Unit-7

Special Theory of
Relativity-I
Books to consult:

Special relativity
1. Classical Mechanics by Herbert Goldstein
2. Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems by Thornton and Marion
3. Nuclear Physics by Kaplan
4. Modern Physics by J. B. Rajam
What is Relativity?

Theories of Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, Thermodynamics
 Base of modern physics

Uniqueness when compared with theory of electromagnetism,
is their generality

Lead to general conclusions which apply to all physical
systems, ⇒ are of enormous power, as well as of fundamental
significance

Role of relativity → specifying properties of space, time
 the arena where all physical processes take place

Idea of relativity  work of Einstein?

Idea  principle of relativity applies to the properties of the
physical world is very old

Predates Newton and Galileo

Principle of Relativity:

The laws of physics take the same form in all frames of reference
moving with constant velocity with respect to one another.

Every day examples:

A train carriage moving smoothly at a constant speed on a
straight and level track

Snooker table  playing shots; no difference from playing
at home ⇒ Newton’s laws apply as usual

Spaceships with engines shut off drifting through space

On each ship series of experiments performed:
 a measurement of the half life of uranium,
 a measurement of the outcome of the collision of two
billiard balls,
 a measurement of the specific heat of a substance,
 a measurement of speed of light radiated from a
nearby star:

Comparison → results identical in all cases

 various laws of physics tested yield exactly the same
results for all the spaceships
 all ships in relative motion with each other
 Nothing on a ship to tell whether that ship is in motion
or at rest

All natural phenomena ↔ space and time

Natural phenomenon  a sequence of events

Event  something that happens at some point of space and at

some moment of time

Mechanics  the oldest branch of science
 based on concepts of space and time
 observations of bodies moving with speeds << speed
of light in vacuum

The description of a natural phenomenon requires a suitable frame

of reference.
Frames of Reference
In Newtonian mechanics:

Frame of reference  a set of coordinates to measure things
like position, velocities

Position of a point in space  ( x, y , z )

An Event like an explosion  ( x, y , z , t )

Origin of coordinates  some convenient point

Imagine rigid rulers  along three mutually perpendicular
directions

A set of clocks filling all of space

we can tell when a particle is at a

particular position in space simply by
reading off the time indicated by the
clock at that position.

Which ever set of moving rulers we use to specify the position of a
particle  clocks belonging to single vast set will tell when a
particle is at a particular position

There is only one ‘time’ for all the position measuring
set of rulers
Idea of universal or absolute time due to Newton

most convenient frames  in which the laws of physics appear simple

Inertial Frame of Reference

A frame of reference in which Newton’s law of inertia holds  A body
not acted on by an outside force, stays at rest if initially at rest, or
continues to move at a constant velocity if initially moving.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference
An accelerating frame of reference  e.g. a rotating frame of reference
Newtonian or Classical Relativity

All measurements are made relative to some chosen reference
system.
• Position of a particle, r = ( x, y , z ) ⇒ position vector having
components ( x, y , z ) ; relative to some chosen origin and a chosen
set of axis
• An event at t = 5 s ⇒ t is 5 s relative to origin t = 0

All measurements require a specification of a reference frame

⇒ Theory of relativity  the study of the consequences of
“relativity of measurements”
According to Newton:

Absolute space  without relation to anything external, remains

always similar and immovable
Absolute time  flows equably without relation to anything
external, otherwise called duration
Principle of Newtonian Relativity

The laws of physics take the same form in all frames of reference
moving with constant velocity with respect to one another.

Mathematical meaning:  laws of physics expressed in terms of

equations; and the form these equations take
in different reference frames moving with
constant velocity with respect to one another
can be calculated using so-called Galilean
transformation in the case of Newtonian
relativity.
Transformed equations have exactly the same form in all frames of
reference ⇒ physical laws are the same in all frames of reference.
Galilean Transformation

Defining inertial frame → we adopt as a law of nature:

There exist frames of reference relative to which a particle acted

on by no forces moves in a straight line at constant speed.

a claim about the properties of space-time

also a statement of Newton’s First Law of Motion

Does not tell us whether there is one or many inertial frames of
reference

if more than one  how to relate coordinates of an event
observed from the point-of-view of one inertial reference
frame to the coordinates of same event observed in some
other?

If we can make such transformation ⇒ there is in fact an
infinite number of inertial reference frames

On mathematical basis of transformation equations  it can be
shown that Newton’s Laws are consistent with the principle of
relativity

Consider two frames  S and S ′

S fixed to the ground, S ′fixed to a moving train
Orientation  x || x′, y || y′, z || z ′

S ′ is moving with constant velocity V along x

Newtonian mechanics assumes  a single universal time ⇒ t = t'
The origins O and O' coincide at t = t' = 0

Consider an event, like a light bulb B fixed inside the train.

