatter caused the explosion during the
Big Bang which gave birth to the universe
PART III: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The Solar System

• The solar system is a planetary system housed in the Milky

Way Galaxy, comprising of eight planets revolving around a
solitary main sequence star, which is the Sun
 The Sun
• The sun is the brightest star of the
Solar System, under which all the
planets revolve around
• According to research, this star has
been blazing for 5 billion years, and is
believed to continue its life for 5 billion
more
• This star, like all stars, emit all sorts of
radioactive waves along with visible
light waves, like:
– Ultraviolet Waves
– Radio Waves
– Gamma Rays
– X-rays
– Microwaves
– Infrared Rays The Sun Photographed under
Ultraviolet Filter
The Sun - Anatomy
• Core – It is where thermonuclear
reaction between Helium and
Hydrogen take place
• Radiative Zone – It is where the
energy generated from the core
travels along
• Convection Zone – Regulates the
outside energy release of the sun
• Chromosphere – The magnetic field
generator of the sun
• Corona – A radioactive wave emitting
away from the sun
• Prominence – When a radioactive
wave arcs back onto the sun’s surface
• Sunspots – Spots which regulate the
surface temperature of the sun
 The Inner Planets
• Mercury
– Planet closest to the Sun
– Named after the Messenger of the Gods
– 1 year in Mercury = 88 days
– Axis rotation = 58 days
– Because it is the planet closest to the
Sun, it can only be observed just before
sunrise east of Earth or just after sunset
west of Earth
– It is the only planet that has no
atmosphere due to its proximity to the
Sun, and surface temperatures range
from 427˚C to -173˚C Mercury

– Its surface is presumed to be rocky and

full of impact marks from planetary debris
 The Inner Planets
• Venus
– Earth’s twin in terms of size and mass
– Named after the Goddess of Love and
Beauty
– If all planets revolve from east to west, this
is the only planet that revolves the opposite
way
– 1 year in Venus = 225 days
– Axis rotation = 243 days
– Despite being Earth’s “twin”, its atmosphere
is rich in carbon dioxide, making the
surface temperature range at 482 ˚ C at the
Venus hottest, and under constant cover of clouds
– Its plains are ridden with volcanoes, and
constant lava flows can be seen on its
surface
 The Inner Planets
• Earth
– Dubbed as The Blue Planet
– Named after the Primordial Deity of Life
– Also the first planet in the lineup of all the
eight planets to have a moon
– The sight of it is the rarest in the Milky Way,
as it is the only known planet to host life
forms in all shapes and sizes
– It’s multilayered atmosphere, and its distance
from the sun, as well as the presence of
oxygen, makes it possible for life to exist
– 1 year on Earth = 365 days
– Axis rotation = 24 hours
– Goldilocks Zone – The zone in which water Earth
exists in liquid form, and is neither hot nor
cold; the zone just after Venus and before
Mars
 The Inner Planets
• Earth’s Moon
– Technically named as Luna
– Named after the Goddess of the
Moon
– Previously thought of as having no
atmosphere, with its surface is riddled
with craters from asteroid impacts
– Some craters are volcanoes that
became extinct millions of years ago
– Maria – smooth surfaces on the
moon caused by lava flows
– Now found to have a relatively thin
atmosphere made out predominantly
of helium and argon, as well as
Luna, sometimes referred to
potassium and sodium
as simply “The Moon”
IN PERSPECTIVE:
Phases of the Moon
IN PERSPECTIVE:
Solar and Lunar Eclipses

Solar Eclipse Lunar Eclipse

Types of Eclipses
 The Inner Planets

• Mars
– The fourth and last of the inner
planets
– Dubbed as The Red Planet because
of the oxidation of iron, which gives it
a red hue
– Named after the God of War
– Also the Earth’s “other” twin in terms Mars
of geologic, atmospheric, and
hydrologic composition as it is similar
to Earth, hence, it is similar to Earth,
and is the nearest candidate to
terraforming and eventual
colonization by humans Deimos Phobos
 The Inner Planets

