UNIT 4

ENGINEERING SOIL CLASSIFICATION

 SYLLABUS
PART 1: CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

a. PARTICLE – SIZE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

b. TEXTURAL ( TRIANGULAR CHART) CLASSIFICATION
c. ENGINEERING SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
(i) UNIFIED SYSTEM
(ii) AASHO SYSTEM
(iii) CAA SYSTEM
(iv) IS (INDIAN STANDARD) SYSTEM

PART 2: GRAIN – SIZE DISTRIBUTION DETERMINATION

a. SIEVE ANALYSIS [ For Gravel and Sand]
b. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS [ For Silts, Clays and Colloids]
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

CLASSIFICATION BASIS
GEOLOGICAL GENESIS
PEDOLOGICAL GENESIS &
MORPHOLOGY
ENGINEERING GRADATION AND
PLASTICITY
CHARACTERISTICS
 PARTICLE SIZE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

U.S. PUBLIC ROADS ADMINISTRATION (USPRA) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

M.I.T CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

 INDIAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION (IS: 1498 – 1970)
PARTICLE SIZE RANGES

BUT, THESE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS DO NOT ADDRESS

CASES OF REAL SOILS, WHICH ARE MIXTURES OF SEVERAL
SIZE FRACTIONS.
HENCE, TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM IS USED…..>>>>>
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (BASED ON USPRA SYSTEM)
 EXAMPLES:
A
1. SAND = 30%
2. SILT = 30%
3. CLAY = 40%
100%  CLAY
B
A 1. GRAVEL = 25%
2. SAND = 32% -> (32/75)*100 = 43 %
B 3. SILT = 27% -> (27/75)*100 = 36 %
4. CLAY = 16% -> (16/75)*100 = 21 %
100% -> 100 %
 CLAY LOAM

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (BASED ON USPRA SYSTEM)

THESE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS CONSIDER ONLY GRADATION

AND NOT PLASTICITY.
BASED ON USPRA CLASSIFICATION
USPRA

US DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE
(USDA)
 ENGINEERING SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEMS

THESE SYSTEMS CONSIDER

1. GRADATION CHARACTERISTICS, and
2. PLASTICITY CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOILS….
 HISTORY OF DEVEL0PMENT
MAJOR USERS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN THE 1930’S:
1. ROADWAYS 2. RAILWAYS 3. AIRFIELDS 4. ARMY

MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS WHICH WERE USED AT THAT TIME:

1. CASAGRANDE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR AIRFIELDS

2. USBPR [U.S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS ] CLASSIFICATION

THERE WERE MANY DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED DURING

THEIR USAGE
SO, IN 1942 – U.S. CORPS OF ARMY ENGINEERS TOOK STOCK
OF ALL AVAILABLE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS.
FINALLY ACCEPTED / ADOPTED CLASSIFICATIONS:

1. UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

[MODIFIED CASAGRANDE SYSTEM]

2. AASHO [AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY

OFFICIALS] CLASSIFICATION
[ MODIFIED USPRA SYSTEM]

3. CAA [CIVIL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION] CLASSIFICATION

INDIAN STANDARD CLASSIFICATION IS

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
WITH A MINOR MODIFICATION
[IS 1498 – 1970]
FIRST, LET US SEE
THE UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
FOR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

IT IS
MODIFIED CASAGRANDE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

FINE COARSE GRAINED

GRAINED GRAVEL
SAND
1 2

UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

 UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
[MODIFIED CASAGRANDE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM]
1 SOIL
50% RETAINED ON SIEVE 50% PASSING THROUGH
# 200 [75 μ (0. 075 mm) SIEVE # 200 [75 μ (0. 075
dia] mm) dia]

COARSE GRAINED FINE GRAINED SOIL

SOIL

GO TO
50 % RETAINED 50% PASSING PLASTICITY
ON SIEVE # 4 THROUGH SIEVE # 4 CHART
(4.75 mm) (4.75 mm)
CH, MH, OH
GRAVEL SAND CL, ML, OL

GW, GP, GM, GC SW, SP, SM, SC

PARAMETERS USED:
PARAMETERS USED: Cu , Cc & % FINES L.L. & P.I
 2

Cu – UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT, AND

Cc - COEFFICIENT OF CURVATURE ----????
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 3