Coordinates of B in frame S  x, y , z , t

in frame S ′  x′, y ′, z ′, t ′
Form figure: O′B = OB − OO′
At time t: OO′ = Vt
x′ = x − Vt
therefore y′ = y (1)
Galilean Transformation z′ = z
t′ = t
 Coordinates ( x′, y ′, z ′, t ′) of any event measured in x′ = x − Vt
frame S ′ in terms of corresponding ( x, y , z , t ) y′ = y
coords. of the same event measured in frame S .
z′ = z
→ Mathematical expression of classical ideas about
space and time t′ = t
Galilean transformation (1) relates the coordinates measured in two
frames in standard configuration
i.e. corresponding axis parallel and relative
velocity along x - axis y
y'
General configuration  where relative *
B

velocity V is in arbitrary direction (figure)

r'
r
Then the general form of Galilean x'
O'
transformation is: Vt
z'
r ′ = r − Vt
O x

(2)
t′ = t z
 r ′ = r − Vt
(2)
t′ = t
Differentiating first of transformation (2) wrt time:
r&′ = r& − V (since relative velocity is constant)

Classical velocity addition formula  according to ideas of classical

physics, relative velocities add (or subtract) according to normal rules of
vector algebra
Another differentiation gives: a′ = a
⇒ acceleration same in both frames
Invariance of Newton’s laws under Galilean transformation

Consider an example  two inertial frames of reference; S and S ′

S ′ moving relative to S with constant
velocity V
 two particles connected by a spring of length l
X-coordinates in S  x1 , x2
S ′  x1′ , x2′ y
S
y'
S'
l
If m1 is mass of particle at x1 then m1 m2
from Newton’s Second Law the V
x'
equation of motion of the particle is: O O'

d 2 x1
m1 2 = − k ( x1 − x2 − l) (3)
dt
where k is the spring constant
Same pair of masses  from the point of view S ′ moving with a
velocity V relative to S , then using Galilean transformation (1):

x1 = x1′ + Vt ′ and x2 = x2′ + Vt ′ (4)

dx1 dx1′
so that = +V
dt dt ′
d 2 x1 d 2 x1′
=
dt 2
dt ′2
and x1 − x2 = x1′ − x2′
substituting above results in equation (3):
d 2 x1′
m1 2 = − k ( x1′ − x2′ − l) (5)
dt ′
since according to Newtonian mechanics, mass of particle is the same in
both frames i.e.
m1 = m1′
 d 2 x1′
then m1′ 2 = − k ( x1′ − x2′ − l) (6)
dt ′
from equations (3) and (6), the form of the equation of motion derived
from Newton’s Second Law is the same in both frames of reference.

⇒ the mathematical form of the equations of motion obtained from

Newton’s Second Law are the same in all inertial frames of reference.

Conservation of Momentum

law of conservation of linear momentum is invariant under
Galilean transformation

Combining the Second and Third Laws → the law of
conservation of momentum which is:
“In the absence of any external forces, the total momentum of a
system is conserved.”

In reference frame S ,

Consider collision of two balls  masses m1 and m2 moving
with velocities u1 and u2

After collision balls move with velocities v1 and v2

Conservation of linear momentum in frame S →
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (7)

Collision observed from a frame S ′ , moving relative to S with

velocity V

Velocities of the balls before and after collision:

u1′ = u1 − V , u2′ = u2 − V ,
(7a)
v1′ = v1 − V , v2′ = v2 − V

In frame S ′ the law of conservation of linear momentum is:

m1u1′ + m2u2′ = m1v1′ + m2 v2′

Making use of (7a) this transforms to:
m1 (u1 − V ) + m2 (u2 − V ) = m1 (v1 − V ) + m2 (v2 − V )
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2 (8)

which is the law of conservation in frame S

Therefore, total momentum in both frames is conserved.

The general conclusion :

“Newton’s Laws of motion are identical in all inertial frames of reference.”

Galilean Relativity and Speed of Light

Newton’s laws invariant under Galilean transformation  same is
not true for laws of electromagnetism.

Maxwell’s equations ⇒ light propagates through vacuum in any
direction with speed:
1
c= = 3 × 108 m/s
ε 0 µ0
where ε0 and µ0 are permittivity and permeability of vacuum.

If Maxwell’s equations hold in frame S , then light must travel in
any direction with same speed c as measured in S .

Consider a frame S ′ travelling with speed V along x-axis of S .