• Mars
– This planet is also home to the universe’s
biggest active volcano, Olympus Mons,
which is about ten times the size of Earth’s
Mt. Everest, as well as the biggest canyon
in the universe, Valles Marinares, which is
about ten times the size of Earth’s Grand
Canyon
– If ever there was a difference, it is that Mars
has a thinner atmosphere relative to Earth, Mars
and that its water concentrated in its ice
caps is rich in Carbon Dioxide, apart from
the same gas present in the atmosphere
– 1 year in Mars = 687 days
– Axis rotation = 24.6 hours
Deimos Phobos
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Moons of Mars
• Phobos
– The inner of Mars’ moons, and is bigger than Deimos
– Named after the Personification of Fear
– Relative to the moon, it is 1/3 in size, but its surface is relatively
unremarkable save for a few craters
– Due to its proximity to Mars, it is believed that this moon might
one day crash into Mars
Phobos

• Deimos
– The outer of Mars’ moons, and is smaller than Phobos
– Named after the Personification of Terror
– Relative to the moon, it is 1/5 in size, with its surface as
unremarkable as its sister moon
– As it is farther from the reaches of Mars’ gravitational pull, it
might one day fly out of Mars’ orbit and disappear forever Deimos
The Asteroid Belt

• It is the boundary between the inner

planets and the Jovian planets
• Up to this day, nobody is exactly sure why
there is a belt of planetary debris existing in
this area
• There are two most probable theories
explaining why it is there:
– One is that a planet once existed in this part,
but was annihilated by cataclysmic impacts
– Another is that it is simply a string of
leftovers from when the Solar System was
formed
• Meteors – an asteroid that has entered the
Earth system
• Meteorites – When a meteor disintegrates
upon entry into the Earth
 The Jovian Planets
• Jupiter
– The biggest planet in the Solar System
– Named after the God of the Gods and of the
Sky
– Its size is so enourmous, it is said that all the
planets in the solar system can fit into it
– Aside from its sheer size, it is also the planet
with the most moons, numbering up to 62, 4 of
which are known
• Callisto
• Europa
• Ganymede
• Io Jupiter

– The moons of Jupiter are the ones that

modulate its axis spin, thus partially slowing it
down
 The Jovian Planets
• Jupiter
– Red Spot
• The most defining feature of Jupiter
• A constant storm system that sustains winds up
to 402 km / hr
• It is by far the biggest storm system in the whole
universe, covering an area of 2.5 x 104 km in
diameter
– Based on several space missions, it is found
to be entirely gaseous, made up of mainly
hydrogen
– It is also the first of the Jovian planets to have
rings, although not as prominent as Saturn’s Jupiter
own rings
– Its magnetosphere is also enormous, as its
size extends partially into Saturn
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Jupiter
• Ganymede
– Jupiter’s largest moon
– Named after the Cupbearer of the Gods
– Has a thin atmosphere dominated by oxygen and has a planetary-
level magnetosphere
– It is a moon bigger than Mercury, but only has half its mass
– Its surface has two peculiarities:
• Older regions – cratered surface smoothed out by flowing ice
Ganymede
• Younger regions – Ridge ridden due to tectonic activity
• Callisto
– Second largest moon of Jupiter
– Named after the Nymph from which Ursa Major came from
– It is a moon slightly smaller than Mercury, only 1/3 of the size
– Has an extremely thin atmosphere made of carbon dioxide and
molecular oxygen
– Its surface is smoothed out with occasional craters, from which
water once flowed out, which smoothed out its surface Callisto
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Jupiter
• Io
– Jupiter’s third largest moon
– Named after the First Priestess of Hera
– It is the youngest moon in terms of surface feature due to two
reasons
– Volcanoes create new, younger land on its surface
– Europa and Ganymede pull this moon on either side, causing tidal
Io pulling, or the tectonic “turning out” of Io’s younger soil

