Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 1 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

 Introduction
Mechanics is the oldest physical
science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest is called
statics, while the branch that
deals with bodies in motion is
called dynamics. The subcategory
fluid mechanics is defined as the
science that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of
fluids with solids or other fluids at
the boundaries. Fluid mechanics is
also referred to as fluid dynamics
by considering fluids at rest as a FIGURE 1–1 Fluid mechanics deals
special case of motion with zero with liquids and gases in motion or at
velocity (Fig. 1–1). rest. © Vol. 16/Photo Disc.

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 2 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

 Introduction
Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study
of
Hydrodynamics: the motion of fluids that are practically
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low
speeds) is usually referred to as.
A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.
Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
Some other specialized categories such as meteorology,
oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.

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 What is a fluid?
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a
fluid.
Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear
(or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.
A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter how small.
In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress
is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force
is applied, a solid eventually stops deforming, at some
fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming
and approaches a certain rate of strain.

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 What is a fluid?
Distinction between solid and fluid?
Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming.
Stress is proportional to strain
Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear.
Stress is proportional to strain rate

Solid Fluid

F 
F

V
   A h
A

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 What is a fluid?

Stress is defined as the

force per unit area.
Normal component:
normal stress
In a fluid at rest, the
normal stress is called
pressure
Tangential component:
shear stress

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 What is a fluid?

A liquid takes the shape of

the container it is in and
forms a free surface in the
presence of gravity
A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the
container and fills the entire
available space. Gases
cannot form a free surface
Gas and vapor are often
used as synonymous
words

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 What is a fluid?

On a microscopic
scale, pressure is
determined by the
interaction of
individual gas
molecules.

solid liquid gas

Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and

weakest in gases. One reason is that molecules in
solids are closely packed together, whereas in
gases they are separated by relatively large
distances

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 Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 No-slip condition
No-slip condition: A fluid in
direct contact with a solid
``sticks'‘ to the surface due to
viscous effects
Responsible for generation of
wall shear stress w, surface
drag D= ∫w dA, and the
development of the boundary
layer
The fluid property responsible
for the no-slip condition is
viscosity
Important boundary condition
in formulating initial boundary
value problem (IBVP) for
analytical and computational
fluid dynamics analysis

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 No-slip condition

When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved surface, the

boundary layer can no longer remain attached to the
surface, and at some point it separates from the surface—a
process called flow separation. We emphasize that the no-
slip condition applies everywhere along the surface, even
downstream of the separation point. Flow separation is
discussed in greater detail at the end of the course.

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 Classification of Flows

We classify flows as a tool in making simplifying

assumptions to the governing partial-differential
equations, which are known as the Navier-
Stokes equations
Conservation of Mass

Conservation of Momentum

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 Viscous vs. Inviscid Regions of Flow
Regions where frictional
effects are significant are
called viscous regions.
They are usually close to
solid surfaces.
Regions where frictional
forces are small
compared to inertial or
pressure forces are called
inviscid

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 Internal vs. External Flow

Internal flows are

dominated by the
influence of viscosity
throughout the
flowfield
For external flows,
viscous effects are
limited to the
boundary layer and
wake.

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 Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow
A flow is classified as
incompressible if the density
remains nearly constant.
Liquid flows are typically
incompressible.
Gas flows are often
compressible, especially for
high speeds.
Mach number, Ma = V/c is a
good indicator of whether or
not compressibility effects are
important.
Ma < 0.3 : Incompressible
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Supersonic
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic

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 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
Laminar: highly ordered
fluid motion with smooth
streamlines.
Turbulent: highly
disordered fluid motion
characterized by velocity
fluctuations and eddies.
Transitional: a flow that
contains both laminar and
turbulent regions
Reynolds number, Re=
UL/ is the key
parameter in determining
whether or not a flow is
laminar or turbulent.

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 Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

A fluid flow is said to be natural

or forced, depending on how the
fluid motion is initiated.
In forced flow, a fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such as
a pump or a fan.
In natural flows, any fluid
motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect,
which manifests itself as the rise
of the warmer (and thus lighter)
fluid and the fall of cooler (and
thus denser) fluid

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 Steady vs. Unsteady Flow

Steady implies no change at

a point with time. Transient
terms in N-S equations are
zero
Unsteady is the opposite of
steady.
Transient usually describes a
starting, or developing flow.
Periodic refers to a flow which
oscillates about a mean.
Unsteady flows may appear
steady if “time-averaged”

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 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

N-S equations are 3D vector equations.

Velocity vector, U(x,y,z,t)= [Ux(x,y,z,t),Uy(x,y,z,t),Uz(x,y,z,t)]
Lower dimensional flows reduce complexity of analytical and
computational solution
Change in coordinate system (cylindrical, spherical, etc.) may
facilitate reduction in order.
Example: for fully-developed pipe flow, velocity V(r) is a function of
radius r and pressure p(z) is a function of distance z along the pipe.

