CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA

Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology

V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 1 DATE: / / 20

AIM: To study various electronics and electrical symbols.

THEORY:
Graphic symbols are used to denote electrical, electronic and mechanical components and
devices. They are used to portray complex schematic and wiring circuit diagrams in a simple
manner for conserving space. In order to make the diagrams easier to read, the graphic
symbols, in many cases, resemble the actual component or its element. Thus, the graphic
symbols serve as effective & precise means of communication, particularly in situations,
which involve complex diagrams and devices.

We have selected a few commonly used symbols and have explained them first and the
symbols are drawn in the latter part.

FUSE:
Many circuits have a fuse in series as a protection against over load from a short circuit.
Fuses are fabricated from low melting point alloys. Under normal load conditions, the current
through the fuse will not produce excessive heat. If the circuit is overloaded or if a fault
occurs, leading to a heavy rush of current, the fuse element melts due to high heat generated
by this increased current. This blowing-up of the fuse thus opens the series circuit. The
objective is to let the fuse blow before the components are damaged. A new fuse element can
easily replace the blown fuse after the overload has been eliminated. Fuses are manufactured
in a wide variety of shapes & current ratings. Fuse elements are made of tin-coated copper or
nickel and aluminium. They are available in current ratings of 2 mA to hundreds of ampere.

CELL & BATTERY:

A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials, which produce direct current (DC) from
its internal chemical reactions. Each cell has two terminals +ve terminal & –ve terminal.

An electric battery consists of a number of electro-chemical cells, connected either in series

or parallel. The voltage rating of battery depends upon voltage rating of group of cells (either
connected in series or parallel). The voltage rating of cell is given by its open circuit voltage
i.e. voltage it can produce when not connected to a load circuit. This voltage depends on the
type of materials used and not the physical size of the cell.

SWITCHES:
A switch is a device for opening and closing a circuit. They are manufactured in hundreds of
sizes and types. Some of the more common ones are discussed below:

i. Single pole Single – throw (SPST) Switch:

Such switch has one lever or arm (i.e. Single pole). It can connect or disconnect one
side of a line or a single wire circuit.
Example: Tumbler switch, piano switch using in house wiring, etc.
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

ii. Single pole Double – throw (SPDT) Switch:

Such switch has two ON positions. It is OFF when in the centre. As schematically
shown in fig. it has one are (hence Single Pole) but can be moved into either one of the
two positions. Obviously, it can close either one of the two circuits.
Example: blunder switch OFF & ON (Low speed, High Speed).
iii. Double pole Single throw (DPST) Switch:
Such a switch has only one position of closure but completes two contacts
simultaneously. It fact it is similar to SPST switch except that it switches both sides of
a wire line at once. It may also be used as two single pose switches acting together.
iv. Double pole Double throw (DPDT) Switch:
Such a switch has two poles and can be moved either to the right (Position A) or to the
left (Position B).
v. Rotary Switches:
The best example of such a switch is the switch used in ceiling fan regulator. The
symbol drawn is for a single pole rotary switch.
vi. Push Button:
Symbol is shown in fig. It is like a switch with a spring return system i.e. when button
is pressed it makes contact or release contact as the case may be. When released it
comes back to its normal position. [NC or NO]

RESISTOR:

It is passive element. A resister is an electrical component with a known specified value of

resistance. It is probably the most common component in all kinds of electronic equipment
ranging from a small radio to a colour television receiver. As its name suggests, a resistor
opposes the flow of current through it. Resistance is necessary for any circuit to do useful
work. In fact without resistance, every circuit would be a short circuit.
Some of the common uses of resistors are: -
(1) To establish proper value of circuit voltages due to IR drops.
(2) To limit current.
(3) To provide load.
Resistor can be connected in the circuit in either direction because they have no polarity. The
types of resistor are:

i. Fixed Resistor:
It is such resistor, where we cannot change its resistance value.
ii. Variable Resistor:
It is such resistor, where we can change its resistance value.
iii. Rheostat:
One type of variable resistor which has two fixed terminal & one variable terminal or
known as wire wound resistor they are constructed from a long fine wire i.e. high
resistance wire (Nickel chromium wire) wound on a ceramic core. The advantage with a
rheostat is that it can be used as a fixed resistor as well as a variable resistor.

