Chapter 2

Soil classification

2.1 Soil borehole record

• Soils are generally described in the borelog (borehole record) using the following
sequence of terms:
– Drilling Information
– Soil Type
– Unified Soil Classification (USC) Symbol
– Colour
– Plasticity/Particle Description
– Structure
– Consistency (Strength)
– Moisture Condition
– Origin
– Water Level
• The Borelog term is liberally used here for, but can be a Test Pit or Borehole log.

Table 2.1 Borelog.

Drilling information Soil description Field testing Strata information

Dynamic cone penetrometer
Plasticity/particle description

Standard penetration type

USC symbol/soil type

Pocket penetrometer
Drilling method

Shear vane test

Consistency
Sample type

Graphic log
Water level

Structure

Elevation
Moisture
Colour

Origin
Depth

Depth

• Identification of the Test log is also required with the following data:
– Client.
– Project Description.

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 18 Soil classification

– Project Location.
– Project Number.
– Sheet No. – of –.
– Reference: Easting, Northing, Elevation, Inclination.
– Date started and completed.
– Geomechanical details only. Environmental details not covered.

2.2 Borehole record in the field

• The above is an example of a template of a final log to be used by designer. The
sequence of entering field data, its level of detail and relevance can be different.
• Advantages of the dissimilar borehole template in the field are:
– A specific field log allows greater space to capture field information relevant
to a quality log but also administrative details not relevant to the designer
(final version).
– The design engineer prefers both a different sequence of information and
different details from the field log, ie the field log may include some
administrative details for payment purpose that is not relevant to the designer.
– A designer often uses the borelog information right to left, ie assessing key
issues on the right of he page when thumbing through logs, then looking at
details to the left, while the field supervisor logs left to right, ie, progressively
more details are added left to right.
– In this regard a landscape layout is better for writing the field logs while a
portrait layout is better for the final report.
• However, many prefer the field log to look the same as the final produced borehole
record.

Table 2.2 Borehole record in the field.

Drilling information Sampling and testing Soil description Comments and origin
Plasticity/particle description
Field test – type (PP< SPT,

USC symbol/soil type

Amount of recovery
Drilling method

Time of drilling

Consistency
SV, PP, DCP)
Sample type
Water level

Structure

Moisture
Colour
Depth

• Pocket and Palm PCs are increasingly being used. Many practitioners prefer not
to rely only on an electronic version. These devices are usually not suitable for
logging simultaneously with fast production rates of drilling, even with coded

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 Soil classification 19

entries. These devices are useful in mapping cuttings and for relatively slow rock
coring on site, or for cores already drilled.

2.3 Drilling information

The table shows typical symbols only. Many consultants may have their own variation.

Table 2.3 Typical drilling data symbols.

Symbol Equipment

BH Backhoe bucket (rubber tyred machine)

EX Excavator bucket (tracked machine)
HA Hand auger
AV Auger drilling with steel “V’’ bit
AT Auger drilling with tungsten carbide (TC) bit
HOA Hollow auger
R Rotary drilling with flushing of cuttings using
RA – air circulation
RM – bentonite or polymer mud circulation
RC – water circulation
Support using
C – Casing
M – Mud
W – Water

2.4 Water level

• The importance of this measurement on all sites cannot be over-emphasised.
• Weather/rainfall conditions at the time of the investigation are also relevant.

Table 2.4 Water level.

Symbol Water measurement

∇ Measurement standing water level and date

∇ Water noted
 Water inflow
 Water/drilling fluid loss

2.5 Soil type

• The soil type is the main input in describing the ground profile.
• Individual particle sizes <0.075 mm (silts and clays), are indistinguishable by the
eye alone.
• Some codes use the 60 µm instead of the 75 µm, which is consistent with the
numerical values of the other particle sizes.

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 20 Soil classification

• Refer Australian Standard (AS1726 – 1993) on Site Investigations for many of the
following Tables.

Table 2.5 Soil type and particle size.