* *
 * *

Two beams of light approach the car from opposite directions.

Imagine a beam of light travelling in the same direction as
of S ′ :

In frame S speed of light is given by: v=c

Then in frame S ′ using the classical velocity addition formula,
the speed of light is given by: v′ = c − V
If beam of light travelling to left, in S : v=c
But in S ′ : v′ = c + V

Therefore, under Galilean transformation, velocity of light has
different values in inertial frames S and S ′ .
Maxwell’s Equations and the Ether

Newtonian principle of relativity  successful career till

Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism

should obey Newtonian principle of relativity!

It was not the case!

Consider wave equation for light assuming a simple form,

in a frame of reference S, with waves moving with speed c.
∂2E 1 ∂2E
− 2 2 =0 (i)
∂x 2
c ∂t
The Galilean transformation: x′ = x − Vt
t′ = t
Using partial differentiation:
∂x′ ∂x′ ∂t ′ ∂t ′
= 1, = −V , = 0, =1 (ii)
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
 ∂E ∂E ∂x′ ∂E ∂t ′
Using chain rule: = +
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂t ′ ∂x
∂E ∂E ∂2E ∂2E
Substituting from (ii): = → = 2 (iii)
∂x ∂x′ ∂x 2
∂x′
∂E ∂E ∂x′ ∂E ∂t ′
We can also write: = + (iv)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ∂t ′ ∂t
∂E ∂E ∂E
Again substituting from (ii): = −V + (v)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ′
∂ 2 E ∂  ∂E  ∂x′ ∂  ∂E  ∂t ′
Differentiating (iv): =   +  
∂t 2
∂x′  ∂t  ∂t ∂t ′  ∂t  ∂t
∂2E ∂  ∂E  ∂  ∂E 
Using (ii): = −V  +  
∂t 2
∂x′  ∂t  ∂t ′  ∂t 
 ∂2E ∂  ∂E  ∂  ∂E 
rewriting = −V  +  
∂t 2
∂x′  ∂t  ∂t ′  ∂t 

∂2E ∂  ∂E ∂E  ∂  ∂E ∂E 
Using (v): = −V  −V +  +  −V + 
∂t 2
∂x′  ∂x′ ∂t ′  ∂t ′  ∂x′ ∂t ′ 
∂2E 2∂ E
2
∂2E ∂2E ∂2E
simplifying =V −V −V + 2
∂t 2
∂x′ 2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′∂t ′ ∂t ′
∂2E ∂2E ∂2E ∂ 2
E
or = 2 − 2V +V 2
(vi)
∂t 2
∂t ′ ∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′2

Substituting from (iii) and (vi) in (i):

∂ 2 E 1 ∂ 2 E ∂2E 2 ∂ E
2
− 2  2 − 2V +V 2
=0
∂x′ c  ∂t ′
2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′ 
 ∂ 2 E 1 ∂ 2 E ∂2E 2 ∂ E
2
− 2  2 − 2V +V 2
=0
∂x′ c  ∂t ′
2
∂x′∂t ′ ∂x′ 

This is the equation under Galilean transformation for a frame S'
moving with velocity V relative to S.

Newton’s laws hold in all inertial frames  Maxwell’s laws hold only
in one frame

What is special about that frame?

Maxwell’s equations predict that light moves with a certain speed c

but with respect to which frame is this speed measured?

The proposed special frame where Maxwell’s equations hold and the
speed of light is c  frame of the Ether.

It was assumed  like sound waves, light also need a medium to
propagate
 medium called ether
Does ether really exist?

Till the end of 19th century  no deviation between theory and
experiment

End of 19th century  particles travelling with speeds comparable
with speed of light c (electrons) available

Classical mechanics → radius r of the orbit of electron moving in a

magnetic field of strength B given by
r = mv / qB
(m, v, q  mass, velocity, charge)
At v << c  agreement between experiment and theory
At v ~ c  Theory does not agree with experiment

Albert Einstein – 1905  new idea of space and time

 particles with speeds approaching speed of light,
require a completely new form of mechanics  relativistic mechanics

Even at lower speeds, Newtonian mechanics is an approximation!


Einstein’s relativity  two theories

Special Relativity  focuses on un-accelerated frames of

reference

General Relativity  includes accelerated frames of reference
→ theory of gravitation

Applications of Relativity

General Relativity  situations where the predictions differ
appreciably from those of Newtonian gravity
 intense gravity of Black Holes; of large scale
universe
 effect of earth’s gravity on extremely
accurate time measurements for GPS

Special Relativity  in nuclear and particle physics where particle

speeds are near speed of light but gravity is
negligible