INDUCTORS:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

It is another passive element commonly used in electrical/electronic circuit It is nothing but

coil wound on a core or former of some suitable material. It opposes any change in current.
There are mainly two types of inductors on basis of their construction
i. Air Core Inductor:
It consists of number of turns of wire wound on a former made of ordinary cardboard.
Since, there is nothing but air inside the coil it is termed as an air-cored inductor. It has
the least inductance for a given number of turns & core length.
ii. Iron-Core Inductor:
It is that inductor in which a coil of wire is wound over a solid or laminated iron core.
This construction leads to increase in its inductance as many times as the relative
permeability (μr) of Iron.

CAPACITORS:

A capacitor has two plates separated by dielectric medium. It is also passive element
commonly used in electric circuit. It is a device which
 Has the ability to store charge which neither a resistor nor an inductor can do.
 Opposes any change of voltage in the circuit in which it is connected.
 Block the passage of direct current through it.
They are mainly of two types:
 Fixed Capacitor
 Variable Capacitor

TRANSFORMER:

Basically transformer is power transformation device. It transfers power from one circuit to
other either by increasing voltage level (decreasing current level) or by decreasing voltage
level (increasing current level) i.e. It makes it possible to step up a relatively low generated
voltage level to the possible most desirable high voltage (Step up transformer Np < Ns) or
lower the voltage level for most convenient utilization level [esp. in home] (step down
transformer Np > Ns).
Its principle’s based on mutual inductance principle. Normally transformer has two windings,
which are electrically isolated & magnetically coupled.
AUTO TRANSFORMER:

It is also one type of transformer but in this there is only one winding, which works as
primary as well as secondary winding. It is also known, as variac.

TRANSISTORS:

Basically consists of two back-to-back P-N junctions manufactured in a single piece of a

semiconductor crystal. These two Junctions give rise to three regions called emitter, base and
collector. In fig, the arrowhead is always at the emitter (not at the collector) and in each case
its direction indicate the conventional direction of current flow. For a PNP transistor,
arrowhead points from emitter to base meaning that emitter is positive with respect to base
(and also with respect to collector). For NPN transistor, it points from base to emitter
meaning that base (and collector as well) is positive with respect to emitter.
I. N-P-N Transistor:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

In this P-type material is sandwiched between two layers of N-type material. Normally
used for voltage Amplification in amplifier. The symbols employed for PNP is shown in
fig.
II. P-N-P Transistor:
In this N-type material is sandwiched between two layers of P-type material. The
symbols employed for NPN is shown in fig.
III. FET:
Nowadays field effect transistors are rapidly replacing both Vacuum tubes and junction
transistor, in applications requiring high input impedance.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:

Known as PN junction diode two terminal devices consisting of P-N Junction formed either
in Ge or Si crystal. PN Junction diode is one-way device offering low resistance when
forward biased and behaving almost as an insulator when reverse biased. So used for rectifier
for converting alternating current into direct current. It cannot work in reverse bias condition.

ZENER DIODE:

It is also a P-N Junction but its doping (impurities level) is high as compared to PN Junction
diode. So during junction formation in reversed biased condition, its depletion region gets
decreased and so at low value of break down voltage it will break and work as constant
voltage source. Also, its junction is formed at very high temp so it can withstand large heat
produced during reverse biasing without damage. It can work in reverse bias while PN
junction does not work in reverse bias. Its uses are:
 As a voltage regulator.
 As a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purposes and for
calibrating voltmeters.

WATTMETER:

It measures electric power. They are of AC type & DC type

AC Power = VICosΦ Watt [Cos Φ – Power factor]
DC Power = VI Watt

It has two coils - one, which is known as current coil designated with M. & L. Second coil
known as potential coil designated with C.V.
 Current coil always connected in series with circuit, as it measures current of Circuit.
 Voltage coil or potential coil is connected in paralleled to circuit as it measures
Voltage of coil.
Combined it measures power of circuit.

CROSSOVER:

Symbol is as shown in fig. It means two wires are not meeting at a point.

JUNCTION:

Symbol is shown in fig. It means two wires are meeting at a point.

 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

DC GENERATOR:

Function of generator is to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. DC generator is

based on dynamically induced e.m.f. principle. In this generator output electrical energy is in
term of DC so it is called DC generator.

AC GENERATOR:

Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electrical energy produced is an

alternating quantity and hence called an AC generator. It operates on statically induced e.m.f.
principle.

DC MOTOR:

Function of motor is to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Its input electrical
energy is in form of direct quantity so it is called DC Motor.

AC MOTOR or INDUCTION MOTOR:

Converts AC electrical energy into mechanical energy.