Major Divisions Symbols Subdivision Particle size

Boulders
200 mm
Cobbles 60 mm–200 mm
Coarse 20 mm–60 mm
Gravels
Coarse grained soils (more than half of coarse G Medium 6 mm–20 mm
(more than half of material fraction is larger than 2 mm).
is larger than 0.075 mm). Fine 2 mm–6 mm
Coarse 0.6 mm–2 mm
Sands
(more than half of coarse S Medium 0.2 mm–0.6 mm
fraction is smaller than 2 mm).
Fine 75 mm–0.2 mm
Silts M
Fine grained soils
High/low
(more than half of material Clays C 75 m
plasticity
is smaller than 0.075 mm).
Organic O

2.6 Sedimentation test

• The proportion of sizes >2 mm (gravel sizes) can be easily distinguished within
the bulk samples.
• Sizes <2 mm (sands, silts and clays) are not easily distinguished in a bulk sample.
• A sedimentation test is useful in this regard for an initial assessment.
• For a full classification, a hydrometer and sieve test is required.

Table 2.6 Sedimentation tests for initial assessment of particle sizes.

Material type Approximate time for particles to settle in 100 mm of water

Coarse sand 1 second

Fine sand 10 seconds
Silt 1–10 minutes
Clay 1 hour

• Shaking the jar with soil sample +100 mm of water should show the coarse par-
ticles settling after 30 seconds. Clear water after this period indicates little to no
fine sizes.

2.7 Unified soil classification

• The soil is classified in the field initially, but must be validated by some laboratory
testing.

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 Soil classification 21

Figure 2.1 Grading curve.

• Without any laboratory validation test, then any classification is an “opinion’’.

Even with confirmatory laboratory testing, then the log is still an interpolation on
validity.

Table 2.7 Unified soil classification (USC) group symbols.

Soil type Description USC symbol

Gravels Well graded GW

Poorly graded GP
Silty GM
Clayey GC
Sands Well graded SW
Poorly graded SP
Silty SM
Inorganic silts Clayey SC
Low plasticity ML
High plasticity MH
Inorganic clays Low plasticity CL
High plasticity CH
Organic with silts/clays of low plasticity OL
with silts/clays of high plasticity OH
Peat Highly organic soils Pt

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 22 Soil classification

• Laboratory testing is essential in borderline cases, eg silty sand vs sandy silt.

– Once classified many inferences on the behaviour and use of the soil is made.
– Medium Plasticity uses symbols mixed or intermediate symbols eg CL/CH or
CI (Intermediate).

2.8 Particle description

• The particle description is usually carried out in the field.

Table 2.8 Particle distribution.

Particle description Subdivision

Large size (Boulders, cobbles, gravels, sands) Coarse/medium/fine

Fine size (Silts, clays) Plasticity
Spread (gradation) Well/poorly/gap/uniform
Shape Rounded/sub-rounded/sub-angular/angular

– These simple descriptions can influence the design considerably. For example
an angular grain has a larger frictional value than a rounded grain.

2.9 Gradings
• While some field descriptions can be made on the spread of the particle
distribution, the laboratory testing provides a quantitative assessment for design.

Table 2.9 Gradings.

Symbol Description Comments

D10 (mm) Effective size – 10% passing sieve

D60 (mm) Median size – 60% passing sieve
U Uniformity coefficient = D60 /D10 Uniformly graded U < 5
C Coefficient of curvature = D230 /(D60 D10 ) Well graded U > 5 and C = 1 to 3

2.10 Colour
• Colour Charts may be useful to standardise descriptions and adjacent to core
photos.

Table 2.10 Colour description.

Parameter Description

Tone Light/dark/mottled
Shade Pinkish/reddish/yellowish/brownish/greenish/bluish/greyish
Hue Pink/red/yellow/orange/brown/green/blue/purple/white/grey/black
Distribution Uniform/non – uniform (spotted/mottled/streaked/striped)

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 Soil classification 23

2.11 Soil plasticity

• Typically a good assessment can be made of soil plasticity in the field.
• Some classification systems uses the Intermediate (I) symbol instead of the L/H.
The latter is an economy of symbols.