CASAGRANDE’S PLASTICITY CHART

UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

HOW TO USE THE CLASSFICATION CHART??
 DETERMINATION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

GRAIN SIZES MAY VARY FROM >300 mm TO < 0.75 mm

IN A REAL SOIL - HENCE, THERE ARE TWO METHODS:

1. SIEVE ANALYSIS
2. HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

SIEVE ANALYSIS HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

IS USED FOR PARTICLE SIZES IS USED FOR PARTICLE SIZES
UPTO 0.075 mm ( SIEVE # 200) < 0.075 mm ( SIEVE # 200)
 100 mm, 63 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm AND 4.75 mm.
2mm, 1mm, 600 μ, 300 μ, 150 μ AND 75 μ.

TYPICAL SIEVE

TYPICAL SIEVE SET

SIEVE ANALYSIS VIDEO TYPICAL SIEVE

[Link] SHAKER
 SIEVE ANALYSIS METHOD (IS 2386-PART-1-1963)
1. TAKE 500g OF OVEN DRY SOIL
2. SEPARATE THE SOIL FRACTIONS PASSING AND RETAINED ON
SIEVE # 4 (4.75 mm)
TAKE SOIL RETAINED ON SIEVE # 4
1. SIEVE THE SOIL RETAINED ON # 4 BY HAND SIEVING
THROUGH SIEVES OF 100 mm, 63 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm AND
4.75 mm.
2. BREAK THE PARTICLE AGGREGATES, IF ANY, USING A
RUBBER PESTLE
3. RECORD THE WEIGHT OF SOIL RETAINED ON EACH SIEVE
4. IF SOIL CONTAINS COHESIVE SOIL PARTICLES, USE WET
SIEVE ANALYSIS.
TAKE SOIL PASSING SIEVE # 4
1. TAKE A SIEVE SET CONSISTING OF 2mm, 1mm, 600 μ, 300 μ,
150 μ AND 75 μ. SIEVES. PUT COVER AND RECEIVER.
2. SIEVE USING A SIEVE SHAKER.
 CALCULATIONS

1. CALCULATE PERCENTAGE RETAINED ON ANY SIEVE AS:

𝑾𝑻.𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝑬𝑻𝑨𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑫
x 100 %
𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑾𝑻.𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑰𝑳 𝑻𝑨𝑲𝑬𝑵

2. CALCULATE CUMULATIVE % RETAINED AS:

SUM OF % RETAINED ON ALL COARSER SIEVES

3. CALCULATE % FINER AS :
N = 100 – CUMULATIVE % RETAINED.

FINALLY,
PLOT THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
 EXAMPLES OF
TYPICAL GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES

WHY LOG GRAPH?

1. RANGE OF PARTICLE SIZES
IS LARGE
2. SOILS WITH SAME CU WILL
APPEAR SIMILAR
D10 - EFFECTIVE SIZE
- MAXIMUM DIAMETER OF THE SMALLEST 10 % OF SOIL
BY WEIGHT
D60 - MAXIMUM DIAMETER OF THE SMALLEST 10 % OF SOIL
BY WEIGHT

CU - UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT = D60 / D10

CC - COEFFICIENT OF CURVATURE = D230 / D60 x D10

GW – A WELL GRADED SOIL

- A SOIL CONTAINING A FAIRLY EQUAL PERCENTAGE OF
PARTICLES OF ALL SIZES
ADVANTAGE – SMALLER PARTICLES OCCUPY SPACES / VOIDS
BETWEEN LARGER PARTICLES & HENCE GOOD PACKING,
GOOD DENSITY AND GOOD COMPACTION ARE ACHIEVED.
A WELL GRADED SOIL
- CONTAINS A FAIRLY EQUAL
PERCENTAGE OF PARTICLES
OF ALL SIZES
A TYPICAL SIEVE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE
TYPICAL SIEVE ANALYSIS RESULTS
 D10 = 0.12 mm; D30 = 0.35 mm; D60 = 1.1 mm.
Cu = D60 /D10 = 9.17 & Cc = D302 /(D10 x D60) = 0.93
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF
GRADATION CURVES
 3 2
1
% Finer by weight

log (dia, mm)