• Europa
– Jupiter’s fourth largest moon
– Named after the Mother of the Judges of the Underworld
– Has a thin atmosphere made of ionic oxygen
– Its surface is made entirely of frozen ocean riddled with surface
cracks, with presumed volcanic vents underneath, which makes
it possible that this moon is entirely ocean on the surface
Europa
 The Jovian Planets
• Saturn
– Second largest planet in the Solar System
– Named after the Titan of the Harvest
– It is the planet best known for its rings,
divided into three sections (Noted as A, B,
and C by astronomers)
– Cassini ring – A ring-shaped gap in the
middle of the rings of Saturn
– These rings are made out of ice and rock,
and is silky in appearance when observed
under a standard telescope
Saturn – This planet, like all Jovian planets, are
gaseous, made up of 75% hydrogen and 25%
helium, with traces of ammonia, methane,
and water
 The Jovian Planets
• Saturn
– The wind system in this planet is even
stronger than Jupiter, which can reach
speeds up to ~1,770 km / hr
– It has 24 moons, seven of which are known,
and they are the following:
• Mimas
• Enceladus
• Tethys
• Dione
• Rhea
• Titan
Saturn
• Iapetus
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Saturn
• Mimas
– Seventh largest moon of Saturn
– Named after on of the famous Gigantes of Greek mythology
– Its striking feature is a Gigantic “scar”, a crater 130 km in diameter
and as deep as the height of Mt. Everest (Named Herschel after its
discoverer)
– Its surface is heavily riddled with craters, and is covered in ice Mimas

• Enceladus
– Sixth largest moon of Saturn
– Named after on of the gigantes that was buried under Mt. Etna
– Its surface is covered in thick ice, and reflects 100% of sunlight
reaching it
– It has an atmosphere dominated by water vapor
Enceladus – Its surface is cracked and riddled in ridges, suggesting a liquid
ocean underneath
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Saturn
• Tethys
– Fifth largest moon of Saturn
– Named after the Titan that is the wife of Oceanus
– It is a moon of solid ice, and is heavily cratered.
– It also have a very huge crater similar to Mimas but smaller (Called
Odysseus) and a huge valley named Ithaca Chasma which runs
about ¾ of Tethys’ surface Tethys

• Dione
– Named after the mother of the Goddess of Beauty and Love
– Densest of Saturn’s moons, and has an oxygen-rich atmosphere
– It is a moon that constantly faces Saturn, and is heavily cratered on
the side facing the outer space
– It s surface is also riddles in wisps, which are actually deep ice cliffs
Dione of unknown origin
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Saturn
• Rhea
– Second largest moon of Saturn
– Named after the the Wife of Cronus
– Has an atmosphere rich in oxygen
– Sister moon of Dione, and is also made of solid ice and is also facing Saturn
constantly
– Its surface is cratered and heavily cracked, especially on the side facing outer
space
Rhea

• Titan
– The largest of Saturn’s moons, named after giant race of deities in Greek
Mythology
– It is a moon under constant cover of radioactive clouds, which hides a very
rocky and icy interior surface
– Of all the moons in the Solar System, this is the only one that has its own
atmosphere, made predominantly out of hydrocarbons and nitrogen
Titan
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Saturn

• Iapetus
– Third largest moon of Saturn
– Named after the the Father of Prometheus and Atlas
– Its surface is a contrasting makeup of solid ice and asphalt, with the
asphalt side facing Saturn
• Ronceveaux Terra – Asphalt side riddled with craters
• Cassini Regio – Smooth, icy side
Iapetus
 The Jovian Planets

• Uranus
– Of the gaseous planets, this is known to
have a bluish hue similar to Earth
– It also has a noticeable ring encircling it,
but is thinner than Saturn’s
– This planet is tilted to its side, with
reasons unknown to Astronomers
– Also, unlike Saturn, its rings are made up
of space dust
– It has 17 moons, 5 of which are well
known, which are: Miranda, Ariel,
Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon
Uranus
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Uranus
• Miranda
– Smallest and the innermost of Uranus’s moons
– Named after the daughter of the magician Prospero in
Shakespeare’s The Tempest
– Miranda’s surface is characterized as a jigsaw of different
formations
• Fault lines, cliffs, canyons, plains, and rifts make up its surface
Miranda