Table 2.11 Soil plasticity.

Term Symbol Field assessment

Non plastic – Falls apart in hand

Low plasticity L Cannot be rolled into (3 mm) threads when moist
Medium plasticity L/H Can be rolled into threads Shows some shrinkage on drying
High plasticity H when moist. Considerable shrinkage on drying.
Greasy to touch. Cracks in dry material

Figure 2.2 Consistency limits.

2.12 Atterberg limits

• Laboratory Testing for the Atterberg confirms the soil plasticity descriptors
provided in the field.
• These tests are performed on the % passing the 425 micron sieve. This % should
be reported. There are examples of “rock’’ sites having a high PI, when 90% of
the sample has been discarded in the test.

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 24 Soil classification

Table 2.12 Atterberg limits.

Symbol Description Comments

LL Liquid limit – minimum moisture content at which a soil will Cone penetrometer test
flow under its own weight. or casagrande apparatus.
PL Plastic limit – Minimum moisture content at which a 3 mm Test
thread of soil can be rolled with the hand without
breaking up.
SL Shrinkage limit – Maximum moisture content at which a Test.
further decrease of moisture content does not cause a
decrease in volume of the soils.
PI Plasticity Index = LL–PL Derived from other tests.
LS Linear shrinkage is the minimum moisture content for Test. Used where difficult
soil to be mouldable. to establish PL and LL.
PI = 2.13 LS.

2.13 Structure
• This descriptor can significantly affect the design.
• For example, the design strength, a fissured clay is likely to have only 2/3 of the
design strength of a non fissured clay; the design slope is considerably different
from fissured and non fissured; the permeability is different.

Table 2.13 Structure.

Term applies to soil type

Field identification
Coarse grained Fine grained Organic

←-------------- Heterogenous ----------------→ A mixture of types.

←------- Homogenous ------→ Deposit consists of essentially of one type.

←---- Interstratified, interbedded, Alternating layers of varying types or with

X
interlaminated ---→ bands or lenses of other materials.

X Intact X No fissures.

X Fissured X Breaks into polyhedral fragments.

Polished and striated defects caused by motion

X Slickensided X
of adjacent material.

Plant remains recognisable and retainssome

X X Fibrous
strength.

X X Amorphous No recognisable plant remains.

Totally decomposed rock with no identifiable

Saprolytic/Residual Soils X
parent rock structure.

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2.14 Consistency of cohesive soils

• Field assessments are typically used with a tactile criterion. The pocket penetrom-
eter can also be used to quantify the values, but it has limitations due to scale
effects, conversions, sample used on and the soil type. Refer Section 5.
• These strength terms are different for British Standards.

Table 2.14 Consistency of cohesive soil.

Term Symbol Field assessment Thumb pressure Undrained shear

penetration strength (kPa)

Very soft VS Exudes between fingers when squeezed. >25 mm <12

Soft S Can be moulded by light finger pressure. >10 mm 12–25
Firm F Can be moulded by strong finger pressure. <10 mm 25–50
Stiff St Cannot be moulded by fingers. <5mm 50–100
Can be indented by thumb pressure.
Very stiff VSt Can be indented by thumbnail. <1 mm 100–200
Hard H Difficult to be indented by thumbnail. ∼0 mm >200

– Hard Clays can have values over 500 kPa. However above that value the
material may be referred to as a claystone or mudstone, i.e an extremely low
strength rock.

2.15 Consistency of non cohesive soils

• The SPT value in this Table is a first approximation only using the uncorrected
SPT value.
• The SPT values in this Table are an upper bound for coarse granular materials for
field assessment only. Correction factors are required for detailed design.
• The SPT needs to be corrected for overburden, energy ratio and particle size. This
correction is provided in later chapters.