1. WELL – GRADED: A GOOD HORIZONTAL SPREAD, SIGNIFYING PRESENCE OF
A FAIR PROPORTION OF SEVERAL PARTICLE SIZES.
2. POORLY GRADED : NOT SO GOOD A HORIZONTAL SPREAD
3. UNIFORMLY GRADED - NEARLY VERTICAL CURVE: MOST PARTICLES ARE OF
ONE SIZE
4. GAP GRADED – NEARLY HORIZONTAL CURVE: SAME % FINER FOR MANY
DIAMETERS, i.e. SEVERAL PARTICLE SIZES ARE ABSENT.

TYPICAL GRAIN – SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVES

 F

A – POORLY GRADED COARSE SILT B - WELL GRADED SANDY LOAM

C - WELL GRADED SILT D - UNIFORMLY GRADED FINE SAND
E – WELL GRADED SAND F - GAP GRADED SOIL

SOME MORE EXAMPLES OF GRADATION CURVES

I. S. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
I. S. CLASSIFICATION FOR COARSE – GRAINED SOILS
I. S. CLASSIFICATION FOR FINE – GRAINED SOILS
PLASTICITY CHART EQUATION OF A - LINE
I.S. SYSTEM IP = 0.73 (wL– 20)
PLASTICITY CHART EQUATION OF A - LINE
UNIFIED SYSTEM IP = 0.73 (wL– 20)
 PLASTICITY CHART

UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM I.S. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

COMPARISON OF PLASTICITY CHARTS

UTILITY OF THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
GROUP INDEX CHART
 GROUP INDEX
G.I. = 0.2 a + 0.005 a c + 0.01 b d

a = 0 to 40
= 0 FOR % PASSING SIEVE # 200 </= 35
= 40 FOR % PASSING SIEVE # 200 >/= 75

b = 0 to 40
= 0 FOR % PASSING SIEVE # 200 </= 15
= 40 FOR % PASSING SIEVE # 200 >/= 55

c = 0 to 20
= 0 FOR L L </= 40
= 20 FOR L L >/= 60

d = 0 FOR P I </= 20
= 20 FOR P I >/= 30

EXAMPLE : IF % PASSING # 200 = 58 ; L L = 30 AND P I = 10

a = 23; b = 40; c = 0; and d = 0  G I = 4. 6 = 5
Consider the same soil as before:

L L = 40

P I = 30

ASSUME % PASSING # 40 = 98
G I -> % PASSING # 200 = 6.36  a = 0 b = 0 c = 0 and d = 20 G. I. = 0

THE GIVEN SOIL IS: A-3 ; FINE SAND – SUITABILITY = EXCELLENT TO GOOD
DETERMINATION OF GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

1. SIEVE ANALYSIS
2. HYDROMETER METHOD / PIPETTE METHOD

SIEVE ANALYSIS IS USED FOR PARTICLE SIZES

UPTO 0.075 mm ( SIEVE # 200)

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS or SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS

IS USED FOR PARTICLE SIZES
< 0.075 mm ( SIEVE # 200)
 THE HYDROMETER METHOD
(FOR FINE-GRAINED SOILS < 0.075 mm DIA)
HYDROMETER
A HYDROMETER IS CALIBRATED TO MEASURE
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT ITS CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
 HYDROMETER

SYRINGE

[Link]
IS PLACED INSIDE
SYRINGE.
2. ACID IS
WITHDRAWN
FROM BATTERY
WITH SYRINGE.
A CAR BATTERY 3. HYDROMETER
FLOATS INSIDE &
DIVIDED INTO CELLS - 4 MEAUSRES
ELECTRODES: LEAD G OF ACID
ELECTROLYTES–SULPHURIC
ACID. DESIRABLE
G = 1.2 to 1.23

A COMMON EXAMPLE OF USE OF A HYDROMETER TO MEASURE SP. GR.