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 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

A flow may be approximated as two-dimensional when the aspect ratio is

large and the flow does not change appreciably along the longer
dimension.
For example, the flow of air over a car antenna can be considered two-
dimensional except near its ends since the antenna’s length is much
greater than its diameter, and the airflow hitting the antenna is fairly uniform

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 System and Control Volume
A system is defined as a
quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
A closed system (known as a
control mass) consists of a
fixed amount of mass.
An open system, or control
volume, is a properly selected
region in space. It usually
encloses a device that
involves mass flow such
as a compressor, turbine,
or nozzle.

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 System and Control Volume

In general, any arbitrary region in space

can be selected as a control volume.
There are no concrete rules for the
selection of control volumes, but the
proper choice certainly makes the analysis
much easier.
We'll discuss control volumes in more
detail.

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 Dimensions and Units
Any physical quantity can
be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned
to dimensions are called
units.
Primary dimensions (or
fundamental dimensions)
include: mass m, length
L, time t, and temperature
T, etc.

By General Conference of Weights and

Measures

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 Dimensions and Units
Secondary dimensions (derived dimensions) can be
expressed in terms of primary dimensions and include:
velocity V, energy E, and volume V.

Unit systems include English system and the metric SI

(International System).

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 Dimensions and Units
Some SI and English Units
In SI, the units of mass, length, and time are the kilogram (kg),
meter (m), and second (s), respectively. The respective units
in the English system are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and
second (s).

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 Dimensions and Units
Force Units

We call a mass of 32.174 lbm 1 slug

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 Dimensions and Units

Weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force

applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined
from Newton’s second law,

where m is the mass of the body, and g is the

local gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807 m/s2 or
32.174 ft/s2 at sea level and 45° latitude).

The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called

the specific weight  and is determined from = g,
where  is density.

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 Dimensions and Units
Dimensional homogeneity is a valuable tool in checking for errors.
Make sure every term in an equation has the same units.

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—

that is, the dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the
same as those on the right side, and all additive separate terms must
have the same dimensions.

We accept as a fundamental premise that all equations describing

physical phenomena must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Equations that are restricted to a particular system of units can be

denoted as restricted homogeneous equations, as opposed to
equations valid in any system of units, which are general
homogeneous equations

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 ■ MATHEMATICAL MODELING
OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
An engineering device or process can be studied either
experimentally (testing and taking measurements)
Advantage : deal with the actual physical system, and the desired
quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of
experimental error.
Drawback: approach is expensive, time-consuming, and often
impractical. Besides, the system we are studying may not even
exist.
analytically (by analysis or calculations).
Advantage : fast and inexpensive
Drawback: the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the
analysis.
In engineering studies, often a good compromise is
reached by reducing the choices to just a few by
analysis, and then verifying the findings experimentally.

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF
ENGINEERING PROBLEMS

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 30 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF
ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
The study of physical phenomena involves two
important steps.
In the first step, all the variables that affect the
phenomena are identified, reasonable assumptions
and approximations are made, and the
interdependence of these variables is studied. The
relevant physical laws and principles are invoked,
and the problem is formulated mathematically. The
equation itself is very instructive as it shows the
degree of dependence of some variables on others,
and the relative importance of various terms.
In the second step the problem is solved using an
appropriate approach, and the results are interpreted.

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 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

using a step-by-step
approach, an
engineer can reduce
the solution of a
complicated problem
into the solution of a
series of simple
problems.

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 32 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

Step 1: Problem Statement

Step 2: Schematic
Step 3: Assumptions and
Approximations
Step 4: Physical Laws
Step 5: Properties
Step 6: Calculations
Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and
Discussion
CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 33 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts
 Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 34 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

 Summary
In this chapter some basic concepts of fluid mechanics are introduced and
discussed.
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Fluid
mechanics is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest or
in motion and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface is external flow, and the
flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces.
A fluid flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible,
depending on the density variation of the fluid during flow. The densities
of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is typically
incompressible.
The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region.
A flow is said to be one-dimensional when the velocity changes in one
dimension only.

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 Summary
A fluid in direct contact with a solid surface sticks to the
surface and there is no slip. This is known as the no-slip
condition, which leads to the formation of boundary
layers along solid surfaces.
A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, and a
system that involves mass transfer across its boundaries
is called an open system or control volume. A large
number of engineering problems involve mass flow in
and out of a system and are therefore modeled as
control volumes.
In engineering calculations, it is important to pay
particular attention to the units of the quantities to avoid
errors caused by inconsistent units, and to follow a
systematic approach.

CEE 331 Fluid Mechanics 36 Chapter 1: Basic Concepts