Table 2.15 Consistency of non-cohesive soil.

Term Symbol Field assessment SPT Density

N – value index (%)

Very loose VL 50 mm peg easily driven. Foot imprints easily. <4 <15
Loose L 12 mm reinforcing bar easily Shovels easily. 4–10 15–35
pushed by hand.
Medium MD 12 mm bar needs hammer Shovelling difficult. 10–30 35–65
dense to drive >200 mm.
Dense D 50 mm peg hard to drive. Needs pick for 30–50 65–85
12 mm bar needs hammer to excavation.
drive <200 mm.
Very dense VD 12 mm bar needs hammer to Picking difficult. >50 >85
drive <60 mm.
Cemented C 12 mm bar needs hammer to Cemented, indurated >50 N/A
drive <20 mm. or large size particles.

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 26 Soil classification

– Cemented is shown in the Table, as an extension to what is shown in most

references.
– N – Values >50 often considered as rock.
– Table applies to medium grain size sand. Material finer or coarser may have
a different value. Correction factors also need to be applied. Refer Tables 5.4
and 5.5.

2.16 Moisture content

• This is separate from the water level observations. There are cases of a soil
described as wet above the water table and dry below the water table.
• The assessor must distinguish between natural moisture content and moisture
content due to drilling fluids used.

Table 2.16 Moisture content.

Term Symbol Field assessment

Cohesive soils Granular soils

Dry D Hard and friable or powdery Runs freely through hands

Moist M Feels cool, darkened in colour
Can be moulded Tend to cohere
Wet W Feels cool, darkened in colour
Free water forms on hands when handling Tend to cohere

– Some reports provide the moisture content in terms of the plastic limit.
This however introduces the possibility of 2 errors in the one assessment,
Refer Table 10.2 for inherent variability in soil measurement for the moisture
content and plastic limit.

2.17 Origin
• This can be obtained from geology maps as well as from site and material
observations.
• Soils are usually classified broadly as transported and residual soils.

Table 2.17 Classification according to origin.

Classification Process of formation and nature of deposit

Residual Chemical weathering of parent rock. More stony and less weathering with increasing
depth.
Alluvial Materials transported and deposited by water. Usually pronounced stratification.
Gravels are rounded.
Colluvial Material transported by gravity. Heterogenous with a large range of particle sizes.
Glacial Material transported by glacial ice. Broad gradings. Gravels are typically angular.
Aeolian Material transported by wind. Highly uniform gradings. Typically silts or fine sands.
Organic Formed in place by growth and decay of plants. Peats are dark coloured.
Volcanic Ash and pumice deposited in volcanic eruptions. Highly angular. Weathering produces
a highly plastic, sometimes expansive clay.
Evaporites Materials precipitated or evaporated from solutions of high salt contents. Evaporites
form as a hard crust just below the surface in arid regions.

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 Soil classification 27

Figure 2.3 Soil and rock origins.

• The transporting mechanism determines its further classification:

– Alluvial – deposited by water
– Glacial – deposited by ice
– Aeolian – deposited by wind
– Colluvial – deposited by gravity
– Fill – deposited by man

2.18 Classification of residual soils by its primary

mode of occurrence
• Residual soils are formed in situ.
• The primary rock type affects its behaviour as a soil.

Table 2.18 Classification of residual soils by its primary origin (Hunt, 2005).

Primary occurrence Secondary occurrence Typical residual soils

Granite Saprolite Low activity clays and granular soils.

Diorite
Gabbro Saprolite High activity clays.
Basalt
Dolerite
Gneiss Saprolite Low activity clays and granular soils.
Schist
Phyllite Very soft rock.
Sandstone Thin cover depends on impurities. Older sandstones
would have thicker cover.
Shales Red Thin clayey cover.
Black, marine Friable and weak mass high activity clays.
Carbonates Pure No soil, rock dissolves.
Impure Low to high activity clays.

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 28 Soil classification

Figure 2.4 Predominance of soil type.

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