• Ariel
– Fourth largest of Uranus’s moons
– Named after the mischievous fairy in Shakespeare’s The Tempest
– It is a moon made up of half rock, half solid ice
– Its most defining surface feature are the crisscross of rift valleys
found on the majority of its surface
Ariel
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Uranus
• Umbriel
– Third biggest of Uranus’s moons
– Named after the melancholy, dusky sprite in Alexander Pope’s
The Rape of the Rock
– Similar to Ariel, it is 50% rock, 50% ice
– It’s most peculiar feature is a bright spot, which is believed to be a
crater, on top of this moon (called Fluorescent Cheerio)
Umbriel
• Titania
– Uranus’s largest moon
– Named after the Queen of the Fairies and Oberon’s wife in Shakespeare’s A
Midsummer Night’s Dream
– Contains an atmosphere heavy with carbon dioxide
– Made also of rock and ice, but its rocky part is significantly bigger in
percentage than the other moons of Uranus
– It is described as a dirty ice ball due to its surface resembling ice mixed with
Titania mud with rift valleys and faults, with a significant number of craters
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
The Known Moons of Uranus

• Oberon
– Second biggest of Uranus’s moons
– Named after the King of the Fairies in Shakespeare’s A
Midsummer’s Night Dream
– Its surface is full of craters with a deposit of substance that is yet
to be discovered by Astronomers as to what the deposition is
composed of unknown composition and origin
Oberon
 The Jovian Planets

• Neptune
– Uranus’ sister planet
– Named after the God of the Sea
– This planet is similar to Uranus, but it has
swirls of clouds and dark spots of storm
systems reminiscent of Jupiter’s Red
Spot
– Also like its sister planet, Neptune ha a
thin set of rings, which is clumpy unlike
Uranus or Saturn’s own rings
– The giant dark blue spot is thought of as
a swirling storm of hydrogen sulfide,
Neptune
which dominates its atmosphere
– This planet has eight moons, with one
major known moon called Triton
 IN PERSPECTIVE:
Triton – Neptune’s Only Major Moon
• Triton is Neptune’s biggest moon
• Named after Poseidon’s son and
Trumpeter of the Sea
• Unlike most moons, this moon orbits the
planet in a retrograde manner, meaning it
orbits the planet in the opposite direction of
its axis rotation
• This moon is also the coldest heavenly
body in the Solar System
• This moon has a few craters, but is full of
ice volcanoes that are very active
• Also, this is the only moon together with
Saturn’s Titan to have an atmosphere,
Triton
although it is thinner than Titan’s own and
is composed of methane and nitrogen
Pluto – The Dwarf Planet of the
Solar System
• Pluto is the last heavenly body found on
the Milky Way Galaxy
• It is named after the God of the
Underworld
• It is a planet found on the farthest
region of the Milky Way, the Kuiper Belt
– Kuiper Belt – A band on the outer rim
of the Milky Way where a lot of small, icy
dwarf planets are found
• Its major “moon” Charon (named after
the Ferryman of the Dead) is not its
Pluto and its Moons actual moon, but rather both are planet-
like bodies that revolve around each
other
Pluto – The Dwarf Planet of the
Solar System
• Moreover, this twin planet has a
different orbit path than the major
planets, which is elliptical rather than
circular, and sometimes coincide with
the orbits of other planets
• The actual moons of Pluto are two
bodies smaller than Charon, named
Styx and Kerberos
• The surface of this heavenly body is
made entirely of ice riddled with
mountains
Pluto and its Moons
PART IV: THE EARTH
 Defining Earth as a Planet
• The Earth is deemed by Astronomers as the
rarest celestial body within the realm of the
observable universe
– It is situated at a distance where water can exist in
liquid form
– It’s surface temperature is neither hot nor cold, but
under a temperature just right for life to exist
– It is the only planet where life exists and thrives
• It is dubbed as The Blue Planet because of the
its surface being covered by water
• Sometimes also called as The Green Planet
because, instead of vast deserts like most of the
Rocky Planets, Earth’s landmasses are covered
with lush, green forests of plants in different The Earth Photographed at approximately
sizes and shapes 2.4 x105 miles Away by the Apollo 8 Space
Mission
 Defining Earth as a Planet
• Its is also the fifth largest planet in the
Solar System, respectably smaller than the
<<<<<<<<
Jovian planets but the biggest among the
Earth’s inner planets
Rotational • Its shape is generally perceived to be a
Distortion
round sphere, but is exactly an oblate
spheroid, as its axis rotation is so fast, its
spherical shape flattens at the poles and
bulges at the equator
• Also, the Earth is not completely vertical in
orientation, but is tilted at 23.5°
Earth’s Tilt – This tilt causes variations in climate,
>>>>>>>>> enabling the occurrence of the four seasons
 Defining Earth as a System
• The planet Earth, as it is the only planet that
can sustain life, has five dynamic biophysical
systems that work together for life’s
perpetuation and continuity
• These dynamic systems are called spheres,
and each sphere holds domain over one
specific biophysical character of the Planet
– Lithosphere (or Geosphere) – Domain of the
Physical Earth, namely the landmasses and
the solid layers underneath
– Hydrosphere – Domain of the Earth’s water
bodies, both freshwater and saltwater
– Atmosphere – Domain of the Earth’s skies,
including the air contained within
– Cryosphere – The domain of the frozen lands
of the Earth The Five Great “Spheres” of the Earth
– Biosphere – The domain of the life that
resides within and on the surface of the Earth
PART IV-1: THE LITHOSPHERE
 The Physical Earth