 A). VELOCITY OF FALL OF SOIL PARTICLES IN A FLUID
- STOKES’S LAW

1. THIS METHOD IS USED FOR DETERMINING GRAIN

SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SOILS FINER THAN SIEVE #
200 [ 0.075 mm] ∆

2. IT IS BASED ON PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION AND h <D

SEDIMENTATION
A B
- WHEN SOIL IS PLACED IN WATER IN A JAR, >D
LARGER SIZE PARTICLES SETTLE FASTER IN WATER
THAN SMALLER ONES [i.e., v α D2 - STOKE’S LAW]
AT TIME t
3. THE VELOCITY INITIALLY INCREASES AND REACHES
A MAXIMUM VALUE AND REMAINS CONSTANT.
THIS IS KNOWN AS THE TERMINAL VELOCITY.
 B). SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SUSPENSION
& PERCENT FINER

4. SO, AT LEVEL AB, AT DEPTH h, AND ANY TIME t,

PARTICLES < D (FINER THAN D) WILL BE ABOVE AB ∆
& > D, WILL BE BELOW.
h <D
5. HENCE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE SOLUTION WILL
CHANGE WITH DEPTH AND TIME. A B
>D
6. THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT ANY DESIRED INSTANT IS
MEASURED WITH A HYDROMETER. AT TIME t

7. FROM THIS, % FINER BY WIEGHT THAN A GIVEN

DIAMETER IS CALCULATED.
 MAJOR STEPS IN HYDROMETER METHOD

h1 h2 h3 h4
D1
D2 D3
D4

1. DETERMINING D, THE DIAMETER OF THE PARTICLES AT A

h <D
GIVEN DEPTH h AND TIME t [ see Equn. (1) ]
A B
2. DETERMINING THE % FINER BY WEIGHT THAN THE DIAMETER >D
D OBTAINED ABOVE [ see Equn. (2)]

3. PLOTTING THE GRAIN – SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE AT TIME t

 PART 1: EXPRESSION FOR D AT DEPTH D AT TIME t
ACCORDING TO STOKE’S LAW,
𝟐 𝜸𝒔 − 𝜸𝑳
𝐯 𝜶 𝑫𝟐 𝑶𝑹 𝑰𝑵 𝑪𝑮𝑺 𝑼𝑵𝑰𝑻𝑺 −→ 𝒗 = g r2
𝟗 𝜼
Take liquid as water; Then, 𝜸𝑳 = 𝜸𝑾 . Let r be in cm; Then D=20r mm
Multiplying and dividing by 𝜸𝑾 , we have:

𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝑮𝑺 −𝟏
v= g 𝜸𝑾 ( ) [𝜸𝒔 / 𝜸𝑾 = GS]
𝟗 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝜼 h
Let 𝛈 = 0.01 in CGS Units and 𝜸𝑾 = 𝟏; Then,
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝜼 𝒗
D= 𝒈 (𝑮𝑺 −𝟏)

But, v = h/60 t ; ( h-depth of Centre of Gravity of bulb; t is in min.)

𝟑𝟎 η𝒉 𝜼𝒉
𝑫= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓
𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝑮𝑺 − 𝟏 (𝑮𝑺 − 𝟏) ………….. (1)

v – Terminal velocity of settling in mm/sec ; r, D – radius and diameter in mm;

𝜸𝒔 − Unit Wt. of solids ( gm/cm3 ); Gs – Specific Gravity of solids;
𝜸𝑳 - Unit wt. of Liquid γW GL – Specific Gravity of Liquid;
η - viscosity of Liquid in CGS Units = 0.01
 PART 2: EXPRESSION FOR PERCENT FINER
WEIGHT OF PARTICLES FINER THAN D [i.e. < D], WHERE D IS GIVEN BY EQUN (1)

= WD = WEIGHT OF SOLIDS PER ml UPTO DEPTH h AFTER TIME t

𝑾𝑻. 𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫𝑺 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍 𝑼𝑷𝑻𝑶 𝑫𝑬𝑷𝑻𝑯 𝒉 𝑨𝑭𝑻𝑬𝑹 𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬 𝒕 𝑾𝑫

% FINER (by Wt.) THAN D = = x 100
𝑾𝑻. 𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫𝑺 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍 𝑰𝑵 𝑶𝑹𝑰𝑮𝑰𝑵𝑨𝑳 𝑺𝑼𝑺𝑷𝑬𝑵𝑺𝑰𝑶𝑵 𝑾