 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

SYMBOLS:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOLS
Fuse

Cell/Battery

Switches
i. Single pole single throw [SPST]

ii. Single pole double throw switch [SPDT]

iii. Double pole single throw switch

[DPST]

iv. Double pole double throw switch

[DPDT]

v. Rotary switch

vi. Push button switch [NO & NC]

N.O. N.C.
Resistors
i. Fixed resistors
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

ii. Variable resistors

iii. Rheostat

Inductors
i. Fixed inductor or air core inductor

ii. Variable inductor

iii. Iron core inductor

Capacitors
i. Fixed capacitors

ii. Variable capacitors

Transformers
i. Iron core transformer

ii. Auto transformer

Transistors
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

i. N-P-N transistor

ii. P-N-P transistor

iii. FET [Field Effect Transistor]

Diodes
i. P-N junction diode

ii. Zener Diode

Meters
i. Ammeter

ii. Voltmeter
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

iii. Wattmeter

Network
i. Junction

ii. Crossover

Motor / Generators
i. AC Motor

ii. DC Motor

iii. AC Generator [alternator]

iv. DC Generator

Conclusion:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 2 DATE: / / 20

AIM: To perform Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law [KVL]

APPARATUS: Network theorem kit, DMM, connecting wires

THEORY:

KVL- KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed
loop of a network is a zero at all instant of time or we may say that around any closed
loop, at any instant of time, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the sum of the
voltage rises.

PROCEDURE:

KVL
1. Once the current is measured as directed, measure the voltage across each resistor
with the help of multi-meter.
2. Verify the KVL for close loop.
3. Find out the values of voltage drops theoretically and compare the same with practical
values.
4. Note down the values as required in the observation table.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

KVL
Theoretical Readings:
Supply Voltage across R1, R2, R3 & R4 Vs= VR1+ VR2+ VR3+ VR4
Voltage VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4
VS Volts Volts Volts Volts
Volts

Practical Readings:

Supply Voltage across R1, R2, R3 & R4 Vs= VR1+ VR2+ VR3+ VR4
Voltage VR1 VR2 VR3 VR4
VS Volts Volts Volts Volts
Volts

CALCULATION:

CONCLUSION:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE: / / 20

AIM: To perform Kirchhoff’s Current Law [KCL]

OBJECTIVE: To verify KCL practically.

APPARATUS: Network theorem kit, DMM, connecting wires

THEORY:

KCL – KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

Kirchhoff’s current law states that algebraic sum of all branch currents leaving or
entering a node is zero at all instant of time or we may say that sum of current entering
a node must equal the sum of the current leaving the node.

.
PROCEDURE:

KCL
1. Connect the circuit as per shown in the diagram.
2. Switch on the supply and set the value of supply voltage to 12 volts.
3. Take the readings of three ammeters i.e. the total current and branch currents in each
branch respectively.
4. Check that for practical readings at node A, KCL is verified or not.
5. Find out the values of current theoretically and compare the same with practical
values.
6. Note down the values as required in the observation table

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

OBSERVATION TABLE:

KCL
Theoretical Readings:
Supply Supply Branch Branch Branch Sum of current at
Voltage Current Current Current Current node A
VS IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR1= IR2+ IR3+ IR4
Volts (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)

Practical Readings:

Supply Supply Branch Branch Branch Sum of current at

Voltage Current Current Current Current node A
VS IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 IR1= IR2+ IR3+ IR4
Volts (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)

CALCULATION:

CONCLUSION:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE: / / 20

AIM: To study and perform charging and discharging of a capacitor.

APPARATUS: kit, Stopwatch, DMM and connecting wires.

THEORY:

CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR:

Figure shows a capacitor of capacitance C connected in series with a non-inductive

resistor R & is connected to a D.C supply of V volts through a switch ‘S’ at position ‘b’. At
the instant of closing the switch to a position ‘b’ there is no charge on the capacitor and
therefore no potential difference across it. As a result, the whole of the applied voltage must
momentarily act across resistor R. As a result, initial value of charging current becomes equal
to V/R, which is the maximum possible current. The charging current gradually decreases
from its maximum value till it becomes zero. This happens when the potential difference
across the capacitor plates becomes equal & opposite to the supply voltage V.

Let us understand the charging of capacitor. After closing the switch to charge position ‘b’,
the capacitor starts charging & voltage across it increases gradually

Let at any instant during charging.