• The Lithosphere is the solid

part of the earth which includes
the crust and the plastic
Asthenosphere beneath
• Sometimes called alternately as
Geosphere
• It is primarily the solid, relatively
thin corrugated surface that
exists above the plastic film
which separates it from the
Lithosphere Emphasized with the
Removal of Water
mantle and the subsequent
layers.
 The Main Components of the
Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is composed
mainly of two parts:
– The Earth’s crust – The actual
lithospheric surface
– Tectonic plates – The thinner
solids lying beneath the crust
• This dual layer is made up primarily
of Oxygen and Silicon, which
makes the lithosphere relatively
hard despite its thinness
 The Main Components of the
Lithosphere
• The crust is subdivided into two major
components
– Continental Crust
• ~50km thick and ~2 billion years old
• Covers 0.4% of Earth
• The older part of the lithosphere
Composed primarily of Granite, which
makes it softer
– Oceanic Crust
• 20km thick and 180 million years old
• Covers 0.1% of the Earth
• The younger part of the lithosphere
covering the majority of the Earth’s
Main subdivisions of the Earth’s Crust
surface
• Composed primarily of Basalt, which
makes it relatively harder
 The Main Components of the
Lithosphere
• The tectonic plates and
the asthenosphere is the
thinner layer of the
lithosphere akin to a
cracked but still intact
eggshell.
• These parts constantly
move the crust to give birth
to younger land and sink
The Tectonic Plates (orange bounded)
older land (via subduction). and the Asthenosphere (orange lines)
 Beneath the Lithosphere…

• There are three other

layers beneath the actual
lithosphere, each with its
own vital function:
– Mantle – Directly beneath
the lithosphere
– Outer core – The liquid part
of the Earth’s center
Layers beneath the Lithosphere – Inner core – The solid part
of the Earth’s center
 Beneath the Lithosphere…

• Mantle
– The layer that begins from the
bottom of the crust and ends at
the surface of the outer core
– Divided into two regions:
• Upper Mantle
– 440-660km in thickness
– Mineralization occurs in this layer
• Lower Mantle
– 660-2700km in thickness
– This is where seismic activities originate

– It is about 3000°C and is

responsible for the convection
currents that causes the activities
happening on the lithosphere
 Beneath the Lithosphere…
• Outer Core
– The liquid part of the Earth’s center,
made up of molten nickel and iron
– Its temperature ranges from 4000 to
5000°C
– It is responsible for maintaining the
magnetic field of the Earth
• Inner Core
– Solid part of the Earth’s center, made
up primarily of iron
– It is the Earth’s hottest point, reaching
a temperature of 5200°C
– This is the part that generates Earth’s
magnetic field
PART IV-2: THE HYDROSPHERE
AND CRYOSPHERE
 The Earth’s Waters

• The hydrosphere is the domain

of the Earth’s waters, covering
about 75-79% of the planet’s
surface area
– 96.5% - Saltwater
– 2.5% - Freshwater
• Apart from the water we see,
groundwater and water vapor is
also part of it
• It functions mainly as the home
of the majority of life on the
planet, as well as the driving
force behind the Earth’s climate.
The Earth with the Landmasses Removed
 Main Water Bodies of the Earth

• The oceans and seas, or the oceanic systems, are the largest saltwater
bodies serving as the major drivers of the Earth’s climate by using a
gradient created by salinity and temperature, sinking cold, nutrient-
deprived waters down and bring warm, nutrient-enriched waters up..
 Main Water Bodies of the Earth

• The lakes or the lentic systems are the largest freshwater bodies serving
as the reservoirs of that replenish the water being lost by the oceanic
system in the process of circulating water gradients.
 Main Water Bodies of the Earth

• The rivers and streams or the lotic systems are the Earth’s tributaries, the
vessels in which waters from the sudden runoff from mountains replenish
the water contained in lakes, or as tributaries that deliver fresh supply of
water into the world’s oceans and seas.
 How Much Water is Usable by
Humans?
• Of all the waters
available on the
planet, only 1% can
be used by humans,
and the majority of it
comes from
groundwater, and the
small amount left
comes from lakes and
rivers.
 The Ice Worlds

• The cryosphere is a
<<<<<<<
The Arctic recently added domain
which covers the ice found
on each of the Poles.
• These areas cools down
the warm but already used
Antarctica
>>>>>>>
up water from down the
tropics and the equator
and releases it into the
atmosphere, aiding in the
thermal gradient that
drives the planet’s climate.
PART IV-3: THE ATMOSPHERE
 The Heavens Above…

• The atmosphere us the

domain that covers the mix
of gases blanketing the
planet, which provides us
with breathable air as well
as protection from extreme
radiation and exoplanetary
objects that intrude into our
planet.
• It also is the domain which
keeps the temperature
conducive for life in check.
The Air We Breathe
The Air We Breathe
Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
 Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
• Troposphere
– Lowest layer of the atmosphere
– 0-10 Km from the Earth’s
surface
– Also the warmest and heaviest
layer of the atmosphere
– This is where most of the
weather patterns occur (i.e.
rains, thunderstorms, typhoons,
cyclones, etc.) Clouds seen at the Upper Troposphere with
– This is the layer where clouds Lightning
also form
IN PERSPECTIVE:
Cloud formations in the Troposphere
 Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
• Stratosphere
– Layer above the troposphere
– 10-50 Km above the Earth’s surface
– Nacreous clouds
• Misty, iridescent clouds of the
stratosphere
• Results in the supercooling of water
when it reaches this layer
– Ozone
• The special cloud of O3 molecules
resulting from the dissociation of O2
molecules and reconstitution into this
The Moon Viewed from the Stratosphere molecule
• Protects the surface of the planet
from ultraviolet radiation
 Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
• Mesosphere
– Layer above the Stratosphere
– 50-85 Km above the Earth’s surface
– Highly invariable layer of the planet
because of its peculiar electrostatic
nature
– The layer which protects the Earth from
planetary debris entering the vicinity of
the planet
– Satellites also are frequent in this layer
– Noctilucent clouds
• Clouds of the mesosphere that are
thinner than the nacreous clouds A Satellite Seen Orbiting in the Mesosphere
– “Sprites” and “Elves”
• Electrostatic lights that flash across the
mesosphere akin to lightning
 Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
• Thermosphere
– Layer above the Mesosphere
– The thickest layer found at 90 to 500 and
even up to a 1000 Km above the Earth’s
surface
– Previously thought as part of the outer
space
– Mixing of the Earth’s gases happen here,
influenced by solar activity and turbulent
circulation persistent in this layer
– Aurora
The Aurora as Seen in the Thermosphere • The spectacle of “silky lights” which occur
with the collision of charged particles from
space with the particles existing in this
layer
• Aurora Borealis – Northern lights
• Aurora Australis – Southern lights
 Vertical Zonation of the
Atmosphere
• Exosphere
– The outermost layer of the Atmosphere
– In theory, it extends from 500 up to
120,000 Km above the Earth’s surface,
a distance halfway to the moon
– However, this part of the atmosphere is
still debate whether the it is part of the
atmosphere
• Its edge fades into the void of the
universe
• Almost no trace of air is found here
– Gas particles are so far apart in this The Milky Way in View of the Exosphere
layer, that collision occurs only when it
arcs up out of the thermosphere and
gets pulled back by gravity
PART IV-4: THE BIOSPHERE
 The Realm of Life

The Biospheric Domains as of 2009: CAN YOU NAME THEM ALL?

• The biosphere is the domain in which all life forms are found
• They are segregated into ecosystems, a dynamic systems of
flora and fauna that is unique to every demographic latitude