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SUSPENSION WE KNOW,

𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫𝑺 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍
= 𝑮𝑺
𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍 𝜸𝒅 = 𝜸𝒘
𝟏+ 𝒆
𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍 + 𝑺𝑼𝑩𝑴𝑬𝑹𝑮𝑬𝑫 𝑾𝑻.𝑶𝑭 𝑺𝑶𝑳𝑰𝑫𝑺 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍
= 𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃 =
𝑮𝑺 −𝟏
𝜸𝒘
𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 𝑶𝑭 𝑾𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹 𝑷𝑬𝑹 𝒎𝒍
𝑮 −𝟏 𝟏+ 𝒆
= 1 + SUBMERGED WEIGHT OF SOLIDS PER ml = 1 + WD ( 𝑺𝑮 )
𝑺 𝑮𝑺 −𝟏
LET HYDROMETER READING BE R. THEN So, 𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃 = 𝜸𝒅
𝑮𝑺
𝑹 𝑮𝑺
WD = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝑮 −𝟏) …………(2)
𝑺 But, WD = 𝜸𝒅

THUS, FROM EQUN (1) WE CAN GET D

AND, FROM EQUN (2) WE CAN GET % FINER THAN D
TYPICAL TIMES t FOR DIFFERENT PARTICLE SIZES D ARE ( FOR h = 10 cm) :
From Equn. (1)

Dia. D in mm Time t in min.

(h = 10 mm)

0.06 0.5 min.

0.02 4.6 min.

0.006 51.6 min. ≈ 1 hr.

0.002 464.0 min. ≈ 7.7 hr.

0.001 1856.0 𝐦𝐢𝐧. ≈ 31.0 hr.

THEREFORE A HYDROMETER ANALYSIS IS TYPICALLY CONDUCTED

FOR ABOUT 48 Hrs.
Consider the same example used for Sieve Analysis.

Suppose the following is the result of Hydrometer analysis

carried out on the soil passing through Sieve # 200.

S. No. Dia. (mm) % Finer

1 0.05 7
2 0.005 6
3 0.002 5

THE REVISED GRAIN – SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

IS AS SHOWN ON NEXT SLIDE 
 D10 = 0.12 mm; D30 = 0.35 mm; D60 = 1.1 mm.
Cu = D60 /D10 = 9.17 & Cc = D302 /(D10 x D60) = 0.93
 PRE - TREATMENT OF SOIL USED FOR HYDROMETER
ANALYSIS

1. The soil is to be pretreated with an oxidizing agent like

Hydrogen Peroxide and with an Acid like Dilute HCl to
remove Organic matter.

2. Since Clayey soils tend to form clods, to avoid

overestimating D, a dispersing agent like Sodium
hexameta phosphate or Sodium Oxalate is to be added
to the suspension to break the clods into individual
particles.
CORRECTIONS TO BE APPLIED TO HYDROMETER READINGS

The Hydrometer reading h has to be corrected.

The corrections are:

(i) Immersion correction

(ii) Meniscus Correction,
(iii) Temperature Correction &
(iv) Dispersing agent correction
1. Immersion correction
1. When Hydrometer is inserted into the soil suspension, it displaces
liquid equal to its own volume, VH.
2. Rise in liquid level = VH /2 AJ

3. The correction him = – (VH /2 AJ) - Aj = Area of x-section of jar

2. Meniscus correction
1. Since soil suspension is opaque, only the upper meniscus of liquid
can be read, whereas the correct reading is that corresponding to
the lower meniscus.

2. To get the correct liquid level, place the hydrometer in clear water
and read the lower meniscus.

3. The correction is:

hm = – (difference between the reading in suspension and water)
3. Temperature correction
1. Hydrometer is calibrated at 200 C. If experiment is carried out any
other Temperature, correction has to be applied. The correction can be
obtained from a correction chart.
ht = – Temp. Correction [ if temperature of analysis is less]
= + Temp. Correction [ if temperature of analysis is more]

4. Dispersion Agent correction

1. Addition of dispersion agent Sodium Oxalate increases the Specific
Gravity of suspension

2. The required correction is found by placing the Hydrometer in distilled

water containing Sodium Oxalate.

The correction is : hd = hw

Final corrected hf = h - him – hm +/- ht – hd

THE END