VC = potential difference across the capacitor
I = charging current
q = charge on the capacitor

Charging voltage VC = V[1-e-t/RC]

Charging current i = Im e-t/RC

Where
Im = V/R = initial value of charging current.
Im = Maximum value of charging current

DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR:

Consider the above circuit having a capacitor C & R connected in series across a supply volt
through the switch. When switch is connected to position ‘b’, then the capacitor is charged to
a voltage of V volts. Now, for discharging the switch is moved to a position ‘a’,

Hence capacitor is disconnected from D.C. supply and the circuit is completed through the
resistor R. As a result, capacitor starts getting discharged through the resistor R. The moment
the switch is thrown to ‘a’ position, discharge current is maximum initially and then decreases
gradually till it becomes zero when the capacitor is fully discharged.
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Let at any instant during discharging.

VC= potential difference across the capacitor
I= discharging current
q= charge on the capacitor =C VC
Discharging voltage VC=Ve-t/RC
Charging current i= -Im e-t/RC
where Im = VC/R = initial value of discharging current.
Im = Maximum value of discharging current

TIME CONSTANT:
The increases or rise in potential difference across the capacitor is given by the equation

Vc=V[1-e-t/RC]

In this equation the exponent of ‘e’ is t / RC. The exponent of ‘e’ must be a number. Therefore
the quantity RC should have the dimension of time. Hence the quantity RC is called time
constant of the circuit. It affects the charging rate and charging time. It is generally denoted
by ‘l’ (or T)

Time constant l= RC seconds

The time constant will be in seconds if R and C are in ohms and farad respectively. Time
constant affects the time period of the charging process of a capacitor. The larger the time
constant, the longer is the charging period and vice-versa. In fact the time constant indicates
the rate at which a capacitor is charged.

PROCEDURE:

1. First connect the circuit as shown in figure with appropriate value of capacitor and
resistor.
2. Keep charge-discharge switch at ‘charging’ position.
3. Give supply of 12 V DC to the kit and at the same time start the stopwatch
simultaneously.
4. Read values of charging current and voltage at the interval of 5 sec.
5. Write the readings until capacitor gets charged i.e. the voltage drop across C is same
as supply voltage
6. Now, take readings for discharging of capacitor.
7. Change the switch to ‘discharging’ position and simultaneously start stopwatch. Note
that the last reading for charging is the first reading for discharging of the capacitor.
8. The readings for discharging have to be taken at an interval of 5 sec.
9. Take readings until capacitor gets discharged i.e. the voltage drop across the capacitor
becomes nearly zero.
10. Now, calculate time constant, Maximum current I m for charging and Maximum
current Im for discharging.
11. Plot the graphs for voltage v/s time and current v/s time for charging of capacitor
and voltage v/s time and current v/s time for discharging of capacitor.
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

12. Find the time constant from the graph. To obtain this, in the graph for Voltage v/s
time, draw a tangent from origin to the point obtained from first reading for charging of
capacitor. Now, draw a line for the maximum charged voltage Vc. Where, the tangent
and Vc intersect, project that point on the time axis. The achieved value on tine axis is
the time constant λ for given R-C circuit. Similarly, this can also be achieved from the
current v/s time graph also.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

If switch is connected to ‘a’, charging of capacitor takes place.

If switch is connected to ‘b’, discharging of capacitor takes place.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

CHARGING OF CAPACITOR DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR

Sr. Time Voltage Current Sr. Time Voltage Current

No. t Vc I No. t Vc I
Sec. Volt mA Sec. Volt mA
1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

6. 6.

7. 7.

8. 8.

9. 9.
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

10. 10.

11. 11.

12. 12.

13. 13.

CALCULATION:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO: 5 DATE: / / 20

AIM: To study the I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode

COMPONENTS: Power Supply (0-20V), Voltmeter (0-30V), Ammeter (μA & mA range),
Kit of EDkits, connecting wires.

THEORY:

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest Semiconductor Devices around, and which has
the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a
diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its
operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the
junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away
from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of
increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking
current flow through the diode.
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Fig: 5.1 forward biased diode Fig: 5.2 Reverse biased diode

PROCEDURE:
1. Wire up the circuit shown in figure 5.1
2. Record the voltage across the diode (V) and current (I) through it as a function of
input voltage.
3. Repeat the experiment of the reverse biased diode (fig 5.2).
4. Plot I-V characteristics of diode.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
 CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, CHANGA
Chandubhai S. Patel Institute of Technology
V T Patel Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Forward Bias

SR Supply Voltage Current

NO Voltage Across through
Vs Diode Diode
Vdc(V) Idc(mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Reverse Bias

SR Supply Voltage Current

NO Voltage Across through
Vs Diode Diode
Vdc(V) Idc(µA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CONCLUSION: