FOURTH EDITION

Basic
Blectronlcs
BERNARD GROB
Instructor, Technical Career Institutes, Inc.
(formerly RCA Institutes, Inc.}

Gregg Division
McGraw-Hill Book CQmpany
New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Grob, Bernard.
Basic electronics.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Electronics. I. Title.
TK7816.G75 1977 537.5 76-45812
ISBN 0-07-024923-7

Other Books by the Author

Applications of Electronics (with Milton S. Kiver)
Basic Television

In memory of
my father and mother

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Copyright © 1977, 1971, 1965, 1959 by McGraw-
Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-
mitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
0 VHVH 832

The editors for this book were Gordon Rock-

maker and Alice V. Manning, the designer was
Marsha Cohen, the art supervisor was George
T Resch, and the production supervisor was Iris
A. Levy. It was set in Souvenir by York Graphic
Services, Inc.
Printed and bound by Von Hoffman Press, Inc.
 contents
PREFACE xiii
SURVEY OF ELECTRONICS 1
CHAPTER 1 ELECTRICITY 11
1-1 Negative and Positive Polarities 11
1-2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom 12
1-3 Structure of the Atom 14
1-4 The Coulomb Unit of Charge 17
1-5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference 20
1-6 Charge in Motion Is Current 22
1-7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current 27
1-8 The Closed Circuit 28
1-9 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current 31
(AC)
1-10 Sources of Electricity 33

CHAPTER 2 OHM'S LAW 39

2-1 The Current I = VI R 39
2-2 The Voltage V = IR 41
2-3 The Resistance R = VI I 41
2-4 Practical Units 42
2-5 Multiple and Submultiple Units 43
2-6 The Linear Proportion between V and I 43
2-7 Power 45
2-8 Power Dissipation in Resistance 47
2-9 Electric Shock 49

CHAPTER 3 SERIES CIRCUITS 54

3-1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a Series 54
Circuit
3-2 Total R Equals the Sum of All Series 56
Resistances
3-3 Series IR Voltage Drops 58
3-4 The Sum of Series IR Drops Equals the 59
Applied Vr
3-5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops 61
3-6 Polarities to Chassis Ground 62
3-7 Total Power in a Series Circuit 63
3-8 Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing Voltages 64
3-9 Analyzing Series Circuits 64
3-10 Effect of an Open Circuit in a Series Path 67
iv Contents

CHAPTER 4 PARALLEL CIRCUITS 74

4-1 The Applied Voltage ~ is the Same across 74
Parallel Branches
4-2 Each Branch I Equals ~IR 75
4-3 The Main-Line IT Equals the Sum of the 76
Branch Currents
4-4 Resistances in Parallel 78
4-5 Conductances in Parallel 82
4-6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits 83
4-7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits 84
4-8 Effect of an Open Branch in Parallel Circuits 84
4-9 Effect of a Short Circuit across Parallel 85
Branches

CHAPTER 5 SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS 91

5-1 Finding RT for Series-Parallel Resistances 91
5-2 Resistance Strings in Parallel 92
5-3 Resistance Banks in Series 94
5-4 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel 95
5-5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits 97
5-6 Wheatstone Bridge 100
5-7 Chassis-Ground Connections 101
5-8 Voltages Measured to Chassis Ground 102
5-9 Opens and Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits 104

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 1 TO 5 113

CHAPTER 6 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS AND CURRENT 116
DIVIDERS
6-1 Series Voltage Dividers 116
6-2 Current Divider with Two Parallel Resistances 118
6-3 Current Division by Parallel Conductances 119
6-4 Series Voltage Divider with Parallel Load 120
Current
6-5 Design of a Loaded Voltage Divider 122

CHAPTER 7 DIRECT-CURRENT METERS 126

7-1 Moving-Coil Meter 126
7-2 Measurement of Current 129
7-3 Meter Shunts 131
7-4 The Ayrton or Universal Shunt 133
7-5 Voltmeters 135
7-6 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter 140
7-7 Ohmmeters 142
 Contents v

7-8 Multimeters 147

7 -9 Digital Meters 150
7-10 Meter Applications 151
7-11 Checking Continuity with the Ohmmeter 153

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 6 AND 7 159

CHAPTER 8 KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS 161
8-1 Kirchhoff's Current Law 161
8-2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 163
8-3 Method of Branch Currents 164
8-4 Node-Voltage Analysis 167
8-5 Method of Mesh Currents 169

CHAPTER 9 NETWORK THEOREMS 175

9-1 Superposition 175
9-2 Thevenin's Theorem 177
9-3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage Sources 180
9-4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit 182
9-5 Norton's Theorem 184
9-6 Thevenin-Norton Conversions 187
9-7 Conversion of Voltage and Current Sources 189
9-8 Millman's Theorem 191
9-9 T and,,, Networks 193

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 8 AND 9 201

CHAPTER 10 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS 203
10-1 Function of the Conductor 203
10-2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes 204
10-3 Types of Wire Conductors 206
10-4 Printed Wiring 207
10-5 Switches 208
10-6 Fuses 210
10-7 Pilot Lamps 212
10-8 Wire Resistance 212
10-9 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance 214
10-10 Ion Current in Liquids and Gases 216
10-11 Electrons and Hole Charges in 218
Semiconductors
10-12 Insulators 219

CHAPTER 11 RESISTORS 225

11-1 Resistor Types 225
11-2 Variable Resistors 227
vi Contents

11-3 Potentiometers and Rheostats 228

11-4 Resistor Color Coding 230
11-5 Power Rating of Resistors 232
11-6 Choosing the Resistor for a Circuit 232
11-7 Series and Parallel Combinations of 233
Resistors
11-8 Resistor Troubles 234

CHAPTER 12 BATTERIES 240

12-1 Functions of Batteries 240
12-2 The Voltaic Cell 241
12-3 Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell 243
12-4 Series and Parallel Cells 245
12-5 Lead-Acid Wet Cell 247
12-6 Types of Electromotive Cells 250
12-7 Internal Resistance of a Generator 252
12-8 Matching a Load Resistance to the 257
Generator

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 10 TO 12 263

CHAPTER 13 MAGNETISM 265
13-1 The Magnetic Field 265
13-2 Magnetic Flux <f> 267
13-3 Flux Density B 268
13-4 Induction by the Magnetic Field 270
13-5 Air Gap of a Magnet 271
13-6 Types of Magnets 272
13-7 Ferrites 275
13-8 Magnetic Shielding 275
13-9 The Hall Effect 276

CHAPTER 14 MAGNETIC UNITS 280

14-1 Ampere-turns (NJ) 280
14-2 Field Intensity (H) 281
14-3 Permeability (µ) 282
14-4 B- H Magnetization Curve 284
14-5 Magnetic Hysteresis 285
14-6 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits 287
14-7 Relations between Magnetic Units 288
14-8 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Fields 289

CHAPTER 15 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 294

15-1 Magnetic Field around an Electrical Current 294
15-2 M,agnetic Polarity of a Coil 296
 I rf f1 1>

Contents vii

15-3 Motor Action between Two Magnetic Fields 298

15-4 Induced Current 300
15-5 Lenz' Law 301
15-6 Generating an Induced Voltage 302
15-7 Faraday's Law of Induced Voltage 303

CHAPTER 16 ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND 310

CURRENT
16-1 Alternating-Voltage Generator 311
16-2 The Sine Wave 314
16-3 Alternating Current 316
16-4 Voltage and Current Values for a Sine Wave 317
16-5 Frequency 319
16-6 Period 321
16-7 Wavelength 322
16-8 Phase Angle 323
16-9 The Time Factor in Frequency and Phase 327
16-10 AC Circuits with Resistance 327
16-11 Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms 329
16-12 Harmonic Frequencies 331

CHAPTER 17 THE 60-Hz AC POWER LINE 337

17-1 Advantages of 120-V 60-Hz AC Power 337
17-2 Motors and Generators 338
17-3 Fluorescent Lighting 340
17-4 Residential Wiring 341
17-5 Three-Phase Power 344

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 13 TO 17 348

CHAPTER 18 INDUCTANCE 352
18-1 Induction by Alternating Current 352
18-2 Self-inductance 354
18-3 Self-induced Voltage uL 356
18-4 How uL Opposes a Change in Current 356
18-5 Mutual Inductance 358
18-6 Transformers 360
18-7 Core Losses 366
18-8 Types of Cores 367
18-9 Variable Inductance 368
18-10 Inductances in Series or Parallel 369
18-11 Stray Inductance 371
18-12 Energy in Magnetic Field of Inductance 372
18-13 Troubles in Coils 372
viii Contents

CHAPTER 19 INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 379

19-1 How XL Reduces the Amount of I 379
19-2 XL= 27TfL 381
19-3 Series or Parallel Inductive Reactances 384
19-4 Ohm's Law Applied to XL 385
19-5 Applications of XL for Different Frequencies 385
19-6 Waveshape of vL Induced by Sine-Wave 386
Current

CHAPTER 20 INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS 394

20-1 Sine-Wave iL Lags vL by 90° 394
20-2 XL and R in Series 395
20-3 Impedance (Z) 398
20-4 XL and R in Parallel 400
20-5 Q of a Coil 403
20-6 AF and RF Chokes 405
20-7 The General Case of Inductive Voltage 407
20-8 Calculating the LI R Time Constant 408

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 18 TO- 20 415

CHAPTER 21 CAPACITANCE 418
21-1 How Charge Is Stored in the Dielectric 418
21-2 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor 420
21-3 The Farad Unit of Capacitance 422
21-4 Typical Capacitors 424
21-5 Capacitor Color Coding 429
21-6 Parallel Capacitances 430
21-7 Series Capacitances 430
21-8 Stray Capacitive and Inductive Effects 431
21-9 Energy in Electrostatic Field of Capacitance 434
21-10 Troubles in Capacitors 434

CHAPTER 22 CAPACITIVE REACTANCE 442

22-1 Alternating Current in a Capacitive Circuit 442
22-2 Xe = 1 !(27TfC) 444
22-3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Reactances 446
22-4 Ohm's Law Applied to Xe 447
22-5 Applications of Capacitive Reactance 448
22-6 Sine-Wave Charge and Discharge Current 448

CHAPTER 23 CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS 457

23-1 Sine-Wave Ve Lags ie by 90° 457
23-2 X0 and R in Series 458
23-3 Xe and R in Parallel 461
 Contents ix

23-4 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors 463

23-5 Capacitive Voltage Dividers 464
23-6 The General Case of Capacitive Current i0 465
23-7 Calculating the RC Time Constant 466

CHAPTER 24 RC AND LI R TIME CONSTANTS 472

24-1 Response of Resistance Alone 472
24-2 LI R Time Constant 473
24-3 High Voltage Produced by Opening RL 474
Circuit
24-4 RC Time Constant 476
24-5 RC Charge and Discharge Curves 479
24-6 High Current Produced by Short-circuiting 479
RC Circuit
24-7 RC Waveshapes 481
24-8 Long and Short Time Constants 483
24-9 Charge and Discharge with Short RC Time 483
Constant
24-10 Long Time Constant for RC Coupling 484
Circuit
24-11 Universal Time Constant Graph 486
24-12 Comparison of Reactance and Time 488
Constant

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 21 TO 24 494

CHAPTER 25 ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS 498
25-1 AC Circuits with Resistance but No 498
Reactance
25-2 Circuits with XL Alone 499
25-3 Circuits with X 0 Alone 501
25-4 Opposite Reactances Cancel 501
25-5 Series Reactance and Resistance 503
25-6 Parallel Reactance and Resistance 505
25-7 Series-Parallel Reactance and Resistance 507
25-8 Real Power 507
25-9 AC Meters 510
25-10 Wattmeters 510
25-11 Summary of Types of Ohms in AC Circuits 511
25-12 Summary of Types of Phasers in AC 512
Circuits

CHAPTER 26 COMPLEX NUMBERS FOR AC 519

CIRCUITS
26-1 Positive and Negative Numbers 519
26-2 The j Operator 520
x Contents

26-3 Definition of a Complex Number 521

26-4 How Complex Numbers Are Applied to AC 522
Circuits
26-5 Impedance in Complex Form 523
26-6 Operations with Complex Numbers 524
26-7 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Number 526
26-8 Polar Form of Complex Numbers 527
26-9 Converting Polar to Rectangular Form 528
26-10 Complex Numbers in Series AC Circuits 530
26-11 Complex Numbers in Parallel AC Circuits 532
26-12 Combining Two Complex Branch 533
Impedances
26-13 Combining Complex Branch Currents 534
26-14 Parallel Circuit with Three Complex 535
Branches

CHAPTER 27 RESONANCE 541

27-1 The Resonance Effect 541
27-2 Series Resonance 542
27-3 Parallel Resonance 546
27-4 The Resonant Frequency f,, = l/(2'1TVLC) 550
27-5 Q Magnification Factor of Resonant Circuit 552
27-6 Bandwidth of Resonant Circuit 555
27-7 Tuning 558
27-8 Mistuning 560
27-9 Analysis of Parallel Resonant Circuits 561
27-10 Damping of Parallel Resonant Circuits 563
27-11 Choosing L and C for a Resonant Circuit 564

CHAPTER 28 FILTERS 570

28-1 Examples of Filtering 570
28-2 Direct Current Combined with Alternating 571
Current
28-3 Transformer Coupling 574
28-4 Capacitive Coupling 575
28-5 Bypass Capacitors 577
28-6 Filter Circuits 580
28-7 Low-pass Filters 581
28-8 High-pass Filters 582
28-9 Resonant Filters 584
28-10 Interference Filters 586

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 25 TO 28 593

CHAPTER 29 VACUUM TUBES 597
29-1 Rectifiers, Amplifiers, and Oscillators 598
29-2 Construction of Tubes 599
 Contents xi

29-3 Diodes 600

29-4 Plate Current 602
29-5 Diode Rectifier Circuit 602
29-6 Triodes 604
29-7 How a Triode Amplifies the Control-Grid 606
Voltage
29-8 Triode Characteristics 608
29-9 Tube Parameters 609
29-10 Tetrodes 610
29-11 Pentodes 612
29-12 Tube Types 614
29-13 The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) 616
29-14 Troubles in Vacuum Tubes 617

CHAPTER 30 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND 624

TRANSISTORS
30-1 Types of Semiconductor Devices 625
30-2 Characteristics of Semiconductors 626
30-3 N-type and P-type Doping 627
30-4 Current in Semiconductors 629
30-5 The PN Junction 630
30-6 Diode Rectifier Circuits 633
30-7 Transistors 636
30-8 Transistor Amplifier Circuits 639
30-9 The CE Amplifier Circuit 642
30-10 Collector Characteristic Curves 645
30-11 Load-Line Analysis 647
30-12 Bias Stabilization 651
30-13 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 652
30-14 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 655
30-15 Types of Transistors 657
30-16 Special-Purpose Diodes 659
30-17 Transistor Troubles 660

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 29 AND 30 669

CHAPTER 31 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 673
31-1 Types of Integrated Circuits 673
31-2 Production of Integrated Circuits 675
31-3 Integrated Components 676
31-4 The Differential Amplifier 679
31-5 Linear IC Applications 681

CHAPTER 32 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 685

32-1 Binary Numbers 685
32-2 Binary Arithmetic 688
xii Contents

32-3 Symbolic Logic for Switching Circuits 689

32-4 Truth Tables 691
32-5 Basic Logic Circuits 693
32-6 Diode Gate Circuits 694
32-7 Diode-Transistor Logic (DTL) 695
32-8 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) 698
32-9 Multivibrator (MV) Circuits 700
32-10 Flip-flop Circuits 701
32-11 Counters 704

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 31 AND 32 711

BIBLIOGRAPHY 713
APPENDIX A ELECTRONIC FREQUENCY SPECTRUM 717
APPENDIX B FCC FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS 719
FROM 30 kHz TO 300,000 MHz
APPENDIX C ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF THE 721
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
APPENDIX D PHYSICS UNITS 724
APPENDIX E TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 728
APPENDIX F ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS AND 732
ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIX G COLOR CODES 735
APPENDIX H SOLDERING AND TOOLS 741
APPENDIX I SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS 744
ANSWERS TO SELF-EXAMINATIONS 746
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS 751
INDEX 759
 I H •t< •#I 'ii I 1 I II

Preface
This basic text is for beginning students without circuits, and parallel circuits build up to more
any experience in electricity and electronics. advanced chapters on series-parallel circuits,
The first chapter is on elementary electricity; the voltage dividers, and networks.
last chapters cover integrated circuits and digital The chapters on magnetism and electro-
electronics. In between the topics progress magnetic induction lead into the development
through series and parallel de circuits, net- of sine-wave alternating voltage and current.
works, meters, magnetism, ac circuits with in- There are separate chapters on inductance and
ductance and capacitance, vacuum tubes, and its ac reactance before these fundamentals are
transistors. These fundamentals form the basis combined for inductive circuits. The same se-
for the study of advanced applications, includ- quential development is used for capacitive cir-
ing communications electronics in general and cuits. Then all these principles of L and C are
radio and television in particular, industrial combined for ac circuits and resonance with
electronics, and computers. sinusoidal waveforms.
For each subject, the basic principles are The important details of RC and LI R time
explained first, followed by typical applications constants are reserved for another chapter.
and common troubles. This presentation has Here, the effects on de transients and nonsi-
proved effective in helping students to learn the nusoidal ac waveforms of inductive and capaci-
fundamentals of electronics with a practical ap- tive circuits can be compared.
proach that is interesting and useful. At the end of the book, the chapters on
Mathematics is held to a minimum. Some vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits,
numerical problems require powers of 10 be- and digital principles provide an introduction
cause of the metric units. Trigonometric func- to electronic circuits with rectifiers, amplifiers,
tions are used to explain the details of ac cir- and digital logic functions.
cuits, where the phase angle is important.
The order of topics follows a typical Practical approach. Each chapter has a sec-
one-year course in electronics fundamentals tion at the end to explain common troubles in
that includes de and ac circuits. However, components or applications of the theory. For
Kirchhoff's Laws and Network Theorems may instance, the effects of an open circuit and a
be too advanced for some courses. These two short circuit are explained in the first five chap-
chapters can be used for a separate course on ters on de circuits. Typical troubles in resistors,
network analysis, possibly combined with the coils, capacitors, tubes, and transistors are de-
details of RC and LI R Time Constants. scribed in their respective chapters.
Similarly, the three chapters Semiconduc- For practical theory, the choke coil is ex-
tor Diodes and Transistors, Integrated Circuits, plained as an application of inductive reactance;
and Digital Electronics can be used for a short coupling and bypass capacitors as examples of
course on semiconductor devices. capacitive reactance are described in detail.

Organization. The book is divided into 32 Glossary of technical abbreviations. These

chapters for step-by-step development. For ex- are listed at the end of the chapters for Inte-
ample, individual chapters on Ohm's law, series grated Circuits and Digital Electronics. The ex-
xiv Preface

panding field of semiconductor devices has its the construction, packaging, and circuits for IC
own terminology, especially alphabetical abbre- units, including amplifier and digital applica-
viations such as MOSFET, LSI, and TTL It is tions. Chapter 32, Digital Electronics, explains
helpful to have these summarized for conven- binary arithmetic, logic gates, and flip-flop cir-
ient reference. cuits.
The chapter Semiconductor Diodes and
Numerical problems. This fourth edition has Transistors has been completely rewritten and
additional problems for more work in the nu- updated to present a thorough description of
merical calculations, especially for reactances in solid-state devices. Included are NPN and PNP
ac circuits. With the use of calculators, difficult bipolar transistors, the field-effect transistor
numbers can be used without too much busy- (FET), the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and
work for the students. the unijunction transistor (UJT). The IC chapter
is an extension of solid-state electronics, as
Programmed questions. A new feature is many of the same principles of semiconductor
Practice Problems at the end of each main devices apply to integrated circuits and discrete
topic. These questions should help the students transistors. The digital chapter is an extension
check their understanding of each section im - of integrated circuits, as IC units are used for
mediately aft~r reading the material. The an- practically all digital circuits.
swers are at the end of each chapter. Chapter 7, Direct-Current Meters, now
comes a little earlier in the book, before the
New material. Entire chapters dealing with material on networks. This way the de meters
voltage dividers, the 60-Hz ac power line, inte- can be related more closely to measurements in
grated circuits, and digital electronics have been series and parallel circuits for ·laboratory work.
added in order to emphasize these important The chapter includes material on digital meters.
subjects. As in the third edition, separate chap- The introduction, Survey of Electronics,
ters are devoted to Kirchhoff's laws, network now has symbols and units for R, L, and C. The
theorems, and time constants. purpose is to help in laboratory work at the start
Chapter 6, Voltage Dividers and Current of the course.
Dividers, has the original material from the The SI standard symbol of Vor v for volt-
chapter on series-parallel circuits. However, age is used throughout the book, eliminating
more space is available to include the practical the use of E or e. Also, the SI unit of the siemens
example of voltage dividers with load currents is used along with the mho unit for conduct-
and the case of current division in proportion to ance. In addition, the SI system is emphasized
the branch conductances. in magnetic units.
Chapter 17, The 60-Hz AC Power Line,
includes practical material on motors, genera- Leaming aids. The entire book is written with
tors, residential wiring, fluorescent lighting, and shorter sentences, shorter paragraphs, and
three-way switches. The wye and delta connec- more subhead titles. With the new two-column
tions for three-phase power are also included. format, the text should be easier to read.
This material is in a separate chapter to allow The practice problems for each main sec-
concentration on the theory of alternating cur- tion and answers at the end of each chapter
rent and voltage in Chap. 16. have the purpose of applying principles of pro-
Chapter 31, Integrated Circuits, describes grammed learning. This self-testing is in short
 Preface xv

units and can be reinforced immediately with 716 lists books on mathematics, electronics,
correct answers. semiconductors, and digital electronics. The
Each chapter starts with an introduction listing also includes manuals for tubes and tran-
that states the objective, followed by a listing of sistors, trade publications, and sources for
topics. At the end of each chapter a short sum- training films.
mary lists the main points to remember. The Answers to all self-examination questions
short-answer questions for self-examination are and to odd-numbered problems are given at the
based on the chapter summary. Summaries for end of the book. A solutions manual for all the
groups of chapters are also given as a review, problems is available to instructors.
with additional self-examination questions. This
definite structure of ideas in the listing of topics,
summaries, and self-testing with review helps Credits. The photographs of components and
the student learn the material. equipment have been provided by many manu-
There are many tables in the text and sum- facturers, as noted in each legend. In the text,
maries. The tables are used for a concise listing this fourth edition continues material that has
of important points and to compare similar or been developed in previous editions with the
opposite characteristics. In many cases, it is help of my colleagues Harry G. Rice, Philip
easier to understand and remember ideas by Stein, and Gerald P. McGinty.
comparisons. Finally, it is a pleasure to thank my wife,
Each review summary has a short list of Ruth, for her excellent work in typing the man-
reference books for the topics in those chapters. uscript.
A more complete bibliography on pages 713 to Bernard Grob
 survey of
Blectronlcs
Electronics and radio communications are practical applications of the
general principles of electricity. The same electricity produced by a battery
for a flashlight can be modified to do any number of jobs, from running a
motor or producing heat and light to more advanced uses such as working
a computer or providing wireless broadcasting for radio and television.
The word radio is an abbreviated form of radiotelegraph or radio-
telephone. In its first form, wireless communication was by radiotelegraph,
using short dots and longer dashes as symbols for letters in the Morse
code. Now radiotelephone is used more, providing wireless voice com-
munications or broadcasting voice and music programs for entertainment.
In general, then, radio is the art of wireless communications.
The word electronics derives from the electron, which is a tiny,
invisible quantity of electricity present in all materials. In terms of its many
uses, electronics can be defined to include all applications of electricity
flowing in a vacuum, as in vacuum tubes, in gas or vapor, and in certain
solid materials such as transistors. More generally, electronics includes all
effects of electricity where the action of individual electrons determines
the application. The main electronic devices are transistors and vacuum
tubes, shown in Fig. 1.
Radio and electronics are closely related. Sometimes they are even
joined in their use. For example, an electronic heating unit generates
radio waves that go through the work to produce heat. The heat bonds the
solid materials together. Even if the applications are not so close, the
principles of radio and electronics are essentially the same. Both are
based on the fundamental laws of electricity.

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONICS place to another without the need for any con-
1

Wireless transmission can be taken as starting necting wires between the transmitting and re-
with the work of Heinrich Hertz, a German ceiving equipment.
physicist. In 1887 he was the first to demon- Hertz proved that radio waves, although
strate by experiment the process of electromag- invisible, travel with the same velocity as light
netic radiation through space. The distance of waves. In fact, radio waves and light waves are
transmission was only a few feet. However, it just two examples of electromagnetic waves, a
demonstrated radio waves traveling from one form of energy that combines the effects of
2 Survey o( Electronics

II"

1
(a)

(b)

(d)

(c)
FIGURE 1
Electron devices. (a) Vacuum-tube. (b) Tran-
sistors. (c) Silicon-diode rectifiers. (d) Inte-
grated circuit (IC) with four transistors on one
silicon wafer. Length is % in.
 Survey of.'Eiectronics 3

electricity and magnetism. Additional examples 1948 at Bell Telephone Laboratories, there are
of electromagnetic waves include heat radia- new applications in electronics and radio. The
tion, x-rays, and cosmic rays, among others, all transistor is an application of controlled elec-
of which can transmit energy through space tron flow in solids such as germanium and sili-
without the need for any connecting wires. con. Tubes and transistors both have similar
The work of Hertz followed earlier experi- applications for amplification or control pur-
ments on electricity and magnetism. In 1820, a poses. The transistor is smaller, however, and
Danish physicist, H. C. Oersted, showed that an more efficient because there is no heater. See
electrical current produces magnetic effects. Fig. 1. Solid-state electronics using semicon-
Then, in 1831, a British physicist, Michael Fara- ductors includes not only transistors and diodes
day, discovered that a magnet in motion can but also the integrated circuit (IC) in Fig. 1 d. It
produce electricity. In 1864, the British physi- combines these semiconductor components in
cist James Clerk Maxwell, on the basis of work one solid chip with the required resistors and
in electricity and magnetism, predicted the capacitors.
electromagnetic waves demonstrated later by
Hertz. Radio Broadcast Services. Broadcasting
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi used a long means sending out in all directions. As illus-
wire antenna and developed a practical radio trated in Fig. 2, the transmitter radiates electro-
system for long-distance communication. He magnetic radio waves in all directions by means
succeeded in producing wireless communica- of its antenna. Receivers can pick up the trans-
tion across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901. mitted radio waves by means of a receiving
The rapid advances after that are due antenna or aerial. Practically all radio receivers
largely to the introduction and progress of the now use transistors instead of vacuum tubes
vacuum tube. In 1906 Dr. Lee De Forest, with (see Fig. 3 ).
his audion tube that could amplify electric sig- The carrier is an electromagnetic radio
nals, was a leader in this field. wave that includes the variations of the desired
As the design of vacuum tubes advanced, voice or music information, inserted by modu-
radio broadcasting progressed rapidly. Regu- lation. This technique of modulating a carrier
larly scheduled programs were broadcast in wave is necessary because the desired informa-
1920 by station KDKA in the AM (amplitude tion itself is not suitable for wireless transmis-
modulation) radio band. The commercial FM sion. The carrier is chosen for the best radio
(frequency modulation) broadcast service for transmission; the modulation provides the in-
sound programs was started in 1939. Stereo formation. For the amplitude modulation (AM)
broadcasting in the FM radio band began in shown in Fig. 2, the amplitude of the carrier
1961. wave varies with the modulation. In frequency
With regard to television, after discarding modulation (FM), the modulating voltage varies
previous mechanical systems that used rotating the frequency of the carrier wave.
drums or disks, commercial television broad- Frequency is an important characteristic of
casting was adopted officially in July 1941, al- an alternating voltage or current. How many
though its popular use did not begin until 1945. times per second the carrier wave varies
Our present color-television system was through a complete cycle of reversals in polarity
adopted in 1953. is the frequency in cycles per second (cps). The
Now, with the invention of transistors in unit is the hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cps.
4 Survey of Electronics

.
Transm1ttmg
antenna/
I
~* ___.._.
\
Electromagnetic
radio waves

Receiving
antenna

Studio Transmitter
equipment

Receiver

Sound waves
to microphone Sound waves
from loudspeaker
FIGURE 2
Radio broadcasting between the transmitter
and receiver. An AM carrier wave is shown.

The transmission distance may be 10 or others. These are all regulated by the Federal
5000 miles, depending on the type of radio Communications Commission (FCC) in the
service. There are many services for different United States. The FCC assigns the carrier wave
uses, including broadcast radio and television to be used by the broadcast station. A few of the
for home entertainment, radio navigation, mar- more important radio services are listed here,
itime radio, police radio, amateur radio broad- but a more complete list is in Appendix B, with
casting, government radio services, and many assigned channels.

FIGURE 3
The old and the new in radio. (RCA)
 Survey of Electronics 5

Standard Broadcast Band. This band is the Amateur Radio. This is perhaps the largest
original system of broadcasting for what we noncommercial radio broadcast service. These
generally call radio, using amplitude modula- self-styled "hams" usually build and operate
tion in the transmission of the station's assigned their own transmitters and receivers to call each
carrier wave. The AM radio band is 535 to other in one of the assigned amateur radio
1605 kHz. The last digit is not on the dial. bands. The largest organization in this field is
the American Radio Relay League (ARRL),
FM Radio Band. This band is 88 to 108 MHz. Newington, Connecticut.
The FM system reduces static and interference.
Also, the FM band is used for broadcasting ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS
high-fidelity audio signals. For stereo broad- Electronics has its uses in almost all industries
casting, the left and right audio signals are for quality control and automation. Just a few
multiplexed, or combined, on one carrier wave. examples are given here to indicate its many
possibilities. Additional applications are listed in
Television Broadcasting. Television is just Appendix A
another application of radio broadcasting. Two
separate carrier signals are transmitted by the
station in its assigned channel. One is the AM
picture signal; the other is the FM sound signal.
A 1V channel is 6 MHz wide to include the
picture and sound signals. As an example,
channel 4 is 66 to 72 MHz. For color broad-
casting, the color signal is multiplexed with the
black-and-white signal on the one carrier wave
for a picture signal.

Marine Radio. This use is important for ship

navigation and safety. In addition to ship-to-ship
and ship-to-shore communications, radio is the
basis of radar navigation systems.

Aeronautical Radio. In addition to communi-

cations, radio is an important part of air naviga-
tion. It includes radar, radio compass, radio
range, and automatic landing equipment.

Government Radio. There are many radio

stations operated by the federal government for
civilian and military requirements.

Citizen's Band (CB) Radio. Forty 10-kHz

channels from 26.965 to 27.405 MHz are for
public use of two-way radio. The CB transceiver FIGURE 4
includes a· transmitter and receiver. Electronic calculator. (Texas Instruments)
6 Survey of Electronics

Electronic Calculators. See Fig. 4. Using in- Accuracy of the electronic watch is better than
tegrated circuits, the calculator adds, subtracts, 1 min/year.
multiplies, or divides numbers almost instantly.
The display is a photoelectric panel that shows Industrial Electronics. These applications in-
the digits in their proper place. The scientific clude welding, dielectric heating, induction
calculator in Fig. 4 can also be used for trigono- heating, metal detector, smoke detector, mois-
metric functions, logarithms, and exponents. ture control, and computer-controlled machin-
ery. In addition, there are many types of re-
Electronic Data Processing (EDP). This ap- mote-control units, including automatic garage
plication includes computers and automatic door openers and burglar alarms. Closed-cir-
equipment to replace manual office routines in cuit television is often used for surveillance.
filing, sorting, billing, and calculating. Electronic
data processing is very common in banks, in- Supersonics or Ultrasonics. Electronic
surance companies, government agencies, and equipment also uses sound waves with fre-
any office where voluminous records are kept. quencies above the range of human hearing.
Examples are sonar equipment for marine
Medical. Research in schools and laborato- depth equipment, ultrasonic cleaning machines,
ries, diagnosis, treatment, and surgery all use and remote control units for tuning television
electronic equipment. Examples are the elec- receivers to different channels.
tron microscope, diathermy equipment, and the
Classifications. There are so many applica-
cardiograph machine.
tions that they are generally considered in these
broad categories:
Electronic Watches. See Fig. 5. This watch
uses an integrated circuit to produce timing 1. Radio communications. This includes AM
pulses, instead of using mechanical springs. radio, FM radio, including stereo, and tel-
The digital readout can use the light-emitting evision broadcasting, including color.
diode (LED) or liquid-crystal display (LCD). Radio can further be subdivided between
receivers and broadcast equipment, either
at the transmitter or at the studio. High-
fidelity audio equipment can be considered
a specialized branch of receivers.
2. Electronics. Some of the main subdivisions
are computers, industrial control, servo-
mechanisms, testing and recording instru-
ments, and medical electronics. The appli-
cations of computers, including EDP,
probably form the largest branch of elec-
tronics.
3. Electrical power. Generation, distribution,
and uses, including de and ac machinery.
FIGURE 5
Electronic digital watch. (Bulova Watch Co., Branches. Specific divisions in radio and
Inc.) electronics are indicated by the following spe-
 I 1 t • · ·~1 !t I

Survey of Electronics 7

cialized titles for engineers: aeronautical, audio,

antennas, communications, computer, engi-
neering management, engineering sales, geo-
physical, illumination, information theory and
coding, magnetics, medical electronics, micro-
waves, military including guided missiles, nu-
clear power, packaging and materials, radio
astronomy, tubes, semiconductor, space flight
including satellites, test equipment, and, finally,
ultrasonics. Many of these fields combine the
sciences of physics and chemistry.

Job Titles. The types of jobs in each of these

fields include management, engineer for re-
search, development, or production, teacher, FIGURE 6
technician, sales, technical writer, draftsman, Typical resistors. (Ohmite Mfg. Co.)
service worker, inspector, tester, and wirer.
Technicians and service workers are needed for A diode is generally used as a rectifier to
testing, maintenance, and repair on all the types change alternating current to direct current.
of electronic equipment. The other tubes are for amplifier circuits, which
increase the strength of the input signal.
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum
Considering the many different applications of tube with a fluorescent screen. The picture tube
electronics and radio, we can be a little sur- for a television receiver is a common example
prised that there are only five basic types of
components for all the different kinds of equip-
ment. Of course, each type has many variations
for specific uses. Still, the following is a short
list:

1. Electron tubes, including vacuum-tube

amplifiers, gas-filled tubes, and the cath-
ode-ray tube (CRT).
2. Transistors. This is probably the most im-
portant use of solid-state semiconductors,
which includes diodes and integrated cir-
cuits.
3. Resistors (Fig. 6).
4. Capacitors, or condensers (Fig. 7).
5. Inductors, or coils (Fig. 8).
FIGURE 7
Tubes. Types include the two-electrode tubes Typical capacitors. ( Cornell-Dubilier Electric
or diodes, plus triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes. Corp.)
8 Survey of Electronics

(b)

(c)

u
(a) (d) (e)
FIGURE 8
Typical inductors. (Merit Coil and Transformer
Corp.)

of the CRT (Fig. 9). More details of tube types Semiconductor Devices. Similarly, semicon-
and their schematic symbols are in Chap. 29, ductor diodes are rectifiers. Transistors corre-
Vacuum Tubes. spond to triode tubes for use as amplifiers. Both
can control the flow of electric charges between
the input and output terminals. Tubes and tran-
sistors are used in electronic circuits with resis-
tors, capacitors, and inductors. The transistors
and tubes are active components, meaning they
can amplify or rectify. Resistors, capacitors, and
inductors are passive components. Integrated
circuits combine solid-state transistors and
diodes in one IC chip for a complete circuit with
the passive components. More details of solid-
state devices, with schematic symbols, are in
Chaps. 30 to 32.

Resistors. These can be the carbon-composi-

tion type or wound with special resistance wire.
Their function is to limit the amount of current
in a circuit.
FIGURE 9 The unit of resistance (R) is the ohm (Q).
Typical picture tube or CRT. As an example, R = 100 Q is a common value.
 I I t 'rt'J • ~•·•' Cf!J !If l I I t I l'

Survey of Electronics 9

TABLE 1. Schematic Symbols for Resistors

TYPE SYMBOL NOTES
R
Fixed ~
Limits current

~ or Varies current or voltage; volume, contrast, and

Variable R tone controls

~
Schematic symbols for R are shown in Table 1. value for an electrolytic filter capacitor. Sche-
More details are in Chap. 11, Resistors. matic symbols for C are shown in Table 2.
More details on capacitance are in Chaps. 21
Capacitors. A capacitor is constructed as an to 23.
insulator between two conductor plates. The
basic function is to concentrate the electric field Inductors. An inductor is just a coil of wire.
of the voltage applied across the insulator or The basic function is to concentrate the mag-
dielectric. As a result, it has the capacity to store netic field of the current in the coil. An induced
electric charge. voltage is produced when the current with its
With an ac voltage applied, the capacitor magnetic field varies.
can charge and discharge. The practical appli- In the practical application of a choke, the
cation of this effect is to use capacitors to pass inductor can pass a steady direct current better
an ac signal but to block a steady de voltage. than alternating current. The higher the fre-
The higher the frequency, the easier it is for the quency, the greater is the effect of the choke in
capacitor to couple the ac signal from one am - reducing the amount of alternating current.
plifier circuit to the next. A transformer consists of two or more coil
The unit of capacitance (C) is the farad (F). windings in the same magnetic field. The pur-
However, this is a very large unit requiring pose is to increase or decrease the amount of ac
metric fractions. As an example, C = 40 µF voltage coupled between the two windings.
(microfarads), or40/l,OOO,OOO F, is a common Therefore, a transformer can operate only with

TABLE 2. Schematic Symbols for Capacitors

TYPE SYMBOL USES
c Stores charge in dielectric; passes ac voltage but
Fixed 0
)I 0
blocks de voltage
c
Electrolytic 0 )I+ 0 Fixed value with large C but has polarity
c
Variable 0
~~ 0 Variable capacitor; used for tuning
10 Survey of Electronics

TABLE 3. Schematic Symbols for Inductors or Coils

TYPE SYMBOL USES
L
Air core ~
Concentrates magnetic field; for radio frequencies

L
Iron core For 60-Hz and audio frequencies
~

Variable L __ ._
powdered-iron Variable inductance; used for tuning
~
core

Lp
Iron-core ~ Increases or decreases ac voltage from primary Lp
transformer ~ to secondary L8
Ls

alternating current. The magnetic field must Electronic Circuits. In conclusion, whether
vary to induce the current that transforms the we consider radio communications, electronics,
energy between coils. More details on induct- or power machinery, they all depend on the
ance are in Chaps. 18 to 20. · fundamental principles of electricity and mag-
The symbol for inductance is L, for link- netism. The applications of electronics are basi-
ages in the magnetic field. The unit is the henry cally electric circuits with transistors or tubes
(H). As an example, L = 250 µH is a typical and the required, R, C, and L components.
value of a choke for radio frequencies. Sche- A transistor or tube is needed for amplification of
matic symbols for Lare shown in Table 3. a desired signal.
 Blectrlclty
Electricity is an invisible force that can produce heat, light, motion, and
many other physical effects. The force is an attraction or repulsion apter
between electric charges. More specifically, electricity can be explained in
terms of electric charge, current, voltage,' and resistance. The corre-
sponding electrical units are the coulomb for measuring charge, the
ampere for current, the volt for potential difference, and the ohm for
resistance. These characteristics can then be applied to electric circuits.
The topics explained here are:
I
1-1 Negative and Positive Polarities
1-2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom
1-3 Structure of the Atom
1-4 The Coulomb Unit of Charge
1-5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
1-6 Charge in Motion Is Current
1-7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current
1-8 The Closed .Circuit
1-9 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC)
1-10 Sources of Electricity

1..1 poles, electric charges have the opposite polari~

NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE ties labeled negative and positive. The opposing
POLARITIES characteristics provide a method of balancing
We see the effects of electricity in a battery, one against the other to explain different physi ·
static charge, lightning, radio, television, and cal effects.
many other applications. What dQ they all have It is the arrangement of electrons and pro·
in common that is electrical in nature? The tons as basic particles of electricity that deter~
answer is basic particles .of electric charge with mines the electrical characteristics of all
opposite polarities. All the materials we know, substances. As an example, this paper has elec·
including solids, liquids, and gases, contain two trons and protons in it. There is no evidence of
basic particles of electric charge: the electron electricity, though, because the number· of elec-
and the proton. An electron is the smallest trons equals the number of protons. In that case
amount of electric charge having the character· the opposite electrical forces cancel, making the
istic called negative polarity. The proton is a paper electrically neutral. The neutral condition
basic particle with positive polarity. means that opposing forces are exactly bal-
Actually, the negative and positive polari · anced, without any net effect either way.
ties indicate two opposite characteristics that When we want to use the electrical forces
seem to be fundamental in all physical applica · associated with the negative and positive
tions. Just as magnets have north and south charges in all matter, work must be done to
 Chapter 1
12 Electricity

marked to emphasize the two opposite polari-

ties.

Practice Problems 1-1

(answers on page 38)
(a) Is the charge of an electron positive or
negative?
(b) Is the charge of a proton positive or nega-
tive?
(c) Is it true or false that the neutral condition
means equal positive and negative
charges?

1-2
ELECTRONS AND PROTONS
IN THE ATOM
Although there is any number of possible
methods by which electrons and protons might
FIGURE 1-1 be grouped, they assemble in specific combina-
tions that result in a stable arrangement. Each
Negative and positive polarities on 1.5-V dry
stable combination of electrons and protons
cell.
makes one particular type of atom. For exam-
ple, Fig. 1-2 illustrates the electron and proton
separate the electrons and protons. Changing structure of one atom of the gas hydrogen. This
the balance of forces produces evidence of atom consists of a central, mass called the nu-
electricity. A battery, for instance, can do elec- cleus and 1 electron outside. The proton in the
trical work because its chemical energy sepa- nucleus makes it the massive and stable part of
rates electric charges to produce an excess of the atom because a proton is 1840 times heav-
electrons at its negative terminal and an excess ier than an electron.
of protons at its positive terminal. With separate In Fig. 1-2, the 1 electron in the hydrogen
and opposite charges at the two terminals, elec- atom is shown in an orbital ring around the
trical energy can be supplied to a circuit con- nucleus. In order to account for the electrical
nected to the battery. Figure 1-1 shows a battery stability of the atom, we can consider the elec-
with its negative ( - ) and positive ( +) terminals tron as spinning around the nucleus, as planets
revolve around the sun. Then the electrical
,--, force attracting the electrons in toward the nu-
Proton / "" '\ cleus is balanced by the mechanical force out-
in nucleus ---f__f;\ 6,..-- ~lectr?n ward on the rotating electron. As a result, the
\_ ' J ? m orbit
electron stays in its orbit around the nucleus.
\ I
' ............. _..,,,.""' / In an atom that has more electrons and
FIGURE 1-2 protons than hydrogen, all the protons are in
Electron and proton in hydrogen atom. the nucleus, while all the electrons are in one or
 'f't"•t1 '"I''! l 11 111

Chapter 1
Electricity 13

more outside rings. For example, the carbon When there are many atoms close together
atom illustrated in Fig. l -3a has 6 protons in the in a copper wire, the outermost orbital electrons
nucleus and 6 electrons in two outside rings. are not sure which atoms they belong to. They
The total number of electrons in the outside can migrate easily from one atom to another at
rings must equal the number of protons in the random. Such electrons that can move freely
nucleus in a neutral atom. from one atom to the next are often called free
The distribution of electrons in the orbital electrons. This freedom accounts for the ability
rings determines the atom's electrical stability. of copper to conduct electricity very easily. It is
Especially important is the number of electrons the movement of free electrons that provides
in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This· out- electrical current in a metal conductor.
ermost ring requires 8 electrons for stability,
except when there is only one ring, which has a
maximum of 2 electrons. Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconduc-
In the carbon atom in Fig. 1-3a, with 6 tors. When electrons can move easily from
electrons, there are just 2 electrons in the first atom to atom in a material, it is a conductor. In
ring because 2 is its maximum number. The general, all the metals are good conductors,
remaining 4 electrons are in the second ring, with silver the best and copper second. Their
which can have a maximum of 8 electrons. atomic structure allows free movement of the
As another example, the copper atom in outermost orbital electrons. Copper wire is
Fig. l-3b has only 1 electron in the last ring, generally used for practical conductors because
which can include 8 electrons. Therefore, the it costs much less than silver. The purpose of
outside ring of the copper atom is less stable using conductors is to allow electrical current to
than the outside ring of the carbon atom. flow with minimum opposition.

4 electrons in
/,,,........ ...------~N 2-electron orbit,
-0--0 ·-..., complete
8-electron orbit, .... --0-- / J2f' 'C/"M - '
/ c< --0-- L, M- ' 8-electron orbit,
incomplete .........,__. /-'
~ ..... --.K
..... ,L
'\ I
I ¢P c< ....,,,.--·K
-
_ Co{ \ complete
)..J \
I
I
I
/
\
\
\
I
I I
I
I
/ ,
\ \
- ~

$~(0$$ !$$$€)$$$~
\ b \ ~ 18-electron orbit,
'n\ , ___ . . / r (/ '9
\ \ I I

2-electron
complete
;/---;;>/ \ q
\
\
}--\ q_ );:::;) r< I
':::.<. ...... -0-_ . . ,P I
/ complete

°"""0--G'..G ,//"' 1 electron in

' ', 'Y'.::\
'........ ......... 8-electron orbit,
------- incomplete

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1-3
Atomic structure showing nucleus and orbital
rings. (a) Carbon atom with 6 protons in nucleus
and 6 orbital electrons. (b) Copper atom with
29 protons in nucleus and 29 orbital electrons.
 Chapter 1
14 Electricity

A material with atoms in which the elec- The metals listed across the top row are all
trons tend to stay in their own orbits is an insu- good conductors of electricity. Each has an
lator because it cannot conduct electricity very atomic structure with an unstable outside ring
easily. However, the insulators are able to hold that allows many free electrons.
or store electricity better than the conductors. The semiconductors have 4 electrons in
An insulating material, such as glass, plastic, the outermost ring. This means they neither
rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also called a gain nor lose electrons but share them with
dielectric, meaning it can store electric charge. similar atoms. The reason is that 4 is exactly
Insulators can be useful ·when it is neces- halfway to the stable condition of 8 electrons in
sary to prevent current flow. In addition, for the outside ring.
applications requiring the storage of electric Among the gases, those which are active
charge, as in capacitors, a dielectric material chemically and electrically have an atomic
must be used because a good conductor cannot structure with an incomplete outside ring. The
store any charge. inert gases have a complete outside ring of 8
Carbon can be considered a semiconduc- electrons, which makes them chemically inac-
tor, conducting less than the metal conductors tive. Remember that 8 electrons in the outside
but more than the insulators. In the same group ring is a stable structure.
are germanium and silicon, which are com-
monly used for transistors and other semicon- Molecules and Compounds. A group of two
ductor components. or more atoms forms a molecule. For instance,
two atoms of hydrogen (H) form a hydrogen
Elements. The combinations of electrons and molecule (H 2 ). When hydrogen unites chemi-
protons forming stable atomic structures result cally with oxygen, the result is water (H 2 0 ),
in different kinds of elementary substances hav- which is a compound. A compound, then, con-
ing specific characteristics. A few familiar ex- sists of two or more elements. The molecule is
amples are the elements hydrogen, oxygen, the smallest unit of a compound, with the same
carbon, copper, and iron. An element is defined chemical characteristics. We can have mole-
as a substance that cannot be decomposed any cules for either elements or compounds. How-
further by chemical action. The atom is the ever, atoms exist only for the elements.
smallest particle of an element that still has the
same characteristics as the element. Atom itself Practice Problems 1-2
is a Greek word meaning a particle too small to (answers on page 38)
be subdivided. As an example of the fact that (a) Which has more free electrons: metals or
atoms are too small to be visible, a particle of insulators?
carbon the size of a pinpoint contains many (b) Which is the best conductor: silver, carbon,
billions of atoms. The electrons and protons or iron?
within the atom are even smaller. (c) Which is a semiconductor: copper, silicon,
Table 1-1 lists some more examples of or neon?
elements. These are just a few out of a total of
106. * Notice how the elements are grouped.
1-3
*A more complete listing of the elements, in alpha- STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
betical order, is given in Appendix C at the back of Although nobody has ever seen an atom, its
the book. hypothetical structure fits experimental evi-
 Chapter 1
Electricity 15

TABLE 1-1. Examples of the Chemical Elements

ATOMIC ELECTRON
GROUP ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER VALENCE
Metal conductors, in Silver Ag 47 +1
order of conductance Copper Cu 29 +1 *
Gold Au 79 +1 *
Aluminum· Al 13 +3
Iron Fe 26 +2*
Semiconductors Carbon c 6 ±4
Silicon Si 14 ±4
Germanium Ge 32 ±4
Active gases Hydrogen H 1 ±1
Oxygen 0 8 -2
Inert gases Helium He 2 0
Neon Ne 10 0
*Some metals have more than one valence number
in forming chemical compounds. Examples are cu-
prous or cupric copper, ferrous or ferric iron, and
aurous or auric gold.

dence that has been measured very exactly. The the nucleus has 1 proton balanced by 1 orbital
size and electric charge of the invisible particles electron. Similarly, the carbon atom in Fig. 1-3
in the atom are indicated by how much they are with atomic number 6 has 6 protons in the
deflected by known forces. Our present plane- nucleus and 6 orbital electrons. Also, the cop-
tary model of the atom was proposed by Niels per atom has 29 protons and 29 electrons be-
Bohr in 1913. His contribution was joining the cause its atomic number is 29. The atomic
new ideas of a nuclear atom developed by Lord number is listed for each of the elements in
Rutherford (1871-1937) with the quantum Table 1-1 to indicate the atomic structure.
theory of radiation developed by Max Planck
(1858-1947) and Albert Einstein (1879-1955). Orbital Rings. The planetary electrons are in
As illustrated in Figs. 1-2 and 1-3, the successive shells called K, L, M, N, 0, P, and Q
nucleus contains protons for all the positive at increasing distances outward from the nu -
charge in the atom. The number of protons in cleus. Each shell has a maximum number of
the nucleus is equal to the number of planetary electrons for stability. As indicated in Table 1-2,
electrons. Thus, the positive and negative these stable shells correspond to the inert gases,
charges are balanced, as the proton and elec- like helium and neon.
tron have equal and opposite charges. The The K shell, closest to the nucleus, is stable
orbits for the planetary electrons are also called with 2 electrons, corresponding to the atomic
shells or energy levels. structure for the inert gas helium. Once the
stable number of electrons has filled a shell, it
Atomic Number. This gives the number of cannot take any more electrons. The atomic
protons or electrons required in the atom for structure with all its shells filled up to the maxi-
each element. For the hydrogen atom in mum number for stability corresponds to an
Fig. 1-2, the atomic number is 1, which means inert gas.
 Chapter 1
16 Electricity

TABLE 1-2. Shells of Orbital Electrons in For most elements, we can use the rule
the Atom that the maximum number of electrons in a
SHELL MAXIMUM ELECTRONS INERT GAS filled inner shell equals 2 n2 , where n is the shell
number in sequential order outward from the
K 2 Helium
nucleus. Then the maximum number of elec-
L 8 Neon
M 8 (up to calcium) or 18 Argon trons in the first shell is 2 X 1 = 2; for the
N 8, 18, or 32 Krypton second shell 2 x 2 2 = 8, for the third shell
0 8 or 18 Xenon 2 x 3 2 = 18, and for the fourth shell
p 8 or 18 Radon 2 X 4 2 = 32. These values apply only to an
Q 8 inner shell that is filled with its maximum num-
ber of electrons.
Elements with a higher atomic number
have more planetary electrons. These are in Electron Valence. This value is the number of
successive shells, tending to form the structure electrons in an incomplete outermost shell.
of the next inert gas in the periodic table. 1 After Copper, for instance, has a valence of 1 be-
the K shell has been filled with 2 electrons, the cause there is 1 electron in the last shell, after
L shell can take up to 8 electrons. Ten electrons the inner shells have been completed with their
filling the K and L shells is the atomic structure stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a va-
for the inert gas neon. lence of 1, and carbon has a valence of 4. The
The maximum number of electrons in the number of outer electrons is considered positive
remaining shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for differ- valence, as these electrons are in addition to the
ent elements, depending on their place in the stable shells.
periodic table. The maximum for an outermost Except for H and He, the goal of valence is
shell, though, is always 8. 8 for all the atoms, as each tends to form the
To illustrate these rules, we can use the stable structure of 8 electrons in the outside
copper atom in Fig. l -3b as an example. There ring. For this reason, valence can also be con-
are 29 protons in the nucleus balanced by 29 sidered as the number of electrons in the out-
planetary electrons. This number of electrons side ring needed to make 8. This value is the
fills the K shell with 2 electrons, corresponding negative valence. As examples, the valence of
to the helium atom, and the L shell with 8 copper can be considered + 1 or - 7; carbon
electrons. The 10 electrons in these two shells has the valence of +4. The inert gases have a
correspond to the neon atom, which has an valence of 0, as they all have a complete stable
atomic number of 10. The remaining 19 elec- outer shell of 8 electrons.
trons for the copper atom then fill the M shell The valence indicates how easily the atom
with 18 electrons and 1 electron in the outer- can gain or lose electrons. For instance, atoms
most N shell. with a valence of + 1 can lose this 1 outside
electron, especially to atoms with a valence of
1
+ 7 or -1, which need 1 electron to complete
For more details of the periodic table of the ele- the outside shell with 8 electrons.
ments, developed in 1869 by Dmitri Mendelyeev,
refer to a textbook on chemistry or physics, or see
"Periodic Chart of the Atoms," Sargent Welch Sci- Subshells. Although not shown in the drawing
entific Co., Skokie, Ill. 60076. here, all the shells except K are divided into
 Chapter 1
Electricity 17

TABLE 1-3. Stable Particles in the Atom

PARTICLE CHARGE MASS
Electron, in orbital shells 0.16 X 10- 13 C, negative 9.108 x 10-23 g
Proton, in nucleus 0.16 X 10-13 C, positive 1.672 x 10-24 g
Neutron, in nucleus None 1.675 x 10-24 g

subshells. This subdivision accounts for differ- charge. The work of rubbing resulted in sepa-
ent types of orbits in the same shell. For in- rating electrons and protons to produce a
stance, electrons in one subshell may have el- charge of excess electrons on the surface of the
liptical orbits, while other electrons in the same rubber and a charge of excess protons on the
main shell have circular orbits. The subshells paper.
indicate magnetic properties of the atom. Because paper and rubber are dielectric
materials, they hold their extra electrons or
protons. As a result, the paper and rubber are
Particles in the Nucleus. A stable nucleus,
no longer neutral, but each has an electric
which is not radioactive, contains protons and
charge. The resultant electric charges provide
neutrons. A neutron is electrically neutral with-
the force of attraction between the rubber and
out any net charge. Its mass is almost the same
the paper. This mechanical force of attraction
as a proton.
or repulsion between charges is the fundamen-
A proton has the positive charge of a hy-
tal method by which electricity makes itself evi-
drogen nucleus. The charge is the same amount
dent.
as an orbital electron but of opposite polarity.
Any charge is an example of static electric-
There are no electrons in the nucleus. Table 1-3
ity because the electrons or protons are not in
lists the charge and mass for these three basic
motion. There are many examples. When you
particles in all atoms.
walk across a wool rug, your body becomes
charged with an excess of electrons. Similarly,
Practice Problems 1-3 silk, fur, and glass can be rubbed to produce a
(answers on page 38) static charge. This effect is more evident in dry
(a) An element with 14 protons and 14 elec- weather, because a moist dielectric does not
trons has what atomic number? hold its charge so well. Also, plastic materials
(b) What is the electron valence of an element can be charged easily, which is why thin, light-
with atomic number 3? weight plastics seem to stick to everything.
The charge of many billions of electrons or
protons is necessary for common applications
1-4 of electricity. Therefore, it is convenient to
THE COULOMB UNIT OF CHARGE define a practical unit called the coulomb (C) as
If you rub a hard rubber pen or comb on a sheet equal to the charge of 6.25 X 10 18 electrons or
of paper, the rubber will attract a corner of the protons stored in a dielectric (see Fig. 1-4 ). The
paper if it is free to move easily. The paper and analysis of static charges and their forces is
rubber then give evidence of a static electric called electrostatics.
 Chapter 1
18 Electricity

The symbol for electric charge is Q or q, Charges of Opposite Polarity Attract. If two
standing for quantity. For instance, a charge of small charged bodies of light weight are
6.25 X 10 18 electrons 1 is stated as Q = 1 C. mounted so that they are free to move easily
This unit is named after Charles A. Coulomb and are placed close to each other, one can be
(1736-1806), a French physicist, who meas- attracted to the other when the two charges
ured the force between charges. have opposite polarity (Fig. 1-5a). In terms of
electrons and protons, they tend to be attracted
to each other by the force of attraction between
Negative and Positive Polarities. Historically, opposite charges. Furthermore, the weight of
the negative polarity has been assigned to the an electron is only about 1/i. 840 the weight of a
static charge produced on rubber, amber, and proton. As a result, the force of attraction tends
resinous materials in general. Positive polarity to make electrons move to protons.
refers to the static charge produced on glass
and other vitreous materials. On this basis, the
electrons in all atoms are basic particles of neg- Charges of the Same Polarity Repel. In
ative charge because their polarity is the same Fig. 1-5b and c, it is shown that when the two
as the charge on rubber. Protons have positive bodies have an equal amount of charge with the
charge because the polarity is the same as the same polarity, they repel each other. The two
charge on glass. positive charges repel in Fig. 1-5b, while two
negative charges of the same value repel each
other in Fig. 1-5 c.
1
For an explanation of how to use powers of 10, see
B. Grob, "Problems Workbook in Technical Mathe-
matics for Basic Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book Polarity of a Charge. An electric charge must
Company, New York. have either negative or positive polarity, labeled

1 C of 1 C of
excess electrons excess protons
in dielectric in dielectric

(a) {b)
FIGURE 1-4
The coulomb (C) unit of charge. (a)
6.25 X 10 18 excess electrons for negative
charge. ( b) Same amount of protons for posi-
tive charge caused by removing electrons.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 19

.I
Opposite/ Like+ Like -
charges charges charges
attract repel repel

::e .._
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1-5
Force between charges. (a) Opposite charges
attract. (b) and (c) charges of the same polarity
repel.

- Q or + Q,
with an excess of either electrons Example 4. A neutral dielectric has 12.5 x 10 18
or protons. A 'neutral condition is considered electrons removed. What is its charge?
zero charge. On this basis, consider the follow-
ing examples, remembering that the electron is Answer. The 2 C of electron charge removed
the basic particle of charge and the proton has allows an excess of 12.5 x 10 18 protons. Since the
proton and electron have exactly the same amount
exactly the same amount, although of opposite
of charge, now the dielectric has a positive charge of
polarity.
+Q = 2 c.

Example 1. A neutral dielectric has added to it Note that we generally consider the elec-
12.5 X 10 18 electrons. What is its charge in cou-
trons moving, rather than the heavier protons.
lombs?
However, a loss of a given number of electrons
is equivalent to a gain of the same number of
Answer. This number of electrons is double the protons.
charge of 1 C. Therefore, - Q = 2 C.
Charge of an Electron. Fundamentally, the
Example 2. A dielectric has a positive charge of quantity of any charge is measured by its force
12.5 x 10 18 protons. What is its charge in cou- of attraction or repulsion. The extremely small
lombs? force of an electron or proton was measured by
Millikan 1 in experiments done from 1908 to
Answer. This is the same amount of charge as in 191 7. Very briefly, the method consisted of
Example 1 but positive. Therefore + Q = 2 C. measuring the charge on vaporized droplets of
oil, by balancing the gravitational force against
Example 3. A dielectric with + Q of 2 C has an electrical force that could be measured very
12.5 X 10 18 electrons added. What is its charge precisely.
then?

1Robert A. Millikan (1868-1953), an American

Answer. The 2 C of negative charge added by the
electrons cancels the 2 C of positive charge, making physicist. Millikan received the Nobel prize in physics
the dielectric neutral, with zero charge. for this oil-drop experiment.
 Chapter 1
20 Electricity

A small drop of oil sprayed from an atom- as shown in Fig. 1-6. All the lines form the
izer becomes charged by friction. Furthermore, electric field. The lines and the field are imagi-
the charges can be increased or decreased nary since they cannot be seen. Just as the field
slightly by radiation. These very small changes of the force of gravity is not visible, however, the
in the amount of charge were measured. The resulting physical effects prove the field is there.
three smallest values were 0.16 x 10- 18 C, Each line of force in Fig. 1-6 is directed
0.32 x 10-18 C, and 0.48 x 10-18 C. These outward to indicate repulsion of another charge
values are multiples of 0.16. In fact, all in the field with the same polarity as Q, either
the charges measured were multiples of positive or negative. The lines are shorter fur-
0.16 X 10- 18 C. Therefore, we conclude that ther away from Q to indicate that the force
0.16 X 10-18 C is the basic charge from which decreases inversely as the square of the dis-
all other values are derived. This ultimate tance. The larger the charge, the greater is the
charge of 0.16 x 10- 18 C is the charge of 1 force.
electron or 1 proton. Then The electric field in the dielectric between
two plates with opposite charges is the basis for
1

1 electron or Qe = 0.16 X 10-18 C the ability of a capacitor to store electric charge.

More details are explained in Chap. 21, Capac-
The reciprocal of 0.16 X 10-18 gives the num- itance. In general, any charged insulator has
ber of electrons or protons in 1 C. Then capacitance. A capacitor unit is constructed in a
form to concentrate the electric field.
1 C = 6.25 X 10 18 electrons
Practice Problems 1-4
Note that the factor 6.25 equals exactly 1/o. 16 (answers on page 38)
and the factor 10 18 is the reciprocal of 10-18 . (a) How many electron charges are there in
the practical unit of one coulomb?
The Electric Field of a Static Charge. The (b) How much is the charge in coulombs for a
ability of an electric charge to attract or repel surplus of 25 X 10 18 electrons?
another charge is actually a physical force. To
help visualize this effect, lines of force are used, 1-5
THE VOLT UNIT OF POTENTIAL
Electric lines DIFFERENCE
of force
Potential refers to the possibility of doing work.
+ Any charge has the potential to do the work of
' \ j ;( moving another charge, by either attraction or
~~ <, t ,> ,~
. . . ~--0--.. ~
repulsion. This ability of a charge to do work is
its potential. When we consider two unlike
charges, they have a difference of potential.
, ', ........
.#' JI' I "- A charge is the result of work done in
' t \\ "'' separating electrons and protons. Because of
)I ; the separation, there is stress and strain associ-

FIGURE 1-6 • ated with opposite charges, since normally they

would be balancing each other to produce a
Electrostatic field around a stationary charge Q. neutral condition. We could consider that the
 I ·1t ,,, '''"'I I

Chapter 1
Electricity 21

Electrons
8888 8888 8888
8888 8888 8888
8888 8888 8888
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 1-7
The work required to move electrons between
two charges depends on their difference in
potential. This difference is equivalent to 2 C of
charge in (a), (b), and (c).

accumulated electrons are drawn tight and are In Fig. 1-7 b, one charge is 2 C, while the
straining themselves to be attracted toward pro- other charge is neutral with 0 C. For the differ-
tons in order to return to the neutral condition. ence of 2 C, again 2 X 3 or 6 electrons can be
Similarly, the work of producing the charge attracted to the positive side.
causes a condition of stress in the protons, In Fig. 1-7 c, the difference is still 2 C be-
which are trying to attract electrons and return tween the charges. The +1 C attracts 3 elec-
to the neutral condition. Because of these trons to the side. Also, the -1 C repels 3 elec-
forces, the charge of electrons or protons has trons. This effect is really the same as attracting
potential, as it is ready to give back the work put 6 electrons.
into producing the charge. The force between Therefore, the net number of electrons
charges is in the electric field. moved in the direction of the more positive
charge depends on the difference of potential
Potential between Different Charges. When between the two charges. This difference corre-
one charge is different from the other, there sponds to 2 C for all three cases in Fig. 1-7.
must be a difference of potential between them. Potential difference is often abbreviated P.D.
For instance, consider a positive charge of 3 C The only case without any potential differ-
shown at the right in Fig. 1-7 a. The charge has a ence between charges is where they both have
certain amount of potential, corresponding to the same polarity and are equal in amount.
the amount of work this charge can do. The Then the repelling and attracting forces cancel
work to be done is moving some electrons, as and no work can be done in moving electrons
illustrated. between the two identical charges.
Assume a charge of 1 C can move 3 elec-
trons. Then the charge of +3 C can attract 9 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference. This
electrons toward the right. However, the charge unit is named after Alessandro Volta (1754-
of + 1 C at the opposite side can attract 3 elec- 1827). Fundamentally, the volt is a measure of
trons toward the left. The net result, then, is that the work needed to move an electric charge.
6 electrons can be moved toward the right to When 0.7376 ft· lb (foot-pound) of work is
the more positive charge. required to move 6.25 X 10 18 electrons be-
 Chapter 1
22 Electricity

tween two points, each with its own charge, the the amount of potential difference between the
potential difference is 1 V. two terminals. The cell then is a voltage source,
Note that 6.25 x 10 18 electrons make up or a source of electromotive force (emf).
one coulomb. Therefore the definition of a volt Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf,
is for a coulomb of charge. but the standard symbol now is V for any poten-
Also, 0.7376 ft· lb of work is the same as 1 tial difference. This applies either to the voltage
joule ( J), which is the practical metric unit of generated by a source or to the voltage drop
work 1 or energy. Therefore, we can say briefly across a passive component, such as a resistor.
that one volt equals one joule of work per cou- In a practical circuit, the voltage deter-
lomb of charge. mines how much current can be produced.
The symbol for potential difference is V for
voltage. In fact, the volt unit is used so often, Practice Problems 1-5
potential difference is often called voltage. Re- (answers on page 38)
member, though, that voltage is the potential (a) How much potential difference is there
difference between two points. Two terminals between two identical charges?
are necessary to measure a potential difference. (b) Which supplies a greater P.O., a 1.5-V
Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in battery or a 12-V battery?
Fig. 1-8. Its output of 2.2 V means that this is
1
1-6
See Appendix D, Physics Units.
CHARGE IN MOTION IS CURRENT
When the potential difference between two
charges forces a third charge to move, the
charge in motion is an electrical current. To
produce current, therefore, charge must be
moved by a potential difference.
In solid materials, such as copper wire, the
free electrons are charges that can be forced to
move with relative ease by a potential differ-
ence, since they require relatively little work to
be moved. As illustrated in Fig. 1-8, if a poten-
tial difference is connected across two ends of a
copper wire, the applied voltage forces the free
electrons to move. This current is a drift of
electrons, from the point of negative charge at
V= 2.2 V one end, moving through the wire, and return-
~t-=---o ing to the positive charge at the other end.
To illustrate the drift of free electrons
(a) (b) through the wire shown in Fig. 1-9, each elec-
FIGURE 1-8 tron in the middle row is numbered, corre-
Chemical cell as voltage source. (a) Voltage sponding to a copper atom to which the free
output is potential difference between the two electron belongs. The electron at the left is
terminals. (b) Schematic symbol with longer labeled s to indicate that it comes from the
line for positive side. negative charge of the source of potential dif-
 Chapter 1
Electricity 23

T Copper wire

eeeeeee e
ese e e 8 8 8 e 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 1

eeeeeeeeeee
I. -
11 +
Potential difference= 1.5 V
• I
FIGURE 1-9
Potential difference across two ends of wire
conductor causes drift of free electrons through
the wire, producing electrical current.

ference. This one electron s is repelled from the ence produces current instantaneously through
negative charge - Q at the left and is attracted the entire length of wire.
by the positive charge + Q at the right. There- Furthermore, the current must be the same
fore, the potential difference of the voltage at all points of the wire at any time. Although a
source can make electron s move toward atom point nearer to the negative terminal of the
1. Now atom 1 has an extra electron. As a voltage source has a greater repelling force on
result, the free electron of atom 1 can then the free electrons, at this point the free elec-
move to atom 2. In this way, there is a drift of trons are farther from the positive terminal and
free electrons from atom to atom. The final have less attracting force. At the middle of the
result is that the one free electron labeled 8 at wire, the free electrons have equal forces of
the extreme right in Fig. 1-9 moves out from the attraction and repulsion. Near the positive ter-
wire to return to the positive charge of the minal, there is a greater attracting force on the
voltage source. free electrons but less repelling force from the
Considering this case of just one electron negative terminal of the voltage source. In all
moving, note that the electron returning to the cases, the total force causing motion of the free
positive side of the voltage source is not the electrons is the same at any point of the wire,
electron labeled s that left the negative side. All therefore resulting in the same current through
electrons are the same, however, and have the all parts of the wire.
same charge. Therefore, the drift of free elec-
trons resulted in the charge of one electron Potential Difference Is Necessary to Produce
moving through the wire. This charge in motion Current. The number of free electrons that
is the current. With more electrons drifting can be forced to drift through the wire to pro-
through the wire, the charge of many electrons duce the moving charge depends upon the
moves, resulting in more current. amount of potential difference across the wire.
The current is a continuous flow of elec- With more applied voltage, the forces of attrac-
trons. Only the electrons move, not the poten- tion and repulsion can make more free elec-
tial difference. For ordinary applications, where trons drift, producing more charge in motion. A
the wires are not long lines, the potential differ- larger amount of charge moving with the same
 Chapter 1
24 Electricity

speed means a higher value of current. Less the current is 1 A Similarly, the current is 1 A
applied voltage across the same wire results in a at p 2 because the electron drift is the same
smaller amount of charge in motion, which is a throughout the wire. If twice as many electrons
smaller value of current. With zero potential moved past either point in 1 s, the current
difference across the wire, there is no current. would be 2 A
Two cases of zero potential difference and The symbol for current is I or i for intensity,
no current can be considered in order to em - since the current is a measure of how intense or
phasize the important fact that potential differ- concentrated the electron flow is. Two amperes
ence is needed to produce current. Assume the of current in a copper wire is a higher intensity
copper wire to be by itself, not connected to any than 1 A; a greater concentration of moving
voltage source, so that there is no potential electrons results because of more electrons in
difference across the wire. The free electrons in motion, although all the electrons move with
the wire can move from atom to atom, but this the same speed. Sometimes current is called
motion is random, without any organized drift amperage.
through the wire. If the wire is considered as a
whole, from one end to the other, the current is How Current Differs from Charge. Charge is
zero. a quantity of electricity accumulated in a dielec-
As another example, suppose that the two tric. The charge is static electricity, at rest, with-
ends of the wire have the same potential. Then out any motion. When the charge moves, usu-
free electrons cannot move to either end, be- ally in a conductor, the current I indicates the
cause both ends have the same force, and there intensity of the electricity in motion. This char-
is no current through the wire. A practical ex- acteristic is a fundamental definition of current:
ample of this case of zero potential difference
would be to connect both ends of the wire to
just one terminal of a battery. Each end of the (1-1)
wire would have the same potential and there
would be no current. The conclusion, therefore,
is that two connections are needed to two points where I is the current in amperes, Q is in cou-
at different potentials in order to produce the lombs, and the time Tis in seconds (s). It does
current. not matter whether the moving charge is posi-
tive or negative. The only question is how much
The Ampere of Current. Since current is the charge moves and what its rate of motion is.
movement of charge, the unit for stating the
amount of current is defined in rate of flow of Example 5. The charge of 12 C moves past a given
charge. When the charge moves at the rate of point every second. How much is the intensity of
6.25 x 10 18 electrons flowing past a given charge flow?
point per second, the value of the current is one
ampere (A). This is the same as one coulomb of Answer. I= Q = 12 C
charge per second. The ampere unit of cur- T 1s
rent is named after Andre M. Ampere (1 775- I= 12 A
1836 ).
Referring back to Fig. 1-9, note that if Example 6. The charge of 5 C moves past a given
6.25 x 10 18 free electrons move past p 1 in 1 s, point in 0.1 s. How much is the current?
 Cha ter 1
Electricity 25

Answer. l=Q=SC charges have negative polarity. The direction of

T 0.1 s motion between two terminals for this electron
I= 50 A current, therefore, is toward the more positive
end. It is important to note, however, that there
This fundamental definition of current can are examples of positive charges in motion.
also be used to consider the charge as equal to Common applications include current in liq-
the product of the current multiplied by the uids, gases, and semiconductors. For the case
time. Or of current resulting from the motion of positive
charges, its direction is opposite from the direc-
(1-2) tion of electron flow. Whether negative or posi-
tive charges move, though, the current is still
For instance, we can have a dielectric con- defined fundamentally as Q!T
nected to conductors with a current of 0 .4 A. If
the current can deposit electrons for the time of Types of Electric Charges for Current. See
0.2 s, the accumulated charge in the dielectric Table 1-4. The most common charge is the
will be electron. In metal conductors and solid materi-
als in general, free electrons in the atoms can be
Q =IX T forced to move by setting up a potential differ-
= 0.4 x 0.2 ence. Therefore current is produced. The di-
Q =0.08 c rection of electron flow is from the negative
terminal of the voltage source, through the ex-
The formulas Q = IT for charge and ternal circuit, and returning to the positive
I= Q!T for current illustrate the fundamental source terminal (Fig. 1-1 Oa). Also, electrons are
nature of Q as an accumulation of static charge released by thermionic emission from the
in an insulator, while I measures the intensity of heated cathode in a vacuum tube. Finally, N-
moving charges in a conductor. type semiconductors such as silicon and ger-
manium have unbound electrons as a result of
The General Nature of Current. The moving doping with impurity elements that can provide
charges that provide current in metal conduc- valence electrons from the added atoms.
tors like a copper wire are the free electrons of For P-type semiconductors, the silicon and
the copper atoms. In this case, the moving germanium are doped with impurity elements

TABLE 1-4. Types of Electric Charges for Current

TYPE OF AMOUNT OF TYPE OF
CHARGE CHARGE POLARITY CURRENT APPLICATIONS
Electron Qe = 0.16 X 10- 13
C Negative Electron flow In wire conductors,
vacuum tubes,
and N-type
semiconductors
Ion Oe or multiples Positive Ion current In liquids and gases
of Qe or negative
Hole Oe = 0.16 x 10-13 c Positive Hole current In P-type semiconductors
 Cha ter 1
26 Electricity

~
Voltage External Voltage External
source circuit source circuit

+ +

{a) {b)
FIGURE 1-10
Direction of current I. (a) Dotted lines to show
electron flow. (b) Flow of positive charges for
hole current or ion current.

that cause a deficiency of electrons in the bonds charges is a flow of either hole charges or posi-
between atoms. Each vacant space where an tive ions. The hole charge has the same amount
electron is missing is called a hole charge. The of charge as the proton, which is the same
polarity is positive, opposite from the electron, amount as an electron. However, the positive
but the amount of charge is exactly the same. In hole charge is in the valence structure of the
short, a hole charge is a deficiency of one va- atoms, not in the nucleus.
lence electron in semiconductors. When hole
charges move in a P-type semiconductor, they
provide hole current. The direction of flow for Magnetic Field Around an Electrical Cur-
the positive charges is from the positive termi- rent. When any current flows, it has an associ-
nal of the voltage source, through the external ated magnetic field. Figure 1-11 shows how iron
circuit, and returning to the negative source filings line up in a circular field pattern corre-
terminal (Fig. 1-lOb). sponding to the magnetic lines of force. The
An ion is an atom that has either lost or magnetic field is in a plane perpendicular to the
gained one or more valence electrons to be- current. It should be noted that the iron filings
come electrically charged. Therefore, the ion are just a method of making the imaginary lines
charge may be either positive or negative. The of force visible. The filings become magnetized
amount may be the charge of 1 electron Qe,
2Qe, or 3Qe, etc. Ions can be produced by
applying voltage to liquids and gases to produce
t
: Iron filings
ionization of the atoms. The ions are much less show magnetic
field
mobile than electrons or hole charges because
an ion includes a complex atom with its nu-
cleus.
Note that protons are not included as
charge carriers for current in Table 1-4. The
+~Current in wire

reason is that the protons are bound in the

nucleus. They cannot be released except by FIGURE 1-11
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
nuclear forces. Therefore, a current of positive Magnetic field around any electrical current.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 27

by the magnetic field. Both magnetic and elec- as much current can be produced in the carbon
tric fields can do the physical work of attraction by applying more voltage. For the same current,
or repulsion. though, the higher applied voltage means that
The magnetic field of any current is the more work is necessary, causing more heat.
basis for many electromagnetic applications, Carbon opposes the current more than copper,
including magnets, relays, loudspeakers, trans- therefore, and has a higher value of resistance.
formers, and coils in general. Winding the con-
ductor in the form of a coil concentrates the The Ohm. The practical unit of resistance is
magnetic field. More details of electromagnet- the ohm (Q). A resistance that develops 0.24
ism are explained in Chap. 15, Electromagnetic calorie 1 of heat when one ampere of current
Induction. flows through it for one second has one ohm of
opposition. As an example of a low resistance, a
Practice Problems 1-6 good conductor like copper wire can have a
(answers on page 38) resistance of0.01 Q for a 1-ft length. The resist-
(a) The flow of 2 C!s of electron charges is ance-wire heating element in a 600-W toaster
how many amperes of current? has a resistance of 24 n, and the tungsten fila-
(b) The flow of 2 C!s of hole charges is how ment in a 100-W light bulb has a resistance of
many amperes of current? 144 Q, with a 120-V source.
(c) How much is the current with zero poten- Figure 1-12 shows a carbon-composition
tial difference? resistor. This type of resistance can be manu-
factured with a value from a few ohms to mil-
1-7 lions of ohms. The abbreviation for resistance is
RESISTANCE IS OPPOSITION R or r. The symbol used for the ohm is the
TO CURRENT Greek letter omega, written as Q. In diagrams,
The fact that a wire conducting current can resistance is indicated by a zigzag line as shown
become hot is evidence of the fact that the work by R in Fig. 1-12.
done by the applied voltage in producing cur-
rent must be accomplished against some form Conductance. The opposite of resistance is
of opposition. This opposition, which limits the conductance. The less the resistance, the higher
amount of current that can be produced by the the conductance. Its symbol is G and the unit is
applied voltage, is called resistance. Conductors the siemens (S), named after Ernst von Sie-
have very little resistance; insulators have a mens, a European inventor. It is also called the
large amount of resistance. mho, which is ohm spelled backward. Specifi-
The atoms of a copper wire have a large cally, G is the reciprocal of R, or G = 1 IR. For
number of free electrons, which can be moved example, 5 Q of resistance is equal to %S of
easily by a potential difference. Therefore, the conductance.
copper wire has little opposition to the flow of Whether to use R or G for components is
free electrons when voltage is applied, corre- usually a matter of convenience. In general, R is
sponding to a low value of resistance. easier to use in series circuits, because the se-
Carbon; however, has fewer free electrons
than copper. When the same amount of voltage 1 One calorie is the quantity of heat that will raise the

is applied to the carbon as to the copper, fewer temperature of one gram of water by one degree
electrons will flow. It should be noted that just Celsius. See Appendix D, Physics Units.
 Chapter 1
28 Electricity

R=600.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1-12
(a) Wirewound resistor with cement coating. ( b)
Schematic symbol for any type of resistance.
(International Resistance Co.)

ries voltages are proportional to the resistances; terminals, this voltage is connected across the
G can be more convenient in parallel circuits, filament of the bulb by means of the two wires
because the parallel currents are proportional so that the applied voltage can produce current
to the conductances. (Series and parallel cir- through the filament.
cuits are explained in Chaps. 3 and 4.) In Fig. 1-13c the schematic diagram of the
circuit is shown. Here the components are rep-
Practice Problems 1-7 resented by shorthand symbols. Note the sym-
(answers on page 38) bols for the battery and resistance. The con-
(a) Which has more resistance, carbon or necting wires are shown simply as straight lines
copper? because their resistance is small enough to be
(b) With the same voltage applied, which re- neglected. A resistance of less than 0.01 Q for
sistance will allow more current, 4. 7 Q or the wire is practically zero compared with the
5000 Q? 300-Q resistance of the bulb. If the resistance of
(c) What is the conductance in siemens or the wire must be considered, the schematic
mho units for a 10-Q R? diagram includes it as additional resistance in
the same current path.
1-8 It should be noted that the schematic dia-
THE CLOSED CIRCUIT gram does not look like the physical layout of
In electrical applications requiring the use of the circuit. The schematic shows only the sym-
current, the components are arranged in the bols for the components and their electrical
form of a circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-13. A circuit connections.
can be defined as a path for current flow. The Any electric circuit has three important
purpose of this circuit is to light the incandes- characteristics:
cent bulb. The bulb lights when the tungsten-
filament wire inside is white hot, producing an 1. There must be a source of potential differ-
incandescent glow. ence. Without the applied voltage, current
By itself the tungsten filament cannot pro- cannot flow.
duce current. A source of potential difference is 2. There must be a complete path for current
necessary. Since the battery produces a poten- flow, from one side of the applied voltage
tial difference of 1.5 V across its two output source, through the external circuit, and
 Chapter 1
Electricity 29

Battery
terminals
Resistance
load
Source R=300.Q
+ V= 1.5 V

(b) (c)
FIGURE 1-13
An electrical circuit with voltage source con-
nected to a resistance load. (a) Photo of circuit.
(b) Wiring diagram. (c) Schematic symbol.

returning to the other side of the voltage of the electron flow past any one point in the
source. circuit.
3. The current path normally has resistance. To illustrate the difference between Vand I
The resistance is in the circuit for the pur- another way, suppose the circuit in Fig. 1-13 is
pose of either generating heat or limiting opened by disconnecting the bulb. Now no cur-
the amount of current. rent can flow because there is no closed path.
Still, the battery has its potential difference. If
How the Voltage Is Different from the Cur- you measure across the two terminals, the volt-
rent. It is the current that moves through the meter will read 1.5 V even though the current is
circuit. The potential difference does not move. zero.
The voltage across the filament resistance
makes electrons flow from one side to the
other. While the current is flowing around the
circuit, however, the potential difference re-
v Current I Voltage
mains across the filament to do the work of through R+ R
acrossR
moving electrons through the resistance of the
filament. As illustrated in Fig. 1-14, the voltage
is the potential difference across the two ends of FIGURE 1-14
the resistance, while the current is the intensity Comparison of voltage and current.
 Chapter 1
30 Electricity

The Voltage Source Maintains the Current. otherwise, the term load by itself can be as-
As current flows in the circuit, electrons leave sumed generally to mean the load current.
the negative terminal of the cell, and the same Therefore, a heavy or big load electrically
number of free electrons in the conductor are means a high value of load current, corre-
returned to the positive terminal. With electrons sponding to a large amount of work supplied by
lost from the negative charge and gained by the the source.
positive charge, the two charges would tend to
neutralize each other. The chemical action in-
Direction of the Electron Flow. As shown in
side the dry cell, however, continuously sepa-
Fig. 1-13c, the direction of the electron drift is
rates electrons and protons to maintain the
from the negative side of the battery, through
negative and positive charges on the outside
the load resistance R, and back to the positive
terminals that provide the potential difference.
terminal of the voltage source. Note that this is
Otherwise, the current would neutralize the
the direction in the external circuit connected
charges, resulting in no potential difference,
across the output terminals of the voltage
and the current would stop. Therefore, the dry
source.
cell keeps the current flowing by maintaining
Inside the battery, the electrons move to
the potential difference across the circuit. Thus
the negative terminal because this is how the
the cell is the generator, or voltage source, for
voltage source produces its potential difference.
the circuit.
The battery is doing the work of separating
charges, accumulating electrons at the negative
The Circuit Is a Load on the Voltage Source.
terminal and protons at the positive terminal.
We can consider the circuit as a means whereby
Then the potential difference across the two
the energy of the voltage source is carried by
output terminals can do the work of moving
means of the current through the filament of the
electrons around the external circuit. In the
bulb, where the electrical energy is used in
circuit outside the voltage source, however, the
producing heat energy. On this basis, the bat-
direction of the electron flow is from a point of
tery is the source in the circuit, since its voltage
negative potential to a point of positive poten-
output represents the potential energy to be
tial.
used. The part of the circuit connected to the
voltage source is the load resistance, since it
determines how much work the source will Conventional Current. The direction of mov-
supply. In this case, the bulb's filament is the ing positive charges, opposite from electron
load resistance for the battery. flow, is considered the conventional direction of
The resistance of the filament determines current. In electrical engineering, circuits are
how much current the 1.5-V source will pro- usually analyzed with conventional current. The
duce. Specifically, the current here is 0.005 A, reason is based on the fact that, by the positive
equal to 1.5 V divided by 300 Q. With more definitions of force and work, a positive poten-
opposition, the same voltage will produce less tial is considered above a negative potential. So
current; less opposition allows more current. conventional current is a motion of positive
The current that flows through the load charges "falling downhill" from a positive to a
resistance is the load current. Note that a lower negative potential. The direction of conven-
value of ohms for the load resistance corre- tional current, therefore, is the direction of pos-
sponds to a higher load current. Unless noted itive charges in motion.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 31

An example of positive charges moving in ing wires for a bulb produces too much current
the direction of conventional current is hole in the wires but no current through the bulb.
current in P-type semiconductors. Also, a cur- Then the bulb is shorted out. The bulb is not
rent of positive ions in liquids or gases moves in damaged, but the wires can become hot enough
the opposite direction from electron flow. For to burn unless the line has a fuse as a safety
instance, the current through the electrolyte precaution against too much current.
inside a battery is ionization current.
Actually, either a positive or negative po- Practice Problems 1-8
tential of the same value can do the same (answers on page 38)
amount of work in moving charge. Any circuit Answer true or false for the circuit in
can be analyzed either with electron flow or by Fig. 1-13.
conventional current in the opposite direction. (a) The bulb has a P.O. of 1.5 V across its
In this book the current is considered as elec- filament only when connected to the volt-
tron flow in the applications where electrons are age source.
the moving charges. (b) The battery has a P.O. of 1.5 V across its
In summary, we can say that the closed terminals only when connected to the bulb.
circuit, normal circuit, or just a circuit is a
closed path that has V to produce I with R to 1-9
limit the amount of current. The circuit provides DIRECT CURRENT (DC) AND
a means of using the energy of the battery as a ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)
voltage source. The battery has its potential The electron flow· illustrated in the circuit of
difference V with or without the circuit. How- Fig. 1-13c is direct current because it has just
ever, the battery alone is not doing any work in one direction. The reason for the unidirectional
producing load current. The bulb alone has its current is that the battery maintains the same
resistance, but without current the bulb does not polarity of output voltage.
light. With the circuit, the voltage source is used It is the flow of charges in just one direction
for the purpose of producing current to light the and the fixed polarity of applied voltage that are
bulb. the characteristics of a de circuit. Actually, the
current can be a motion of positive charges,
Open Circuit. When any part of the path is rather than electrons, but the conventional di-
open or broken, the circuit is open because rection of current does not change the fact that
there is no continuity in the conducting path. direct current has just one direction. Further-
The open can be in the connecting wires or in more, the de voltage source can change the
the bulb's filament as the load resistance. The amount of its output voltage, but if the same
resistance of an open circuit is infinitely high. polarity is maintained, direct current will flow in
The result is no current in an open circuit. just one direction, meeting the requirements of
a de circuit. A battery is a steady de voltage
Short Circuit. In this case, the voltage source source because it has fixed polarity and its out-
has a closed path across its terminals, but the put voltage is a steady value.
resistance is practically zero. The result is too An alternating voltage source periodically
much current in a short circuit. Usually, the reverses or alternates in polarity. The resulting
short circuit is a bypass across the load resist- alternating current, therefore, periodically re-
ance. For instance, a short across the conduct- verses in direction. In terms of electron flow, the
 Chapter 1
32 Electricity

current always flows from the negative terminal The details of ac circuits are explained in
of the voltage source, through the circuit, and Chap. 16 and the remainder of the book. Di-
back to the positive terminal, but when the gen- rect-current circuits are analyzed first because
erator alternates in polarity, the current must they usually are simpler. However, the princi-
reverse its direction. The 60-cycle ac power line ples of de circuits also apply to ac circuits. Both
used in most homes is a common example. This types are important, as most electronic circuits
frequency means that the voltage polarity and include ac voltages and de voltages. The wave-
current direction go through 60 cycles of rever- forms for these two types of voltages are illus-
sal per second. trated in Fig. 1-15. Their uses are compared in
The unit for 1 cycle per second is 1 hertz Table 1-5. Note that transistors and tubes re-
(Hz). Therefore 60 cycles per second is a fre- quire de electrode voltages in order to amplify
quency of 60 Hz. an ac signal voltage.

v
+De voltage

l
-1
0
(a)
Time

v
+

(b)
FIGURE 1-15
Comparison of de and ac voltages. (a) Steady
de voltage of one polarity from a battery. (b)
Sine-wave ac voltage with alternating polarity
from small laboratory-type rotary ac generator.
One complete cycle is shown. (Sargent Welch
Scientific Co.)
 Chapter 1
Electricity 33

TABLE 1-5. Comparison of DC Voltage Conversion of Chemical Energy. Wet or dry

and AC Voltage cells and batteries are the applications. Here a
DC VOLTAGE AC VOLTAGE chemical reaction produces opposite charges
Fixed polarity
on two dissimilar metals, which serve as the
Reverses in polarity
Can be steady or vary in Varies between re- negative and positive terminals.
magnitude versals in polarity
Steady value cannot Can be stepped up Ions. Atoms can be made to gain or lose or-
be stepped up or or down for elec- bital electrons, by either a chemical reaction or
down by a trical power dis- the electric field of an applied voltage. Such
transformer tribution atoms with a net charge are ions. The ion
Electrode voltages Signal input and charges can be either negative or positive. Ions
for amplifiers output for are generally the charge carriers that provide
amplifiers ionization current in liquids and gases.
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect the same for direct or Electromagnetism. Electricity and magnetism
alternating current
are closely related. Any moving charge has an
associated magnetic field; also, any changing
magnetic field can produce current. A motor is
an example of how current can react with a
Practice Problems 1-9 magnetic field to produce motion; a generator
(answers on page 38) produces voltage by means of a conductor ro-
Answer true or false. tating in a magnetic field.
(a) When the polarity of the applied voltage
reverses, the direction of current flow also Photoelectricity. Some materials are photo-
reverses. electric, meaning they can emit electrons when
(b) A battery is a de voltage source because it light strikes the surface. The element cesium is
cannot reverse the polarity across its out- often used as a source of photoelectrons. Also,
put terminals. photovoltaic cells or solar cells use silicon to
generate output voltage from the light input. In
another effect, the resistance of the element
1-10
selenium changes with light. Combined with a
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
fixed voltage source, wide variations between
There are electrons and protons in the atoms of
dark current and light current can be produced.
all materials, but to do useful work the charges
Such characteristics are the basis of many pho-
must be separated to produce a potential differ-
toelectric devices, including television camera
ence that can make current flow. Some of the
tubes, photoelectric cells, and phototransistors.
more common methods of providing electrical
effects are listed here.
Thermal Emission. Some materials when
heated can "boil off" electrons from the sur-
Static Electricity by Friction. In this method, face. Then these emitted electrons can be con-
electrons in an insulator can be separated by the trolled to provide useful applications of electri-
work of rubbing to produce opposite charges cal current. The emitting electrode is called a
that remain in the dielectric. cathode, while an anode is used to collect the
 Chapter 1
34 Electricity

emitted electrons. A common material for Although there are so many different ap-
thermionic cathodes is barium oxide, heated to plications, remember that all electrons are the
a dull-red temperature. The vacuum tubes in same, with identical charge and mass. Whether
radio and television receivers operate on this the electron flow results from a battery, rotary
principle. generator, or photoelectric device, and is con-
trolled by a vacuum tube or transistor, the anal-
Doping of Semiconductors. Because of a va- ysis of voltage, current, and resistance in the
lence of +-4, combined with a crystalline mo- different types of circuits must follow the basic
lecular structure, semiconductors such as ger- principles described here.
manium and silicon can be changed from the
inert condition by adding small amounts of an
impurity element. This technique of adding Practice Problems 1-10
charges to a semiconductor is called doping. (answers on page 38)
When electrons are added, the result is negative (a) The excess charges at the negative termi-
or N-type material; a deficiency of electrons nal of a battery are ___ .
makes the material positive or P-type. A defi- (b) The charges emitted from a heated cath-
ciency of 1 electron in the semiconductor is ode are ___ .
called a hole charge. With one type of semicon- (c) The charges in a P-type semiconductor are
ductor between two opposite types, the result is
a PNP or NPN transistor. The details of transis- (d) In a liquid that is conducting current, the
tors are explained in Chap. 30. moving charges are ___ .

Summary
1. Electricity is present in all matter in the form of electrons and
protons.
2. The electron is the basic quantity of negative electricity, the proton of
positive electricity. Both have the same amount of charge but oppo-
site polarities. The charge of 6.25 x 10 18 electrons or protons equals
the practical unit of one coulomb.
3. Charges of the same polarity tend to repel each other; charges of
opposite polarities attract. There must be a difference of charges for
any force of attraction or repulsion.
4. Electrons tend to move toward protons because an electron has 1/i 840
the weight of a proton. Electrons in motion provide an electron
current.
5. The atomic number of an element gives the number of protons in the
nucleus of its atom, balanced by an equal number of orbital electrons.
6. The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is the valence of the
element.
7. Table 1-6 summarizes the main features of electric circuits. In the
 Chapter 1
Electricity 35

TABLE 1-6. Electrical Characteristics

CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL UNIT DESCRIPTION
Charge Q or q1 Coulomb (C) Quantity of electrons or protons; Q = I x T
Current I or i 1 Ampere (A) Charge in motion; I= QIT
Voltage V or v1 •2 Volt (V) Potential difference between two unlike
charges; makes charge move to produce I
Resistance Ror r3 Ohm (n) Opposition that reduces amount of current
Conductance G or g3 Siemens (S) or mho Reciprocal of R, or G = 1 IR
1
Small letter q, i, or v is used for an instantaneous
value of a varying charge, current, or voltage.
2
E or e is sometimes used for a generated emf but the
standard symbol is Vor v for any potential difference in
the international system of units (SI).
3 Small letter r or g is used for internal resistance or

conductance of transistors and tubes.

symbols, the small letters q, v, and i are used when the characteristic
varies with respect to time. Also, the small letters r and g indicate
internal characteristics of a source.
8. Types of negative charges include electrons and negative ions. Types
of positive charges include protons, positive ions, and hole charges.
9. An electric circuit is a closed path for electron flow. Potential differ-
ence must be connected across the circuit to produce current. In the
external circuit outside the voltage source, electrons flow from the
negative terminal toward the positive terminal.
10. Direct current has just one direction as the de voltage source has a
fixed polarity. Alternating current periodically reverses in direction as
the ac voltage source reverses its polarity.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. All matter has electricity in the form of electrons and protons in the
atom.
2. The electron is the basic unit of negative charge.
3. A proton has the same amount of charge as the electron but opposite
polarity.
4. Electrons are repelled from other electrons but are attracted to
protons.
5. The force of attraction or repulsion between charges is in their
electric field.
 Chapter 1
36 Electricity

6. The nucleus is the massive stable part of an atom, with positive

charge.
7. Neutrons add to the weight of the atom's nucleus but not to its
electric charge.
8. An element with atomic number 12 has 12 orbital electrons.
9. This element has an electron valence of +2.
10. To produce current in a circuit, potential difference is connected
across a closed path.
11. A de voltage has fixed polarity while ac voltage periodically reverses
its polarity.
12. The coulomb is a measure of the quantity of stored charge.
13. If a dielectric has 2 C of excess electrons, removing 3 C of electrons
will leave the dielectric with the positive charge of 1 C.
14. A charge of 5 C flowing past a point each second is a current of 5 A.
15. A current of 7 A charging a dielectric will accumulate a charge of
14 C after 2 s.
16. A voltage source has two terminals with different charges.
1 7. An ion is a charged atom.
18. The resistance of a few feet of copper wire is practically zero.
19. The resistance of the rubber or plastic insulation on the wire is also
practically zero.
20. A resistance of 600 Q has a conductance of 6 S.

Essay Questions
1. Briefly define each of the following, giving its unit and symbol:
charge, potential difference, current, resistance, and conductance.
2. Name two good conductors, two good insulators, and two semicon-
ductors.
3. Explain briefly why there is no current in a light bulb unless it is
connected across a source of applied voltage.
4. Give three differences between voltage and current.
5. In any circuit: (a) state two requirements for producing current;
(b) give the direction of electron flow.
6. Show the atomic structure of the element sodium (Na) with atomic
number 11. What is its electron valence?
7. Make up your own name for direct current and de voltage to indicate
how it differs from alternating voltage and current.
8. State the formulas for each of the following two statements:
(a) Current is the time rate of change of charge. (b) Charge is current
accumulated over a period of time.
 Chapter 1
Electricity 37

9. Refer to Table 1-4. (a) Name two types of moving charges that
provide current in the direction of electron flow. (b) Name two types
that provide conventional current.
10. Why is it that protons are not considered a source of moving charges
for current flow?
11. Give one difference and one similarity in comparing electric and
magnetic fields.
12. Give three methods of providing electric charges, and give their
practical applications.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. The charge of 8 C flows past a given point every 2 s. How much is

the current in amperes?
2. The current of 4 A charges an insulator for 2 s. How much charge is
accumulated?
3. Convert the following to siemens or mhos of conductance:
(a) 1000 Q; (b) 500 Q; (c) 10 Q; (d) 0.1 Q.
4. Convert the following to ohms ofresistance: (a) 0.001 S; (b) 0.002 S;
(c) 0.1 S; (d) 10 S.
5. A battery can supply 11 J of energy to move 5 C of charge. How
much is the voltage of the battery? (Hint: One volt equals one joule
per coulomb.)
6. A material with a deficiency of 25 x 10 18 electrons gains
31.25 X 10 18 electrons. The excess electrons are then made to flow
past a given point in 1 s. How much current is produced by the
resultant electron flow?
7. Convert 5 S of conductance to ohms of resistance.
8. Connect the components in Fig. 1-16 [Link] an electrical circuit.
Label the source voltage, with polarity, and the load resistance. Show
the direction of electron flow. Determine the amount of current /by
Ohm's law.

FIGURE 1-16
For Prob. 8.
 Chapter 1
38 Electricity

Answers to Practice Problems

1-1 (a) negative 1-6 (b) 2 A
(b) positive (c) zero
(c) true 1-7 (a) carbon
1-2 (a) metals (b) 4.7 Q
(b) silver (c) 1/i 0 S or mho
(c) silicon 1-8 (a) T
1-3 (a) 14 (b) F
(b) 1 1-9 (a) T
1-4 (a) 6.25 X 10 18 (b) T
(b) 4C 1-10 (a) electrons
1-5 (a) zero (b) electrons
(b) 12V (c) holes
1-6 (a) 2 A (d) ions
 <
l
-
I

-
 Chapter 2
40 Ohm's Law

I= .Y_
R
IOOOV
=-----
1,000,000 g
1
1000
I= 0.001 A
Low Voltage but High Current. At the oppo-
FIGURE 2-1 site extreme, a low value of voltage in a very low
resistance circuit can produce a very large
Increasing the applied voltage produces more
amount of current. A 6-V battery connected
current I to light the bulb with greater intensity.
across a resistance of 0.01 Q produces 600 A of
current:
High Voltage but Low Current. It is important
to realize that with high voltage, the current can I= .Y_
R
have a low value when there is a very large
amount of resistance in the circuit. For exam- 6V
ple, 1000 Vapplied across 1,000,000 Q results 0.01 g
in a current of only 1/i. 000 A. By Ohm's law, 1=600A

-=.6V V=IR = 6 V

(b)
FIGURE 2-2
Using Ohm's law. (a) Voltage source applied
across R. ( b) Schematic diagram with values
calculated by Ohm's law.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 41

I ls Less with More R. Note the values of I in

the following two examples also:
Example 1. A heater with a resistance of 8 g is
~ 12V
connected across the 120-V power line. How much
is the current I? I
I
+-/
Answer. I= X = 120 V FIGURE 2-3
R 8 Q
The resistance of any component is its VI I
I= 15 A
ratio.
Example 2. A small light bulb with a resistance of
2400 0 is connected across the same 120-V power the applied voltage. The formula is
line. How much is the current I?
(2-2)
Answer. I= X = 120 V
With I in ampere units and R in ohms, their
R 2400 Q
I= 0.05 A
product Vis in volts. Actually, this must be so
because the I value equal to VI R is the amount
Although both cases have the same 120 V that allows the IR product to be the same as the
applied, the current is much less in Example 2 voltage across R.
because of the higher resistance. Besides the numerical calculations possible
with the IR formula, it is useful to consider that
Practice Problems 2-1 the IR product means voltage. Whenever there
(answers on page 53) is current through a resistance, it must have a
(a) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 25 Q. potential difference across its two ends equal to
(b) Calculate I for 50 V applied across 25 Q. the IR product. If there were no potential differ-
(c) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 50 Q. ence, no electrons could flow to produce the
(d) Calculate I for 100 V applied across 5 Q. current.

2-2 Practice Problems 2-2

THE VOLTAGE V = IR
(answers on page 53)
Referring to Fig. 2-2, the amount of voltage (a) Calculate V for 0.002 A through 1000 Q.
across R must be the same as V because the (b) Calculate V for 0.004 A through 1000 Q.
resistance is connected directly across the bat- (c) Calculate V for 0.002 A through 2000 Q.
tery. The numerical value of this Vis equal to 2-3
the product I x R. * For instance, the IR voltage THE RESISTANCE R = VI I
in Fig. 2-2 is 2 A X 3 Q, which equals the 6 Vof As the third and final version of Ohm's law, the
* For an explanation of how to invert factors from three factors V, I, and R are related by the
one side to the other side of an equation, see formula
B. Grob, "Mathematics Outline and Review Prob-
lems for Basic Electronics," -- McGraw-Hill Book (2-3)
Company, New York.
 Chapter 2
42 Ohm's Law

In Fig. 2-2, R is 3 Q because 6 Vapplied across difference, and resistance as follows:

the resistance produces 2 A through it. When-
ever V and I are known, the resistance can be
calculated as the voltage across R divided by the 1 ampere = 11 ohm
volt
current through it.
Physically, a resistance can be considered 1 volt = 1 ampere X 1 ohm
as some material with elements having an 1 ohm = 1 volt
atomic structure that allows free electrons to 1 ampere
drift through it with more or less force applied.
Electrically, though, a more practical way of
One ampere is the amount of current
considering resistance is simply as a VI I ratio.
through a one-ohm resistance that has one volt
Anything that allows 1 A of current with 10 V
of potential difference applied across it.
applied has a resistance of 10 Q. This VI I ratio
One volt is the potential difference across a
of 1O Q is its characteristic. If the voltage is
one-ohm resistance that has one ampere of
doubled to 20 V, the current will also double to
current through it.
2 A, providing the same VI I ratio of a 10-Q
One ohm is the amount of opposition in a
resistance.
resistance that has a VI I ratio of 1, allowing one
Furthermore, we do not need to know the
ampere of current with one volt applied.
physical construction of a resistance to analyze
In summary, the circle diagram in Fig. 2-4
its effect in a circuit, so long as we know its VI!
for V =IR can be helpful in using Ohm's law.
ratio. This idea is illustrated in Fig. 2-3. Here, a
Note that Vis always at the top for V = IR,
box with some unknown material in it is con- VI R = I, or VI I = R.
nected into a circuit where we can measure the
12 V applied across the box and the 3 A of
current through it. The resistance is 12 V13 A,
Practice Problems 2-4
·or 4 Q. There may be liquid, gas, metal, pow-
(answers on page 53)
der, or any other material in the box, but elec-
(a) Calculate V for 0.007 A through 5000 Q.
trically it is just a 4-Q resistance because its VI I
(b) Calculate the amount of I for 12,000 V
ratio is 4.
across 6,000,000 Q.
(c) Calculate R for 8 V with 0.004 A
Practice Problems 2-3
(answers on page 53)
(a) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.003 A
(b) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.006 A
(c) Calculate R for 12 V with 0.001 A

2-4
PRACTICAL UNITS FIGURE 2-4
The three forms of Ohm's law can be used to Circle to memorize V = IR, VI I = R, or
define the practical units of current, potential V!R =I.
 Cha ter 2
Ohm's Law 43

2-5 Example 4. How much current is produced by 60 V

MULTIPLE AND SUBMULTIPLE across 12 kQ?
UNITS
The basic units-ampere, volt, and ohm-are Answer. I -- Rv -- 60 - 5
12 x 10 3 - x
10-3
practical values in most electric power circuits,
I= 5 mA
but in many electronics applications these units
are either too small or too big. As examples, Note that volts across kilohms produces
resistances can be a few million ohms, the out- milliamperes of current. Similarly, volts across
put of a high-voltage supply in a television re- megohms produces microamperes. These
ceiver is about 20,000 V, and current through common combinations can be summarized as
tubes and transistors is generally thousandths or follows:
millionths of an ampere.
volts + kilohms = milliamperes
In such cases, it is helpful to use multiples
volts + megohms = microamperes
and submultiples of the basic units. As shown in
kilohms X milliamperes = volts
Table 2-1, these units are based on the decimal
megohms X microamperes = volts
system of tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The
common conversions for V, I, and R are given
here, but a complete listing of all the prefixes is Practice Problems 2-5
in Appendix F. Note that capital M is used for (answers on page 53)
(a) Change the following to basic units with
106 to distinguish from small m for 10-3 .
powers of 10: 6 mA, 5 kQ, and 3 µA.
Example 3. The I of 8 mA flows through a 5-kQ R. (b) Change the following to units with metric
How much is the IR voltage? prefixes: 6 X 10-3 A, 5 X 10 3 Q, and
3 x 10-6 A.
Answer. V = IR = 8 x 10-3 x 5 x 10 3
=8x5 2-6
V=40V THE LINEAR PROPORTION
BETWEEN V AND I
In general, milliamperes multiplied by The Ohm's law formula I = VI R states that V
kilohms results in volts for the answer, as 10-3 and I are directly proportional for any one value
and 10 3 cancel. of R. This relation between V and I can be

TABLE 2-1. Conversion Factors

PREFIX SYMBOL RELATION TO BASIC UNIT EXAMPLES
mega M 1,000,000 or 1 x 10 6 5 MQ (megohms) = 5,000,000 ohms
= 5 X 10 6 ohms
kilo k 1000 or 1 X 10 3 18 kV (kilovolts) = 18,000 volts
= 18 x 10 3 volts
milli m 0.001 or 1 X 10-3 48 mA (milliamperes) = 48 X 10-3 ampere
= 0.048 ampere
micro µ. 0.000 001 or 1 x 10-6 15 µ.V (microvolts) = 15 X 10-6 volt
= 0.000 015 volt
 Chapter 2
44 Ohm's Law

analyzed by using a fixed resistance of 2 n for values of voltage and note the resulting current.
RL, as in Fig. 2-5. Then when Vis varied, the Generally, the independent variable is plotted
meter shows I values directly proportional to V on the x axis, which is why the V values are
For instance, with 12 V, I equals 6 A; for 10 V, shown here horizontally while the I values are
the current is 5 A; an 8-V potential difference on the ordinate.
produces 4 A. The two scales need not be the same. The
All the values of V and I are listed in the only requirement is that equal distances on
table in Fig. 2-Sb and plotted in the graph in either scale represent equal changes in magni-
Fig. 2-Sc. The I values are one-half the Vvalues tude. On the x axis here 2-V steps are chosen,
because R is 2 n. However, I is zero with zero while the y axis has 1-A scale divisions. The
volts applied. zero point at the origin is the reference.
The plotted points in the graph show the
values in the table. For instance, the lowest
Plotting the Graph. The voltage values for V point is 2 V horizontally from the origin, and
are marked on the horizontal axis, called the 1 A up. Similarly, the next point is at the inter-
x axis or abscissa. The current values I are on section of the 4-V mark and the 2-A mark. A
the vertical axis, called the y axis or ordinate. line joining these two plotted points includes all
Because the values for V and I depend on values of I, for any value of V, with R constant at
each other, they are variable factors. Vis the 2 n. This also applies to values not listed in the
independent variable here because we assigI) table. For instance, if we take the value of 7 V,

R constant at 2 .Q

Volts Ohms Amperes 6

I ,
1-- L
0 2 0 5
~-~ ~ ~
II

II
2 2 1
4 2 2 I~

V = 0 to 12 V 6 2 3 , ... i
~ ~

8 2 4 2 ...
10 2 5
~ ~
,

t
"' 1-
12 2 6 ~
'-r>

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Volts
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 2-5
Experiment to show that I increases in direct
proportion to V. (a) Circuit with variable V but
constant R. (b) Table of increasing I values for
higher V values. ( c) Graph of V and I values.
The linear voltampere characteristic shows a
direct proportion between V and I.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 45

up to the straight line and over to the I axis, the Practice Problems 2-6
graph shows 3.5 A for I. (answers on page 53)
Refer to the graph in Fig. 2-5c.
Voltampere Characteristic. The graph in (a) Are the values of I on the y or x axis?
Fig. 2-5c is called the voltampere characteristic (b) Is this R linear or nonlinear?
of R. It shows how much current the resistor
allows for different voltages. Multiple and sub-
multiple units of V and I can be used, though.
2-7
For transistors and tubes the units of I are often
POWER
milliamperes or microamperes.
The unit of electrical power is the watt (W),
named after James Watt (1736-1819). One
Linear Resistance. The straight-line graph in
watt of power equals the work done in one
Fig. 2-5 shows R is a linear resistor. A linear
second by one volt of potential difference in
resistance has a constant value of ohms. Its R
moving one coulomb of charge.
does not change with the applied voltage. Then
Remember that one coulomb per second is
V and I are directly proportional. Doubling the
an ampere. Therefore power in watts equals the
value of V from 4 to 8 V results in twice the
product of amperes times volts.
current, from 2 to 4 A. Similarly, three or four
times the value of V will produce three or four
Power in watts = volts X amperes
times I, for a proportional increase in current.
P = V x I (2-4)
Nonlinear Resistance. This type has a nonlin -
When a 6-V battery produces 2 A in a circuit,
ear voltampere characteristic. As an example,
for example, the battery is generating 12 W of
the resistance of the tungsten filament in a light
power. Note the following additional examples:
bulb is nonlinear. The reason is that R increases
with more current as the filament becomes hot- Example 5. A toaster takes 10 A from the 120-V
ter. Increasing the applied voltage does produce power line. How much power is used?
more current, but I does not increase in the
same proportion as the increase in V Answer. P = V X I = 120 V X 10 A
P = 1200W
Inverse Relation Between I and V. Whether R
is linear or not, the current I is less for more R, Example 6. How much current flows in the filament
with the applied voltage constant. This is an of a 300-W bulb connected to the 120-V power line?
inverse relation, meaning that I goes down as R
goes up. Remember that in the formula
Answer. P =V X I or I = PI V Then
I = VI R, the resistance is in the denominator. A 300W
higher value of R actually lowers the value of I= 120 V
the complete fraction. I= 2.5 A
As an example, let V be constant at 1 V.
Then I is equal to the fraction 1 IR. As R in- Example 7. How much current flows in a 60-W bulb
creases, the values of I decrease. For R of 2 Q, I connected to the 120-V power line?
is 1h or 0.5 A. For a higher R of 10 Q, I will be
smaller at 1/i 0 or 0.1 A. Answer. P =VX I or I = PI V Then
 Chapter 2
46 Ohm's Law

60W work, while work is power used during a period

I= 120 V of time. The formulas are
I= 0.5 A
Power= work (2-5)
Note that the lower-wattage bulb uses less current. time

Work and Power. Work and energy are essen- and

tially the same with identical units. Power is
Work = power X time (2-6)
different, however, because it is the time rate of
doing work.
As an example of work, if you move 100 lb With the watt unit for power, one watt used
a distance of 10 ft, the work is 100 lb x 10 ft or during one second equals the work of one
1000 ft · lb, regardless of how fast or how slowly joule. Or one watt is one joule per second.
the work is done. Note that the unit of work is Therefore, 1 W = 1 J/s. The joule is a basic
foot-pounds, without any reference to time. practical unit of work or energy. 1
However, power equals the work divided A unit of work that can be used with indi-
by the time it takes to do the work. If it takes 1 s, vidual electrons is the electron volt (eV). Note
the power in this example is 1000 ft· lb/s; if the that the electron is charge while the volt is po-
work takes 2 s, the power is 1000 ft · lb in 2 s, tential difference. Then 1 eV is the amount of
or 500 ft· Ibis. work required to move an electron between two
Similarly, electrical power is the time rate points having a potential difference of one volt.
at which charge is forced to move by voltage. Since 6.25 X 10 18 electrons equal 1 C and a
This is why the power in watts is the product of joule is a volt-coulomb, there must be
volts and amperes. The voltage states the 6.25 X 10 18 eV in 1 J.
. amount of work per unit of charge; the current Note that the electron volt or the joule unit
value includes the time rate at which the charge of work is the product of charge times voltage,
is moved. but the watt unit of power is the product of
voltage times current. The division by time to
convert work to power corresponds to the divi-
Watts and Horsepower Units. A further ex- sion by time that converts charge to current.
ample of how electrical power corresponds to
mechanical power is the fact that Kilowatthours. This is a unit commonly used
for large amounts of electrical work or energy.
746 W = 1 hp = 550 ft· Ibis The amount is calculated simply as the product
of the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time
This relation can be remembered more easily as in hours during which the power is used. As an
1 hp equals approximately % kilowatt (kW). example, if a light bulb uses 300 W or 0.3 kW
One kilowatt = 1000 W. for 4 hours (h), the amount of energy is
0.3 X 4, which equals 1.2 kWh.
Practical Units of Power and Work. Starting We pay for electricity in kilowatthours of
with the watt, we can develop several other energy. The power-line voltage is constant at
important units. The fundamental principle to
remember is that power is the time rate of doing 1
See Appendix D, Physics Units.
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 47

120 V. However, more appliances and light Since power is dissipated in the resistance
bulbs require more current because they all of a circuit, it is convenient to express the power
add in the main line to increase the power. in terms of the resistance R. The V X I formula
Suppose the total load current on the main can be rearranged as follows:
line equals 20 A. Then the power is 20 A X Substituting IR for V,
120 V = 2400 W, or 2.4 kW. If this load current
is used for 5 h, then the energy supplied equals P = V XI= IR XI
2.4 X 5 = 12 kWh. At 6 cents per kWh, the p = J2R (2-7)
cost is 12 X 0.06 = 0.72, or 72 cents, just for 5
hours with a 20-A load. This is a common form for the power formula.
For another form, substitute VI R for I. Then
Practice Problems 2-7
(answers on page 53)
P=VXI=Vx-
v
(a) An electrical heater takes 15 A from the R
120-V power line. Calculate the power.
p = V2 (2-8)
(b) How much is the load current for a 100-W R
bulb connected to the 120-V power line?
In all the formulas, Vis the voltage across
R in ohms, producing the current I in amperes,
2-8 for power in watts.
POWER DISSIPATION IN Any one of the three formulas can be used
RESISTANCE to calculate the power dissipated in a resistance.
When current flows in a resistance, heat is pro- The one to be used is just a matter of conven-
duced because friction between the moving free ience, depending on which factors are known.
electrons and the atoms obstructs the path of In Fig. 2-6, for example, the power dissi-
electron flow. The heat is evidence that power is pated with 2 A through the resistance and 6 V
used in producing current. This is how a fuse across it is 2 X 6 = 12 W.
opens, as heat resulting from excessive current Or, calculating in terms of just the current
melts the metal link in the fuse. and resistance, the power is the product of 2
The power is generated by the source of squared, or 4, times 3, which equals 12 W.
applied voltage and consumed in the resistance Using the voltage and resistance, the
in the form of heat. As much power as the power can be calculated as 6 squared, or 36,
resistance dissipates in heat must be supplied by divided by 3, which also equals 12 W.
the voltage source; otherwise, it cannot main-
tain the potential difference required to produce
the current. . . -+
{ I= 2 A v x /= 12 w
The correspondence between electrical
I 2 R = 12 W
power and heat is indicated by the fact that 1 W = 6V R = 3 S1 v2
R=12W
used during the time of 1 sis equivalent to 0.24
calorie of heat energy. The electrical energy
converted to heat is considered to be dissipated FIGURE 2-6
or used up because the calories of heat cannot Calculating the electrical power in a circuit as
be returned to the circuit as electrical energy. VI, 12 R, or V 2 IR.
 Chapter 2
48 Ohm's Law

No matter which formula is used, 12 W of which is usually the 120 Vof the power line. For
power is dissipated, in the form of heat. This instance, a 600-W 120-V toaster has this rating
amount of power must be generated continu- because it dissipates 600 W in the resistance of
ously by the battery in order to maintain the the heating element when connected across
potential difference of 6 V that produces the 120 v.
2-A current against the opposition of 3 Q. In order to calculate I or R for components
In some applications, the electrical power rated in terms of power at a specified voltage, it
dissipation is desirable because the component may be convenient to use the power formulas in
must produce heat in order -to do its job. For different forms. There are three basic power
instance, a 600-W toaster must dissipate this formulas but nine combinations, as follows:
amount of power to produce the necessary
amount of heat. Similarly, a 300-W light bulb p =VI p = 12R p = V2
R
must dissipate this power to make the filament
white-hot so that it will have the incandescent
glow that furnishes the light. In other applica - or I=E or R=£ or R = V2
v J2 p
tions, however, the heat may be just an unde-
sirable byproduct of the need to provide current
through the resistance in a circuit. In any case,
or V=-
p
I
or l=h or V= VPR
though, whenever there is current in a resist-
ance, it dissipates power equal to 12 R. Example 10. How much current is needed for a
600-W 120-V toaster?
Example 8. Calculate the power in a circuit where
the source of 100 V produces 2 A in a 50-Q R. Answer. I= E_ = 600
v 120
Answer. P = J2R = 4 x 50 l=5A
p = 200 w
Example 11. How much is the resistance of a
This means the source generates 200 W of power 600-W 120-V toaster?
while the resistance dissipates 200 W in the form of
heat. Answer. R = V2 = 14,400
p 600
Example 9. Calculate the power in a circuit where R = 24 Q
the same source of 100 V produces 4 A in a 25-Q R.
Example 12. How much current is needed for a
Answer. P = J2 R = 16 x 25 24-Q R that dissipates 600 W?
p = 400 w
Note the higher power in Example 9 be-
Answer. l=h=!W-= 05
cause of more I, even though R is less than l=5A
Example 8.
Components that utilize the power dissi- Note that all these formulas are based on
pated in their resistance, such as light bulbs and Ohm's law V = IR and the power formula
toasters, are generally rated in terms of power. P = V X I. The following example with a
The power rating is at normal applied voltage, 300-W bulb illustrates this idea. Connected
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 49

across the 120-V line, the 300-W filament re- working on power-line circuits, since one side
quires 2.5 A, equal to P!Vor 300/i. 20 . The proof of the line is usually connected to earth. In
is that the VI product then is 120 x 2.5, which addition, the metal chassis of radio and televi-
is 300 W. sion receivers is often connected to the power-
Therefore, the resistance of the filament, line ground. The final and best safety rule is to
equal to Vi I, is 12 %. 5 , or 48 Q. If we use the work on the circuits with the power discon-
formula R = V2 IP, or 14·40%00 , the answer is nected if at all possible and make resistance
the same, 48 Q. tests.
In any case, when this bulb is connected Note that it is current through the body,
across the 120-V line so that it can dissipate its not through the circuit, which causes the elec-
rated power, it draws 2.5 A from the power line, tric shock. This is why high-voltage circuits are
and the resistance of its white-hot filament is most important, since sufficient potential differ-
48Q. ence can produce a dangerous amount of cur-
rent through the relatively high resistance of the
Practice Problems 2-8 body. For instance, 500 V across a body resist-
(answers on page 53) ance of 25,000 Q produces 0.02 A, or 20 mA,
(a) I is 2 A in a 5-Q R. Calculate P which can be fatal. As little as 10 µA through the
(b) Vis 10 V across a 5-Q R. Calculate P body can cause an electric shock. In an experi-
ment1 on electric shock to determine the cur-
2-9 rent at which a person could release the live
ELECTRIC SHOCK conductor, this value of "let-go" current was
While you are working on electric circuits, there about 9 mA for men and 6 mA for women.
is often the possibility of receiving an electric In addition to high voltage, the other im-
shock by touching the "live" conductors when portant consideration in how dangerous the
the power is on. The shock is a sudden involun- shock can be is the amount of power the source
tary contraction of the muscles, with a feeling of can supply. The current of 0.02 A through
pain, caused by current through the body. If 25,000 S1 means the body resistance dissipates
severe enough, the shock can be fatal. Safety 10 W. If the source cannot supply 10 W, its
first, therefore, should always be the rule. output voltage drops with the excessive current
The greatest shock hazard is from high- load. Then the current is reduced to the amount
voltage circuits that can supply appreciable corresponding to how much power the source
amounts of power. The resistance of the human can produce.
body is also an important factor. If you hold a In summary, then, the greatest danger is
conducting wire in each hand, the resistance of from a source having an output of more than
the body across the conductors is about 10,000 about 30 V with enough power to maintain the
to 50,000 Q. Holding the conductors tighter load current through the body when it is con -
lowers the resistance. If you hold only one con- nected across the applied voltage. In general,
ductor, your resistance is much higher. It fol- components that can supply high power are
lows that the higher the body resistance, the physically big because of the need for dissipat-
smaller the current that can flow through you. ing heat.
A safety rule, therefore, is to work with
only one hand if the power is on. Also, keep 1C. F. Dalziel and W. R. Lee, Lethal Electric Cur-
yourself insulated from earth ground when rents, IEEE Spectrum, February 1969.
 Chapter 2
50 Ohm's Law

Practice Problems 2-9

(answers on page 53)
Answer true or false.
(a) 120 V is more dangerous than 12 V for
electric shock.
(b) Resistance tests with an ohmmeter can be
made with power off in the circuit.

Summary
1. The three forms of Ohm's law are I = VI R, V = IR, and R = VI I.
The basic units are volts for V, amperes for I, and ohms for R.
2. One ampere is the amount of current produced by one volt of
potential difference across one ohm of resistance. This current of 1 A
is the same as 1 Cls.
3. With constant R, the amount of I increases in direct proportion as V
increases. This linear relation between V and I is shown by the graph
in Fig. 2-5.
4. With constant V, the current I decreases as R increases. This is an
inverse relation.
5. Power is the time rate of doing work or using energy. The unit is the
watt. One watt equals 1 V x 1 A. Also, watts = joules per second.
6. The unit of work or energy is the joule. One joule equals 1 W X 1 s.
7. The most common multiples and submultiples of the practical units
are listed in Table 2-1.
8. Voltage applied across your body can produce a dangerous electric
shock. Whenever possible, shut off the power and make resistance
tests. If the power must be on, use only one hand. Do not let the
other hand rest on a conductor.
9. Table 2-2 summarizes the practical units used with Ohm's law.

TABLE 2-2. Practical Units of Electricity

UNIT COULOMB AMPERE VOLT WATT OHM MHO

Definition 6.25 X 10 18 electrons Coulomb Joule Joule Volt Ampere

---
second coulomb second ampere volt
 Cha ter 2
Ohm's Law 51

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Fill in the missing answers.

1. With 10 V across 5 n R, the current I is ___ A.

2. When 10 V produces 2.5 A, R is _ _ n.
3. With 8 A through a 2-n R, the IR voltage is _ _ V.
4. The resistance of 500,000 n is ___ Mn.
5. With 10 V across 5000 n R, the current I is ___ mA.
6. The power of 50 W = 2 AX _ _ V.
7. The energy of 50 J = 2 C X _ _ V.
8. The current drawn from the 120-V power line by a 1200-W
toaster = ___ A.
9. The current of 400 µA = ___ mA.
10. With 12 V across a 2-n R, its power dissipation = ___ W.
11. A circuit has a 4-A I. If Vis doubled and R is the same, I = ___ A.
12. A circuit has a 4-A I. If R is doubled and Vis the same, I = ___ A.
13. A television receiver using 240 W from the 120-V power line draws
current I = ___ A.
14. The rated current for a 500-W 120-V bulb = _ _ A.
15. The resistance of the bulb in question 14 is - - - n.
16. The energy of 12.5 x 10 18 eV = _ _ J.
1 7. The current of 1200 mA = _ _ A.
18. In a vacuum-tube amplifier circuit, the plate load resistor RL of 50 kn
has 150 V across it. Through Rv then, the current = ___ mA.
19. In a transistor circuit, a 1-kn resistor R1 has 200 µA through it.
Across R1 , then, its voltage = ___ V.
20. In a transistor circuit, a 50-kn resistor R2 has 6 Vacross it. Through
R2 , then, its current = ___ mA.

Essay Questions
1. State the three forms of Ohm's law relating V, I, and R.
2. (a) Why does higher applied voltage with the same resistance result
in more current? (b) Why does more resistance with the same applied
voltage result in less current?
3. Calculate the resistance of a 300-W bulb connected across the 120-V
power line, using two different methods to arrive at the same answer.
4. State which unit in each of the following pairs is larger: (a) volt or
kilovolt; (b) ampere or milliampere; (c) ohm or megohm; (d) volt or
 Chapter 2
52 Ohm's Law

microvolt; (e} siemens or microsiemens; (f} electron volt or joule;

(g} watt or kilowatt; (h} kilowatthour or joule; (i} volt or millivolt;
(j} megohm or kilohm.
5. State two safety precautions to follow when working on electric
circuits.
6. Referring back to the resistor shown in Fig. 1-12, suppose that it is
not marked. How could you determine its resistance by Ohm's law?
Show your calculations that result in the VI I ratio of 600 Q. However,
do not exceed the power rating of 10 W.
7. What is the difference between work and power? Give two units for
each.
8. Refer to the two resistors in series with each other in Fig. 3-1 on
page 55. If the current through R1 is 2 A, how much would you guess
is the current through R2 ?
9. Prove that 1 kWh is equal to 3.6 x 10 6 J.
10. A circuit has a constant R of 5000 Q, while Vis varied from 0 to 50 V
in 10-V steps. Make a table listing the values of I for each value of V.
Then draw a graph plotting these values of milliamperes vs. volts.
(This graph should be similar to Fig. 2-5c.}

Problems (Answers to odd·numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A 90-V source is connected across a 30-kQ resistance. (a} Draw the

schematic diagram. (b} How much current flows through the resist-
ance? (c} How much current flows through the voltage source? (d} If
the resistance is tripled, how much is the current in the circuit?
2. A 6-V battery is connected across a 2-Q resistance. (a} Draw the
schematic diagram. (b} Calculate the power dissipated in the resist-
ance. (c} How much power is supplied by the battery? (d} If the
resistance is doubled, how much is the power?
3. A vacuum-tube heater has 0.3 A of current with 6.3 V applied.
(a} Draw the schematic diagram, showing the heater as a resistance.
(b} How much is the resistance of the heater?
4. Convert the following units using powers of 10 where necessary:
(a} 12 mA to amperes; (b} 5000 V to kilovolts; (c} %MQ to ohms;
(d} 100,000 Q to megohms; (e} 1lz A to milliamperes; (f} 9000 µS to
siemens; ( g} 1000 µA to milliamperes; (h} 5 kQ to ohms; (i} 8
nanoseconds (ns} to seconds.
5. A current of 2 A flows through a 6-Q resistance connected across
a battery. (a} How much is the applied voltage of the battery? (b} How
much power is dissipated in the resistance? (c} How much power is
supplied by the battery?
 Chapter 2
Ohm's Law 53

6. (a) How much resistance allows 30-A current with 6 volts applied?
(b) How much resistance allows 1-mA current with 10 kV applied?
Why is it possible to have less current in (b) with the higher applied
voltage?
7. A source of applied voltage produces 1 mA through a 10-Mn resist-
ance. How much is the applied voltage?
8. Calculate the current /, in ampere units, for the following examples:
(a) 45 Vapplied across 68 kn; (b) 250 Vacross 12 Mn; (c) 1200 W
dissipated in 600 n.
9. Calculate the IR voltage for the following examples: (a) 68 µA
through 22 Mn; (b) 2.3 mA through 47 kn; (c) 237 A through
0.012 n.
10. Calculate the resistance R, in ohms, for the following examples:
(a) 134 mA produced by 220 V; (b) 800 W dissipated with 120 V
applied; (c) a conductance of 9000 µS.
11. Find the value of Vin Fig. 2-7.

+I= 12 mA
\. __ 1111--
v =?
FIGURE 2-7
For Prob. 11.

Answers to Practice Problems

2-1 (a) 4A 2-4
(c) 2000 n
(b) 2A 2-5
(a) See Prob. b
(c) 2A (b) See Prob. a
(d) 20 A 2-6 (a) y axis
2-2 (a) 2V (b) linear
(b) 4v 2-7 (a) 1.8 kW
(c) 4V (b) 0.83 A
2-3 (a) 4000 n 2-8 (a) 20 W
(b) 2000 n (b) 20 w
(c) 12,000 n 2-9 (a) T
2-4 (a) 35 V (b) T
(b) 0.002 A
 series
arcuits
When the components in a circuit are connected in successive order with
an end of each joined to an end of the next, as shown in Fig. 3-1, they
apter
s
form a series circuit. The resistors R1 and R2 are in series with each other
and the battery. The result is only one path for electron flow. Therefore,
the current I is the same in all the series components. This and other
important characteristics are analyzed in the following topics:

3-1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts of a Series Circuit

3-2 Total R Equals the Sum of All Series Resistances
3-3 Series IR Voltage Drops
3-4 The Sum of Series IR Drops Equals the Applied VT
3-5 Polarity of IR Voltage Drops
3-6 Polarities to Chassis Ground
3-7 Total Power in a Series Circuit
3-8 Series-Aiding and Series-Opposing Voltages
3 -9 Analyzing Series Circuits
3-10 Effect of an Open Circuit in a Series Path

3-1 in the direction away from the negative battery

WHY I IS THE SAME IN ALL terminal.
PARTS OF A SERIES CIRCUIT At the same time, the positive charge of the
An electrical current is a movement of charges positive battery terminal attracts free electrons,
between two points, produced by the applied causing electrons to drift toward I and J. As a
voltage. In Fig. 3-2, the battery supplies the result, the free electrons in the .resistances R1,
[Link] that forces electrons to drift R2 , and R3 are forced to drift toward the positive
from the negati\le te1111inal at A, toward B, terminal.
through the connecting wires and resistances The positive terminal of the battery attracts
R1 , R2 , and R3 , back to the positive battery electrons just as much as the negative side of
terminal at .J. the battery repels electrons. Therefore, the mo·
At the negative· battery terminal its negative tion of free electrons in the circuit starts at the
charge repels electrons. Therefore, ·free elec- same time at the same speed in all parts of the
trons in the atoms of the wire at this· terminal Circuit.
are repelled from A toward B. ··Similarly,·• free THe electrons returning to the positive bat-
electrons at point B can then repel adjacent · tery· ~erminal are ngt .[Link]. same electrons as
electrons, producing an electron drift toward C those leaving the negative terminal. Free elec-
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 55

(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3-1
A series circuit. (a) Photo of wiring. (b) Sche-
matic diagram.

trons in the wire are forced to move to the trons flowing from an adjacent point in the
positive terminal because of the potential differ- series circuit. All electrons have the same speed
ence of the battery. as those leaving the battery. In all parts of the
The free electrons moving away from one circuit, therefore, the electron drift is the same,
point are continuously replaced by free elec- with an equal number of electrons moving at

C R, D R,
B-------" __ .,..
--+ I= 2 A
I= 2 A
E

/=2 A I
+ R2

F
+1=2 A
: /= 2 A I= 2 A
I..___ _ _ __._-"\.' +-- +--
H G
RJ

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-2
(a) Electron drift is the same at all points in a
series circuit. (b) The current I is the same at all
points in a series circuit.
 Cha ter 3
56 Series Circuits

one time with the same speed. That is why the series components, and back to the other side
current is the same in all parts of the series of the applied voltage. However, the series path
circuit. must not have any point where the current can
In Fig. 3-2b, when the current is 2 A, for branch off to another path in parallel. This fea-
example, this is the value of the current through ture of series circuits applies not only to direct
R1 , R2 , R3 , and the battery. Not only is the current, but also to alternating current of any
amount of current the same throughout, but in frequency and for any waveshape.
all parts of a series circuit the current cannot
differ in any way because there is just one cur- Practice Problems 3-1
rent path for the entire circuit. (answers on page 72)
The order in which components are con - (a) In Fig. 3-2, name five parts that have the I
nected in series does not affect the current. In of 2 A.
Fig. 3-3b, resistances R1 and R2 are connected (b) In Fig. 3-3e, when I in Rs is 5 A, then I in
in reverse order compared with Fig. 3-3a, but in R3 is A.
both cases they are in series. The current
through each is the same because there is only 3-2
one path for the electron flow. Similarly, R3 , R4 , TOTAL R EQUALS THE SUM OF
and Rs are in series and have the same current ALL SERIES RESISTANCES
for the connections shown in Fig. 3-3c, d, and When a series circuit is connected across a
e. Furthermore, the resistances need not be voltage source, as shown in Fig. 3-3, the free
equal. electrons forming the current must drift through
The question of whether a component is all the series resistances. This path is the only
first, second, or last in a series circuit has no way the electrons can return to the battery. With
meaning in terms of current. The reason is that two or more resistances in the same current
I is the same amount at the same time in all the path, therefore, the total resistance across the
series components. voltage source is the opposition of all the resist-
In fact, series components can be defined ances.
as those in the same current path. The path is Specifically, the total resistance (RT) of a
from one side of the voltage source, through the series string is equal to the sum of the individual

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 3-3
Series connections. R1 and R2 are in series in
both (a) and (b). Also, R3 , R4 , and R5 are in
series in (c), (d), and (e).
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 57

P,
---- ....... ----2 A....... ~
,,----- .......

/~=3.!_;~ , .... /=
R,
' /=2A "::al
3
3.Q

= 10V
R,
3.Q =10V
Rr
sn
R2
= 10V

1t............. ____ , / 111:., .... _____ ,.-'

2n ~ ............ ____ , ..~
P2 -------P2
(a) {b) (c)
FIGURE 3-4
Series resistances are added. (a) R1 alone is
3 Q. (b) R1 and R2 in series total 5 Q. (c) Total
Rr is the same as one resistance of 5 Q between
P1 and P2 .

resistances. This rule is illustrated in Fig. 3-4. In of the individual resistances. The formula is
Fig. 3-4b, 2 Q is added in series with the 3 Q of
Fig. 3-4a, producing the total resistance of 5 Q. RT= R1 + R2 + R3 + · · · +etc. (3-1)
The total opposition of R1 and R2 limiting the
amount of current is the same as though a 5-Q where RT is the total resistance and R1 , R2 , and
resistance were used, as shown in the equiva- R3 are individual series resistances. This for-
lent circuit in Fig. 3-4c. mula applies to any number of resistances,
whether equal or not, as long as they are in the
Series String. A combination of series resist- same series string.
ances is often called a string. The string resist- Note that RT is the resistance to use in
ance equals the sum of the individual calculating the current in a series string. Then
resistances. For instance, R1 and R2 in Fig. 3-4 Ohm's law is
form a series string having the RT of 5 Q.
By Ohm's law, the amount of current be-
(3-2)
tween two points in a circuit equals the potential
difference divided by the resistance between
these points. As the entire string is connected where RT is the sum of all the resistances, VT is
across the voltage source, the current equals the voltage applied across the total resistance,
the voltage applied across the entire string di- and I is the current in all parts of the string.
vided by the total series resistance of the string.
Between points P1 and P2 in Fig. 3-4, for exam- Example 1. Two resistances R1 and R2 of 5 Q each
ple, 10 Vis applied across 5 Qin (b) and (c) to and R3 of 10 Q are in series. How much is RT?
produce 2 A This current flows through R1 and
Answer. RT = Rl + R2 + R3 = 5 + 5 + 10
R2 in one series path. RT= 20 Q

Series Resistance Formula. In summary, the Example 2. With 80 V applied across the series
total resistance of a series string equals the sum string of Example 1, how much is the current in R3 ?
 Chapter 3
58 Series Circuits

I= VT = 80 v The IR voltage across each resistance is

Answer.
RT 20 Q called an IR drop, or a voltage drop, because it
l=4A reduces the potential difference available for the
remaining resistance in the series circuit. Note
This 4-A current is the same in R3 , R2 , R1 , or that the symbols \.'i and V:z are used for the
any part of the series circuit. voltage drops across each resistor to distinguish
Note that adding series resistance reduces them from the source VT applied across both
the current. In Fig. 3-4a the 3-Q R1 allows 10 V resistors.
to produce 3% A. However, I is reduced to 2 A In Fig. 3-5, the VT of 10 Vis applied across
when the 2-Q R2 is added for a total series the total series resistance of R1 and R2 . How-
resistance of 5 Q opposing the 10-V source. ever, because of the IR voltage drop of 4 V
across R1 , the potential difference across R2 is
Practice Problems 3-2 only 6 V. The negative potential drops from
(answers on page 72) 10 Vat point a, with respect to the common
(a) V is 10 V and R1 is 5 kQ. Calculate I. reference point at c, down to 6 Vat point b. The
(b) A 2-kQ R2 and 3-kQ R3 are added in series potential difference of 6 V between b and the
with R1 . Calculate RT. reference at c is the voltage across R2 •
(c) Calculate I in R1 , R2 , and R3 • Similarly, there is an JR voltage drop of 6 V
across R2 . The negative potential drops from
3-3 6 V at point b with respect to point c, down to
SERIES IR VOLTAGE DROPS 0 Vat point c with respect to itself. The potential
With current through a resistance, by Ohm's difference between any two points on the return
law there is a voltage across the resistance line to the battery must be zero because the wire
equal to I X R. This rule is illustrated in Fig. has practically zero resistance and therefore no
3-5. Here the current equals 1 A through the IR drop.
4-Q R1 and 6-Q R2 in series. The total RT of It should be noted that voltage must be
10 Q is across the applied VT of 10 V. The re- applied by a source of potential difference such
sult is an JR voltage of 4 V equal to 1 A x as the battery in order to produce current and
4 Q across R1 and 6 V equal to 1 A X 6 Q have an JR voltage drop across the resistance.
across R2 • With no current through a resistor, it has resist-
ance only, but there is no potential difference
1A across the two ends.
a
The IR drop of 4 V across R1 in Fig. 3-5
represents that part of the applied voltage used
to produce the current of 1 A through the 4-Q
resistance. Also, across R2 the IR drop is 6 V
because this much voltage allows 1 A in the 6-Q
resistance. The IR drop is more in R2 because
more potential difference is necessary to pro-
duce the same amount of current in the higher
c c resistance. For series circuits, in general, the
FIGURE 3-5 highest R has the largest IR voltage drop
IR voltage drops in a series circuit. across it.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 59

Practice Problems 3-3 It really is logical that VT is the sum of the

(answers on page 73) series IR drops. I is the same in all the series
Refer to Fig. 3-5. components. The total of all the series voltages
(a) How much is the sum of \1i and \'2? is needed to produce the same I in the total of
(b) Calculate I as VT! RT. all the series resistances as the I that each resis-
(c) How much is I through R1 ? tor voltage produces in its R.
(d) How much is I through R2 ?

Series Heater String for a Television Re-

3-4 ceiver. A common practical application of se-
THE SUM OF SERIES IR DROPS ries circuits is shown in Fig. 3-6. This is a typical
EQUALS THE APPLIED VT heater circuit for black-and-white television re-
The whole applied voltage is equal to the sum ceivers that use tubes. All the heaters, including
of its parts. For example, in Fig. 3-5, the indi- the picture tube, are in a series string. The
vidual voltage drops of 4 V and 6 V total the heater current is alternating current from the ac
same 10 V produced by the battery. This rela- power line, but the rules of series components
tion for series circuits can be stated apply the same way to de circuits or ac circuits.
The first digits in the tube number give the
required heater voltage for the rated amount of
VT = \1i + \'2 + \'3 + · · · + etc. (3-3)
heater current. As an example, the 17BF11
amplifier tube needs 17 V across the two heater
Where VT is the applied voltage equal to the pins for 450 mA.
total of the individual IR drops. For picture tubes, however, the first digits
give the screen size. For instance, the 16CWP4
Example 3. A voltage source produces an IR drop picture tube has a 16-in screen, measured diag-
of 40 V across a 20-D RI, 60 V across a 30-D R2 , and
onally between opposite corners. The P4 is the
180 V across a 90-D R3 , all in series. How much is
the applied voltage?
phosphor number for a white screen; P22 indi-
cates red, green, and blue phosphors for color
Answer. VT = 40 + 60 + 180 television receivers. The heater voltage for most
VT= 280V picture tubes is 6 .3 V.
Each heater needs less than the 120 V
Note that the JR drop across each R results from the from the power line, but they all use the same
same current of 2 A, produced by 280 V across the heater current for normal operation. Therefore,
total RT of 140 n. the heaters are in a series string connected
across the voltage source. The idea is to make
Example 4. An applied VT of 120 V produces IR the sum of the series IR drops equal the
drops across two series resistors RI and R2 . If the power-line voltage, approximately. In Fig. 3-6,
drop across RI is 40 V, how much is the voltage
across R2 ?
the series voltages are 17 + 33 + 23 + 15 +
11 + 8 + 6.3 + 3 + 6.3, which add up to
Answer. Since \.'i and \.'z must total 120 V, and 122.6 v.
one is 40 V, the other must be the difference between Any one heater has its proportional part of
120 and 40 V. Or \.'z = VT - \.'i, which equals the applied voltage. As determined by the
120 - 40. Then V2 = 80 V. heater resistance, its part of the applied voltage
 Chapter 3
60 Series Circuits

178F11 33GY7 23Z9 158011 118011 8LT8

heater heater heater

0
17 v 33 v 23V 15 v 11 v av
Applied
voltage 6CG8 3GK5
VT= 122.6 V heater 6.3V
/=450 mA

16CWP4
picture tube
heater
6.3V 3V

On the tuner chassis

FIGURE 3-6
Typical string for tubes in a television receiver
using series heaters.

is the required amount of heater voltage. The the same value of I as VT! RT for the entire series
series circuit provides the same current for all circuit.
the heaters, however. Tubes made for the series
string have the same current rating but a higher The Case of Zero IR Drop. Remember that
heater voltage for tubes that need more power. the product of I X R can be zero when either I
The reason why there can be different voltages or R is zero. For a wire conductor used for
in the series string with the same current is that connections, R is practically zero. Therefore,
the heaters with higher resistance have more IR the IR voltage drop across the interconnecting
voltage drop. wires is practically zero, even though the nor-
mal current is flowing. The other possibility is to
How Series Circuits Are Used. The circuit in have resistance but no current. Either the ap-
Fig. 3-6 shows how a series circuit is the way to plied voltage is disconnected or there is an open
connect components that all need the same circuit. A resistor by itself can have its normal
current but with a voltage rating less than the resistance, but it cannot have an IR voltage drop
source voltage. Then the applied voltage VT is unless I is flowing through R.
high enough to produce the required current I
for the total resistance RT. Practice Problems 3-4
Remember that VT is across RT, not each (answers on page 73)
individual R. If you use only one R to calculate (a) A series circuit has 10-, 20-, ·and 30-V IR
I, then use the individual voltage drop for that drops. How much is the applied voltage
component. Then VI R for each component is VT of the source?
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 61

(b) 100 Vis applied to R 1 and R2 in series. If

\1i is 25 V, how much is Vz?
, ... --/- ........,
3-5
a -
=VT
' \
\
POLARITY OF IR VOLTAGE b + I
I

DROPS /
I

When an IR voltage drop exists across a resist- ~ ... __ ..,.,,/

ance, one end must be either more positive or
more negative than the other end. Otherwise,
without a potential difference no current could FIGURE 3-8
flow through the resistance to produce the IR Two IR voltage drops in series. Electron flow
drop. The polarity of this IR· voltage can be shown for direction of I.
associated with the direction of I through R. In
brief, electrons flow into the negative side of the shown in Fig. 3-8. We can analyze these polari-
IR voltage and out the positive side (Fig. 3-7 a). ties in terms of electron flow. The electrons
If we want to consider conventional current move from the negative terminal of the source
with positive charges moving in the opposite VT through R1 from point c to d. Electrons move
direction from electron flow, the rule is reversed into c and out from d. Therefore c is the nega-
for the positive charges. See Fig. 3-7b. Here the tive side of the voltage drop across R1 . Simi-
positive charges for I are moving into the posi- larly, for the IR voltage drop across R2 , point e
tive side of the IR voltage. is the negative side, compared with point f.
However, for either electron flow or con- A more fundamental way to consider the
ventional current the actual polarity of the IR polarity of IR voltage drops in a circuit is the fact
drop is the same. In both a and b of Fig. 3-7, the that between any two points the one nearer to
top end of R in the diagrams is negative since the positive terminal of the voltage source is
this is the negative terminal of the source pro- more positive; also, the point nearer to the
ducing the current. After all, the resistor does negative terminal of the applied voltage is more
not know which direction of current we are negative. A point nearer to the terminal means
thinking of. there is less resistance in its path.
A series circuit with two IR voltage drops is In Fig. 3-8 point c is nearer to the negative
battery terminal than point d. The reason is that
c has no resistance to a, while the path from d
---+
Electron to a includes the resistance of R1 . Similarly,
flow point f is nearer to the positive battery ter-
Conventional minal than point e, which makes f more positive
--1...,. than e.
Notice that points d and e in Fig. 3-8 are
(a) (b) marked with both plus and minus polarities.
FIGURE 3-7 The plus polarity at d indicates it is more posi-
Polarity of IR voltage drops. (a) Electron flows tive than c. This polarity, however, is shown just
into negative end. (b) Same polarity with posi- for the voltage across R1 . Point d cannot be
tive charges into positive end. more positive than points f and b. The positive
 Chapter 3
62 Series Circuits

terminal of the applied voltage must be the most On a plastic board with printed wiring, a rim of
positive point because the battery is generating solder around the edge serves as the chassis
the positive potential for the entire circuit. ground return, as illustrated in Fig. 3-9a. Then
Similarly, points a and c must have the only one terminal of the source voltage VT is
most negative potential in the entire string, used for the high side of the wiring. The circuit
since this point is the negative terminal of the components have return connections to the
applied voltage. Actually, the plus polarity opposite side of VT through the chassis ground
marked at d only means this end of R1 is less conductor.
negative than c, by the amount of voltage drop Either the negative or the positive terminal
across R1 . of VT can be connected to the chassis ground
Consider the potential difference between return line. With the negative side grounded, VT
e and din Fig. 3-8, which is only a piece of wire. supplies positive voltage for the high side of the
This voltage is zero because there is no resist- circuit (Fig. 3-9b}. For the opposite case in Fig.
ance between these two points. Without any 3-9c, the high side of the circuit has negative
resistance here, the current cannot produce the voltage with respect to chassis ground.
IR drop necessary for a difference in potential. In Fig. 3-9, the two equal resistances divide
Points e and d are, therefore, the same electri- the applied voltage equally. Then R1 and R2
cally since they have the same potential. each have a voltage drop of 10 V, equal to
When we go around the external circuit one-half the 20 V of VT. The sum of the IR
from the negative terminal of VT, with electron drops is 10 + 10 = 20 V, equal to the total
flow, the voltage drops are drops in negative applied voltage.
potential. For the opposite direction, starting
from the positive terminal of VT, the voltage Positive Voltages to Ground. In Fig. 3-9b
drops are drops in positive potential. Either point S is at + 20 V. However, point J at the
way, the voltage drop of each series R is its junction of R1 and R2 is at + 10 V. The potential
proportional part of VT needed for the one value of + 10 V is 10 V less than at S because of the
of current in all the resistances. 10-V drop across R1 . All these voltages are
positive to chassis ground because the negative
Practice Problems 3-5 side of VT and the ground return are really the
(answers on page 73) same.
Refer to Fig. 3-8.
(a) Which point in the circuit is the most nega- Negative Voltages to Ground. In Fig. 3-9c
tive? everything is the same as in (b) but with negative
(b) Which point in the circuit is the most posi- instead of positive voltages. Point Sis at -20 V,
tive? since the positive side of the source voltage is
(c) Which is more negative, point d or f? grounded.

3-6 Practice Problems 3-6

POLARITIES TO CHASSIS (answers on page 73)
GROUND (a) In Fig. 3-9b, give each voltag~ to ground at
In practical circuits, one side of the voltage points S, J, and G.
source VT is usually connected to chassis (b) In Fig. 3-9c, give each voltage to ground at
ground. The purpose is to simplify the wiring. points S, J, and G.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 63

+ 20 v o-------- - 20 v o------

R 2 10 kn

Chassis ground

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 3-9
Polarity of IR voltage drops to chassis ground.
(a) Wiring diagram with ground wiring around
printed-circuit board. (b) Schematic diagram
with +20 V for VT with respect to chassis
ground. (c) VT is -20 V as positive side is
grounded.

3-7 VT X I. The reason is that VT is the sum of all the

TOTAL POWER IN A series voltages and I is the same in all the series
SERIES CIRCUIT components. In this case, then, PT is
The power needed to produce current in each 60 X 2 = 120 W, calculated as VT X I.
series resistor is used up in the form of heat. The total power here is 120 W, calculated
Therefore, the total power used is the sum of either from the total voltage or from the sum of
the individual values of power dissipated in P1 and P2 . This is the amount of power pro-
each part of the circuit. As a formula, duced by the battery. The voltage source pro-
duces this power, equal to the amount used by
PT= P1 + P2 + P3 + · · · + etc. (3-4) the load.

As an example, in Fig. 3-10, R1 dissipates

40 W for P1 , equal to 20 V X 2 A for the VI (2A
---+ R,
P 1 =40W
product. Or, the P1 calculated as I2 R is I 1on
used
20V
4 X 10 = 40 W. Also, the P1 is V2/ R, or
Pr= 120W ~ Vr
400/10 = 40 w. generated ~sov
Similarly, P2 for R2 is 80 W. This value is Rz
40 X 2 for VI, 4 X 20 for J2 R, or 160%0 for + 20 n P2 = 80 W

V2!R.
The total power dissipated by R1 and R2 , FIGURE 3-10
I
' -- 40V
used

then, is 40 + 80 = 120 W. This power is gen- The sum of the individual powers P1 and P2
erated by the source of applied voltage. used in each resistance equals the total power
The total power can also be calculated as PT produced by the source.
 Chapter 3
64 Series Circuits

Practice Problems 3-7 and to voltage drops across resistances. Any

(answers on page 73) number of voltages can be added, as long as
{a) Each of three equal resistances dissipates they are connected with series-aiding polarities.
2 W. How much is PT supplied by the Series-opposing voltages are subtracted, as
source? shown in Fig. 3-llb. Notice here that the posi-
{b) A 1-kn R1 and 40-kn R2 are in series with tive terminals of \1i and Vz are connected. Sub-
a 50-V source. Which R dissipates more tract the smaller from the larger value, and give
power? the net V the polarity of the larger voltage. In
this example, VT is 8 - 6 = 2 V. The polarity of
3-8 VT is the same as Vz because it is larger than "1 ·
SERIES-AIDING AND If two series-opposing voltages are equal,
SERIES-OPPOSING VOLTAGES the net voltage will be zero. In effect, one volt-
Series-aiding voltages are connected with age balances out the other. The current I also is
polarities that allow current in the same direc- zero, without any net potential difference.
tion. In Fig. 3-11 a, the 6-V of "1 alone could
produce 3-A electron flow from the negative Practice Problems 3-8
terminal, with the 2-n R. Also, the 8-V of Vz (answers on page 73)
could produce 4 A in the same direction. The (a) \1i of 40 Vis series-aiding with Vz of 60 V.
total I then is 7 A. How much is VT?
Instead of adding the currents, however, (b) The same "1 and Vz are connected series-
the voltages \1i and Vz can be added for a VT of opposing. How much is VT?
6 + 8 = 14 V. This 14 V produces 7 A in all
parts of the series circuit with a resistance of 3-9
2 n. ANALYZING SERIES CIRCUITS
Voltages are connected series-aiding with Refer to Fig. 3-12. Suppose that the source VT
the plus terminal of one to the negative terminal of 50 Vis known, with the 14-n R1 and 6-n R2 •
of the next. They can be added for a total The problem is to find RT, I, the individual
equivalent voltage. This idea applies in the voltage drops "1 and Vz across each resistor,
same way to voltage sources, such as batteries, and the power dissipated.

r
v,_-
6V -

V2 _-
av-==-
+
l
Vr=14V R=2D.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-11
Voltages Vi and \'2 in series. (a) Aiding.
(b) Opposing.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 65

v, =? current is the same in all parts of a series

P, =? circuit.
2. To calculate I, the total VT can be divided
R,
14.Q by the total RT, or an individual IR drop
can be divided by its R. For instance, the
VT= 50 V current in Fig. 3-12 could be calculated as
+ Vz! R2 or 1%, which equals the same 2.5 A
t, __/=? for I. However, do not mix a total value for
the entire circuit with an individual value
FIGURE 3-12 for only part of the circuit.
Analyzing a series circuit to find I, \.'i_, \'2, P1 , 3. When you know the individual voltage
and P2 • See text for solution. drops around the circuit, these can be
added to equal the applied VT. This also
We must know the total resistance RT to means a known voltage drop can be sub-
calculate /because the total applied voltage VT is tracted from the total VT to find the re-
given. This VT is applied across the total resist- maining voltage drop.
ance RT. In this example, RT is 14 + 6 = 20 n.
Now I can be calculated as V/ RT, or 5 %0 , These principles are illustrated by the
which equals 2.5 A This 2.5-A I flows through problem in Fig. 3-13. In this circuit R1 and R2
R1 and R2 • are known but not R3 • However, the current
The individual voltage drops are through R3 is given as 3 mA.
With just this information, all values in this
\1i = IR1 = 2.5 X 14 = 35 V circuit can be calculated. The I of 3 mA is the
\'2 = IR2 = 2.5 X 6 = 15 V same in all three series resistances. Therefore,

Note that \1i and Vz total 50 V, equal to the Vi = 3 mA x 10 kn = 30 V

applied VT. Vz = 3 mA x 30 kn = 90 V
To find the power dissipated in each resis-
tor, The sum of \1i and Vz is 30 + 90 = 120 V.

P1 = \1i XI= 35 X 2.5 = 87.5 W R,

P2 = Vz XI= 15 X 2.5 = 37.5 W 10 kQ

These two values of dissipated power total

125 W. The power generated by the source
equals VT XI or 50 X 2.5, which is also 125 W. Vr=180V

+ /=3 mA
General Methods for Series Circuits. For +--
other types of problems with series circuits it is
useful to remember the following:
FIGURE 3-13
1. When you know the I for one component, Find the resistance of R3 • See text for analysis
use this for I in all the components, as the of this series circuit.
 Chapter 3
66 Series Circuits

This 120 V plus \,j must total 180 V. Therefore, \.1s is the difference between \{ and the higher
\,j is 180 - 120 = 60 V. VT. As a formula,
With 60 V for \,j, equal to IR3 , then R3
must be 6°/o. 003 , equal to 20,000 Q or 20 ks-2.
The total circuit resistance is 60 ks-2, which re-
sults in the current of 3 mA with 180 Vapplied, \.1s = 12.6 - 9 = 3.6 v
as specified in the chapter.
Another way of doing this problem is to Furthermore, this voltage drop of 3.6 V
find RT first. The equation I= VT! RT can be must be provided with a current of 18 mA, as
inverted to calculate the RT as VT! I. With a the current is the same through Rs and RL. To
3-mA I and 180 V for VT, the value of RT calculate Rs, then, it is 3.6 V/18 mA, which
must be 180 V/3 mA = 60 ks-2. Then R 3 is equals 0.2 ks-2 or 200 Q.
60 kQ - 40 ks-2 = 20 kQ. The power dissipated in RL is calculated as
The power dissipated in each resistance is \{ X IL. This value is 3.6 V X 18 mA, which
90 mW in RI, 270 mW in R2 , and 180 mW in equals 64.8 mW.
R 3 . The total power is 540 mW.
Circuit with Voltage Sources in Series. See
Series Voltage-Dropping Resistors. A com- Fig. 3-15. Note that \.1i and Vz are series-oppos-
mon application of series circuits is to use a ing, with + to + through RI. Their net effect
resistance to drop the voltage from the source then is 0 V. Therefore, VT consists only of \,j,
VT to a lower value, as in Fig. 3-14. The load RL equalto4.5 V. The total Ris2 + 1 + 2 = 5 ks-2
here represents a transistor radio that operates for RT. Finally, I is VT! RT or 4.5 V/5 ks-2, which
normally with a 9-V battery. When the radio is is equal to 0.9 mA.
on, the de load current with 9 V applied is
18 mA. Therefore, the requirements are 9 V, at Practice Problems 3-9
18 mA as the load. (answers on page 73)
To operate this radio from 12.6 V, the volt- Refer to Fig. 3-13.
age-dropping resistor Rs is inserted in series to (a) Calculate \.1i across RI.
provide a voltage drop \.1s that will make \{ (b) Calculate Vz across R 2 .
equal to 9 V. The required voltage drop across (c) How much is \,j?

~ R ~ R2
~-"'
Rs }v, v
1.5 2 kn . v 1 kn 15

- Vr =
- 12.6V
9V }
RL at VL V3 _!..... R3
18 mA
.___--1111----"2 1

4.5 v kr!
FIGURE 3-14 FIGURE 3-15
Series voltage-dropping resistor to drop VT of Find I for this series circuit with three voltage
12.6 V to 9 V for RL. See text for calculations. sources. See text for solution.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 67

3-10 the resistance of the open. Such a high resist-

EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT ance is practically infinite ohms.
IN A SERIES PATH By Ohm's law, the current that results from
An open is a break in the current path. The 40 V applied across 40 billion Q is one-billionth
resistance of the open is very high because an of an ampere, which is practically zero. This is
insulator like air takes the place of a conducting the value of current in all parts of the series
part of the circuit. Remember that the current is circuit. With practically no current, the IR volt-
the same in all parts of a series circuit. There- age drop is practically zero across the 25 Q of
fore, an open in any part results in no current R1 , the 10 Q of R2 , and the 5 Q of R3 •
for the entire circuit. As illustrated in Fig. 3-16, In summary, with an open in any part of a
the circuit is normal in (a), but in (b) there is no series circuit the current is zero in the entire
current in R1 , R2 , or R3 because of the open in circuit. There is no IR voltage drop across any
the series path. of the series resistances, although the generator
The open between P1 and P2 , or at any still maintains its output voltage.
other point in the circuit, has practically infinite
resistance because its opposition to electron The Case of Zero IR Drop. In Fig. 3-16b, each
flow is so great compared with the resistance of of the resistors in the open circuit has an IR
R1 , R2 , and R3 • Therefore, the value of current drop of zero. The reason is that current of
is practically zero, even though the battery pro- practically zero is the value in all the series
duces its normal applied voltage of 40 V. components. Each R still has its resistance.
To take an example, suppose that the open However, with zero current the IR voltage is
between P1 and P2 has a resistance of 40 billion zero.
Q. The resistance of the entire circuit is essen-
tially 40 billion Q, since the resistance of R1 , R2 , The Source Voltage VT ls Still Present with
and R3 can then be neglected compared with Zero I. The open circuit in Fig. 3-16b illus-

R, R,
25n 25n

. . -+ P,
( Zero Open,
current infinite n
_VT P2
40V
+zero ov R2
_
'current
..... ov 10 n

Ra
5n

(a) (b)
FIGURE 3-16
Effect of an open in a series circuit. (a) Normal
closed circuit with current of 1 A (b) Open in
any part of the circuit results in no current in
the entire circuit.
 Chapter 3
68 Series Circuits

trates another example of how V and I are The extremely small current of one-bil-
different forms of electricity. There is no current lionth of an ampere is not enough to develop
with the open circuit because there is no com- any appreciable IR drop across R1 , R2 , and R3 .
plete path outside the battery between its two However, across the open 1 the resistance is 40
terminals. However, the battery is generating a billion Q. Therefore, the IR voltage across the
potential difference across the positive and open here is one-billionth of an ampere multi-
negative terminals. This source voltage is pres- plied by 40 billion Q, which equals 40 V.
ent with or without current in the external cir- We could also consider the open circuit as
cuit. If you measure VT, the meter will read 40 V a proportional voltage divider. Since practically
with the circuit closed or open. all the series resistance is between P1 and P2 , all
The same idea applies to the 120-V ac the applied voltage is across the open terminals.
voltage from the power line in the home. The The fact that the open terminals have the
120-V potential difference is across the two entire applied voltage indicates a good way to
terminals of the wall outlet. If you connect a find an open component in a series string. If
lamp or appliance, current will flow in the cir- you measure the voltage across each good
cuit. When nothing is connected, though, the component, zero voltage. will be normal. How-
120-V potential difference is still there at the ever, the component that has the full source
outlet. If you should touch it, you will get an voltage is the one that is open.
electric shock. The generator at the power sta -
tion is maintaining the 120-V at the outlets as a Open Heater String. As another example,
source to produce current in any circuits that refer back to the series heaters in Fig. 3-6 for a
will be plugged in. television receiver with tubes. If one heater
opens, the entire string will be open. Then none
The Applied Voltage Is Across the Open Ter- of the tubes can operate, including the picture
minals. It is useful to note that the entire ap- tube. The result is no picture and no sound,
plied voltage is present across the open circuit. from the simple trouble of an open heater in the
Between P1 and P2 in Fig. 3-16b, there is 40 V. series string.
The reason is that essentially all the resistance
of the series circuit is between P1 and P2 . There- Practice Problems 3-10
fore, the resistance of the open circuit develops (answers on page 73)
all the IR voltage drop. Refer to Fig. 3-6.
(a) How much is the normal voltage across the
1 The voltage across an open circuit equals the ap- 158011 heater?
plied voltage, even without any current, after the (b) How much is the voltage across the
capacitance between the open terminals becomes 158011 heater if the 3GK5 heater is
charged by V, as described in Chap. 21, Capacitance. open?

Summary
1. There is only one current I in a series circuit. I = VT! RT, where VT is
the voltage applied across the total series resistance RT. This I is the
same in all the series components.
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 69

2. The total resistance RT of a series string is the sum of the individual

resistances.
3. The applied voltage VT equals the sum of the series IR voltage drops.
4. The negative side of an IR voltage drop is where electrons flow in,
attracted to the positive side at the opposite end.
5. The sum of the individual values of power used in the individual
resistances equals the total power supplied by the source.
6. Series-aiding voltages are added; series-opposing voltages are sub-
tracted.
7. An open results in no current in all parts of the series circuit.
8. In an open circuit, the voltage across the two open terminals is equal
to the applied voltage.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. When two resistances are connected in series, (a) they must both
have the same resistance value; (b) the voltage across each must be
the same; (c) they must have different resistance values; (d) there is
only one path for current through both resistances.
2. In Fig. 3-3c, if the current through R5 is 1 A, then the current through
R3 must be (a) %A; (b) Yz A; (c) 1 A; (d) 3 A.
3. With a 10-kQ resistance in series with a 2-kQ resistance, the total RT
equals (a) 2 kQ; (b) 8 kQ; (c) 10 kQ; (d) 12 kQ.
4. With two 45-kQ resistances in series across a 90-V battery, the
voltage across each resistance equals (a) 30 V; (b) 45 V; (c) 90 V;
(d) 180 v.
5. The sum of series IR voltage drops (a) is less than the smallest voltage
drop; (b) equals the average value of all the voltage drops; (c) equals
the applied voltage; (d) is usually more than the applied voltage.
6. R1 and R2 are in series with 90 V applied. If \'i is 30 V, then \.'z must
be (a) 30 V; (b) 90 V; (c) 45 V; (d) 60 V.
7. With a 4-Q resistance and a 2-Q resistance in series across a 6-V
battery, the current (a) in the larger resistance is l1h A; (b) in the
smaller resistance is 3 A; (c) in both resistances is 1 A; (d) in both
resistances is 2 A.
8. When one resistance in a series string is open, (a) the current is
maximum in the normal resistances; (b) the current is zero in all the
resistances; (c) the voltage is zero across the open resistance; (d) the
current increases in the voltage source.
 Chapter 3
70 Series Circuits

9. The resistance of an open series string is (a) zero; (b) infinite;

(c) equal to the normal resistance of the string; (d) about double the
normal resistance of the string.
10. A source of 100 Vis applied across a 20-Q R1 and 30-Q R2 in series.
\1i is 40 V. The current in R2 is (a) 5 A; (b) 3% A; (c) 1% A; (d) 2 A.

Essay Questions
1. Show how to connect two resistances in series with each other across
a voltage source.
2. State three rules for the current, voltage, and resistance in a series
circuit.
3. For a given amount of current, why does n:iore resistance have a
bigger voltage drop across it?
4. Two 300-W 120-V light bulbs are connected in series across a 240-V
line. If the filament of one bulb burns open, will the other bulb light?
Why? With the open, how much is the voltage across the source and
across each bulb?
5. Prove that if VT = \1i + Vz + \'3, then RT = R1 + R2 + R3 .
6. State briefly a rule for determining polarity of the voltage drop across
each resistor in a series circuit.
7. Redraw the circuit in Fig. 3-13, marking the polarity of \'i, Vz, and \'3.
8. State briefly a rule to determine when voltages are series-aiding.
9. Derive the formula PT = P1 + P2 + P3 from the fact that
VT = Vi + Vz + \'3.
10. In a series string, why does the largest R dissipate the most power?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A circuit has 10 V applied across a 10-Q resistance R1 . How much is

the current in the circuit? How much resistance R2 must be added in
series with R1 to reduce the current one-half? Show the schematic
diagram of the circuit with R1 and R2 •
2. Draw the schematic diagram of 20-, 30-, and 40-Q resistances in
series. (a) How much is the total resistance of the entire series string?
(b) How much current flows in each resistance, with a voltage of
180 V applied across the series string? (c) Find the voltage drop
 Cha ter 3
Series Circuits 71

across each resistance. (d) Find the power dissipated in each resist-
ance.
3. R1 of 90 kQ and an R2 of 10 kQ are in series across a 3-V source.
(a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) How much is Vz?
4. Draw a schematic diagram showing two resistances R1 and R2 in
series across a 100-V source. (a) If the IR voltage drop across R1 is
60 V, how much is the IR voltage drop across R2 ? (b) Label the
polarity of the voltage drops across R1 and R2 . ( c) If the current is 1 A
through R1 , how much is the current through R2 ? (d) How much is
the resistance of R1 and R2 ? How much is the total resistance across
the voltage source? (e) If the voltage source is disconnected, how
much is the voltage across R1 and across R2 ?
5. Three 10-Q resistances are in series across a voltage source. Show
the schematic diagram. If the voltage across each resistor is 10 V,
how much is the applied voltage? How much is the current in each
resistance?
6. How much resistance R1 must be added in series with a 100-Q R2 to
limit the current to 0.3 A with 120 V applied? Show the schematic
diagram. How much power is dissipated in each resistance?
7. Find the total RT of the following resistances in series: 2 MQ, 0 .5 MQ,
47 kQ, 5 kQ, and 470 Q.
8. Referring to Fig. 3-6, calculate the resistance of each heater with its
normal load current. How much is the total normal resistance of the
heater string? How much is the resistance with one heater open?
9. Draw the circuit with values for three equal series resistances across
a 90-V source, where each R has one-third the applied voltage and
the current in the circuit is 2 mA.
10. A 100-W bulb normally takes 0.833 A, and a 200-W bulb takes
1.666 A from the 120-V power line. If these two bulbs were con-
nected in series across a 240-V power line, prove that the current
would be 1.111 A in both bulbs, assuming the resistances remain
constant.
11. Referring to Fig. 3-9, calculate I in R1 and R2 for the diagrams in (a),
(b), and (c).
12. In Fig. 3-17, calculate I, \'1., Vz, P1 , P2 , and PT. (Note: R1 and R2 are in
series with VT even though the source is shown at the right instead of
at the left.)
13. If R1 is increased to 8 kQ in Fig. 3-17, what will be the new I?
14. In Fig. 3-18, find R1 . Why is I in the direction shown?
15. In Fig. 3-19, find R2 •
16. Figure 3-20 shows the circuit for keeping a 12.6-V car battery
charged from a 15-V de generator. Calculate I and show the direction
of electron flow.
 Chapter 3
72 Series Circuits

17. In Fig. 3-21, find \.'z. Show polarity for Vi, Vz, and \'3.
18. In Fig. 3-22, find VT. Show polarity for VT, Vi, Vz, and \'3.
R, =?
R1 =2kn
+--
/ = 5 mA

Vr
-=- 40 v

FIGURE 3-17 FIGURE 3-18

For Probs. 12 and 13. For Prob. 14.

R1 =Sn R = 0.6 n
--------'V\/\;....-~--.

1- ~
P 1 =80 W

V1 12.6 V 15 V V2

r+ +r
FIGURE 3-19 FIGURE 3-20
For Prob. 15. For Prob. 16.

R 1 =2kn

VT= 39 V ,-+
; I= 5 mA
r-------t1111--
R, Ra
1.7 Mn 1.7Mn

FIGURE 3-21 FIGURE 3-22

For Prob. 1 7. For Prob. 18.

Answers to Practice Problems

3-1 (a) R1 , R2 , R3 , VT and the wires 3-2 (a) 2 mA
(b) 5 A (b) 10 kQ
 Chapter 3
Series Circuits 73

3-2 (c) 1 mA 3-6 (b) Sis -20 V

3-3 (a) lOV J is -10 V
(b) 1 A G is OV
(c) 1 A 3-7 (a) 6W
(d) 1 A (b) 40-kg R2
3-4 (a) 60V 3-8 (a) 100 V
(b) 75 v (b) 20V
3-5 (a) point a or c 3-9 (a) \1i = 30 V
(b) point b or f (b) Vz = 90 v
(c) point d (c) Vj = 60 V
3-6 (a) Sis +20 V 3-10 (a) 15 V
J is +10 V (b) 0 v
G is OV
 Parallel
Circuits
When two or more components are connected across one voltage source,
as shown in Fig. 4- 1, they form a parallel circuit. The resistors R1 and R2 Chapter
are in parallel with each othe.r and with the battery. Each parallel path is
then a branch, with its own individual current. Parallel circuits, therefore,
have one common voltage across all the branches hut individual branch
cµrrents that can be different. These characteristics are opposite from
series circuits that have one common current but individual voltage drops
that can be different. The important features of parallel circuits are
4
explained in the following topics:
4-1 The Applied Voltage ~ Is the Same Across Parallel Branches
4-2 Each Branch I Equals ~/ R
4-3 The Main-Line IT Equals the Sum of the ·Branch Currents
4-4 Resistances in Parallel
4-5 Conductances in Parallel
4-6 Total Power in Parallel Circuits
4- 7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
4·8 Effect of an Open Branch in Parallel Circuits
4-9 Effect of a Short Circuit across Parallel Branches

4-1 A comrnon application of parallel circuits is

THE APPLIED VOLTAGE ~ typical ·house wiring. to the power line, with
IS THE SAME ACROSS many lights and. appliances .connected across
PARALLEL BRANCHES the 120:.V source (Fig. 4-2). The wall receptacle
In Fig. 4~ 1 b, the points a, b, c. and e are really has the potential difference of 120 V across
equivalent to a direct connection at the negative each pair of terminals. Therefore, any resist-
terminal of the battery because the· connecting ance connected to a.n outlet has the applied
wit:~s .have practically no [Link]. Similarly, voltage of 120 V. The light bulb is connected to
points h, g, d, and f are the same as a direct 9ne outlet and the toaster to. another outlet, but
connection at the· positive battery terminal. both: have the same applied voltage of 120 V.
Since ·R1 (lnd R2 are directly connected ,across Therefore, 'each operates independently of any
the two terminals of the battery, both resistances otl)et appliance, with· all the individual branch
must have the same potential difference as,the circuits connected [Link] 120-V line.
battery. It follow~ that the voltage is the same
across components connected in parallel.. Jhe :·'<P,raC!ice Prebl~ 4;1
parallel circuit arrangement. is used~ therefore, fll.n. . •-.u.<.'~.'$. :. o.··,rtPQ······g. 90.J
e.•.·.·.

to connect components that. require the sarne (~f lrt' f'g: 4}• how .much. is the common
voltage. v,ol~g~: ~crpss ,R1 .· ~nd R2 ?
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 75

c b e

a
R 1 =5.Q

d g f
(b)
FIGURE 4-1
A parallel circuit. (a) Photograph of wiring.
(b) Schematic diagram.

(b} In Fig. 4-2, how much is the common plied. In Fig. 4-3, 10 Vis applied across the 5 Q
voltage across the bulb and the toaster? of R2 , resulting in the current of 2 A between
points e and /through R2 • The battery voltage is
also applied across the parallel resistance of R1 ,
4-2 applying 10 V across 10 Q. Through R1 , there-
EACH BRANCH I EQUALS ~IR fore, the current is 1 A between points c and d.
In applying Ohm's law, it is important to note The current has a different value through R1 ,
that the current equals the voltage applied with the same applied voltage, because the re-
across the circuit divided by the resistance be- sistance is different. These values are calculated
tween the two points where that voltage is ap- as follows:

R, 120-V R2
bulb source toaster
120-V

Grounding terminal~+ Wall receptacle

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-2
Light bulb and toaster connected in parallel to
the 120-V line. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Sche-
matic diagram.
 Chapter 4
76 Parallel Circuits

c b e 4-3
THE MAIN-LINE IT EQUALS
r----+---- ----+----.
1 11 =1 A 12 = 2 A I THE SUM OF THE BRANCH
I CURRENTS
+
I
II +
•I

I
I
I
Components to be connected in parallel are
usually wired directly across each other, with
I I
'----+------' +--------J the entire parallel combination connected to the
voltage source, as illustrated in Fig. 4-4. This
d g f circuit is equivalent to wiring each parallel
FIGURE 4-3
branch directly to the voltage source, as shown
The current in each parallel branch equals the in Fig. 4-1, when the connecting wires have
applied voltage divided by each branch R.
essentially zero resistance.
The advantage of having only one pair of
~ 10 connecting leads to the source for all the paral-
11 = - = - = 1 A
R1 10 lel branches is that usually less wire is neces-
sary. The pair of leads connecting all the
l2_VA_l0_2A
- - - branches to the terminals of the voltage source
R2 5 is the main line. In Fig. 4-4, the wires from g to
a on the negative side and from b to f in the
Just as in a circuit with just one resistance,
return path form the main line.
any branch that has less R allows more I. If R1
In Fig. 4-4b, with 20 Q of resistance for R1
and R2 were equal, however, the two branch
connected across the 20-V battery, the current
currents would have the same value. For in-
through R1 must be 20 V /20 Q = 1 A. This
stance, in Fig. 4-1 b each branch has its own
current is electron flow from the negative termi-
current equal to 1.5 V/5 Q = 0.3 A.
nal of the source, through R1 , and back to the
The I can be different in parallel circuits
positive battery terminal. Similarly, the R 2
having different R because Vis the same across
branch of 10 Q across the battery has its own
all the branches. Any voltage source generates a
branch current of 20 V/10 Q = 2 A. This cur-
potential difference across its two terminals.
rent flows from the negative terminal of the
This voltage does not move. Only I flows
source, through R 2 , and back to the positive
around the circuit. The source voltage is availa-
terminal, since it is a separate path for electron
ble to make electrons move around any closed
flow.
path connected to the generator terminals. How
All the current in the circuit, however,
much I is in the separate paths depends on the
must come from one side of the voltage source
amount of R in each branch.
and return to the opposite side for a complete
path. In the main line, therefore, the amount of
Practice Problems 4-2 current is equal to the total of the branch cur-
(answers on page 90) rents.
Refer to Fig. 4-3. For example, in Fig. 4-4b, the total current
(a) How much is the voltage across R1 ? in the line from point g to point a is 3 A. The
(b) How much is 11 through R1 ? total current at branch point a subdivides into its
( c) How much is the voltage across R 2 ? component branch currents for each of the
(d) How much is 12 through R2 ? branch resistances. Through the path R1 from a
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 77

a c a c
+--· --· --· --· --· --+ --· --·
•
I •
I
--· --· --· ---. - - · ---. ,
•
--+ --·
+
I
,--.
{Ir= 3 A
lab = 1 A: led= 2 A:

•
I
+-- +-- + +
I

• + 't.
I
•
I I
I I - -~ I I
I +I

I
+
I I

+t
T I I

~ ~ • I g

§ I f
I

•t
I
I
+I
I

+
I
I

't
:
't
1
N

~
...
0

I
•
•
I
I

I
I
f
=
+
20V R 1 20.Q

lab = 1 A:
R 2 10 .Q

:•
• l
+
l
...
I
t, ____ Ir= 3 A +
led= 2 A:

•
·--T..b +-- +- +d. .
'+- +- +--
I · - ·--
b d

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-4
The main-line current equals the sum of the
branch currents. From g to a is the negative
side and from b to f is the positive side of the
main line. (a) Wiring diagram. Arrows inside
lines indicate current for RI; arrows outside
lines indicate current for R2 . (b) Schematic
diagram. IT is total line current.

to b the current is 1 A. The other branch path Answer. II for the ·RI branch is I 2%0 or 6 A
acdb through R2 has a current of 2 A. At the Similarly I2 is I 2%0 or 3 A, and I3 is I 2%0 or 2 A The·
branch point b, the electron flow from both total current in the main line is
parallel branches combines, so that the current
in the main-line return path from b to f has the IT = II + I2 + I3 =6 +3 +2
same value of 3 A as in the other side of the IT= 11 A
main line.
Example 2. Two branches RI and R2 across the
The formula for the total current IT in the 120-V power line draw a total line current IT of 15 A
main line is The RI branch takes 10 A How much is the current
I 2 in the R2 branch?
(4-1)
Answer. I2 = IT - II = 15 - 10
This rule applies for any number of parallel I2 = 5 A
branches, whether the resistances are equal or
unequal. With two branch currents, one must equal the differ-
ence between IT and the other branch current.
Example 1. An RI of 20 Q, an R2 of 40 Q, and an R3
of 60 Q are connected in parallel across the 120-V Example 3. Three parallel branch currents are
power line. How much is the total line current IT? 0 .1 A, 500 mA, and 800 µA Calculate IT.
 Chapter 4
78 Parallel Circuits

Answer. All values must be in the same units to the combined resistance RT, is the opposition to
be added. Converted to milliamperes, therefore the total current in the main line. In this exam-
0.1 A = 100 mA and 800 µA = 0.8 mA. Then ple ~!IT is 60 V/3 A= 20 n for RT.
The total load connected to the source
IT = 100 + 500 + 0.8 voltage is the same as though one equivalent
IT= 600.8 mA resistance of 20 Q were connected across the
main line. This is illustrated by the equivalent
You can add the currents in A, mA, or µA
circuit in Fig. 4-Sb. For any number of parallel
units, as long as the same unit is used for all the
resistances of any value, therefore,
currents.

(4-2)
Practice Problems 4-3
(answers on page 90)
(a) Parallel branch currents are 1 A for II, 2 A where IT is the sum of all the branch currents
for I2 , and 3 A for I3 • Calculate IT. and RT is the equivalent resistance of all the
(b) IT = 6 A for three branch currents. I1 is parallel branches across the voltage source ~.
1 A and I2 is 2 A Calculate I3 .
Example 4. Two branches, each with a 5-A current,
are connected across a 90-V source. How much is
4-4 the equivalent total resistance RT?
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
The total resistance across the main line in a Answer. The total line current IT is
parallel circuit can be found by Ohm's law: 5 + 5 = 10 A Then,
Divide the common voltage across the parallel
resistances by the total current of all the R _ ~ _ 90
branches. Referring to Fig. 4-Sa, note that the T - IT - 10
parallel resistance of RI with R2 , indicated by RT= 9 Q

........... I I,= i I2 = ..--+

I IT= {IT= 3 A
1 +1A +2A I
3A r-- -------- ----..,
1 I
vA I I
-
= I R, R2 I _VA=
- 60V I
I
son 30.n I - 60V
I
L-
I
-~-;T 20.n

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-5
Resistances in parallel. (a) Combined parallel
resistance of R1 and R2 is the total resistance RT
in the main line. (b) Equivalent circuit showing
combined RT drawing the same 3-A IT as the
parallel combination of R1 and R2 •
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 79

I'-+ I'-+
I
I
I= 2 A f IT= 4 A
R, R,
30.Q 30.Q

(a) (b)

........
{IT= 6 A
I
+I.I 2
= 2A

R, R2
VA = 60 V
30 n 30 n

(c) (d)
FIGURE 4-6
How adding parallel branches increases IT but
reduces RT. (a) One branch. (b) Two branches.
(c) Three branches. (d) Equivalent of (c).

Parallel Bank. A combination of parallel RI, which allows 2 A with 60 V applied. In (b)
branches is often called a bank. In Fig. 4-5, the the R2 branch is added across the same ~. This
bank consists of the 60-Q RI and 30-Q R2 in branch also has 2 A. Now the parallel circuit
parallel. Their combined parallel resistance RT has a 4-A total line current because of II + I2 .
is the bank resistance, equal to 20 Q in this Then the third branch is added in (c), which
example. also takes 2 A for I3 . The combined circuit with
When a circuit has more current with the three branches therefore requires a total load
same applied voltage, this greater value of I current of 6 A, which is supplied by the voltage
corresponds to less R because of their inverse source.
relation. Therefore, the combination of parallel The combined resistance across the source
resistances RT for the bank is always less than then is ~/IT, which is 6%or 10 Q. This equiva-
the smallest individual branch resistance. The lent resistance RT, representing the entire load
reason is that IT must be more than any one on the voltage source, is shown in (d). More
branch current. resistance branches reduce the combined re-
sistance of the parallel circuit because more
Why RT ls Less Than Any Branch R. It may current is required from the same voltage
seem unusual at first that putting more resist- source.
ance into a circuit lowers the equivalent resist-
ance. This feature of parallel circuits is illus-
trated in Fig. 4-6. Note that equal resistances of Reciprocal Resistance Formula. We can de-
30 Q each are added across the source voltage, rive this formula from the fact that IT is the sum
one branch at a time. The circuit in (a) has just of all the branch currents, or,
 Chapter 4
80 Parallel Circuits

Notice that the value for 1 I RT must be inverted

to obtain RT when using Formula (4-3} because
However, IT is VI RT. Also, each I is VI R. Sub- it gives the reciprocal of RT.
stituting VI RT for IT on the left side of the equa-
tion and VI R for each branch I on the right side,
Total-Current Method. Figure 4-7 b shows
the result is
how this same problem can be calculated in
terms of total current instead of by the recipro-
cal formula, if it is easier to work without frac-
tions. Although the applied voltage is not known
always, any convenient value can be assumed
Dividing by V because it is the same across all
because it cancels in the calculations. It is usu-
the resistances
ally simplest to assume an applied voltage of the
same numerical value as the highest resistance.
Then one assumed branch current will auto-
matieally be 1 A and the other branch currents
will be more, eliminating fractions less than 1 in
This reciprocal formula applies to any
the calculations.
number of parallel resistances of any value.
For the example in Fig. 4-7 b, the highest
Using the values in Fig. 4-7 a as an example,
branch R is 20 n. Therefore, assume 20 V for
the applied voltage. Then the branch currents
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 s· are 1 A in R1 , 2 A in R2 , and 2 A in R3 . Their
RT = 20 + 1o + 1o = 20 + 20 + 20 = 20
sum is 1 + 2 + 2 = 5 A for IT. The combined
R _ 20 resistance RT across the main line is ~I IT or
T- 5
20 VIS A = 4 n. This is the same value calcu-
_RT= 4 Q lated with the reciprocal resistance formula.

V;.. = 20 V
R, R,
20 .n 20 .n

..!. = ..!. + _!__ + .!.. VA 20

RT=-=-
RT R1 R2 R3 IT 5
RT= 4 .Q RT= 4 .n
(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-7
Combining parallel resistances using (a) recip-
rocal resistance formula and (b) total line cur-
rent method with an assumed line voltage
of 20 V.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 81

Each R can have any value but there must be

only two resistances. Note that this method
R, gives RT directly, not its reciprocal. If you use
RT= 20 kn
so kn the reciprocal formula for this example, the
answer will be 1 I RT = %4 , which is the same
value as RT equals 24 Q.
R _value of one resistance= 60 kn
T number of resistances 3 Short-Cut Calculations. Figure 4-10 shows
FIGURE 4-8 how these special rules can help in reducing
For equal branch resistances, R divided by the parallel branches to a simpler equivalent circuit.
number of branches is the RT. Here RT is In (a), the 60-Q R1 and R4 are equal and in
60 kS-2/3 = 20 kQ. parallel. Therefore, they are equivalent to the
30-Q R 14 in (b). Similarly, the 20-Q R2 and R3
Special Case of Equal R in All Branches. If R are equivalent to the 10 Q of R23 . The circuit in
is equal in all branches, the combined RT equals (a) is equivalent to the simpler circuit in (b) with
the value of one branch resistance divided by just the two parallel resistances of 30 and 10 Q.
the number of branches. This rule is illustrated Finally, the combined resistance for these
in Fig. 4-8 where three 60-kQ resistances in two equals their product divided by the sum,
parallel equal 20 kQ. which is 300/40 or 7.5 Q, as shown in (c). This
The rule applies to any number of parallel
resistances, but they must all be equal. As an-
value of R; in (c) is equivalent to the combina-
tion of the four branches in (a). If you connect a
other example, five 60-Q resistances in parallel voltage source across either circuit, the genera-
have the combined resistance of 6°/s, or 12 Q. A tor current in the main line will be the same for
common application is two equal resistors wired both cases.
in a parallel bank for RT one-half each R. The order of connections for parallel re-
sistances does not matter in determining RT.
Special Case of Only Two Branches. When
There is no question as to which is first or last
there are two parallel resistances and they are
because they are all across the same voltage
not equal, it is usually quicker to calculate the
source.
combined resistance by the method shown in
Fig. 4-9. This rule says that the combination of
two parallel resistances is their product divided
by their sum.
R,
RT= 24 n 40n
(4-4)

where RT is in the same units as all the individ- R, X R2 2400

ual resistances. For the example in Fig. 4-9, RT = -+R
R = 100
1 2
FIGURE 4-9
R1 x R2 40 x 60 2400
For only two parallel resistances, RT is the
RT = Rl + R2 = 40 + 60 = 100 product divided by the sum. Here RT is
RT= 24 Q 2400/100 = 24 Q.
 Chapter 4
82 Parallel Circuits

R, RT
60.Q 7.5.Q

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4-10
An example of parallel-resistance calculations.
(a) Circuit with four branches. (b) Circuit com-
bined into two branches. (c) Equivalent circuit
reduced to one RT.

Finding an Unknown Branch Resistance. In Practice Problems 44

some cases with two parallel resistors, it is use- (answers on page 90)
ful to be able to determine what size Rx to (a) Find RT for three 4. 7 -MQ resistances in
connect in parallel with a known R in order to parallel.
obtain a required value of RT. Then the factors (b) Find RT for 3 MQ in parallel with 2 MQ.
can be transposed as follows:

4-5
R =Rx RT (4-5) CONDUCTANCES IN PARALLEL
x R - RT
Since conductance G is equal to 1 IR, the re-
ciprocal resistance Formula (4-3) can be stated
Example 5. What Rx in parallel with 40 Q will pro-
vide an RT of 24 Q? for conductance as

R - R x RT - 40 x 24 - 960
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + · · · + etc. (4-6)
Answer.
x - R - RT - 40 - 24 - 16
With R in ohms, G is in siemens units or mhos.
Rx= 60 Q
For the example in Fig. 4-11,
This problem corresponds to the circuit in Fig. 4-9.
GT= 0.05 + 0.2 + 0.5 = 0.75 Sor 0.75 mho
Note that Formula (4-5) for Rx has a prod-
uct over a difference. RT is subtracted because it
is the smallest R. R, R2 R3
20.Q 5.Q 2.Q

Example 6. What R in parallel with 50 kQ will pro- GT= 0.75 mho

or c, G2 G3
vide an RT of 25 kQ? 0.75 s 0.05 mho 0.2 mho 0.5 mho
or or or
0.05 s 0.2 s 0.5 s
Answer. R = 50 kQ
FIGURE 4-11
Two equal resistances in parallel have RT equal to Conductances in parallel are added for the
one-half the R of either one. total GT.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 83

Notice that adding the conductances does not circuit as an example of how to apply the rules
require reciprocals. Actually, each value of G is of current, voltage, and resistance for a parallel
the reciprocal of R. circuit.
Working with G may be more convenient The applied 10 Vis across the 10-Q R1 and
than working with R in parallel circuits since it the 5-Q R2 in Fig. 4-12. The branch current I1
will avoid using the reciprocal formula for RT. then is ~/ R1 or 1o/i 0 , which equals 1 A Simi-
Each branch current is directly proportional to larly I2 is 1%, or 2 A The total IT is
its conductance. This idea corresponds to the 1 + 2 = 3 A If we want to find RT, it equals
fact that in series circuits each voltage drop is VA! IT or 1%, which is 3% Q.
directly proportional to each series resistance. The power dissipated in each branch R is
The reason why parallel conductances are ~ X I. In the R1 branch, I1 is 1o/i 0 = 1 A Then
added directly can be illustrated by assuming a P1 is ~ X I1 or 10 X 1 = 10 W.
1-V source across all the branches. Then calcu- For the R2 branch, I2 is 1% = 2 A Then P2
lating the values of 1 IR for the conductances is is ~ X I2 or 10 X 2 = 20 W.
the same as calculating the branch currents. Adding P1 and P2 , the answer is
These values are added for the total IT or GT. 10 + 20 = 30 W. This PT is the total power
dissipated in both branches.
Practice Problems 4-5 This value of 30 W for PT is also the total
(answers on page 90) power supplied by the voltage source by means
(a) G1 is 2 Sand G2 in parallel is 5 S. Calcu- of its total Hne current IT. With this method, the
late GT. total power is ~ X IT or 10 X 3 = 30 W for PT.
(b) G1 is 0.05 µS, G2 is 0.2 µS, and G3 is The 30 W of power supplied by the voltage
0.5 µS, all in parallel. Find GT and RT. source is dissipated or used up in the branch
resistances.
4-6 Note that in both parallel and series circuits
TOTAL POWER IN PARALLEL the sum of the individual values of power dissi-
CIRCUITS pated in the circuit equals the total power gen-
Since the power dissipated in the branch resist- erated by the source. This can be stated as a
ances must come from the voltage source, the formula
total power equals the sum of the individual
values of power in each branch. This rule is PT= P1 + P2 + P3 + · · · +etc. (4-7)
illustrated in Fig. 4-12. We can also use this
The series or parallel connections can alter
Ir= the distribution of voltage or current, but power
3A is the rate at which energy is supplied. The
VA=-=-
R2 circuit arrangement cannot change the fact that
.n
30W IO;- 5 all the energy in the circuit comes from the
source.
1ow/ \20W
generated used used
FIGURE 4-12 Practice Problems 4-6
The sum of the individual powers P1 and Pz (answers on page 90)
used in each resistance equals the total power (a) Two parallel branches each have 2 A at
PT produced by the source. 120 V. Calculate PT.
 Chapter 4
84 Parallel Circuits

{b) Three parallel branches of 10, 20, and IT is given as 7 A The two branches take
30 Q have 60 V applied. Calculate PT. 2 +4= 6 A The third branch current through
R3 must be 7 - 6 = 1 A for I3 .
Now R3 can be calculated as ~I I3 . This is
4-7 12 o/i = 120 Q for R3 .
ANALYZING PARALLEL CIRCUITS
For many types of problems with parallel cir-
cuits it is useful to remember the following Practice Problems 4-7
points: (answers on page 90)
Refer to Fig. 4-13.
1. When you know the voltage across one {a) How much is Vz across R2 ?
branch, this voltage is across all the {b) Calculate I1 through R1 .
branches. There can be only one voltage
across branch points with the same poten-
tial difference. 4-8
2. If you know IT and one of the branch cur- EFFECT OF AN OPEN BRANCH
rents I1 , you can find I2 by subtracting from IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
IT. Since IT = I1 + I2 , it is also true that An open in any circuit is an infinite resistance
= =
I2 IT - I1 or I1 IT - I2 • that results in no current. However, in parallel
circuits there is a difference between an open in
The circuit in Fig. 4-13 illustrates these the main line and an open in a parallel branch.
points. The problem is to find the applied volt- These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 4-14. In
age ~ and the value of R3 . Of the three branch {a) the open in the main line prevents any elec-
resistances, only R1 and R2 are known. How- tron flow in the line to all the branches. The
ever, since I2 is given as 2 A, the I2 R2 voltage current is zero in every branch, therefore, and
must be 2 X 60 = 120 V. none of the bulbs can light.
Although the applied voltage is not given, However, in Fig. 4-14b the open is in the
this must also be 120 V. The voltage across all branch circuit for bulb 1. The open branch
the parallel branches is the same 120 V that is circuit has no current, then, and this bulb can-
across the R2 branch. not light. The current in all the other parallel
Now I1 can be calculated as ~I R1 . This is branches is normal, though, because each is
12
%0 = 4 A for I1 . connected to the voltage source. Therefore, the
other bulbs light.
The circuit in Fig. 4-14b applies to televi-
sion receivers with tubes where the heaters are
wired in parallel. If one heater opens, the other
R, tubes will still operate normally. Usually, you
30.Q can see which heater is not red-hot.
These circuits show the advantage of wir-
ing components in parallel. An open in one
FIGURE 4-13 component only opens one branch, while the
Analyzing a parallel circuit. What are the values other parallel branches have their normal volt-
for ~ and R 3 ? See solution in text. age and current.
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 85

0-- x----.,....------.------.
Open in Bulb 3

120-V
main line Bulb 1 Bulb 2 Bulb 3 Bulb 1
~)1/
....
source

Open filament /11\\

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4-14
Open in parallel circuits. (a) Open in main
line-no current and no light in all bulbs.
(b) Open in one branch-bulb 1 is dark, but the
two other bulbs operate normally.

Practice Problems 4-8 more than 100 A instead of the normal line
(answers on page 90) current of 1 A illustrated in Fig. 4-15. This ex-
(a) How much is the R of an open filament or cessive current flows in the voltage source V, in
heater? the line to the short circuit at point a, through
(b) In Fig. 4-14b, if only bulb 3 is open, which the short circuit, and in the line returning to the
bulbs will light? source from b. Because of the large amount of
current, the wires can become hot enough to
4-9 ignite and burn. There should be a fuse that
EFFECT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT would open if there is too much current in the
ACROSS PARALLEL BRANCHES main line because of a short circuit across any
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its of the branches.
effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current.
Consider the example in Fig. 4-15. Suppose the The Short-Circuited Components Have No
conducting wire at point a should accidentally Current. For the short circuit in Fig. 4-15, the I
contact the wire at point b. Since the wire is an is 0 A in the parallel resistors R1 and R2 . The
excellent conductor, the short circuit results in reason is that the short circuit is a parallel path
practically zero resistance from points a to b. with practically zero resistance. Then all the
These two points are connected directly across current flows in this path, bypassing the resis-
the voltage source. With no opposition, the
applied voltage could produce an infinitely high
a
value of current through this current path.

The Short-Circuit Current. Practically, the 10V R, Short

20n circuit
amount of current is limited by the small resist-
ance of the wire. Also, the source usually can-
not maintain its output voltage while supplying b
much more than its rated load current. Still the FIGURE 4-15
amount of current can be dangerously high. For A short circuit across one parallel branch must
instance, the short-circuit current might be short all the branches.
 Chapter 4
86 Parallel Circuits

tors R1 and R2 • Therefore R1 and R2 are short- two, three, or more resistances, or any number
circuited or shorted-out of the circuit. They of parallel components, they would all be
cannot function without their normal current. If shorted out by the short circuit across points a
they were filament resistances of light bulbs or and b. Therefore, a short circuit across one
heaters for tubes, they would not light without branch in a parallel circuit shorts out all the
any current. parallel branches.
The short-circuited components are not This idea also applies to a short circuit
damaged, however. They do not even have any across the voltage source in any type of circuit.
current passing through them. Assuming the Then the entire circuit is shorted out.
short circuit has not damaged the voltage
source and the wiring for the circuit, the com -
ponents can operate again when the circuit is Practice Problems 4-9
restored to normal by removing the short cir- (answers on page 90)
cuit. Refer to Fig. 4-15.
(a) How much is the R of the short circuit
between a and b?
All the Parallel Branches Are Short-Cir- (b) How much is 11 in R1 with the short circuit
cuited. If there were only one R in Fig. 4-15, across R2 ?

Summary
1. There is only one voltage ~ across all components in parallel.
2. The current in each branch lb equals the voltage~ across the branch
divided by the branch resistance Rb. Or lb = ~I Rb.
3. The total line current equals the sum of all the branch currents. Or
IT = 11 + 12 + 13 + · · · + etc.
4. The equivalent resistance RT of parallel branches is less than the
smallest branch resistance, since all the branches must take more
current from the source than any one branch.
5. For only two parallel resistances of any value, RT = R1 R2 !(R 1 + R2 ).
6. For any number of equal parallel resistances, RT is the value of one
resistance divided by the number of resistances.
7. For the general case of any number of branches, calculate RT as ~I IT
or use the reciprocal resistance formula.
8. For any number of conductances in parallel, their values are added
for GT, in the same way as adding parallel branch currents.
9. The sum of the individual values of power dissipated in parallel
resistances equals the total power produced by the source. Or
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . . + etc.
10. An open in one branch results in no current through that branch, but
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 87

the other branches can have their normal current. However, an open
in the main line results in no current for any of the branches.
11. A short circuit has zero resistance, resulting in excessive current.
When one branch is short-circuited, all the parallel paths are also
short-circuited. The entire current is in the short circuit and bypasses
the short-circuited branches.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. With two resistances connected in parallel: (a) the current through

each must be the same; (b) the voltage across each must be the same;
(c) their combined resistance equals the sum of the individual values;
( d) each must have the same resistance value.
2. With 100 V applied across ten 50-Q resistances in parallel, the
current through each resistance equals (a) 2 A; (b) 10 A; (c) 50 A;
(d) 100 A. .
3. With three 1-kQ resistances connected in parallel, their combined
equivalent resistance equals (a) %kQ; (b) 1 kQ; (c) 2 kQ; (d) 3 kQ.
4. A 1-Q resistance in parallel with a 2-Q resistance provides a com-
bined equivalent resistance of (a) 3 Q; (b) 1 Q; (c) 2 Q; (d) %Q.
5. With resistances of 100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 Qin parallel, RT is
(a) less than 100 Q; (b) more than 1 MQ; (c) about 500 Q; (d) about
1 kQ.
6. With two resistances connected in parallel, if each dissipates 10 W,
the total power supplied by the voltage source equals (a) 5 W;
(b) 10 W; (c) 20 W; (d) 100 W.
7. With eight 10-MQ resistances connected in parallel across a 10-V
source, the main-line current equals (a) 0.1 µA; (b) 1/s µA; (c) 8 µA;
(d) 10 µA.
8. A parallel circuit with 20 V applied across two branches has a total
line current of 5 A. One branch resistance equals 5 Q. The other
branch resistance equals (a) 5 Q; (b) 20 Q; (c) 25 Q; (d) 100 Q.
9. Three 100-W light bulbs are connected in parallel across the 120-V
power line. If one bulb opens, how many bulbs can light? (a) None;
(b) one; (c) two; (d) all.
10. If a parallel circuit is open in the main line, the current (a) increases
in each branch; (b) is zero in all the branches; (c) is zero only in the
branch that has highest resistance; (d) increases in the branch that
has lowest resistance.
 Chapter 4
88 Parallel Circuits

Essay Questions
1. Draw a wiring diagram showing three resistances connected in
parallel across a battery. Indicate each branch and the main line.
2. State two rules for the voltage and current values in a parallel circuit.
3. Explain briefly why the current is the same in both sides of the main
line that connects the voltage source to the parallel branches.
4. (a} Show how to connect three equal resistances for a combined
equivalent resistance one-third of the value of one resistance.
(b} Show how to connect three equal resistances for a combined
equivalent resistance three times the value of one resistance.
5. Why can the current in parallel branches be different when they all
have the same applied voltage?
6. Why does the current increase in the voltage source as more parallel
branches are added to the circuit?
7. Show the algebra for deriving the formula RT= RIR2 !(RI + R2 }
from the reciprocal formula for two resistances.
8. Draw the circuit of five heaters for vacuum tubes wired in parallel
across a 6.3-V ac source.
9. State briefly why the total power equals the sum of the individual
values of power, whether a series circuit or parallel circuit is used.
10. Explain why an open in the main line disables all the branches, but an
open in one branch affects only that branch current.
11. Give two differences between an open circuit and a short circuit.
12. List as many differences as you can in comparing series circuits with
parallel circuits.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A 15-Q RI and a 45-Q R2 are connected in parallel across a 45-V

battery. (a} Draw the schematic diagram. (b} How much is the voltage
across RI and R2 ? (c} How much is the current in RI and R2 ? (d} How
much is the main-line current? (e} Calculate RT.
2. For the circuit in question 1, how much is the total power supplied by
the battery?
3. A parallel circuit has three branch resistances of 20, 10, and 5 Q for
RI, R2 , and R3 . The current through the 20-Q branch is 1 A (a} Draw
the schematic diagram. (b} How much is the voltage applied across
all the branches? (c} Find the current through the 10-Q branch and
the 5-Q branch.
4. (a} Draw the schematic diagram of a parallel circuit with three branch
 Chapter 4
Parallel Circuits 89

resistances, each having 10 V applied and a 2-A branch current.

(b) How much is IT? (c) How much is RT?
5. Referring to Fig. 4-12, assume that R2 opens. (a) How much is the
current in the R2 branch? (b) How much is the current in the R1
branch? (c) How much is the line current? (d) How much is the total
resistance of the circuit? (e) How much power is generated by the
battery?
6. Two resistances R1 and R2 are in parallel across a 100-V source. The
total line current is 10 A. The current I1 through R1 is 4 A. Draw a
schematic diagram of the circuit, giving the values of currents I 1 and
I2 and resistances R1 and R2 in both branches. How much is the
combined equivalent resistance of both branches across the voltage
source?
7. Find the RT for the following groups of branch resistances: (a) 10 g
and 29 g; (b) five 10-kg resistances; (c) two 500-g resistances;
(d) 100 g, 200 g, and 300 g; (e) two 5-kg and two 2-kg resistances;
( f) four 40-kg and two 20-kg resistances.
8. How much parallel Rx must be connected across a 100-kg resistance
to reduce RT to (a) 50 kg; (b) 25 kg; (c) 10 kg?
9. Find the total conductance in siemens for the following branches:
G1 = 9000 µS; G2 = 7000 µS; G3 = 22,000 µS.
10. Referring to Fig. 4-11, calculate RT by combining resistances. Show
that this RT equals 1 !GT, where GT is 0.75 S.
11. Find R3 in Fig. 4-16.
12. In Fig. 4-17: (a) find each branch current and show the direction of
electron flow; (b) calculate IT; (c) calculate RT; (d) calculate P1 , P2 , P3 ,
and PT.

RT =400 .Q R1 R3=?
2k.Q

FIGURE 4-16
For Prob. 11.

R1
4.7k.Q

FIGURE 4-17
For Prob. 12.
 Chapter 4
90 Parallel Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

4-1 (a) 1.5 V 4-5 (b) GT= 0.75 µS or 0.75 µmho and
(b) 120 v RT= 1.33 MQ
4-2 (a) lOV 4-6 (a) 480 W
(b) 1A (b) 660 w
(c) lOV 4-7 (a) 120 V
(d) 2A (b) /1 = 4 A
4-3 (a) IT= 6 A 4-8 (a) Infinite ohms
(b) 13 = 3 A (b) Bulbs 1 and 2
4-4 (a) RT= 1.57 MQ 4-9 (a) 0 Q
(b) RT= 1.2 MQ (b) 11 = 0 A
4-5 (a) GT = 7 S or 7 mhos
 Sedes~
Parallel
arcults
In many circuits, some components are connected in series to have the
same current, while others are in parallel for the same voltage. Figure 5-1
shows an example. Such a circuit is used where it is necessary to provide
different amounts of current and voltage with one source of applied
voltage. The main features of series-parallel circuits are explained in the
following topics:

5-1 Finding RT for Series-Parallel Resistances

5-2 Resistance Strings in Parallel
5-3 Resistance Banks in Series
5-4 Resistance Banks and Strings in Series-Parallel
5-5 Analyzing Series-Parallel Circuits
5-6 Wheatstone Bridge
5-7 Chassis-Ground Connections
5-8 Voltages Measured to Chassis Ground
5-9 Opens and Shorts in Series-Parallel Circuits

5..1 In Fig. 5-lc, the 0.5-kO R1 and 0.5-kO R2

FINDING RT FOR in series total 1 kO for R1 _2 . Also, the 1-kO R3 in
SERIES-PARALLEL parallel with the 1-kO R4 can be combined for
RESISTANCES an equivalent resistance of 0 .5 kO for R3 _4 , as
In Fig. 5-1, R1 is in series with R2 . Also, R3 is in shown in Fig. 5-ld.
parallel with R4 . However, R2 is not in series This parallel R3 _4 combination of 0 .5 kO is
with R3 or R4 • The reason is the branch point A then added to the series R1 _2 combination of 1
where the currentthrough R2 divides for R3 and kO, for the final RT value of 1.5 kO.
R4. As a result, the current through R3 must be With RT known, we can find IT in the main
[Link] than the current through R2 • Therefore, R2 line produced by the 1.5 ·V source VT. Then IT is
and R3 cannot be in series because they do not VT/RT or 1.5 V/1.5 kO = 1 mA. This 1-mA /pis
have the same current. For the same reason, R4 the current through R1 and R2 •
also cannot be in series with R2 • At branch point A, the 1-mA IT divides into
To find RT, we add the series resistances the two branch currents of 0.5 mA each for R3
and combine the parallel resistances. and R4 • At branch point B, the two 0.5-mA
 Chapter 5
92 Series-Parallel Circuits

(a) (b)

R,_2 R,_2
A A

1 ld1

R3-4
500.Q

B B
(c) (d)
FIGURE 5-1
Series-parallel circuit. (a) Photograph of wiring.
(b) Schematic diagram. (c) R 1 and R2 in series
added for R1 _ 2 . (d) R3 and R4 in parallel com-
bined as R3 _4 .

branch currents combine to equal the 1-mA IT 5-2

in the main line, returning to the source VT. RESISTANCE STRINGS IN
PARALLEL
Practice Problems 5-1 More details about the voltages and currents in
(answers on page 112) a series-parallel circuit are illustrated by the
Refer to Fig. 5-1. example in Fig. 5-2. Suppose there are four
(a) Calculate the series R of R1 and R2 . 120-V 100-W light bulbs to be wired, with a
(b) Calculate the parallel R of R3 and R4 . voltage source that produces 240 V. Each bulb
(c) Calculate RT across the source VT. needs 120 V for normal brilliance. If the bulbs
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 93

Ra
V3 = 120 V
VA = 240 V VA= 240 V

String 1 String 2 String 1 String 2

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-2
Two identical series strings iri parallel. All bulbs
have a 120-V 100-W rating. (a) Wiring dia-
gram. (b) Schematic diagram.

were connected across the source, each would Branch Currents 11 and 12 • Each branch cur-
have the applied voltage of 240 V, causing ex- rent equals the voltage applied across the
cessive current in all the bulbs that could result branch divided by the total .resistance in the
in burned-out filaments. branch. In branch 1, R1 and R2 total 12 Q. With
If the four bulbs were connected in series, 12 V applied, this branch current I 1 is
12/i = 1 A. Branch 2 has only the 6-Q R . Then
each would have a potential difference of 60 V, 2 3
equal to one-fourth the applied voltage. With I2 in this branch is 1% = 2 A.
too low a voltage, there would be insufficient
current for normal operation and the bulbs
Series Voltage Drops in a Branch. For any
would not operate at normal brilliance. one resistance in a string, the current in the
However, two bulbs in series across the
string multiplied by the resistance equals the IR
240-V line provide 120 V for each filament,
voltage drop across that particular resistance.
which is the normal operating voltage. There-
Also, the sum of the series IR drops in the string
fore, the four bulbs are wired in strings of two in
equals the voltage across the entire string.
series, with the two strings in parallel across the
In string 1, the I 1 R1 drop equals 8 V, while
240-V source. Both strings have 240 V applied.
the I1 R2 drop is 4 V. These drops of 8 and 4 V
In each string two series bulbs divide the applied
add to equal the 12 V applied. The voltage
voltage equally to provide the required 120 V
across the R3 branch is also 12 V.
for the filaments.
Another example is illustrated in Fig. 5-3.
This circuit has just two parallel branches where Calculating IT. The total line current equals
one branch includes R1 in series with R2 • The the sum of the branch currents for all the paral-
other branch has just the one resistance R3 . lel strings. Here IT is 3 A, equal to the sum of
Ohm's law can be applied to each branch. 1 A in branch 1 and 2 A in branch 2.
 Chapter 5
94 Series-Parallel Circuits

Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 1 Branch 2

,...... +I1 =1 A +I2 = 2 A ,..+ +I 1 =1 A +: I -2 A

2 -
f IT= {IT=
I 3A R,
I
3A
an
v R3 R,_2 R3
12 12 v
+ GU + 12 n GU
R2
4U

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-3
Series string in parallel with another branch.
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent circuit.

Calculating RT. The resistance of the total 5-3

series-parallel circuit across the voltage source RESISTANCE BANKS IN SERIES
equals the applied voltage divided by the total In Fig. 5-4a, the group of parallel resistances R 2
line current. In Fig. 5-3, RT equals 12 V/3 A, or and R3 is a bank. This is in series with RI be-
4 Q. This resistance can also be calculated as cause the total current of the bank must go
12 Q in parallel with 6 Q, equivalent to one through RI.
combined resistance of 72fi 8 = 4 Q, for the The circuit here has R 2 and R 3 in parallel
product over the sum. in one bank so that these two resistances will
have the same potential difference of 20 V
across them. The source applies 24 V, but there
is a 4-V drop across RI.
Applying Ohm's Law. There can be any
The two series voltage drops of 4 V across
number of parallel strings and more than two
RI and 20 V across the bank add to equal the
series resistances in a string. Still, Ohm's law
applied voltage of 24 V. The purpose of a circuit
can be used in the same way for the series and ·
like this is to provide the same voltage for two
parallel parts of the circuit. The series parts
or more resistances in a bank, where the bank
have the same current. The parallel parts have
voltage must be less than the applied voltage by
the same voltage. Remember that for VI R the R
the amount of IR drop across any series resist-
must include all the resistance across the two
ance.
terminals of V.
To find the resistance of the entire circuit,
combine the parallel resistances in each bank
and add the series resistance. As shown in
Practice Problems 5-2 Fig. 5-4b, the two 10-Q resistances R 2 and R 3 in
(answers on page 112) parallel are equivalent to 5 Q. Since the bank
·Refer to Fig. 5-3a. resistance of 5 Q is in series with l Q for RI, the
(a) If I in R2 were 6 A, what would I in RI be? total resistance is 6 Q across the 24-V source.
(b) If the source voltage were 72 V, what Therefore, the main-line current is 24 V/6 Q,
would \,j be across R3 ? which equals 4 A
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 95

Parallel bank
R2
10 n.

.....
,
l /1 =2 A

VT= 24 V R, VT= 24 V
1 n.
+ +

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-4
Parallel bank of R2 and R3 in series with R1 .
(a) Schematic diagram. (b) Equivalent circuit.

The total line current of 4 A divides into 5-4

two parts of 2 A each in the parallel resistances RESISTANCE BANKS AND
R2 and R3 . Note that each branch current STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
equals the bank voltage divided by the branch In the solution of such circuits, the most impor-
resistance. For this bank, 20/i. 0 = 2 A for each tant fact to know is which components are in
branch. series with each other and what parts of the
The branch currents are combined in the circuit are parallel branches. The series compo-
line to provide the total 4 A in R1 . This is the nents must be in one current path without any
same total current flowing in the main line, in branch points. A branch point such as point A
the source, into the bank, and out of the bank. or B in Fig. 5-5 is common to two or more
There can be more than two parallel re- current paths. For instance, R1 and R6 are not
sistances in a bank and any number of banks in in series with each other. They do not have the
series. Still, Ohm's law can be applied the same same current, because the current in R1 divides
way to the series and parallel parts of the circuit. at point A into its two component branch cur-
The general procedure for circuits of this type is rents. Similarly, R5 is not in series with R2 ,
to find the equivalent resistance of each bank because of the branch point B.
and then add all the series resistances. To find the currents and voltages in
Fig. 5-5, first find RT in order to calculate the
Practice Problems 5-3 main-line current IT as VT! RT. In calculating RT,
(answers on page 112) start reducing the branch farthest from the
Refer to Fig. 5-4a. source and work toward the applied voltage.
(a) \'z across R2 were 40 V, what would \'3
If The reason for following this order is that you
across R3 be? cannot tell how much resistance is in series with
(b) If I in R2 were 4 A, with 4 A in R3 , what R1 and R2 until the parallel branches are re-
would I in R1 be? duced to their equivalent resistance. If no
 Chapter 5
96 Series-Parallel Circuits

VT= R4 VT= R5 R1
100 v 12 n 100 v 10.n 6.Q

R2
30.Q

(a) (b)

R, R,
15.Q 15.Q

~A
A ,.. -+
v l IT= 2 A
VT=
100 v

R2
30.Q
B
R5
10.n
R,3
10.n
[Link]
VT= R,a VT=
100V
+
RT
son

R2
30.Q

(c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 5-5
Reducing a series-parallel circuit to an equiva-
lent series circuit to find the RT. (a) Actual
circuit. (b) R3 and R4 in parallel equal R7 • (c) R7
and R6 in series equal R13 . (d) R13 and R5 in
parallel equal R18 . ( e) R18 , R1, and R2 in series
are added for the total circuit resistance of
son.
source voltage is shown, RT can still be calcu- R5, across the branch points A and B.
lated from the outside in toward the open ter- Their equivalent resistance then is the 5-n
minals where a source would be connected. R18 in (d).
To calculate RT in Fig. 5-5, the steps are as 4. Now the circuit in (d) has just the 15-Q R1 ,
follows: 5-n R18 , and 30-n R2 in series. These re-
sistances total 50 n for RT, as shown in (e).
1. The bank of the 12-n R3 and 12-n R4 in 5. With a 50-n RT across the 100-V source,
parallel in (a) is equal to the 6-n R7 in (b). the line current IT is 10%0 = 2 A.
2. The 6-Q R7 and 4-n R6 in series in the
same current path total 10 n for R 13 in (c). To see the individual currents and voltages, we
3. The 10-n R 13 is in parallel with the 10-n can use the IT of 2 A for the equivalent circuit in
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 97

(d). Now we work from the source V out toward 5-5

the branches. The reason is that IT can be used ANALYZING SERIES-PARALLEL
to find the voltage drops in the main line. The CIRCUITS
IR voltage drops here are: The circuits in Figs. 5-6 to 5-9 will be solved
now. The following principles are illustrated:
Vi = ITRI = 2 x 15 = 30 v
\'is = ITR18 = 2 X 5 = 10 V 1. With parallel strings across the main line,
Vz = ITR2 = 2 x 30 = 60 v
the branch currents and IT can be found
without RT (see Figs. 5-6 and 5-7).
The 10-V drop across R18 is actually the
2. When parallel strings have series resist-
potential difference between branch points A
ance in the main line, RT must be calcu-
and B. This means 10 V across Rs and R13 in
(c). The 10 V produces 1 A in the 10-Q Rs lated to find IT, assuming no branch cur-
rents are known (see Fig. 5-9).
branch. The same 10 V is also across the R 13
branch. 3. The source voltage is applied across the RT
Remember that the R 13 branch is actually of the entire circuit, producing an IT that
flows only in the main line.
the string of R6 in series with the R3 R4 bank.
4. Any individual series R has its own IR drop
Since this branch resistance is 10 Q, with 10 V
that must be less that the total VT. In addi-
across it, the branch current here is 1 A. The
tion, any individual branch current must be
1 A through the 4 Q of R6 produces a voltage
less than IT.
drop of 4 V. The remaining 6-V IR drop is
across the R 3 R4 bank. With 6 Vacross the 12-Q
R3 , its current is 1/z A; the current is also 1/z A in Solution for Fig. 5-6. The problem here is to
R4. calculate the branch currents I 1 and I2 _3 , total
Tracing all the current paths from the line current IT, and the voltage drops \'i, Vz, \'3.
source, the main-line current through R1 is 2 A. This order will be used for the calculations,
At the branch point A, this current divides into because we can find the branch currents from
1 A for Rs and 1 A for the string with R 6 • There the 90 V across the known branch resistances.
is a 1-A branch current in R6 , but it subdivides
in the bank with Yz A in R 3 and 1/z A in R4 . At the
branch point B, the total bank current of 1 A ,...... I 11 I
combines with the 1 A through the Rs branch, /2-3+
resulting in a 2-A total line current through R2 ,
: Ir
+ R2 V2
the same as through R1 in the opposite side of 20 .n
the line. VA= 90 V v, R,
30 .n
+
R3
Practice Problems 5-4 25 .n
V3
(answers on page 112)
Refer to Fig. 5-Sa.
(a} Which R is in series with R2 ? FIGURE 5-6
(b} Which R is in parallel with R3 ? Find all the currents and voltages. See text for
(c} Which R is in series with the R3 R4 bank? solution by calculating the branch currents first.
 Chapter 5
98 Series-Parallel Circuits

In the 30-Q branch of R1 , the branch cur- age. Therefore, ~equals the sum of 30 + 60,
rent is 9 %0 = 3 A for I1 . The other branch re- or 90 V. This 90 V is also across the other
sistance, with a 20-Q R2 and a 25-Q R3 , totals branch combining R3 and R4 in series.
45 Q. This branch current then is 9 %5 = 2 A for The other branch current I2 in Fig. 5-7
I2 _ 3 • In the main line, IT is 3 + 2, which equals must be 4 A, equal to the 7-A IT minus the 3-A
5A I1 . With 4 A for I2 , the voltage drop across the
For the branch voltages, Vi must be the 12-Q R3 equals 48 V for \,j. Then the voltage
same as ~' equal to 90 V. Or Vi = I1 R1 , which across R4 is 90 - 48, or 42 V for \'4, as the sum
is 3 X 30 = 90 V. of \'3 and \'4 must equal the applied 90 V.
In the other branch, the 2-A I2 _3 flows Finally, with 42 V across R4 and 4 A
through the 20-Q R2 and the 25-Q R3 . There- through it, this resistance equals 4 %, or 10.5 Q.
fore, \'2 is 2 X 20 = 40 V. Also, \'3 is Note that 10.5 Q for R4 added to the 12 Q of R3
2 X 25 = 50 V. Note that these 40-V and 50-V equals 22.5 Q, which allows 9 %2 .5 or a 4-A
series IR drops in one branch add to equal the branch current for I2 .
90-V source.
If we want to know RT, it can be calculated Solution for Fig. 5-8. The division of branch
as ~!IT. Then 90 V/5 A equals 18 Q. Or RT currents also applies to Fig. 5-8, but the main
can be calculated by combining the branch re- principle here is that the voltage must be the
sistances of 30 Qin parallel with 45 Q. Then RT same across R1 and R2 in parallel. For the
is (30 X 45)/(30 + 45). This answer is 135%5 , branch currents, I2 is 2 A, equal to the 6-A IT
which equals the same value of 18 Q for RT. minus the 4-A I 1 . The voltage across the 10-Q
R1 is 4 X 10, or 40 V. This same voltage is also
Solution for Fig. 5-7. To find the applied volt- across R2 • With 40 Vacross R2 and 2 A through
age first, the I1 branch current is given. This 3-A it, R2 equals 4% or 20 Q.
current through the 10-Q R1 produces a 30-V If we want to find VT in Fig. 5-8, it can be
drop Vi across R1 . The same 3-A current calculated as 100 V. The 6-A IT through R3
through the 20-Q R2 produces 60 V for \'2 produces a voltage drop of 60 V for \,j. Also,
across R2 • The 30-V and 60-V drops are in the voltage across the parallel bank with R1 and
series with each other across the applied volt-

,. .+
: Ir= 7 A
.v1
I
=3A
I

+.1i
R,
10.Q
R, R3
10.Q 12 n
VA=?
+ R4 =?
R2
20.Q V4 =?
R 2 ="'>•

tlr
,,.. __= 6 A
FIGURE 5-7 +
Find the applied voltage ~, \{, and R4 . See
text for solution by calculating 12 and the branch FIGURE 5-8
voltage. Find R2 and 12 . See text for solution.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 99

R2 has been calculated as 40 V. This 40 V \..'s and \'6 happen to be equal at 40 Veach.
across the bank in series with 60 V across R3 They split the 80 Vin half because the 10-Q R6
totals 100 V for the applied voltage. equals the combined resistance of 10 Q be-
tween points a and b.
Solution for Ag. 5-9. In order to find all the With \..'s known to be 40 V, then Is through
current and voltage drops, we need RT to cal- the 20-Q Rs is 4 %0 = 2 A Since Is is 2 A and IT
culate IT through R6 in the main line. Combining is 4 A, I4 must be 2 A also, equal to the differ-
resistances for RT, we start with R1 and R2 and ence between IT and Is. At the branch point a,
work in toward the source. Add the 8-Q R 1 and the 4-A IT divides into 2 A through Rs and 2 A
8-Q R2 in series with each other for 16 Q. This through R4 .
16 Q combined with the 16-Q R3 in parallel The 2-A I4 through the 12-Q R4 produces
equals 8 Q between points c and d. Add this 8 Q an IR drop equal to 2 X 12 = 24 V for \{. It
to the series 12-Q R4 for 20 Q. This 20 Q com- should be noted now that \{ and \'3 must add to
bined with the parallel 20-Q Rs equals 10 Q equal \..'s. The reason is that both \..'s and the
between points a and b. Add this 10 Q in series path with \{ and \'3 are across the same two
with the 10-Q R6 , to make RT of 20 Q for the points ab or ad. Since the potential difference
entire series-parallel circuit. across any two points is the same regardless of
IT in the main line is VT! RT, or 8°/z 0 , which the paths, \..'s = \{ + \'3. To find \'3 now, we can
equals 4 A This 4-A IT flows through the 10-Q subtract the 24 V of \{ from the 40 V of \..'s.
R6 , producing a 40-V IR drop for \'6. Then 40 - 24 = 16 V for \'3.
Now that we know IT and \'6 in the main With 16 V for \'3 across the 16-Q R3 , its
line, we use these values to calculate all the current I3 is 1 A Also I1 _2 in the branch with R1
other voltages and currents. Start from the main and R2 is equal to 1 A The 2-A I4 into branch
line, where we know the current, and work point c divides into the two equal branch cur-
outward from the source. To find \.'s, the IR rents of 1 A each because of the equal branch
drop of 40 V for \'6 in the main line is subtracted resistances.
from the source voltage. The reason is that \.'s Finally, with 1 A through the 8-Q R2 and
and \'6 must add to equal the 80 V of VT. Then 8-Q R 1 , their voltage drops are \..'z = 8 V and
\.'s is 80 - 40 = 40 V. \..'i = 8 V. Note that the 8 V of \..'i in series with

R 6 = 10 n a c
.. -+
(IT
I

VT= 80 V R,
an
+

b d
FIGURE 5-9
Find all currents and voltages. See text for
solution in which RT and then IT are calculated
to find \.'6 first.
 Chapter 5
100 Series-Parallel Circuits

the 8 V of \'2 add to equal the 16-V potential the input. In Fig. 5-10 the input terminals are C
difference \'3 between points c and d. and D, while the output terminals are A and B.
All the answers for the solution of Fig. 5-9 The bridge circuit has many uses for com -
are summarized below: parison measurements. In the Wheatstone
bridge, an unknown resistance Rx is balanced
RT= 20 0 IT= 4 A ~ =40V against a standard accurate resistor Rs for pre-
Vs = 40 v 15 = 2 A /4= 2A cise measurement of resistance.
\'4 = 24 v \'3 = 16 v 13 = 1 A In Fig. 5-10, S 1 applies battery voltage to
11-2 = 1A \'2 =8V Vi = 8 v the four resistors in the bridge. To balance the
bridge, the value of Rs is varied. Balance is
indicated by zero current in the galvanometer
Practice Problems 5-5 G. S2 is a spring switch that is closed just to
(answers on page 112) check the meter reading.
(a) In Fig. 5-6, which R is in series with R 2 ? The reason for zero current in the meter
(b) In Fig. 5-6, which R is across ~? can be seen by analysis of the voltage drops
(c) In Fig. 5-7, how much is 12 ? across the resistors. Rs in series with Rx forms a
(d) In Fig. 5-8, how much is \tj? voltage divider across VT; the parallel string of
R1 in series with R2 is also a voltage divider
across the same source. When the voltage divi-
5-6 sion is in the same ratio for both strings, the
WHEATSTONE 1 BRIDGE voltage drop across Rs equals the voltage
A bridge circuit has four terminals, two for input across R2 • Also, the voltage across Rx then
voltage and two for output. The purpose is to equals the voltage across R1 . In this case, points
have a circuit where the voltage drops can be A and B must be at the same potential. The
balanced to provide zero voltage across the difference of potential across the meter then
output terminals, with voltage applied across must be zero, and there is no deflection.
At balance, the equal voltage ratios in the
1
Sir Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), English two branches of the Wheatstone bridge can be
physicist and inventor. stated as

Unknown resistor
Rx

VT= 1.5 V Ratio arm

R1
Standard resistor R2
Rs

D
FIGURE 5-10
Wheatstone-bridge circuit.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 101

metal chassis, which is used as a common re-

or turn for connections to the source. With printed
wiring on a plastic board instead of a metal
Note that IA and ls cancel. Now, inverting Rs to chassis, a conducting path around the entire
the right side of the equation, board is used as a common return for chassis
ground. The chassis ground may or may not be
connected to earth ground. In either case the
(5-1) grounded side is called the "cold side" or "low
side" of the applied voltage, while the un-
Usually, the total resistance of R1 and R2 is grounded side is the "hot side" or "high side."
fixed, but any desired ratio can be chosen by
moving point B on the ratio arm. The bridge is
balanced by varying Rs for zero current in the Grounding One Side of the Source Voltage.
meter. At balance, then, the value of Rx can be Three examples are shown in Fig. 5-11. In (a)
determined by multiplying Rs by the ratio of one side of the 120-V ac power line is
R1 I R2 • As an example, if the ratio is 1/ioo and Rs grounded. Note the symbol -=- for earth
is 248 Q, the value of Rx equals 248 x 0.01, or ground. This symbol also indicates a chassis
2.48 Q. ground that is connected to one side of the
The balanced bridge circuit can be ana- voltage source. In electronic equipment, black
lyzed as simply two series resistance strings in wire is generally used for chassis ground returns
parallel when the current is zero through the and red wire for the high side of the voltage
meter. Without any current between A and B source. See Table F-1 in Appendix F.
this path is effectively open. When current flows In Fig. 5-llb and c the 12-Vbattery is used
through the meter path, however, the bridge as an example of a voltage source connected to
circuit must be analyzed by Kirchhoff's laws or chassis ground but not to earth. For instance, in
network theorems, as described in Chaps. 8 an automobile one side of the battery is con-
and 9. nected to the metal frame of the car. In (b), the
negative side is grounded, while in (c) the posi-
tive side is grounded. Some people have the
Practice Problems 5-6 idea that ground must always be negative, but
(answers on page 112) this is not necessarily so.
(a) A bridge circuit has how many pairs of The reason for connecting one side of the
terminals? 120-V ac power line to earth ground is to re-
(b) In Fig. 5-10, how much is ~Bat balance? duce the possibility of electric shock. However,
chassis ground in electronic equipment is
5-7 mainly a common-return connection. Where
CHASSIS-GROUND CONNECTIONS the equipment operates from the power line,
In the wiring of practical circuits, one side of the the metal chassis should be at ground potential,
voltage source is usually grounded. For the not connected to the hot side of the ac outlet.
120-V ac power line in residential wiring, the This connection reduces the possibility of elec-
ground is actually earth ground, usually by con- tric shock from the chassis. Also, hum from the
nection to a metal cold-water pipe. For elec- power line is reduced in audio, radio, and tele-
tronic equipment, the ground just indicates a vision equipment.
 Chapter 5
102 Series-Parallel Circuits

Black or red,
high side

i
120 v
Ac
n~
n
12V ~ 12V

White, neutral

Ground ~

(a)
T Ground

(b)
l r l Ground

(c)
FIGURE 5-11
Grounding one side of a voltage source.
(a) The ac power line. (b) Negative side of
battery connected to chassis ground. (c) Pos-
itive side of battery connected to chassis ground.

Practice Problems 5-7 Positive Voltages to Negative Ground. In

(answers on page 112) Fig. 5-12b, the negative side of VT is grounded
(a} In Fig. 5-11 b, give the voltage to ground and the bottom end of R1 is also grounded to
with polarity. complete the circuit. The ground is at point A.
(b} Do the same for Fig. 5-11 c. Note that the individual voltages \'1, Vz, and ~
are still 10 V each. Also the current is still 1 A.
5-8 The direction is also the same, from the nega-
VOLTAGES MEASURED TO tive side of VT, through the metal chassis, to the
CHASSIS GROUND bottom end of R1 . The only effect of the chassis
When a circuit has the chassis as a common ground here is to provide a conducting path
return, we generally measure the voltages with from one side of the source to one side of the
respect to chassis. Let us consider the voltage load.
divider in Fig. 5-12 without any ground in (a}, With the ground in Fig. 5-12b, though, it is
and then analyze the effect of grounding differ- useful to consider the voltages with respect to
ent points on the divider. It is important to chassis ground. In other words, the ground at
realize that this circuit operates the same way point A will now be the reference for all volt-
with or without the ground. The only factor that ages. When a voltage is indicated for only one
changes is the reference point for measuring point in a circuit, generally the other point is
the voltages. assumed to be chassis ground. We must have
In Fig. 5-12a, the three 10-Q resistances two points for a potential difference.
R1 , R2 , and R3 divide the 30-V source equally. Let us consider the voltages at points B, C,
Then each voltage drop is 3% = 10 V for Vi, Vz, and D. The voltage at B to ground is VBA. This
and \'3. The polarity is positive at the top and double subscript notation shows that we meas-
negative at the bottom, the same as VT. ure at B with respect to A. In general. the first
If we want to consider the current, I is letter indicates the point of measurement and
3
%0 = 1 A. Each IR drop is 1 X 10 = 10 Vfor the second letter is the reference point.
Vi, Vz, and \'3. Then VBA is + 10 V. The positive sign is
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 103

D VDA = + 30 V
,-- ,--
~I= 1A ~ /= 1A +
V3 = 10 V

+ +
VT = 30 V VT = 30V

v, = 10 v R,
10 n I
: /= 1 A I/= 1 A
'--+ '-+
(a)
- (b)
-
Vna =+20V
,-- ,-- -
~/= 1 A ~/= 1 A
V 3 = 10 V V3 = 10 V

Vea=+ 10 V Ven= -10 V

+ +
VT= 30V V 2 = 10 V VT= 30V V2 = 10 V

Van= - 20 V

v, = 10 v v, = 10 v
l /= 1 A I /= 1 A
\ . -+
'-+
~--------e VAa = - 10 v Lo---------• VAD = - 30 V

(c) (d)
FIGURE 5-12
Voltages to chassis ground. (a) Voltage divider
without ground. (b) With negative side of
source VT grounded, all voltages are positive to
the chassis ground. ( c) Positive and negative
voltages with respect to the ground at point B.
(d) With positive side of source grounded, all
voltages are negative to chassis ground.
 Chapter 5
104 Series-Parallel Circuits

used here to emphasize the polarity. The value grounded, which is the same as grounding the
of 10 V for VBA• is the same as \.'i across R1 positive side of the source VT. The voltage
because pqjnts' B and .A, are across R1 . How- source here is inverted, compared with (a), as
ever, \.'i' as· the voltage across R1 really cannot the opposite side is grounded. In (d), all the
be given any pola,ritywitpout a reference point. voltages on the divider are negative to ground.
Wb~we consld<i;"the voltage at C, then, Here, Ven = -10 V, while VBD = -20 V and
VcA is +20 V;.J\Jis volh1ge equals \.'i + \'z, con- ~n = -30 V. Any point in the circuit must be
nected with· deries-aiqftrg ·polarities. Also, for more negative than the positive terminal of the
point D at the top, Vn~ is +30 V for source, even when this terminal is grounded.
Vi + \'z + ~·
Positive and Negative Voltages to a Grounded
Practice Problems 5-8
(answers on page 112)
Tap. In Fig. 5-12c point B in the divider is
Refer to Fig. 5-12c and give the voltage
grounded. The purpose is to have the divider
with polarity for
supply negative and positive voltages with re-
(a) A to ground.
spect to chassis ground. The negative voltage
(b) B to ground.
here is ~B' which equals -10 V. This value is
( c) D to ground.
the same 10 V of \.'i, but ~B is the voltage at the
negative end A with respect to the positive end ( d) VnA across VT.
B. The other voltages in the divider are
5-9
VcB = +10 V and VnB = +20 V.
OPENS AND SHORTS IN
We can consider the ground at B as a
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
dividing point for positive and negative voltages.
A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its
For all points toward the positive side of VT, any
effect, therefore, is to allow excessive current.
voltage is positive to ground. Going the other
An open circuit has the opposite effect because
way, at all points toward the negative side of VT,
an open circuit has infinitely high resistance
any voltage is negative to ground.
with practically zero current. Furthermore, in
Negative Voltages to Positive Ground. In series-parallel circuits an open or short circuit in
Fig. 5-12 d, point D at the top of the divider is one path changes the circuit for the other re-

R 1 =10.Q A R 3 = 80 .n R 1 =10.Q
A

Short
VT= 100 V
circuit
S1 closed
....__ _ _ _ _ B

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-13
Effect of a short circuit with series-parallel con-
nections. (a) Normal circuit with S1 open.
(b) Circuit with short between A and B when S 1
is closed. R2 and R3 are short-circuited.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 105

R 3 = 80 .n

100 v Ven= 89 V
+

(a) (b)
FIGURE 5-14
Effect of an open in a series-parallel circuit.
(a) Normal circuit with S 2 closed. (b) Series
circuit with R1 and R2 when S 2 is open. R3 in
the open path has no current and zero IR
voltage drop.

sistances. For example, in Fig. 5-13, the se- with R2 is also short-circuited. The closed switch
ries-parallel circuit in (a) becomes a series cir- short-circuits everything connected between
cuit with only RI when there is a short circuit terminals A and B. The result is the series cir-
between terminals A and B. As an example of cuit shown in Fig. 5-13b.
an open circuit, the series-parallel circuit in Now the 10-Q RI is the only opposition to
Fig. 5- l 4a becomes a series circuit with just RI current. I equals VI RI' which is 100/io = 10 A.
and R2 when there is an open circuit between This 10 A flows through RI, the closed switch,
terminals C and D. and the source. With 10 A through RI, instead
of its normal 2 A, the excessive current can
Effect of a Short Circuit. We can solve the cause excessive heat in RI. There is no current
series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-13a in order to through R2 and R3 , as they are short-circuited.
see the effect of the short circuit. For the normal out of the path for current.
circuit, with SI open, R2 and R3 are in parallel.
Although R3 is drawn horizontally, both ends Effect of an Open Circuit. Figure 5-l 4a shows
are across R2 • The switch SI has no effect as a the same series-parallel circuit as Fig. 5-.13a,
parallel branch here because it is open. except that switch 5 2 is used now to connect R3
The combined resistance of the 80-Q R2 in in parallel with R2 . With 5 2 closed for normal
parallel with the 80-Q R3 is equivalent to 40 Q. operation, all currents and voltages have the
This 40 Q for the bank resistance is in series values calculated for the series-parallel circuit.
with the 10-Q RI. Then RT is 40 + 10 = 50 n. However, let us consider the effect of opening
In the main line IT is 10%0 = 2 A. Then \1i 5 2 , as shown in Fig. 5-140. An open switch has
across the 10-Q RI in the main line is infinitely high resistahte':· Now there is an open
2 X 10 = 20 V The remaining 80 V is across between terminals C and D. Furthermore, be-
R2 and R3 as a parallel bank. As a result, cause R3 is in the operi;path its 80 Q cannot be
\'2 = 80 V and \'3 = 80 V considered in parallel with R2 ~ ·
Now consider the effect of closing switch The circuit with 5 2 open in Fig. 5-14b is
SI. A closed switch has zero resistance. Not really the same as having just RI and R2 in
only is R2 short-circuited, but R3 in the bank series with the 100-V source. The open path
 Cha ter 5
106 Series-Parallel Circuits

with R3 has no effect as a parallel branch. The terminals C and D is the same 89 V as the
reason is that no current flows through R3 . potential difference Vz across R2 . Since there is
We can consider R1 and R2 in series as no voltage drop across R3 , terminal C has the
a voltage divider, where each IR drop is pro- same potential as the top terminal of R2 . Termi-
portional to its resistance. The total series nal Dis directly connected to the bottom end of
R is 80 + 10 = 90 Q. The 10-Q R1 is 1%0 R2 . Therefore, the potential difference from C
or % of the total R and the applied VT. to D is the 89 V across R2 .
Then Vi is % X 100 V = 11 V and Vz is
% X 100 V = 89 V, approximately. The 11-V Practice Problems 5-9
drop for \1i and 89-V drop for Vz add to equal (answers on page 112)
the 100 V of the applied voltage. (a) In Fig. 5-13, the short circuit increases IT
Note that Vj is zero. Without any current from 2 A to what value?
through R3 , it cannot have any voltage drop. (b) In Fig. 5-14, the open branch reduces IT
Furthermore, the voltage across the open from 2 A to what value?

Summary
1. Table 5-1 summarizes the main characteristics of series and parallel
circuits. In circuits combining series and parallel connections, the
components in one current path without any branch points are in
series; the parts of the circuit connected across the same two branch
points are in parallel.
2. To calculate RT in a series-parallel circuit with R in the main line,
combine resistances from the outside back toward the source.
3. Chassis ground is commonly used as a return connection to one side
of the source voltage. Voltages measured to chassis ground can have
either negative or positive polarity.
4. When the potential is the same at the two ends of a resistance, its
voltage is zero. Or if no current flows through a resistance, it cannot
have any IR voltage drop.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-1 b: (a) R1 is in series with R 3 ;

(b) R2 is in series with R3 ; (c) R4 is in parallel with R3 ; (d) R1 is in
parallel with R3 .
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 107

TABLE 5-1. Comparison of Series and

Parallel Circuits
SERIES CIRCUIT PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Current the same in Voltage the same

all components across all branches
V across each series I in each branch R
R is Ix R is V!R
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 IT = Il + I2 + I3
+ . · · +etc. + · .. + etc.
RT = R1 + Rz + R3 GT = G1 + G2 + G3
+ ... + etc. + · · · + etc.
RT must 1 be more than RT must be less than
the largest the smallest
individual R branch R
p T = pl + P2 + P3 PT = pl + P2 + P3
+ ... + etc. + ... + etc.
Applied voltage is Main -line current is
divided into divided into branch
IR voltage drops currents
The largest IR drop The largest branch I
is across the is in the smallest
largest series R parallel R
Open in one component Open in one branch
causes entire circuit does not prevent I
to be open in other branches

2. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-2b: (a) R1 is in parallel with R3 ;

(b) R2 is in parallel with R4 ; (c) R1 is in series with R2 ; (d) R2 is in
series with R4 .
3. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-5, the total of all the branch
currents into branch point A and out of branch point B equals
(a) 1lz A; (b) 1 A; (c) 2 A; (d) 4 A.
4. In the circuit in Fig. 5-2 with four 120-V 100-W light bulbs, the
resistance of one bulb equals (a) 72 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 144 Q;
(d) 120 n.
5. In the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 5-4a: (a) R2 is in series with R3 ;
(b) R1 is in series with R3 ; (c) the equivalent resistance of the R2 R3
bank is in parallel with R1 ; ( d) the equivalent resistance of the R2 R3
bank is in series with R1 .
6. In a series circuit with unequal resistances: (a) the lowest R has the
highest V; (b) the highest R has the highest V; (c) the lowest R has the
most I; (d) the highest R has the most I.
 Chapter 5
108 Series-Parallel Circuits

7. In a parallel bank with unequal branch resistances: (a) the current is

highest in the highest R; (b) the current is equal in all the branches;
(c) the voltage is highest across the lowest R; (d) the current is highest
in the lowest R.
8. In Fig. 5-14, with S2 open, RT equals (a) 90 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 50 Q;
(d) 10 Q.
9. In Fig. 5-12c, VDA equals (a) +10 V; (b) -20 V; (c) -30 V;
(d) +30 v.
10. In the Wheatstone bridge of Fig. 5-10, at balance: (a) IA = O;
(b) IB = O; (c) Vz = O; (d) ~B = 0.

Essay Questions
1. In a series-parallel circuit, how can you tell which resistances are in
series with each other and which are in parallel?
2. Draw a schematic diagram showing two resistances in a bank that is
in series with one resistance.
3. Draw a diagram showing how to connect three resistances of equal
value so that the combined resistance will be 11;~ times the resistance
of one unit.
4. Draw a diagram showing two strings in parallel across a voltage
source, where each string has three series resistances.
5. Explain why components are connected in series-parallel, showing a
circuit as an example of your explanation.
6. Give two differences between a short circuit and an open circuit.
7. Explain the difference between voltage division and current division.
8. Show an example where a voltage is negative with respect to chassis
ground.
9. Draw a circuit with nine 40-V 100-W bulbs connected to a 120-V
source.
10. (a) Two iO-Q resistors are in series with a 100-V source. If a third
10-Q R is added in series, explain why I will decrease. (b) The same
two 10-Q resistors are in parallel with the 100-V source. If a third
10-Q R is added in parallel, explain why IT will increase.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. Refer to Fig. 5-1. (a) Calculate the total resistance of the circuit if all
resistances are 10 Q. (b) How much is the main-line current if VT
equals 100 V?
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 109

R2
an
B c
R3
2on Rl R3
an an

R4 A D
2on
R4
an
FIGURE 5-15 FIGURE 5-16
For Prob. 3. For Prob. 5.

2. In Fig. 5-2, calculate the total power supplied by the source for the
four 100-W bulbs.
3. Refer to the diagram in Fig. 5-15. (a) Why is RI in series with R3 but
not with R2 ? (b) Find the total circuit resistance across the battery.
4. Two 60-Q resistances RI and R2 in parallel require 60 V across the
bank with 1 A through each branch. Show how to connect a series
resistance R3 in the main line to drop an applied voltage of 100 V to
60 Vacross the bank. (a) How much is the required voltage across
R 3 ? (b) How much is the required current through R3 ? (c) How much
is the required resistance of R3 ? (d) If R 3 opens, how much is the
voltage across RI and R2 ? (e) If RI opens, what are the voltages
across R2 and R3 ?
5. Refer to the diagram in Fig. 5-16. (a) Cakulate R across points AD.
(b) How much is R across points AD with R4 open?
6. Show how to connect four 100-Q resistances in a series-parallel
circuit with a combined resistance equal to 100 Q. (a) If the combi-
nation is connected across a 100-V source, how much power is
supplied by the source? (b) How much power is dissipated in each
resistance?
7. The following four resistors are in series with a 32-V source: RI is
24 Q, R2 is 8 Q, R3 is 72 Q, and R4 is 240 Q. (a) Find the voltage drop
across each resistor. (b) Calculate the power dissipated in each
resistor. (c) Which resistor has the most voltage drop? (d) Which
resistor dissipates the most power?
8. The same four resistors are in parallel with the 32-V source. (a) Find
the branch current in each resistor. (b) Calculate the power dissi-
pated in each resistor. (c) Which resistor has the most branch
current? (d) Which resistor dissipates the most power?
9. Find RI and R2 for a voltage divider that takes 10 mA from a 200-V
source, with 50 V across R2 .
 Chapter 5
110 Series-Parallel Circuits

R 2 =700n
R1
Rx 1 kn

= 11 v
Rs R2
= 300V R1
15 kn
R3
4kn
R4
1 kn
42n 10 kn

FIGURE 5-17 FIGURE 5-18

For Prob. 11. For Prob. 12.

10. Refer to Fig. 8-2 in Chap. 8. Show the calculations for RT, IT, and
each of the individual voltages and currents.
11. In the Wheatstone-bridge circuit of Fig. 5-17, find each voltage, label
polarity, and calculate Rx. The bridge is balanced.
12. In Fig. 5-18, find each Vand I for the four resistors.
13. In Fig. 5-19, calculate RT.
14. In Fig. 5-20, find \{,.
15. Refer to Fig. 5-21. (a) Calculate Vz. (b) Find Vz when R3 is open.
16. In Fig. 5-22, find I and V for the five resistors and calculate VT.
17. Refer to Fig. 5-23. (a) Find \'1_, Vz, \'3, I1 , I2 , I3 , and IT in the circuit as
shown. (b) Now connect point G to ground. Give the voltages, with
polarity, at terminals A, B, and Cwith respect to ground. In addition,
give the values of I1 , I2 , I3 , and IT with point G grounded.
18. In Fig. 5-24, give the voltages at points A, B, and C with polarity to
ground when (a) point A is grounded; (b) point B is grounded;
(c) point C is grounded.

12 v
------11111--
R,
5n

FIGURE 5-19 FIGURE 5-20

For Prob. 13. For Prob. 14.
 Chapter 5
Series-Parallel Circuits 111

R 1 =2kn

45V

FIGURE 5-21 FIGURE 5-22

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

For Prob. 15. For Prob. 16.

R 1 = 6.8 kn

R 2 = 6.8 kn

A B 48 v B

R, R 3 = 6.8 kn
20kn
+ G
-=- 80 v A

R 4 = 6.8 kn

c
FIGURE 5-23 FIGURE 5-24
For Prob. 1 7. For Prob. 18.
 Cha ter 5
112 Series- Parallel Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

5-1 {a) R = 1 kn 5-5 (c) /2 =4 A
{b) R = a.5 kn (d) \'3 = 6a v
(c) Rr = 1.5 kn 5-6 (a) Two
5-2 (a) I= 6 A (b) av
(b) ~ = 72 v 5-7 (a) +12 V
5-3 (a) \'3 = 4a V (b) -12 v
{b) I= 8 A 5-8 (a) -10 V
5-4 (a) R1 (b) av
(b) R4 (c) +2a v
(c) R6 (d) +3a v
5-5 {a) R3 5-9 (a) I= 10 A
{b) R1 (b) I= 1.1 A
 Review of
Chapters
1tos
Summary
1. The electron is the basic quantity of negative electricity; the proton is
the basic quantity of positive electricity. Both have the same charge
but opposite polarities.
2. A quantity of electrons is a negative charge; a deficiency of electrons
is a positive charge. Like charges repel each other; unlike charges
attract. ·
3. Charge is measured in coulombs; 6.25 X 10 18 electrons equals one
coulomb. Charge in motion is current. One coulomb per second
equals one ampere of current.
4. Potential difference is measured in volts. One volt produces one
ampere of current against the opposition of one ohm of resistance.
=
5. The three forms of Ohm's law are I = VI R, V IR, and R VI I. =
6. Power in watts equals VI, I 2 R, or V2 IR, with V, I, and R in volts,
amperes, and ohms, respectively.
7. The most common multiples and submultiples of the practical units
are mega or M for 106 , micro or µ. for 1o- 6 , kilo or k for 103 , and m illi
or m for 10-3 .
8. For series resistances: (a) the current is the same in all resistances;
(h) the IR drops can be different with unequal resistances; (c) the
applied voltage equals the sum of the series IR drops; (d) the total
resistance equals the sur;fi of the individual resistances; (e) an open
circuit in one resistance results in no current through the entire series
circuit.
9. For parallel resistances: (a) the voltage is the same across all resist-
ances; (h) the branch currents can be different with unequal resist-
ances; (c) the total line current equals the sum of the parallel branch
currents; (d) the combined resistance of parallel branches is less than
the smallest resistance, as determined by the reciprocal Formula
(4-3); (e) an open circuit in one branch does not open the other
114 Review of Chapters 1 to 5

branches; (f) a short circuit across one branch short-circuits all the
branches.
10. In series-parallel circuits, the resistances in one current path without
any branch points are in series; all the rules of series resistances
apply. The resistances across the same two branch points are in
parallel; all the rules of parallel resistances apply.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In which of the following circuits will the voltage source produce the
most current? (a) 10 Vacross a 10-Q resistance; (b) 10 Vacross two
10-Q resistances in series; (c) 10 V across two 10-Q resistances in
parallel; (d) 1000 V across a 1-MQ resistance.
2. Three 120-VlOO-Wbulbs are in parallel across the 120-Vpower line.
If one bulb burns open: (a) the other two bulbs cannot light; (b) all
three bulbs light; (c) the other two bulbs can light; (d) there is
excessive current in the main line.
3. A circuit allows 1 mA of current to flow with 1 V applied. The
conductance of the circuit equals (a) 0.002 Q; (b) 0.005 µS;
(c) 1000 µS; (d) 1 S.
4. If 2 A of current is allowed to accumulate charge for 5 s, the resultant
charge equals (a) 2 C; (b) 10 C; (c) 5 A; (d) 10 A
5. A potential difference applied across a 1-MQ resistor produces 1 mA
of current. The applied voltage equals (a) 1 µV; (b) 1 mV; (c) 1 kV;
(d) 1,000,000 v.
6. A string of two 1000-Q resistances is in series with a parallel bank of
two 1000-Q resistances. The total resistance of the series-parallel
circuit equals (a) 250 Q; (b) 2500 Q; (c) 3000 Q; (d) 4000 Q.
7. In the circuit of question 6, one of the resistances in the series string
opens. Then the current in the parallel bank (a) increases slightly in
both branches; (b) equals zero in one branch but is maximum in the
other branch; (c) is maximum in both branches; (d) equals zero in
both branches.
8. With 100 V applied across a 10,000-Q resistance, the power dissi-
pation equals (a) 1 mW; (b) 1 W; (c) 100 W; (d) 1 kW.
9. Ten volts is applied across R1 , R2 , and R3 in series, producing 1 A in
the series circuit. R1 equals 6 Q and R2 equals 2 Q. Therefore, R3
equals (a) 2 Q; (b) 4 Q; (c) 10 Q; (d) 12 Q.
 Review of Chapters 1 to 5 115

10. A 5-V source and 3-V source are connected with series-opposing
polarities. The combined voltage across both sources equals (a) 5 V;
(b) 3 V; (c) 2 V; (d) 8 V.
11. In a circuit with three parallel branches, if one branch opens, the
main-line current will be (a) more; (b) less; (c) the same; (d) infinite.
12. A 10-Q R1 and a 20-Q R2 are in series with a 30-V source. If R1
opens, the voltage drop across R2 will be (a) zero; (b) 20 V; (c) 30 V;
(d) infinite.
13. Vi of 40 Vis connected series-opposing with Vz of 50 V. The total
voltage across both components is: (a) 10 V; (b) 40 V; (c) 50 V;
(d) 90 v.
14. Two series voltage drops Vi and Vz total 100 V for VT. When Vi is
60 V, then Vz must equal: (a) 40 V; (b) 60 V; (c) 100 V; (d) 160 V.
15. Two parallel branch currents I 1 and I2 total 100 mA for IT. When I 1 is
60 mA, then I2 must equal: (a) 40 mA; (b) 60 mA; (c) 100 mA;
(d) 160 mA.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Cooke, N. M., and H.F. R. Adams: "Basic Mathematics for Electronics,"

4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
De France, J. J.: "Electrical Fundamentals," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
Grob, B.: "Mathematics Outline and Review Problems for Basic Elec-
tronics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Mittelstadt, W. S.: "Basic Slide Rule Operation," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Oppenheimer, S. L., and J. P. Borchers: "Direct and Alternating Cur-
rents," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
"Periodic Chart of the Atoms," Sargent Welch Scientific Co., Skokie, Ill.
60076.
Slater, A L.: "The Slide Rule," Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New
York.
Timbie, W. H.: "Basic Electricity for Communications," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.

Laboratory Manuals

Tinnell, R. W.: "Experiments in Electricity," McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York.
Zbar, P. B.: "Basic Electricity," 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.
 Vol-.e
Dividers
and
CUrrent
Dividers
Any series circuit is a voltage divider. The IR voltage drops are propor-
tional parts of the applied voltage. Also, any parallel circuit is a current
divider. Each branch current is part of the total line current, but in inverse
proportion to the branch resistance. Special formulas can be used for the
voltage and current division as short cuts in the calculations. The voltage
division formula gives the series voltages even when the current is not
known. Also, the current division formula gives the branch currents even
when the branch voltage is not known. Finally, we consider a series
voltage divider with parallel branches that have load currents. The design
of such a loaded voltage divider can be applied to the important case of
tapped voltages from the power supply in electronic equipment. The
topics here are

6-1 Series Voltage Dividers

6-2 Current Divider with Two Parallel Resistances
6-3 Current Division by Parallel Conductances
64 Series Voltage Divider with Parallel Load Current
6-5 Design of a Loaded Voltage Divider

6-1 voltage than a smaller resistance in the same

SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDERS series circuit; equal resistances have the same
The current is the same in all the resistances in amount of IR drop. If R1 is double R2 , then Vi
a series circuit. Also, the voltage drops equal will be double \'2.
the product of I times R. Therefore, the IR The series string can be considered as a
voltages are proportional to the series resist- voltage divider. Each resistance provides an IR
ances. A higher resistance has a greater IR drop V equal to its proportional part of the
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 117

applied voltage. Stated as a formula, ,... +

I/= 2 mA
I R,
so kn v, = 100 v
(6-1)

Example 1. Three 50-kQ resistors R1 , R2 , and R3

are in series across an applied voltage of 180 V. How VT= 200 V
much is the IR voltage drop across each resistor? +

Answer. 60 V. Since R1 , R2 , and R3 are equal,

each has one-third the total resistance of the circuit
and one-third the total applied voltage. Using the
formula,
FIGURE 6-1
R 50 kQ
v = RT x VT = 150 kQ x 180 v Series string as proportional voltage divider.
Each VR is RI RT of Vr-
=ix 180 v

V= 60V With two series voltages it is not necessary

to calculate both. After you find one, subtract
Note that R and RT must be in the same from VT to find the other.
units for the proportion. Then Vis in the same The fact that series voltage drops are pro-
units as VT. portional to the resistances means that a very
The circuit in Fig. 6-1 illustrates another small R has a negligible IR drop in series with a
example of a proportional voltage divider. Let much larger R. An example is shown in Fig.
the problem be to find the voltage across R 3 . We 6-2. Here the 1 kn of RI is in series with the
can either calculate this voltage as IR3 or deter- 999 kn of R2 , with a VT of 1000 V.
mine its proportional part of VT. We arrive at the By the voltage divider formula, VI
same answer both ways. is Ifiooo X 1000 V = 1 V. Also, Vz is 99/i 000
In the proportional method, \,j is 20/i 00 of x 1000 V = 999 V. This value is practically
the applied voltage because R3 is 20 kn and RT the entire applied voltage.
is 100 kn. Therefore, \,j is 2 o/i 00 X 200, or Furthermore, the current 1 mA through
1/s X 200, which is equal to 40 V. RI and R2 is determined almost entirely by
In the same way, Vz can be calculated as the 999 kn of R2 . This I for RT is 1000 VI
3
o/i 00 X 200, or o/io X 200 = 60 V. Also, \.1i is 1000 kn = 1 mA. The 999-kn R2 alone
50
fi 00 , or % X 200 = 100 V. The sum of \.1i, Vz, would allow 1.001 mA for the current.
and \,j is 40 + 60 + 100 = 200 V to equal VT. The advantage of using the divider formula
If we want to solve for the current in is that we can find the proportional voltage
Fig. 6-1, /is VT/RT, or 200 V/100 kn= 2 mA. drops from VT and the series resistances without
The IR drop \,j then is 2 mA x 20 kn = 40 V. knowing /. For odd values of R, calculating I
Also, Vz is 2 mA X 30 kn = 60 V and \.1i is sometimes takes more time than finding the
2 mA X 50 kn = 100 V. These are the same voltages. In many cases we can see the voltage
values calculated by Formula (6-1) for propor- division approximately without any written cal-
tional voltage dividers. culations.
 Chapter 6
118 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

proportional to the branch resistance. The de-

nominator is the same in both formulas, equal
to the sum of the two branch resistances.
To calculate the currents in Fig. 6-3, with a
VT= 1000 V 30-A IT, a 2-n R1 , and a 4-n R2 ,

4
I 1 = --x30
2+4
4
-- 6 x3o-1x30
FIGURE 6-2 - 3
Very small R1 in series with large R2 . \.'i is very I1 = 20 A
small compared with \'2.
For the other branch,
Practice Problems 6-1
(answers on page 125) 12 = --x30
2
Refer to Fig. 6-1. 2 +4
How much is RT?
~ ~x
(a)
(b) What fraction of the applied voltage is \.j? = x 30 = 30
I2 = 10 A
6-2
CURRENT DIVIDER WITH TWO With all the resistances in the same units,
PARALLEL RESISTANCES the branch currents are in the units of IT. For
It is often necessary to find the individual instance, kilohms of Rand milliamperes of I can
branch currents in a bank from the resistances be used.
and IT, but without knowing the voltage across
the bank. This problem can be solved by using
the fact that currents divide inversely as the
branch resistances. An example is shown in
Fig. 6-3. The formulas for the two branch cur-
rents are

(6-2)

or

FIGURE 6-3
Notice that the formula for each branch I Current division with two branch resistances.
has the opposite R in the numerator. The rea- Each I is inversely proportional to R. The
son is that each branch current is inversely smaller R has more I.
 Cha ter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 119

current of 1000 mA because R1 is so small

+Ir= 1000 mA
I
compared with R2 .
The current divider Formula (6-2) can be
l /1 = 999 mA I used for only two branch resistances. The rea-
+ / = 1 mA+
2
son is the inverse relation between each branch
I and its R. In comparison, the voltage divider
Formula (6-1) can be used for any number of
series resistances because of the direct propor-
tion between each voltage drop V and its R.
For more branches, it is possible to com-
bine the branches in order to work with only two
divided currents at a time. However, a better
FIGURE 6-4 method is to use parallel conductances, be-
Very large R2 in parallel with R1 . 12 is very small cause I and Gare directly proportional, as ex-
compared with 11 . plained in the next section.

Practice Problems 6-2

Actually, it is not necessary to calculate (answers on page 125)
both currents. After one I is calculated, the Refer to Fig. 6-3.
other can be found by subtracting from IT. (a) What is the ratio of R2 to R1 ?
Notice that the division of branch currents (b) What is the ratio of 12 to 11 ?
in a parallel bank is opposite from the voltage
division of resistance in a series string. With 6-3
series resistances, a higher resistance develops CURRENT DIVISION BY
a larger IR voltage proportional to its R; with PARALLEL CONDUCTANCES
parallel branches, a lower resistance takes more Remember that the conductance G is 1 IR.
branch current equal to VI R. Therefore, conductance and current are di-
In Fig. 6-3, the 20-A /1 is double the 10-A rectly proportional. More conductance allows
12 because the 2-Q R1 is one-half the 4-Q R2 . more current, for the same V. With any number
This is an inverse proportion of I to R. of parallel branches, each branch current is
The inverse relation between I and R in a
parallel bank means that a very large R has little
effect with a much smaller R in parallel. As an (6-3)
example, Fig. 6-4 shows a 999-kQ R2 in parallel
with a 1-kQ R1 dividing the IT of 1000 mA. The
branch currents are calculated as follows: where G is the conductance of one branch and
GT is the sum of all the parallel conductances.
999 The unit for G is the siemens (S) or mho.
/1 = lOOO X 1000 mA = 999 mA
Note that Formula (6-3), for dividing
1 branch currents in proportion to G, has the
12 = 1
OOO X 1000 mA = 1 mA same form as Formula (6-1 ), for dividing series
voltages in proportion to R. The reason is that
The 999 mA for /1 is almost the entire line both formulas specify a direct proportion.
 Chapter 6
120 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

As an example of using Formula (6-3 ), Gi

we can go back to Fig. 6-3 and find the Il = G x IT
T
branch currents with G instead of R. For the
2-Q R1 , the G is %= 0.5 S, or 0.5 mho. The = ~:~ x 40 mA
4-Q R2 has G of % = 0.25 S. Then GT is
0.5 + 0.25 = 0.75 S. The IR is 30 mA. For I1 = 5 mA
the branch currents
In the same way, I2 is calculated as
% X 40 = 25 mA and I3 is % X 40 = 10 mA.
The sum is 5 + 25 + 10 = 40 mA for IT.
Gi Although three branches are shown here,
Il = G x IT Formula (6-3) can be used for any number of
T

0.50 2 parallel conductances because of the direct

= 0. X 30mA =
75 3 X 30 mA proportion between I and G.
I1 = 20 mA
Practice Problems 6-3
(answers on page 125)
This 20 mA is the same I1 calculated before. Refer to Fig. 6-3.
Also, I2 is 30 - 20 = 10 mA. (a) What is the ratio of G3 to G1 ?
A circuit with three branches is shown in (b) What is the ratio of I3 to I1 ?
Fig. 6-5. Here R1 is10 Q and G1 = 1/i 0 or 0.1 S.
Also, G2 is % = 0.5 S and G3 is 1/s = 0.2 S.
Then GT is 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.8 S. The IT is 6-4
40 mA. To find the I 1 branch current SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER
WITH PARALLEL LOAD CURRENT
The voltage dividers shown so far illustrate just
a series string without any branch currents.
Actually, though, a voltage divider is often used
to tap off part of the applied voltage VT for a
+Ir= 40 mA
I

load that needs less voltage than VT. Then the

t
I
I 3 = 25 mA +
I
I 3 = 10 mA
added load is a parallel branch across part of
the divider. Figure 6-6 shows how the loaded
R, = 10 n R2 = 2 n R3 =5 n voltage at the tap is reduced from its potential
G 1 =0.1S G2 =0.5S G3 =0.2S without the branch current.

Why the Loaded Voltage Decreases. We can

start with (a) in Fig. 6-6, which shows an R1 R 2
voltage divider alone. R1 and R 2 simply form a
FIGURE 6-5 proportional series divider across the 60-V
Current divider with three branch conduct- source V. R1 is 40 kQ and R2 is 20 ks-2, making
ances G 1 , G2 , and G3 . The S unit is the siemens RT 60 kQ. I is 60 V/60 kQ = 1 mA.
(formerly called the mho). Each branch I is Then \'i across R1 is 4%0 X 60 V = 40 V.
directly proportional to the branch G. Also, \'z is 2%0 X 60 V = 20 V. Note that
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 121

------E ------E
~dkn } 48 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 6-6
Effect of a parallel load on part of a series
voltage divider. (a) R1 and R2 in series without
any branch current. (b) Reduced voltage across
R2 with the parallel RL. ( c) Equivalent circuit of
the loaded voltage divider.

\.1i + Vz is 40 + 20 = 60 V, which is the total returns through R1 in the divider to the positive
applied voltage. side of VT. This current IL goes through R 1 but
However, in (b) the 20-kQ branch of RL not R2 .
changes the equivalent resistance at tap F to
ground. This change in the proportions of R Bleeder Current. In addition, both R1 and R2
changes the voltage division. Now the resist- have their own current from the source. This
ance from F to G is 10 kQ, equal to the 20-kQ current through all the resistances in the divider
R2 and RL in parallel. This equivalent bank is bleeder current IB. The electron flow for IB is
resistance is shown as the 10-kQ RE in (c). from the negative side of VT, through R2 and R1 ,
R 1 is still the same 40 kQ because it has no and back to the positive side of VT.
parallel branch. The new RT for the divider in The bleeder current is a steady drain on
(c) is 40 kQ + 10 kQ = 50 kQ. As a result, VE the source. However, IB has the advantage of
from Fto G is now 1%0 x 60 V = 12 V. There- reducing variations in the total current in the
fore, the voltage across R2 and RL in parallel is voltage source for different values of load cur-
reduced to 12 V. This is the voltage at the tap F rent.
for RL. In summary, then, for the three resistances
Note that \.1i across R1 increases to 48 V in in Fig. 6-6, (a) RL has just its load current IL;
(c). Now \.1i is 4 °/s 0 X 60 V = 48 V. The sum of (b) R2 has only the bleeder current IB; (c) R1 has
\.1i + Vz is 12 + 48 = 60 V, still equal to the both IL and IB.
applied voltage.
Practice Problems 6-4
Path of Current for RL. All the current in the (answers on page 125)
circuit must come from the source VT. Trace the Refer to Fig. 6-6.
electron flow for RL. It starts from the negative (a) What is the proportion of R2 ! RT in (a)?
side of VT, through Rv to the tap at F, and (b) What is the proportion of R/ RT in (c)?
 Chapter 6
122 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

6-5 ground. When the 18 Vis supplied by this part

DESIGN OF A LOADED of the divider, a 36-mA branch current will flow
VOLTAGE DIVIDER through the load. Similarly, 40 Vis needed at
These principles can be applied to the design of tap E for 54 mA of IE in load E. Also, 100 V
a practical voltage divider, as shown in Fig. 6-7. is available at D with a load current In of 180
This type of circuit is used for the output of a mA. The total load current here is 36 +
power supply in electronic equipment to supply 54 + 180 = 270 mA.
different voltages at the taps, with different load In addition, the bleeder current IB through
currents. For instance, load D can represent the the entire divider is generally specified at about
collector-emitter circuit for one or more power 10 percent of the load current. For the example
transistors that need + 100 V for the collector here, IB is taken as 30 mA to make a total line
supply. Also, the tap at E can be the 40-V col- current Ir of 270 + 30 = 300 mA from the
lector supply for medium power transistors. source. Remember that the 30-mA IB flows
Finally, the 20-V tap at F can be for base-emitter through RI, R2 , and R3 .
bias current in the power transistors and collec- The design problem in Fig. 6-7 is to find
tor voltage for smaller transistors. the values of RI, R2 , and R3 needed to provide
Note the load specifications in Fig. 6-7. the specified voltages. Each R is calculated as its
Load F needs 18 V from point F to chassis ratio of VI I. However, the question is what are

D 100 V, 180 mA for load D

,,-----
'I~
,---
,.--
~

I,--
+++
I
I
I
I
I
I
Load
D
13 =/B +Ip +IE= 120 mA

40 V, 54 mA for load E

Vr=100V
I= 300 mA 12 = IB +Ip= 66 mA
++
II
Load
E

18 V, 36 mA for load F

/ 1 =/B = 30 mA+
I I I : IT = 300 mA I R,

'''\.:::'i
I \ ' ...
G
__
., IE =54mA+
Ip =36mA+ __,
In=
__,
180 mA+

FIGURE 6-7
Voltage divider for different voltages and load
currents from the source VT. See text for design
calculations to find R1 , R2 , and R3 .
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 123

the correct values of Vand I to use for each part Calculate the Voltage Across Each R. The
of the divider. voltages at the taps in Fig. 6-7 give the potential
to chassis ground. However, we need the volt-
age across the two ends of each R. For R1 , the
And the Current in Each R. We start with R1
voltage \'1 is the indicated 18 V to ground be-
because its current is only the 30-mA bleeder
cause one end of R1 is grounded. However,
current IB. No load current flows through R1 .
across R 2 the voltage is the difference between
Therefore 11 through R1 equals 30 mA.
the 40-V potential at point E and the 18 Vat F.
The 36-mA current IF for load F returns to
the source through R2 and R3 . Considering just Therefore Vz is 40 - 18 = 22 V. Similarly, \tj is
calculated as 100 Vat point Dminus the 40 Vat
R 2 now, its current is the IF load current and the
E, or, \'3 is 100 - 40 = 60 V. These values for
30-mA bleeder current IB. Therefore, 12 through
R 2 is 36 + 30 = 66 mA.
\'1, Vz, and \'3 are summarized in Table 6-1.
The 54-mA current IE for load E returns to
Calculating Each R. Now we can calculate
the source through R 3 alone. However, R 3 also
the resistance of R1 , R2 , and R3 as each VI I
has the 36-mA IE and the 30-mA IB. Therefore
ratio. For the values listed in Table 6-1,
13 through R3 is 54 + 36 + 30 = 120 mA. The
values for 11 , 12 , and 13 are summarized in R _ \'1 _ 18 V
Table 6-1. 1 - I; - 30 mA = 0.6 kn = 600 n
Note that the load current In for load D at
R = Vz _ 22 V _ _
the top of the diagram does not flow through R 3 z -
66
mA - 0.333 kn - 333 n
or any of the resistors in the divider. However, 12
the In of 180 mA is the main load current R _ \'3 _ 60 V _
through the source of applied voltage. The 3 -
13
-
120
mA - 0.5 kn = 500 n
120 mA of bleeder and load currents plus the
When these values are used for R 1• R2• and R3
180-mA In load add to equal 300 mA for IT in
and connected in a voltage divider across the
the main line of the power supply.
source of 100 V, as in Fig. 6-7, each load will
have the specified voltage at its rated current.
TABLE 6-1. Design Values for Voltage
Divider in Fig. 6-7 Practice Problems 6-5
(answers on page 125)
CURRENT, VOLTAGE, RESISTANCE,
mA v Q Refer to Fig. 6- 7.
(a) How much is the bleeder current JB
RI 30 18 600 through R1 , R 2 , and R 3 ?
R2 66 22 333 (b) How much is the voltage for load Eat tap E
to ground?
R3 120 60 500 (c) How much is Vz across R2 ?

Summary
1. In a series circuit VT is divided into IR voltage drops proportional to
the resistances. Each VR = (RI RT) x VT, for any number of series
resistances. The largest series R has the largest voltage drop.
 Chapter 6
124 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

2. In a parallel circuit, IT is divided into branch currents. Each I is

inversely proportional to the branch R. The inverse division of branch
currents is given by Formula (6-2), for two resistances only. The
smaller branch R has the larger branch current.
3. For any number of parallel branches, IT is divided into branch
currents directly proportional to each conductance G. Each
I= (G!GT) x IT.
4. A series voltage divider is often tapped for a parallel load, as in
Fig. 6-6. Then the voltage at the tap is reduced because of the load
current.
5. The design of a loaded voltage divider, as in Fig. 6-7, involves
calculating each R. Find the I and potential difference V for each R.
Then R = VII.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. In a series voltage divider, each IR voltage is proportional to its R.

2. With parallel branches, each branch I is inversely proportional to
its R.
3. With parallel branches, each branch I is directly proportional to its G.
4. Formula (6-2) for parallel current dividers can be used for three or
more resistances.
5. Formula (6-3) for parallel current dividers can be used for five or
more branch conductances.
6. In the series voltage divider of Fig. 6-1, \'i is 2.5 times \'3 because R1
is 2.5 times R3 .
7. In the parallel current divider of Fig. 6-3, I 1 is double I2 because R1 is
one-half R 2 •
8. In the parallel current divider of Fig. 6-5, I3 is five times I 1 because G3
is five times G1 .
9. In Fig. 6-6b, the branch current IL flows through Rv R2 , and R1 .
10. In Fig. 6-7, the bleeder current I3 flows through R1 , R2 , and R3 .

Essay Questions
1. Define a series voltage divider.
2. Define a parallel current divider.
3. Give two differences between a series voltage divider and a parallel
current divider.
 Chapter 6
Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 125

4. Give three differences between Formula (6-2) for branch resistances

and Formula (6-3) for branch conductances.
5. Define bleeder current.
6. What is the main difference between the circuits in (a) and (b) of
Fig. 6-6?
7. Referring to Fig. 6-1, why is \1i series-aiding with \.'z and \'3 but in
series opposition to VT? Show polarity of each IR drop.
8. Show the algebra for deriving Formula (6-2) for each branch current
in a parallel bank of two resistances. [Hint: The voltage across the
bank is IT X RT and RT is R1R2 1(R1 + R2 ).]

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. A 200-Q R1 is in series with a 400-Q R2 and a 2-kQ R3 . The applied

voltage is 52 V. Calculate \'i, \.'z, and \..j.
2. Find R1 and R2 for a voltage divider that takes 10 mA from a 200-V
source, with 50 V across R2 • There are no load-current branches.
3. How much is the bleeder current through R1 and R2 in Fig. 6-6b?
4. IT is 7 mA for two branches. R1 is 20 kQ and R2 is 56 kQ. Find I1 and
I2 in this current-divider circuit.
5. Three parallel branches have G1 = 1000 µS, G2 = 2000 µS,
G3 = 10,000 µS. IT is 39 mA. Find I1 , I2 , and I3 .
6. Referring to Fig. 6-3, find RT for the two branch resistances and
calculate the voltage across the bank as ITRT.
7. For the voltage divider in Fig. 6-7, how much is the equivalent
resistance for load D, load E, and load F?
8. Referring to the voltage divider in Fig. 6-7, calculate the power
dissipated in R1 , R2 , and R3 .
9. Design a voltage divider similar to that in Fig. 6-7 with R1 , R2 , and R3
across a 48-V source and the following loads: 48 Vat 800 mA, 28 V
at 300 mA, and 9 V at 100 mA. Use the bleeder current IB of
120 mA.

Answers to Practice Problems

6-1 (a) RT= 100 kQ 6-4 (a) h
1

(b) \'3 = (2/i 0 ) X VT (b) Ys

6-2 (a) 2 to 1 6-5 (a) IB = 30 mA
(b) 1 to 2 (b) VEG= 40 v
6-3 (a) 2 to 1 (c) \.'z = 22 V
(b) 2 to 1
 Direct~
current
Meters
Voltage, current, and resistance measurements are generally made with a
combination volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) like the one in Fig. 7-1. To Chapter
measure voltage, connect the voltmeter test leads across the two points of
potential difference, as in (a). Similarly, when using the ohmmeter,
connect the two leads across the resistance to be measured, as in (b), but
turn the power off. No power is needed in the circuit being tested because
the ohmmeter has its own internal battery. To measure current, the meter
is connected as a series component in the circuit. A combination meter
7
with all three functions is generally used as a multitester to check V, I, and
R when troubleshooting electronic circuits. The details of these meter
measurements are explained in the following topics:

7-1 Moving-Coil Meter

7 -2 Measurement of Current
7-3 Meter Shunts
7-4 The Ayrton or Universal Shunt
7-5 Voltmeters
7 -6 Loading Effect of a Voltmeter
7 ·7 Ohmmeters
7-8 l\1ultimeters
7 ·9 Digital Meters
7 -10 Meter Applications
7 -11 Checking Continuity with the Ohmmeter

7.1 force turns the drum with its pointer. The

MOVING-COIL METER amount of deflection indicates the amount of
This type of meter movement, shown in Fig. current in the coil. Correct polarity allows the
7-2, is generally used in a VOM. The con- pointer to read up-scale, to the right; the oppo-
struction consists essentially of a coil of fine wire site polarity forces the pointer off-scale, to the
on a drum mounted between the poles of a left. ·
permanent magnet. When direct current flows The pointer deflection is directly propor-
in the coil, the magnetic field of the current tional to the amount of current in the coil. If
reacts with the field of the magnet. The resultant 100 µA is the current needed for full-scale de-
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 127

(a)

(b)
FIGURE 7-1
Using a VOM for voltage and resistance mea-
surements. (a) To read voltage, connect the
voltmeter test leads across the potential differ-
ence being measured. Observe polarity for
voltage. ( b) To read resistance, connect the
ohmmeter test leads across R, but with the
power off. Polarity of meter leads does not
matter for resistance.
 Chapter 7
128 Direct-Current Meters

printed scale. Typical values of IM are from

about 10 µA to 30 mA for Weston movements.
Smaller currents require more wire in the mov-
ing coil, so that the magnetic field of the current
can be strong enough to react with the perma-
nent magnet to move the pointer. Fine wire
must be used to reduce the weight of the mov-
ing coil. For the opposite case, higher currents
require thicker wire, which can make the coil
too heavy. However, the current range of the
movement can be increased to almost any value
by using meter shunts, as explained in Sec. 7-3.
As an example, IM is 50 µA for the micro-
ammeter shown in Fig. 7 -3. Notice the mirror
along the scale to eliminate parallax. You read
the meter where the pointer and its mirror re-
FIGURE 7-2
Construction of moving-coil meter. (Weston
Electrical Instrument Corp.)

flection, 50 µA in the coil will produce a half-

scale deflection. The accuracy of the moving-
coil meter mechanism is 0 .1 to 2 percent.
The moving-coil principle is applied in
several meter types which have different names.
A galvanometer is an extremely sensitive instru-
ment for measuring very small values of cur-
rent. Laboratory-type galvanometers, which in-
clude a suspended moving coil with an optical
system to magnify small deflection, can meas-
ure a small fraction of one microampere. A
ballistic galvanometer is used for reading the
value of a small momentary current, to measure
electric charge. The suspended moving-coil ar- (a)
rangement of a galvanometer is often called a
D'Arsonval movement, after its inventor, who
patented this meter movement in 1881. The
practical, commercial moving-coil meter in (b)
Fig. 7 -2 is a Weston movement. FIGURE 7-3
Microammeter with mirror on scale to min-
Values of IM. The full-scale deflection current imize parallax error. (a) Photo of meter. ( b)
IM is the amount needed to deflect the pointer Schematic symbol. (Weston Electrical Instru-
all the way to the right to the last mark on the ment Corp.)
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 129

flection are one. This eliminates the optical (b) Is a milliammeter connected in parallel or
error of parallax when you look at the meter series?
from the side. The schematic symbol for a cur-
rent meter is a circle, as in (b). 7-2
MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT
Values of rM· This is the internal resistance of
Whether we are measuring amperes, milli-
the wire of the moving coil. Typical values range
amperes, or microamperes, two important facts
from 1.2 Q for a 30-mA movement to 2000 Q
to remember are:
for a 50-µA movement. A movement with a
smaller IM has a higher rM because many turns
1. The current meter must be in series in the
of fine wire are needed. An average value of rM
circuit where the current is to be meas-
for a 1-mA movement is about 120 Q.
ured. The amount of deflection depends
on the current through the meter. In a
Taut-band Meters. The meter movement can
series circuit, the current is the same
be constructed with the moving coil and pointer
through all series components. Therefore,
suspended by a metal band, instead of the pivot
the current to be measured must be made
and jewel design with a restoring spring. Both
to flow through the meter as a series com-
types of movements have similar operating
ponent in the circuit.
characteristics. However, taut-band meters
2. A de meter must be connected in the cor-
generally have lower values of rM because a
rect polarity for the meter to read up-scale.
smaller coil can be used to force the pointer
Reversed polarity makes the meter read
up-scale.
down -scale, forcing the pointer against the
stop at the left, which can bend the pointer.
Practice Problems 7-1
(answers on page 158)
(a) Is a voltmeter connected in parallel or se- How to Connect a Current Meter in Series.
ries? As illustrated in Fig. 7-4, the circuit must be

R, I= 100 mA
a 500 n b

,-+
: /= 100 mA

Rz
500.Q

d d

f e f e f e
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7-4
Inserting a current meter in series. (a) Circuit
without meter. (b) Circuit opened between
points b and c for meter. ( c) Meter connected
between R1 and R2 in series with the circuit.
 Chapter 7
130 Direct-Current Meters

opened at one point in order to insert the cur- terminal of the meter is joined to R2 because
rent meter in series in the circuit. Since R1 , R2 , this path with R1 connects to the negative ter-
R3 , and the meter are all in series, the current is minal of the battery. The positive meter terminal
the same in each and the meter reads the cur- is connected to R3 . Electrons in the circuit will
rent in any part of the series circuit. If VT is flow through R1 and R2 into the negative side of
150 V with a total series resistance of 1500 Q, the meter, through the movement, and out from
the current is 0 .1 A, or 100 mA. This value is the meter and return through R3 to the positive
the current in R1 , R2 , R3 , and the battery, as battery terminal.
shown in (a). Note that in (b), the circuit is
opened at the junction of R1 and R2 for inser- A Current Meter Should Have Very Low Re-
tion of the meter. In (c), the meter completes sistance. Referring back to Fig. 7-4, the milli-
the series circuit to read the current of 100 mA. ammeter in (c) reads 100 mA because its resist-
The meter inserted in series at any point in the ance is negligible compared with the total series
circuit would read the same current. R of 1500 Q. Then I is the same with or without
the meter.
How to Connect a DC Meter in the Correct In general, a current meter should have
Polarity. A de meter has its terminals marked very low R compared with the circuit where the
for polarity, either with + and - signs or red current is being measured. We take an arbitrary
for plus and black for minus. Electrons must figure of 1/i 00 . For the circuit in Fig. 7-4, then,
flow into the negative side through the move- the meter resistance should be less than
150 DJi
ment and out from the positive side for the 00 = 15 0. Actually, a meter for 100 mA
meter to read up-scale. would have an internal R of about 1 Q or less
To have the meter polarity correct, always because of its internal shunt resistor. The higher
connect its negative terminal to the point in the the current range of the meter, the smaller its
circuit that has a path back to the negative side resistance.
of the voltage source, without going through the An extreme case of a current meter with
meter. Similarly, the positive terminal of the too much R is shown in Fig. 7 -6. Here the series
meter returns to the positive terminal of the RT is doubled when the meter is inserted in the
voltage source (Fig. 7 -5). Here the negative circuit. The result is one-half the actual I in the
circuit without the meter.

Practice Problems 7-2

,----------- ...\ (answers on page 158)
: + (a) In Fig. 7-4, how much will the milliamme-
ter read when inserted at point a?
Vr T-+ + : _mA (b) In Fig. 7-5, which R is connected to the
positive side of the meter to make it read
'-.... _________ _,,, + I
up-scale?
~-~~~'\/V'v~~~~. (c) Should a current meter have very low or
very high resistance?
FIGURE 7-5 (d) Should a voltmeter have very high or very
Correct polarity for a de meter. low resistance?
 Cha ter 7
Direct-Current Meters 131

--+
I= 50 µA
Re= : I=
2 kr2 t 25 µA
V= 0.1 V V= 0.1 V

1
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-6
Example of a current meter having too high a
resistance. (a) Circuit without the meter has an
I of 50 µA ( b) Meter resistance reduces I to
25µA

7-3 equally between the shunt and the meter move-

METER SHUNTS ment. At the opposite meter terminal, these two
A meter shunt is a precision resistor connected branch currents combine to provide the 50 mA
across the meter movement for the purpose of equal to the circuit current.
shunting, or bypassing, a specific fraction of the Inside the meter, the current is 25 mA
circuit's current around the meter movement. through the shunt and 25 mA through the
The combination then provides a current meter moving coil. Since it is a 25-mA movement, this
with an extended range. The shunts are usually current produces full-scale deflection. The scale
inside the meter case. In addition, the schematic is doubled, however, reading 50 mA, to ac-
symbol for the current meter usually does not count for the additional 25 mA through the
show the shunt. shunt. Therefore, the scale reading indicates
In current measurements, the parallel bank total current at the meter terminals, not just coil
of the movement with its shunt is still connected current. The movement with its shunt, then, is a
as a current meter in series in the circuit 50-mA meter. Its internal resistance is
(Fig. 7-7). It should be noted that a meter with 1.2 x % = 0.6 Q.
an internal shunt has the scale calibrated to take Another example is shown in Fig. 7 -8. In
into account the current through the shunt and general, the shunt resistance for any range can
the meter movement. Therefore, the scale be calculated with Ohm's law from the formula
reads total circuit current.

Resistance of the Meter Shunt. In Fig. 7 -7 b, (7-1)

the 25-mA movement has a resistance of 1.2 Q,
which is the resistance of the moving coil rM· To
double the range, the shunt resistance Rs is Rs is the resistance of the shunt and Is is the
made equal to the 1.2 Q of the movement. current through it.
When the meter is connected in series in a VM is equal to IM X rM. This is the voltage
circuit where the current is 50 mA, this total across both the shunt and the meter movement,
current into one terminal of the meter divides which are in parallel.
 Chapter 7
132 Direct-Current Meters

Mi Iii ammeter :1T = 50 mA

,..... +
I/= 50 mA
I

v v

\Meter case

(a) (b)

,-+
I I= 50 mA
I
v

(c)
FIGURE 7-7
Effect of a shunt in bypassing current around
the meter movement to extend its range from
25 to 50 mA. (a) Wiring diagram. (b) Sche-
matic showing effect of shunt Rs. With Rs = rM
the current range is doubled. ( c) Circuit with
50-mA meter.

,--
•ls= 40 mA
R = [Link] v = 2 n Rs
s 0.04 A

FIGURE 7-8
Calculating the resistance of a meter shunt
Rs= VM!ls.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 133

Calculating ls. This current through the shunt Example 2. A 50-µ,A meter movement has rM of
alone is the difference between the total current 1000 Q. What Rs is needed to extend the range to
IT through the meter and the divided current IM 500 µ,A?
through the movement. Or
Answer. The shunt current Is is 500 - 50, or
450 µ,A Then
(7-2)
R - VM
s - Is
Use the values of current for full-scale deflec-
tion, as these are known. In Fig. 7 -8, 50 x 10-6 A x 10 3 Q 50,000 1000
Is = 50 - 10 = 40 mA, or 0.04 A. = 450 x 10-6 A = ~ = -9-

Rs = 111.1 Q
Calculating Rs. The complete procedure for
using the formula Rs = VM! Is can be as follows: The shunts usually are prec1s1on wire-
wound resistors. For very low values, a short
1. Find VM. Calculate this for full-scale deflec- wire of precise size can be used.
tion as IM X rM. In Fig. 7-8, with a 10-mA
full-scale current through the 8-Q move-
Practice Problems 7-3
ment, VM is 0.01 X 8 = 0.08 V.
(answers on page 158)
2. Find Is. For the values in Fig. 7 -8,
A 50-µA movement with a 900-Q rM has a
Is = 50 - 10 = 40 mA = 0.04 A.
shunt Rs for a range of 500 µA
3. Divide VM by Is to find Rs. Here,
(a) How much is Is?
Rs = 0.0810.04 = 2 Q.
(b) How much is VM?
This shunt enables the 10-mA movement
to be used for the extended range of 0 to 7-4
50 mA. THE AYRTON OR
Note that Rs and rM are inversely propor- UNIVERSAL SHUNT
tional to their full-scale currents. The 2 Q for Rs In Fig. 7-9, R1 , R2 , and R3 are used in series-
equals one-fourth the 8 Q of rM because the parallel combinations with the meter move-
shunt current of 40 mA is four times the 10 mA ments for different current ranges. The circuit is
through the movement for full-scale deflection. called an Ayrton shunt or universal shunt. This
method is generally used for multiple current
Example 1. A shunt extends the range of a 50-µ,A ranges in a VOM because the series-parallel
meter movement to 1 mA. How much is the current circuit provides a safe method of switching be-
through the shunt at full-scale deflection? tween current ranges without danger of exces-
Answer. All the currents must be in the same sive current through the meter movement.
units for Formula (7-2). To avoid fractions, use The wide contact on the switch arm in (a)
1000 µ,A for the 1-mA IT. Then indicates it makes the next connection before
breaking the old contact. This short-circuiting
Is = IT - IM type switch protects the meter movement by
= 1000 µ,A - 50 µ,A providing a shunt at all times during the switch-
Is= 950 µ,A ing to change ranges.
 Chapter 7
134 Direct-Current Meters

rM = 50 .Q rM = 50 .Q

1 mA + 1 mA
- +
+11 mA
R,= R2
g,n
= R3= I
R, R3
40.Q b c 1.n b R2 c
a d a d

--·
1 mA
'
+12mA
I
y
RsT = 50 n

+
(a) {b)

rM = 50 .Q rM = 50 .Q
a a
1 mA + 1 mA
+
R,=
40.Q

R,=
40.Q
R2
g,n
=
+pmA +: 1 mA R3
R2 c R3 1.n
b d c d
--+' y --+
99mA
9 mA R 2 +R 3 =10.Q

+: 10mA +: 100 mA
+ +
(c) (d)
FIGURE 7-9
Universal or Ayrton shunt for three current
ranges. I values shown for full-scale deflection.
(a) Actual circuit with switch S to choose differ-
ent ranges. (b) Circuit for 2-mA range; (c)
10-mA range; (d) 100-mA range.

The universal shunt consists of R1 , R2 , and and (d), part of Rsr is connected in series with
R 3 in Fig. 7 -9. How they are connected as a rM while the remainder of Rsr is in parallel as a
shunt is determined by the switch S for the shunt path.
different current ranges. Their total resistance The values in Fig. 7 -9 are calculated as
(R8 r) is 40 + 9 + 1 = 50 Q. This resistance is follows: Since the 2-mA range in (b) is double
used as a shunt in parallel with rM for the 2-mA the 1-mA current rating of the meter move-
range in (b). For the higher current ranges in (c) ment, the shunt resistance must equal the rM of
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 135

50 Q so that 1 mA can flow in each of the two If (R 2 + R) is 10 n, then R3 must be

parallel paths. Therefore, RsT is equal to the (10 - R2 ). Substituting (10 - R2 ) for R3 , the
50 Q of rM. equation then becomes:
For the 10-mA range in (c), 9 mA must
flow through the shunt path and 1 mA through 40 + R2 + 50 = 99 x (10 - R2 )
the meter path. Now rM has R1 in series with it, R2 + 90 = 990 - 99 R2
in the path bad. The shunt now includes R2 in 100R2 = 900
series with R3 , in the path bed. Remember that R2 = 9Q
the voltage is the same across the two parallel
paths bad and bed. The current is 1 mA in one Finally, R3 must be 1 n.
path and 9 mA in the other path. To calculate The total of R1 + R2 + R3 equals 40 +
R1 we can equate the voltage across the two 9 + 1, which equals the 50 n of RsT·
paths: As a proof of the resistance values, note
that in (b), 1 mA in each 50-Q branch produces
50 mV across both parallel branches. In (c),
1 mA in the 90-Q branch with the meter pro-
We know rM is 50 n. We also know RST is 50 n. duces 90 mV from b to d, while 9 mA through
We do not know R1 , R2 , or R3 , but (R2 + R3 ) the 10 n of R1 + R2 produces the same 90 mV.
must be 50 n minus R 1 . Therefore, In (d), 99 mA through the 1-Q R3 produces
99 mV, while 1 mA through the 99 Q in path
1 mA x (R1 + 50) = 9 mA x (50 - R 1 ) cbad produces the same 99 mV.

Solving for R 1 ,
Practice Problems 7-4
(answers on page 158)
R1 + 50 = 450 - 9R1
Refer to Fig. 7-9 and give the full-scale I
10R1 = 400
th rough the meter movement on
R1 = 40 Q
(a) 2-mA range.
(b) 100-mA range.
Not only do we know now that R1 is 40 n,
but we also know that (R 2 + R3 ) must be 10 n,
as they all must add up to 50 n. This value of 7-5
10 n for (R2 + R3 ) is used for the next step in VOLTMETERS
the calculations. Although a meter movement responds only to
For the 100-mA range in (d), 1 mA flows current in the moving coil, it is commonly used
through R 1 , R2 , and rM in the path cbad, and for measuring voltage by the addition of a high
99 mA through R3 in the path ed. The voltage is resistance in series with the movement (Fig.
the same across both paths. To calculate R2 , 7-10). The series resistance must be much
higher than the coil resistance in order to limit
the current through the coil. The combination
of the meter movement with its added series
We know R1 is 40 n. Then resistance then forms a voltmeter. The series
resistor, called a multiplier, is usually connected
40 + R2 + 50 = 99 R3 inside the voltmeter case.
 Chapter 7
136 Direct-Current Meters

Voltmeter 10 V for full scale

R1
9950 n r-----------..,
I
I R1
I 9950 n.
I multiplier

10V = 10
V 1 mA movement mA
rM = 50 Q
I
I
I 1 mA movement
+ + I rM = 50 n
Voltmeter leads I
+ connect across I
circuit L ___________ J
(a) (b)

4 6

(c)
FIGURE 7-10
A multiplier resistor added in series with the
meter movement forms a voltmeter. (a) The
multiplier R1 allows full-scale meter deflection
with 10 V applied. (b) The voltmeter leads can
be connected across a circuit to measure 0 to
10 V (c) 10-V scale and the corresponding
1-mA scale.

Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it ments apply the same way to either an IR drop
must be connected in parallel to measure the or a generated emf.
potential difference across two points in a cir- The correct polarity must be observed in
cuit. Otherwise, the high-resistance multiplier using a de voltmeter. Connect the negative volt-
would add so much series resistance that the meter lead to the negative side of the potential
current in the circuit would be reduced to a very difference being measured and the positive lead
low value. Connected in parallel, though, the to the positive side.
high resistance of the voltmeter is an advantage.
The higher the voltmeter resistance, the smaller Multiplier Resistance. Figure 7 -10 illustrates
the effect of its parallel connection on the circuit how the meter movement and its multiplier R1
being tested. form a voltmeter. With 10 V applied by the
The circuit is not opened to connect the battery in (a), there must be 10,000 n of resist-
voltmeter in parallel. Because of this conven- ance to limit the current to 1 mA for full-scale
ience, it is common practice to make voltmeter deflection of the meter movement. Since the
tests in troubleshooting. The voltage measure- movement has a 50-Q resistance, 9950 n is
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 137

added in series, resulting in a 10,000-Q total We can take another example for the same 10-V
resistance. Then I is 10 V/10 kQ = 1 mA. scale but with a 50-µA meter movement, which
With 1 mA in the movement, the full-scale is commonly used. Now the multiplier resist-
deflection can be calibrated as 10 V on the ance is much higher, though, because less I is
meter scale, as long as the 9950-Q multiplier is needed for full-scale deflection. Let the resist-
included in series with the movement. The mul- ance of the 50-µA movement be 2000 Q. Then
tiplier can be connected on either side of the
movement. R 10 V - 2000 Q
If the battery is taken away, as in (b), the mult = 0.000 050 A
movement with its multiplier forms a voltmeter = 200,000 - 2000
that can indicate a potential difference of 0 to
Rmult = 198,QQQ Q
10 V applied across its terminals. When the
voltmeter leads are connected across a poten-
tial difference of 10 Vin a de circuit, the result- Multiple Voltmeter Ranges. Voltmeters often
ing 1-mA current through the meter movement have several multipliers which are used with
produces full-scale deflection and the reading is one meter movement. A range switch selects
10 V In (c) the 10-V scale is shown corre- one multiplier for the required scale. The higher
sponding to the 1-mA range of the movement. the voltage range is, the higher the multiplier
If the voltmeter is connected across a 5-V resistance, in essentially the same proportion as
potential difference, the current in the move- the ranges.
ment is Yz mA, the deflection is one-half of full Figure 7-11 illustrates two ranges. When
scale, and the reading is 5 V Zero voltage the switch is on the 10-V range, multiplier RI is
across the terminals means no current in the connected in series with the 1-mA movement.
movement, and the voltmeter reads zero. In Then you read the 10-V scale on the meter face.
summary, then, any potential difference up to With the range switch on 25 V, R2 is then the
10 V, whether an IR voltage drop or generated multiplier, and the measured voltage is read on ·
emf, can be applied across the meter terminals. the 25-V scale.
The meter will indicate less than 10 V in the Several examples of using these two scales
same ratio that the meter current is less than are listed in Table 7 -1. Note that voltages less
1 mA. than 10 V can be read on either scale. ·It is
The resistance of a multiplier can be calcu- preferable, however, to have the pointer read
lated from the formula on the middle third of the scale. That is why the
scales are usually multiples of 10 and 2.5 or 3.
R _ full-scale V _ r (7-3)
mult - full-scale I M

Range Switch. With multiple ranges, the set-

Applying this formula to the example of RI in ting of the selector switch is the voltage that
Fig. 7 -10 gives produces full-scale deflection (Fig. 7-12). One
scale is generally used for ranges that are multi-
R IO V - 50 Q ples of 10. If the range switch is set for 250 Vin
mult = 0.001 A
Fig. 7-12, read the top scale as is. With the
= 10,000 - 50 range switch at 25 V, however, the readings on
Rmult = 9950 Q the 250-V scale are divided by 10.
 Chapter 7
138 Direct-Current Meters

Dual-range voltmeter
r-------------------,
10 v
10 15

range
Range
switch

~--
R = 24 950 S1
25 V 2
range '

1 mA movement
rM = 50 S1
L __

Voltmeter terminals-

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-11
Voltmeter with a range of either 10 or 25 V. (a)
Range switch selects scale by connecting either
R1 or R2 as the series multiplier. (b) Both volt-
age ranges on the face of the meter.

Similarly, the 100-V scale is used for the needed for the higher ranges, the switch adds
100-V range and the 10-V range. In Fig. 7-12 the required series resistors.
the pointer indicates 30 V when the switch is on The meter in Fig. 7 -13 requires 50 µA for
the 100-V range; this reading on the 10-V range full-scale deflection. For the 2.5-V range, a se-
is 3 V. ries resistance of 2.5/(50 X 10-6 ), or 50,000 Q,
is needed. Since rMis 2000 Q, the value of R1 is
'Typical Multiple Voltmeter Circuit. Another 50,000 - 2000, which equals 48,000 Q or
example of multiple voltage ranges is shown in 48 kQ.
Fig. 7-13, with a typical switching arrangement. For the 10-V range, a series resistance of
R1 is the series multiplier for the lowest voltage 10/(50 x 10-6 ), or 200,000 Q, is needed.
range of 2 .5 V. When higher resistance is Since R1 + rM provide 50,000 Q, R2 is made

TABLE 7-1. Multiple Voltage-Scale Readings for Fig. 7-11

10-V SCALE, Rv* = 10,000 Q 25-V SCALE, Rv * = 25,000 Q

SCALE SCALE
METER, READING, METER, READING,
mA DEFLECTION v mA DEFLECTION v
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.5 % 5 0.2 z/io 5
1.0 Full scale 10 0.4 4/io 10
0.5 % 12.5
1.0 Full scale 25
* Rv is total voltmeter resistance of multiplier and meter movement.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 139

on the highest range for 5000 V. This method of

adding series multipliers for higher voltage
ranges is the circuit generally used in commer-
cial multimeters.

Voltmeter Resistance. The high resistance of

a voltmeter with a multiplier is essentially the
value of the multiplier resistance. Since the
multiplier is changed for each range, the volt-
meter resistance changes.
Table 7-2 shows how the voltmeter resist-
'\(.)"' ance increases for the higher ranges. The mid-
/
__..i'-J
~'J dle column lists the total internal resistance Rv,
--1oov including Rmult and rM, for the voltmeter circuit
-........ in Fig. 7-13. With a 50-µA movement, Rv in-
<so v creases from 50 kQ on the 2.5-V range to
FIGURE 7-12 20 MQ on the 1000-V range. It should be noted
The range switch selects the voltage that can that Rv has these values on each range whether
produce full-scale deflection. The reading you read full-scale or not.
shown here is 30 Von the 100-V range.
Ohms-per-Volt Rating. To indicate the volt-
150,000 Q for a total of 200,000 Q series resist- meter's resistance independently of the range,
ance on the 10-V range. Similarly, additional voltmeters are generally rated in ohms of resist-
resistors are switched in to increase the multi- ance needed for 1 V of deflection. This value is
plier resistance for the higher voltage ranges. the ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter. As an
Note the separate jack and extra multiplier R6 example, see the last column in Table 7-2. The·

rM = 2000 Q

50 v

2.5 v

5000 v
FIGURE 7-13 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Typical voltmeter circuit for multiple ranges.

(Simpson VOM Model 260)
 Cha ter 7
140 Direct-Current Meters

TABLE 7-2. Characteristics of a Voltmeter Using a 50-µ,A Movement

FULL-SCALE VOLTAGE (Vp) Rv = Rmuit + rM OHMS PER VOLT = Rv!Vp
2.5 50 kQ 20,000 Q/V
10 200 kQ 20,000 Q/V
50 1 MQ 20,000 Q/V
250 5 MQ 20,000 Q/V
1000 20 MQ 20,000 Q/V

values in the top row show that this meter needs meters, but 20,000 Q/V with a 50-µA move-
50,000 Q Rv for 2.5 V of full-scale deflection. ment is generally used now. Higher sensitivity is
The resistance per 1 V of deflection then is an advantage, not only for less voltmeter load-
50,000!2.5, which equals 20,000 Q/V. ing, but lower voltage ranges and higher ohm-
The ohms-per-volt value is the same for all meter ranges can be obtained.
ranges. The reason is that this characteristic is
determined by the full-scale current IM of the Practice Problems 7-5
meter movement. To calculate the ohms-per- (answers on page 158)
volt rating, take the reciprocal of IM in ampere Refer to Fig. 7-13 to calculate the voltme-
units. For example, a 1-mA movement results in ter resistance Rv on
1 /0.001 or 1000 Q/V; a 50-µA movement (a) 2.5-V range.
allows 20,000 Q/V, and 20 µA allows (b) 50-V range.
50,000 Q/V. The ohms-per-volt rating is also
called the sensitivity of the voltmeter.
7-6
A high value of ohms per volt means a high LOADING EFFECT OF A
voltmeter resistance Rv. In fact Rv can be calcu - VOLTMETER
lated as the product of the ohms-per-volt rating When the voltmeter resistance is not high
and the full-scale voltage of each range. For enough, connecting it across a circuit can re-
instance across the second row in Table 7-2, on duce the measured voltage, compared with the
the 10-V range with a 20,000 Q/V rating, voltage present without the voltmeter. This
effect is called loading down the circuit, since
R = 10 V x 20,000 Q the measured voltage decreases because of the
v volts additional load current for the meter.
Rv = 200,000 Q
Loading Effect. This loading effect can be
These values are for de volts only. The sensitiv- appreciable in high-resistance circuits, as shown
ity for ac voltage is made lower, generally, to in Fig. 7-14. In (a), without the voltmeter, R1
prevent erratic meter deflection produced by and R2 form a voltage divider across the applied
stray magnetic fields before the meter leads are voltage of 120 V. The two equal resistances of
connected into the circuit. Usually the ohms- 100 kQ each divide the applied voltage equally,
per-volt rating of a voltmeter is printed on the with 60 V across each.
meter face. When the voltmeter in (b) is connected
The sensitivity of 1000 Q/V with a 1-mA across R2 to measure its potential difference,
movement used to be common for de volt- however, the voltage division changes. The
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 141

R, R, R,
100 k.Q 100 k.Q 100 k.Q

VT= 120 V
+
I
60 v VT= 100 V
+
Rv
100 k.Q -

v VT= 100 V
I
40V

l
+

l +

2 2 2
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7-14
Loading effect of a voltmeter. (a) High-resist-
ance series circuit. ( b) Voltmeter across one of
the series resistances. (c) Reduced resistance
and voltage between points 1 and 2 caused by
the voltmeter resistance as a parallel branch.

voltmeter resistance Rv of 100 kQ is the value the voltage division in the circuit. The 11 MQ of
for a 1000 ohms-per-volt meter on the 100-V the meter in parallel with the 100 ,000 Q for R2
range. Now the voltmeter in parallel with R2 results in an equivalent resistance practically
draws additional current and the equivalent equal to 100,000 Q.
resistance between the measured points 1 and 2 With multiple ranges on a VOM, the volt-
is reduced from 100,000 to 50,000 Q. This meter resistance changes with the range se-
resistance ·is one-third the total circuit resist- lected. Higher ranges require more multiplier.
ance, and the measured voltage across points 1 resistance, increasing the voltmeter resistance
and 2 drops to 40 V, as shown in (c). for less loading. As examples, a 20,000 ohms-
As additional current drawn by the voltme- per-volt meter on the 250-V range has an inter-
ter flows through the other series resistance R1 , nal resistance Rv of 20,000 X 250, or 5 MQ.
this voltage goes up to 80 V. However, on the 2.5-V range the same meter
Similarly, if the voltmeter were connected has an Rv of 20,000 X 2.5, which is only
across R1 , this voltage would go down to 40 V, 50,000 Q.
with the voltage across R2 rising to 80 V. When On any one range, though, the voltmeter
the voltmeter is disconnected, the circuit returns resistance is constant whether you read full-
to the condition in (a) with 60 V across both R1 scale or less than full-scale deflection. The rea-
and R2 • son is that the multiplier resistance set by the
The loading effect is minimized by using a range switch is the same for any reading on
voltmeter having a resistance much greater than that range.
the resistance across which the voltage is meas-
ured. As shown in Fig. 7 -15, with a voltmeter
resistance of 11 MQ, its loading effect is negligi- Correction for Loading Effect. The following
ble. Because Rv is so high, it does not change formula can be used:
 Chapter 7
142 Direct-Current Meters

R, R,
100 kn 100 kn

VT= 120 V
+
R2
100 kn
I
60 v VT= 120 V
+
60 v V
Rv=
11 Mn

2
1 2

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-15
Negligible loading with a high-resistance volt-
meter. (a) High-resistance series circuit. ( b)
Same voltages in circuit with voltmeter con-
nected.

Actual reading + Correction trate the general problem of trying to make any
l RI R2 \!,
l measurement without changing the circuit being
measured.
V=VM+ ( )M (7-4)
Rv RI + Rz
Practice Problems 7-6
Vis the corrected reading the voltmeter would (answers on page 158)
show if it had infinitely high resistance. VM is the With the voltmeter across R 2 in Fig. 7-14,
actual voltage reading. RI and R2 are the volt- what are the values for
age-dividing resistances in the circuit, without (a) \'i
the voltmeter resistance Rv. As an example, in (b) Vz
Fig. 7-14,
7-7
100 kQ x 100 kQ OHMMETERS
v = 40 v + 100 kQ x (200 kQ) x 40 v Basically, an ohmmeter consists of an internal
=4o+n)x4o battery, the meter movement, and a current-
limiting resistance, as illustrated in Fig. 7-16.
= 40 + 20 For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads
V= 60V are connected across an external resistance to
be measured, with power off in the circuit being
The loading effect of a voltmeter reading tested. Then only the ohmmeter battery pro-
too low because Rv is too low as a parallel duces current for deflecting the meter move-
resistance corresponds to the case of a current ment. Since the amount of current through the
meter reading too low because rM is too high as meter depends on the external resistance, the
a series resistance. Both of these effects illus- scale can be calibrated in ohms.
 Cha ter 7
Direct-Current Meters 143

Ohmmeter
r------------1
R1 = 1450 S1 R 1 = 1450 S1

Ohmmeter
leads

L ___________ .J
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-16
Ohmmeter circuit. (a) Equivalent closed circuit
when ohmmeter leads are short-circuited for
zero ohms of external resistance. (b) Circuit
with ohmmeter leads open.

The amount of deflection on the ohms and infinite ohms at the left for no deflection.
scale indicates directly the measured resistance. In-between values of resistance result in less
The ohmmeter reads up-scale regardless of the than 1 mA through the meter movement. The
polarity of the leads because the polarity of the corresponding deflection on the ohms scale
internal battery determines the direction of cur- indicates how much resistance is across the
rent through the meter movement. ohmmeter terminals.

Series-Ohmmeter Circuit. In Fig. 7-16a, the Back-off Ohmmeter Scale. Table 7 -3 and
circuit has 1500 Q for (R1 + rM). Then the 1.5-V Fig. 7 -1 7 illustrate the calibration of an ohm-
cell produces 1 mA, deflecting the moving coil meter scale in terms of meter current. The cur-
full scale. When these components are enclosed rent equals VI RT. Vis the fixed applied voltage
in a case, as in (b), the series circuit forms an of 1.5 V supplied by the internal battery. RT is
ohmmeter. the total resistance of Rx and the ohmmeter's
If the leads are short-circuited together or internal resistance. Note that Rx is the external
connected across a short circuit, 1 mA flows. resistance to be measured.
The meter movement is deflected full scale to The ohmmeter's internal resistance Ri is
the right. This ohmmeter reading is 0 Q. constant at 50 + 1450, or 1500 Q here. If Rx
With the ohmmeter leads open, not touch- also equals 1500 Q, for example, RT equals
ing each other, the current is zero. The ohm- 3000 Q. The current then is 1.5 V/3000 Q, or
meter indicates infinitely high resistance or an 0.5 mA, resulting in half-scale deflection for the
open circuit across its terminals. 1-mA movement. Therefore, the center of d1e
Therefore, the meter face can be marked ohms scale is marked for 1500 Q. Similarly, the
zero ohms at the right for full-scale deflection amount of current and meter deflection can be
 Chapter 7
144 Direct-Current Meters

TABLE 7-3. Calibration of Ohmmeter in Fig. 7-17

EXTERNAL INTERNAL
Rx, Rt= R1 + rM, RT= Rx+ Ri, I= V!Rr, SCALE
Q Q Q mA DEFLECTION READING, £2
0 1500 1500 1 Full scale 0
750 1500 2250 % = 0.67 %scale 750
1500 1500 3000 llz :::: 0.5 1
/ 2 scale 1500
3000 1500 4500 %= 0.33 %scale 3000
150,000 1500 151,500 0.01 1
/i. 00 scale 150,000
500,000 1500 501,500 0 None 00

calculated for any value of the external resist- resents the graph of a hyperbolic curve for the
ance Rx. reciprocal function y = 1 Ix.
Note that the ohms scale increases from The highest resistance that can be indi-
right to left. This arrangement is called a back- cated by the ohmmeter is about 100 times its
off scale, with ohms values increasing to the left total internal resistance. Therefore, the infinity
as the current backs off from full-scale deflec- mark on the ohms scale, or the "lazy eight"
tion. The back-off scale is a characteristic of any symbol oo for infinity, is only relative. It just
ohmmeter where the internal battery is in series means that the measured resistance is infinitely
with the meter movement. Then more ex- greater than the ohmmeter resistance.
ternal Rx decreases the meter current. For instance, if a 500,000-Q resistor in
A back-off ohmmeter scale is expanded at good condition were measured with the ohm-
the right near zero ohms and crowded at the left meter in Fig. 7 -1 7, it would indicate infinite
near infinite ohms. This nonlinear scale results resistance because this ohmmeter cannot
from the relation of I = VI R with V constant at measure as high as 500,000 Q. To read higher
1.5 V. Specifically, the back-off ohms scale rep- values of resistance, the battery voltage can be

External ohms of Rx
R 1 =1450 S1
1500
3000
1 mA movement 6000
rM = 50 S1 Meter 9000
12,000
leads 150,02,0
0

open

2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7-17
Back-off ohmmeter. (a) Series ohmmeter cir-
cuit with an external resistor Rx. ( b) Ohms scale
reads higher resistances from right to left, as
more Rx decreases IM (see Table 7-3).
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 145

increased to provide more current, or a more tiply the scale reading by the R X factor. On
sensitive meter movement is necessary to pro- voltage ranges, you may have to multiply or
vide deflection with less current. divide the scale reading to match the full-scale
voltage with the value on the range switch.
Multiple Ohmmeter Ranges. Commercial
multimeters provide for resistance measure- Typical Ohmmeter Circuit. For high-ohms
ments from less than 1 Q up to many megohms, ranges a sensitive meter is necessary to read the
in several ranges. The range switch in Fig. 7-18 low values of I with the high values of Rx. For
shows the multiplying factors for the ohms the case of low ohms, however, less sensitivity is
scale. On the R X 1 range, for low-resistance needed for the higher currents. These opposite
measurements, read the ohms scale directly. In requirements are solved by using a meter shunt
the example here, the pointer indicates 12 Q. across the meter movement and changing the
When the range switch is on RX 100, multiply shunt resistance for the multiple ohmmeter
the scale reading by 100; this reading would ranges. In Fig. 7-19, Rs is the meter shunt.
then be 12 X 100 or 1200 Q. On the To analyze the ohmmeter circuit in Fig.
RX 10,000 range, the pointer would indicate 7 -19, three conditions are shown. All are for the
120,000 Q. R X 1 range with 12-Q Rs. Figure 7-19a shows
A multiplying factor is given, instead of the internal circuit, before the ohmmeter is ad-
full-scale resistance, for each ohms range be- justed for zero ohms. In (b) the test leads are
cause the highest resistance is infinite on all the short-circuited. Then there are two paths for
ohms ranges. This method for ohms should not branch current produced by the battery V One
be confused with the full-scale values for voltage branch is Rs. The other branch includes Rb, RA,
ranges. For the ohmmeter ranges, always mul- and the meter movement. The 1.5 V is across
both branches.
To allow 50 µA through the meter, RA is
Ohms adjusted to 5000 Q. Then the total resistance in
12 this branch is 23 kQ + 5 kQ + 2 kQ, which
equals 30 kQ. With 30 kQ across 1.5 V, IM equals
50 µA. Therefore, RA is adjusted for full-scale
deflection to read zero ohms with the test leads
short-circuited.
0 In (c), assume a resistance Rx being meas-
ured is 12 Q, equal to Rs. Then the meter cur-
rent is practically 25 µA for half-scale deflec-
tion. The center ohms reading on the R X 1
scale, therefore, is 12 Q. For higher values of
Rx, the meter current decreases to indicate
higher resistances on the back-off ohms scale.
For higher ohms ranges, the resistance of
RX 10,000 the Rs branch is increased. The half-scale ohms
FIGURE 7-18 reading on each range is equal to the resistance
Multiple ohmmeter ranges. Multiply reading by of the Rs branch. A higher battery voltage can
the factor set on range switch. also be used for the highest ohms range.
 Chapter 7
146 Direct-Current Meters

Rs IM= 50 µA
+I
12 n.

Is ·--
=a1 A
1.5V

(a)
Test leads shorted
------------------
(b)
l

IM =25µA t
I

·--
ls=~ A -
1.5V
Rx

--------~~J\--------
(c)
l
+

FIGURE 7-19
Typical ohmmeter circuit for R X 1 range. (a)
Circuit before zero-ohms adjustment. (b) Test
leads short-circuited to adjust for zero ohms.
( c) Measuring external resistance Rx. The value
of 12 Q for Rx results in half-scale deflection, as
shown on the ohms scale in Fig. 7-18.

On any range, RA is adjusted for full-scale ages, an ohmmeter includes a variable resistor
deflection to read zero ohms with the test leads such as RA in Fig. 7 -19, to calibrate the ohms
short-circuited. This variable resistor is the scale. A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted
ohms adjust or zero-ohms adjustment. for zero ohms. With the test leads short-cir-
cuited, vary the ZERO OHMS control on the front
Zero-Ohms Adjustment. To compensate for panel of the meter until the pointer is exactly on
lower voltage output as the internal battery zero at the right edge of the ohms scale. Then
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 147

the ohms readings are correct for the entire

scale.
This type of ohmmeter must be zeroed
again every time you change the range. The
reason is that the internal circuit is changed.
When the adjustment cannot deflect the
pointer all the way to zero at the right edge, it
usually means the battery voltage is too low and
the internal dry cells must be replaced. Usually,
this trouble shows up first on the R X 1 range,
which takes the most current from the battery.
The ohmmeter battery in a typical VOM can be
seen in Fig. 7-20.

Shunt-Ohmmeter Circuit. In this circuit, the

internal battery, meter movement, and external
Rx are in three parallel paths. The main advan-
tage is a low-ohms scale that reads from left to
right. However, the shunt ohmmeter circuit is
seldom used because of constant current drain
on the internal battery.

Characteristics of the Series Ohmmeter. FIGURE 7-20

The main features are:
Typical VOM with back cover off to show
shunts, multipliers, and batteries for ohmmeter.
1. The circuit includes an internal battery and Separate 7.5-V cell is for high-ohms ranges.
a variable ohms-adjust control RA in series (Triplett Model 630)
with the meter movement.
2. The back-off scale has zero ohms at the
right edge, corresponding to a full-scale IM, Practice Problems 7-7
and infinite ohms at the left, corresponding (answers on page 158)
to a zero IM. (a) The ohmmeter reads 40 Q on the R X 10
3. Short-circuit the ohmmeter leads and ad- range. How much is Rx?
just RA for zero ohms. This zero adjust- (b) A voltmeter reads 40 Von the 300-V scale,
ment must be changed for each ohmmeter but with the range switch on 30 V. How
range, as the value of RA required for the much is the measured voltage?
full-scale IM is different.
4. Lower ohms ranges are obtained by de- 7-8
creasing the meter sensitivity with a shunt. MULTIMETERS
Higher ohms ranges are obtained by in- The main types are the volt-ohm-milliammeter
creasing the meter sensitivity and using a (VOM) in Fig. 7-21, vacuum-tube voltmeter
higher battery voltage. (VTVM) in Fig. 7-22, and the digital multimeter
 Chapter 7
148 Direct-Current Meters

FIGURE 7-22
Typical VTVM. Height is 7 in. Range switch is at
FIGURE 7-21 left and selector switch at right. Zero-adjust
Front view of typical VOM. Height is 7 in. Note control at left is for voltmeter; ohms-adjust
switch positions at left side for clamp-on am- control is at right. (RCA Model WV-98 C)
meter and at top for low-power ohms. (Simp-
son Model 260)
voltage ranges. In transistor circuits, though, the
resistances to be measured are usually in the ks-2
(DMM) in Fig. 7-23. Table 7-4 compares the range or less. The V1VM also has very high
features of the VOM and VIVM, while more ohms ranges, since the voltmeter circuit is used
details of the DMM are described in the next with an internal battery for the ohmmeter func-
section. Actually, the use of a digital meter is tion. The V1VM cannot be used as a current
similar to a VIVM, but the digital display is meter because of its high input resistance.
much easier to read without mistakes.
The VOM is probably the most common
multimeter. It is simple, compact, and portable
because the only power it uses is the battery for
the ohmmeter.
The VIVM needs an internal power supply
because the meter movement is in a bridge
circuit with an amplifier. Transistors can be used
instead of tubes, but the unit must be plugged
into the ac power line for operation or a battery
must be used for the power supply.
The main advantage of the V1VM is its FIGURE 7-23
high input resistance, usually 11 Mn on all de Digital volt-ohmmeter. (Hewlett Packard)
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 149

TABLE 7-4. Comparison of VOM and VTVM low-ohms ranges of R X 1 and R X 10. The
VOM VTVM high-ohms ranges need more battery voltage.
De voltmeter Rv Very high de voltme-
changes with range. ter Rv of 11 MQ Decibel Scale. Most multimeters have an ac
Rv = Q!V X full- or more, the same voltage scale calibrated in decibels (dB), for
scale voltage on all ranges measuring ac signals. The decibel is a unit for
Measures ac volts Measures ac volts
comparisons of power levels or voltage levels.
Measures direct cur- Does not measure di-
rect current
The mark of 0 dB on the scale indicates the
rent
Does not measure al- Does not measure al- reference level, which is usually 0. 775 V for
ternating current ternating current 1 mW across 600 n. Positive dB values above
Ohms ranges are usu- Ohms ranges are usu- the zero mark indicate ac voltages more than
ally up to ally up to 0.775 V; negative dB values are less than
Rx 10,000 Q Rx 1 MQ the reference level.
Zero-ohms adjustment Ohms adjustment is
must be changed the same for all
for each range ranges Amp-Clamp Probe. The problem of opening
Portable; black lead Usually plugged into a circuit to measure I can be eliminated by using
need not be con- the power line; a probe with a clamp that fits around the cur-
nected to chassis black lead must be rent-carrying wire. Its magnetic field is used to
ground at chassis ground indicate the current. The clamp in Fig. 7 -24 is
an accessory probe for the VOM in Fig. 7-21.

The VOM measures direct current but not

alternating current. In general, measuring alter-
nating current requires an ac meter movement
or a clamp-on accessory probe.
All the multimeters measure ac voltage
easily. The reason is that the ac voltage to be
measured is rectified to provide de voltage for
the meter.
For either a VOM or VIVM it is important
to have a low-voltage scale of 1 V or less, full-
scale deflection. This range is needed for meas-
uring de bias voltages of 0.2 to 0.6 Vin transis-
tor circuits.

Low-Power Ohms. Another good feature for

transistor circuits is an ohmmeter that does not
have enough battery voltage to bias a semicon-
ductor junction into the ON or conducting con-
dition. The limit is 0.2 V or less. For the VOM in FIGURE 7-24
Fig. 7-21, the open-circuit voltage is 0.1 V on Amp-clamp accessory for VOM in Fig. 7-21.
the low-power ohms ranges. These are also (Simpson Electric Company)
 Chapter 7
150 Direct-Current Meters

This probe measures just ac amperes, generally Input

for the 60-Hz power line.

High-Voltage Probe. The accessory probe in V conditioner

Fig. 7-25 can be used with a multimeter to and
S1-to-V converter
measure de voltages up to 30 kV One applica-
tion is measuring the anode voltage of 20 to
30 kV for the picture tube in a television re-
ceiver. The probe basically is just an external Analog-digital
multiplier resistance for the voltmeter. The re- converter
quired R for a 30-kV probe is 580 Mn with a
20-kn!V meter on the 1000-V range.

Practice Problems 7-8

Digital display
(answers on page 158)
(a) Which type of multimeter is simple, porta-
ble and has the lowest cost? FIGURE 7-26
(b) Ho~ much is the typical input R of a VIVM Basic functions in a digital multimeter for volts
on all de voltage ranges? and ohms.

unit, but most digital meters are larger than

7-9
analog meters.
DIGITAL METERS
The functional blocks in a digital VOM are
These have become popular because the digital
shown in Fig. 7 -26. First the input must be put
readout is displayed automatically with decimal
into a form that fits the needs of the analog-
point, polarity, and units (Fig. 7-23). The con-
digital (A-D) converter. As an example, the de
ventional meter with a pointer is an analog
voltage range of 0 to 1 V may be required for
meter; that is, the deflection corresponds di-
the digital conversion circuit. When the input is
rectly to the measured quantity. Digital meters
ac voltage, it is converted to de voltage. For
are much easier to use, mainly because they
measuring resistance, a direct current is sup-
reduce the human error that often occurs in
plied that converts R to an IR voltage.
reading the different scales on an analog meter.
When the de voltage is too high, it is di-
The digital VOM in Fig. 7-23 is a small, portable
vided down for 0 to 1 V When the de voltage is
too low, it is increased by a de amplifier. This
control voltage can then be compared with a
fixed reference voltage in the meter. The input
resistance for the de voltage range is 10 Mn.
Examples of the digital readout are -4.92
or +4.92 V for de voltage, 250.0-V ac for ac
voltage, and 397 n for the ohmmeter. How
FIGURE 7-25 many "9s" can be displayed specifies the num-
High-voltage probe accessory for VOM. (Trip- ber of digits for the DVM. The display generally
lett Corp.) uses light-emitting diodes (LED).
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 151

The A-D converter has a clock generator

which produces timing pulses and a circuit
which counts the pulses. A special digital logic
IC chip is the heart of the instrument. The IC
input includes timing pulses from the clock and
voltage from a circuit comparing the meter
input with the reference voltage. The output of
the IC chip drives the digital display unit.

Practice Problems 7-9

(answers on page 158)
Answer true or false.
(a} In the digital VOM and analog VIVM, R is
converted to IR voltage for ohms meas- FIGURE 7-27
urements. Inserting a current meter in a series-parallel
(b) An A-D converter has a clock circuit to circuit. At a, b, or c, meter reads IT; at d or e,
generate timing pulses. meter reads 12 ; at for g, meter reads 13 •

the meter. The mistake of connecting a voltme-

7-10 ter in series does not damage the meter, but the
METER APPLICATIONS reading is wrong.
Table 7-5 summarizes the main points to re- If the ohmmeter is connected to a circuit
member in using a voltmeter, ohmmeter, or where power is on, the meter can be damaged,
milliammeter. These rules apply whether the besides giving the wrong reading. An ohmmeter
meter is a single unit or one function on a has its own internal battery, and the power must
multimeter. Also, the voltage and current tests be off in the circuit being tested.
apply to either de or ac circuits.
To avoid excessive current through the Connecting a Current Meter in the Circuit.
meter, it is good practice to start on a high In a series-parallel circuit, the .current meter
range when measuring an unknown value of must be inserted in a branch to read branch
voltage or current. It is very important not to current. In the main line, the meter reads the
make the mistake of connecting a current meter total current. These different connections are
in parallel, because usually this mistake ruins illustrated in Fig. 7-27. The meters are shown

TABLE 7-5. Direct-Current Meters

MILLIAMMETER
VOLTMETER OR AMMETER OHMMETER

Power on in circuit Power on in circuit Power off in circuit

Connect in parallel Connect in series Connect in parallel
High internal R Low internal R Has internal battery
Has internal series Has internal shunts; lower Higher battery voltage and
multipliers; higher R resistance for higher more sensitive meter for
for higher ranges current ranges higher ohms ranges
 Chapter 7
152 Direct-Current Meters

by dashed lines to illustrate the different con- Furthermore, if necessary, we can insert a
nections where one could be connected to read known resistance Rs in series in the circuit,
the respective currents. temporarily, just to measure Vs. Then I is calcu-
If the circuit is opened at point a to insert lated as Vs! Rs. The resistance of Rs, however,
the meter in series in the main line here, it will must be small enough to have little effect on RT
read total line current IT through RI. A meter at and I in the series circuit.
b or c will read the same line current. This technique is often used with oscillo-
In order to read the branch current scopes to produce a voltage waveform of IR
through R2 , this R must be disconnected which has the same waveform as the current in
from its junction with the main line at either a resistor. The oscilloscope must be connected
end. A meter inserted at d or e, therefore, will as a voltmeter because of its high input resist-
read the R2 branch current I2 • Similarly, a meter ance.
at f or g will read the R3 branch current I3 .
Checking Fuses. Turn the power off or re-
Calculating I from Measured Voltage. The move the fuse from the circuit to check with an
inconvenience of opening the circuit to measure ohmmeter. A good fuse reads 0 n. A blown fuse
current can often be eliminated by the use of is open, which reads infinity on the ohmmeter.
Ohm's law. The voltage and resistance can be A fuse can also be checked with the power
measured without opening the circuit and the on in the circuit by using a voltmeter. Connect
current calculated as V/ R. In the example in the voltmeter across the two terminals of the
Fig. 7 -28, when the voltage across R2 is 15 V fuse. A good fuse reads 0 V because there is
and its resistance is 15 Q, the current through practically no IR drop. With an open fuse,
R2 must be 1 A. When values are checked dur- though, the voltmeter reading is equal to the full
ing troubleshooting, if the voltage and resist- value of the applied voltage. Having the full
ance are normal, so is the current. applied voltage seems to be a good idea, but it
This technique can also be convenient for should not be across the fuse.
determining I in low-resistance circuits where
the resistance of a microammeter may be too Voltage Tests for an Open Circuit. Figure
high. Instead of measuring I, measure V and R 7 -29 shows four equal resistors in series with a
to calculate I as VI R. 100-V source. A ground return is shown here
because voltage measurements are usually
made to chassis ground. Normally, each resis-
tor would have an IR drop of 25 V. Then, at
point B the voltmeter to ground should read
100 - 25 = 75 V. Also, the voltage at C should
= 20V be 50 V, with 25 V at D.
However, the circuit is shown with an open
in R3 , toward the end of the series string of
voltages to ground. Now, when you measure at
B, the reading is 100 V, equal to the applied
FIGURE 7-28 voltage. This full voltage at B shows the series
With 15 V measured across 15 S1, the current I circuit is open without any IR drop across RI.
is V!R = 1 A The question is, however, which R has the
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 153

100 v ov
c D
x
R3, R4
open 10 n
v

T
100

FIGURE 7-29
1
Voltage tests to localize an open circuit. R3 is
G

normally 10 Q. Reading of 0 Vat point D shows

R3 is open.

open? Continue the voltage measurements to between any two points along the conductor
ground until you find 0 V In this example, the tests continuity. A break in the conducting path
open is in R3 , between the 100 V at C and 0 V is evident from a reading of infinite resistance,
at D. showing an open circuit.
The points that read the full applied volt- As another application of checking conti-
age have a path back to the source of voltage. nuity, suppose there is a cable of wires har-
The first point that reads 0 V has no path back nessed together as illustrated in Fig. 7-30,
to the high side of the source. Therefore, the where the individual wires cannot be seen, but it
open circuit must be between points C and D in is desired to find the conductor that connects to
Fig. 7-29. terminal A. This is done by checking continuity
for each conductor to point A. The wire that has
Practice Problems 7-10 zero ohms to A is the one connected to this
(answers on page 158) terminal. Often the individual wires are color-
(a) Which type of meter requires an internal coded, but it may be necessary to check the
battery? continuity of each lead.
(b) How much is the normal voltage across a
good fuse?

7-11
CHECKING CONTINUITY WITH
3
THE OHMMETER
A wire conductor that is continuous without a
break has practically zero ohms of resistance.
Therefore, the ohmmeter can be useful in test-
ing for continuity. This test should be done on
the lowest ohms range. There are many appli-
Ohmmeter
cations. A wire conductor can have an internal reads zero
break, which is not visible because of the insu- FIGURE 7-30
lated cover, or the wire can have a bad connec- Continuity from A to 3 shows this wire is con-
tion at the terminal. Checking for zero ohms nected to terminal A.
 Chapter 7
154 Direct-Current Meters

An additional technique that can be helpful ance means that the wire element is open.
is illustrated in Fig. 7-31. Here it is desired to Similarly, a good fuse has practically zero re-
check the continuity of the two-wire line, but its sistance; a burned-out fuse has infinite resist-
ends are too far apart for the ohmmeter leads to ance, meaning it is open. Also, any coil for
reach. The two conductors are temporarily transformers, solenoids, and motors will have
short-circuited at one end, however, so that the infinite resistance if the winding is open.
continuity of both wires can be checked at the
other end.
In summary, then, the ohmmeter is helpful Practice Problems 7-11
in checking the continuity of any wire conduc- (answers on page 158)
tor. This check includes resistance-wire heating (a) On a back-off ohmmeter, is zero ohms at
elements, li)5e the wires in a toaster or the fila- the left or right edge?
ment of an incandescent bulb. Their cold resist- (b) What is the ohmmeter reading for an open
ance is normally just a few ohms. lnfinit~ resist- circuit?

2-wire cable

Ohmmeter
reads zero
FIGURE 7-31
Temporary short circuit at one end of a long
two-wire line to check continuity from oppo-
site end.

Summary

1. Direct current in a moving-coil meter deflects the coil in proportion to

the amount of current.
2. A current meter is a low-resistance meter connected in series to read
the amount of current in the circuit.
3. A meter shunt Rs in parallel with the meter movement extends the
range of a current meter [see Formula (7 -1)].
4. A voltmeter consists of the meter movement in series with a high-
resistance multiplier. The voltmeter with its multiplier is connected
across two points to measure their potential difference in volts. The
multiplier R can be calculated from Formula (7 -3 ).
5. The ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter with series multipliers spec-
ifies the sensitivity on all voltage ranges. It equals the reciprocal of the
full-scale deflection current of the meter. A typical value is
20,000 0,/V for a voltmeter using a 50-µA movement. The higher the
ohms-per-volt rating, the better.
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 155

6. Voltmeter resistance Rv is higher for higher ranges because of

higher-resistance multipliers. Multiply the ohms-per-volt rating by the
voltage range to calculate Rv.
7. An ohmmeter consists of an internal battery in series with the meter
movement. Power must be off in the circuit being checked with an
ohmmeter. The series ohmmeter has a back-off scale with zero ohms
at the right edge and infinity at the left. Adjust for zero ohms with the
leads short-circuited each time the ohms range is changed.
8. The VOM (Fig. 7-21) is a portable multimeter to measure volts,
ohms, and milliamperes.
9. The VIVM (Fig. 7-22) is a multimeter with a high R of 11 MQ for all
de voltage ranges, resulting in practically no loading effect. Also, its R
ranges allow readings up to 1000 MQ.
10. The digital VOM (Fig. 7-25) generally has an input resistance of
10 MQ on all de voltage ranges.
11. In checking wire conductors, the ohmmeter reads 0 Q or very low R
for normal continuity and infinite ohms for an open.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. To connect a current meter in series: (a) open the circuit at one point
and use the meter to complete the circuit; (b) open the circuit at the
positive and negative terminals of the voltage source; (c) short-circuit
the resistance to be checked and connect the meter across it;
(d) open the circuit at one point and connect the meter to one end.
2. To connect a voltmeter in parallel to read an IR drop: (a) open the
circuit at one end and use the meter to complete the circuit; (b) open
the circuit at two points and connect the meter across both points;
(c) allow the circuit to remain as is and connect the meter across the
resistance; (d) allow the circuit to remain closed but disconnect the
voltage source.
3. A shunt for a milliammeter (a) extends the range and reduces the
meter resistance; (b) extends the range and increases the meter
resistance; (c) decreases the range and the meter resistance;
(d) decreases the range but increases the meter resistance.
4. For a 50-µA movement with 2000-Q rM, its voltage VM at full-scale
deflection is (a) 0.1 V; (b) 0.2 V; (c) 0.5 V; (d) 250 µV.
5. A voltmeter using a 20-µA meter movement has a sensitivity of
(a) 1000 Q/V; (b) 20,000 Q/V; (c) 50,000 Q/V; (d) 11 MQ/V.
 Chapter 7
156 Direct-Current Meters

6. When using an ohmmeter, disconnect the applied voltage from the

circuit being checked because: (a) the voltage source will increase the
resistance; (b) the current will decrease the resistance; (c) the ohm-
meter has its own internal battery; (d) no current is needed for the
meter movement.
7. A multiplier for a voltmeter is (a) a high resistance in series with the
meter movement; (b) a high resistance in parallel with the meter
movement; (c) usually less than 1 n in series with the meter move-
ment; (d) usually less than 1 n in parallel with the meter movement.
8. To double the current range of a 50-µA2000-n meter movement, the
shunt resistance is (a) 40 n; (b) 50 n; (c) 2000 n; (d) 18,000 n.
9. With a 50-µA movement, a VOM has an input resistance of 6 Mn on
the de voltage range of (a) 3; (b) 12; (c) 60; (d) 300.
10. For a 1-V range, a 50-µA movement with an internal R of 2000 n
needs a multiplier resistance of (a) 1 kn; (b) 3 kn; (c) 18 kn;
(d) 50 kn.

Essay Questions
1. (a) Why is a milliammeter connected in series in a circuit? (b) Why
should the milliammeter have low resistance?
2. (a) Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel in a circuit? (b) Why
should the voltmeter have high resistance?
3. A circuit has a battery across two resistances in series. (a) Draw a
diagram showing how to connect a milliammeter in the correct
polarity to read current through the junction of the two resistances.
(b) Draw a diagram showing how to connect a voltmeter in the
correct polarity to read the voltage across one resistance.
4. Explain briefly why a meter shunt equal to the resistance of the
moving coil doubles the current range.
5. Describe how to adjust the ZERO OHMS control on a back-off ohmme-
ter.
6. Describe how to set the ZERO voLTs and OHMS ADJUST controls on a
VIVM.
7. Give two advantages of the digital VOM in Fig. 7 -23 compared with
the conventional VOM in Fig. 7 -21.
8. What is the function of the ZERO OHMS control in the circuit of a
back-off ohmmeter?
9. State two precautions to be observed when you use a milliammeter.
10. State two precautions to be observed when you use an ohmmeter.
11. The resistance of a voltmeter Rv is 300 kn on the 300-V range when
 Chapter 7
Direct-Current Meters 157

measuring 300 V. Why is Rv still 300 kQ when measuring 250 V on

the same range?
12. Redraw the schematic diagram in Fig. 5-lb, in Chap. 5, showing a
milliammeter to read line current through RI and R2 , a meter for R3
branch current, and a meter for R4 branch current. Label polarities
on each meter.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back

of book.)

1. Calculate the shunt resistance needed to extend the range of a 50-Q

1-mA movement to (a) 2 mA; (b) 10 mA; (c) 100 mA; (d) In each
case, how much current is indicated by half-scale deflection?
2. With a 50-Q 1-mA movement, calculate the multiplier resistances
needed for ranges of (a) 10 V; (b) 30 V; (c) 100 V; (d) 300 V. How
much voltage is indicated by half-scale deflection for each range?
3. A voltmeter reads 30 Vacross a 100-Q resistance. (a) How much is
the current in the resistor? (b) If the current through the same
resistance were doubled, how much would its IR voltage be?
4. A voltmeter has a sensitivity of 10,000 Q/V on all ranges. (a) How
much is the total voltmeter resistance on the 5-V range? (b) On the
50-V range? (c) On the 500-V range? (d) How much is the voltmeter
resistance for a reading of 225 Von the 500-V range?
5. A 50-µA meter movement has an internal resistance of 1000 Q.
(a) Calculate the multiplier resistance needed for voltmeter ranges of
10, 30, and 500 V. (b) How much is the ohms-per-volt sensitivity
rating on all ranges? (c) How much is the voltmeter resistance on the
500-V range?
6. For the same meter movement as in Prob. 5, calculate the shunt
resistances needed for current ranges of 10, 30, and 500 mA. How
much is the resistance of the meter with its shunt on each range?
(Note: 1mA=1000 µA.)
7. Referring to the universal shunt in Fig. 7-9, calculate the required
values of RI, R2 , and R3 for a 50-µA, 2000-Q movement to provide
current ranges of 1.2, 12, and 120 mA.
8. Referring to the voltmeter loading problem in Fig. 7-14, exactly how
much voltage would be indicated by a 20,000 ohms-per-volt meter
on its 100-V range?
9. Refer to the ohmmeter in Fig. 7-17. Assume that the movement is
shunted to become a 10-mA meter. (a) Calculate the value of RI that
would be required for full-scale deflection with the ohmmeter leads
 Chapter 7
158 Direct-Current Meters

short-circuited. (b) How much would the half-scale reading be on the

ohms scale?
10. Refer to Fig. 7-13. (a) How much is the total voltmeter resistance
using the 5000-V jack with the range switch on the 1000-V position?
(b) How much is the ohms-per-volt sensitivity? (c) Why must the
range switch be on the 1000-V position?
11. In Fig. 7-14, if the voltmeter is connected across R1 instead of R2 ,
what will the values be for \1i and \'z?

Answers to Practice Problems

7-1 (a) Parallel 7-6 (a) \1i = 80 V
(b) Series (b) \'z = 40 v
7-2 (a) I= 100 mA 7-7 (a) Rx= 400 n
(b) R3 (b) V=4V
(c) Low 7-8 (a) VOM
(d) High (b) 11 Mn
7-3 (a) I8 = 450 µA 7-9 (a) True
(b) VM = 0.045 v (b) True
7-4 (a) IM= 1 mA 7-10 (a) Ohmmeter
(b) IM= 1 mA (b) 0v
7-5 (a) Rv = 50 kn 7-11 (a) Right edge
(b) Rv = 1 Mn (b) oo ohms
 Review of
Cbapt•s
eand7

Summary
1. In a series voltage divider the IR drop across each resistance is
proportional to its R. A larger R has a larger voltage drop. Each
V = (RI RT) x Vr In this way, the series voltage drops can be
calculated from VT without I.
2. In a parallel current divider, each branch current is inversely
proportional to its R. A smaller R has more branch current. For
only two resistances, we can use the inverse relation
I1 = [R2 1(R1 + R2 )] X Ir· In this way, the parallel branch currents
can be calculated from IT without V.
3. In a parallel current divider, each branch current is directly propor·
tional to its conductance G. A larger G has more branch current. For
any number of parallel resistances, each branch I = (QI GT) X IT.
4. A milliammetet or ammeteris a low·resistance meter connecrted in
series in a circuit to measure current.
5. Different current ranges are obtained by meter shunts in paraHel with
the·meter.
6. Avoltmeteris a high-resistance meter connected across the voltage
to be· measured. ·
7. Different voltage ranges are obtained by multipliers in series with the
meter.
8. An ohmmeter has an internalbattery to indicate the resistance of~
component across its two terminals, with external power off.
9. In making resistance tests, remember R = 0 Sl for continuity or a
short circuit, but the resistance .of an open circuit is infinite.
160 Review of Chapters 6 and 7

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of

book.)

Answer true or false.

1. The internal R of a milliammeter must be low to have minimum effect

on I in the circuit.
2. The internal R of a voltmeter must be high to have minimum current
through the meter.
3. Power must be off when checking resistance in a circuit because the
ohmmeter has its own internal battery.
4. In the series voltage divider in Fig. 7-29, the normal voltage from
point B to ground is 75 V.
5. In Fig. 7 -29, the normal voltage across R1 , between A and B, is 75 V.
6. The highest ohms range is best for checking continuity with an
ohmmeter.
7. With four equal resistors in a series voltage divider with VT of 44.4 V,
each IR drop is 11.1 V.
8. With four equal resistors in parallel with IT of 44.4 mA, each branch
current is 11.1 mA.
9. Series voltage drops divide VT in direct proportion to each series R.
10. Parallel currents divide IT in direct proportion to each branch R.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Herrick, C. N.: "Instruments and Measurements for Electronics,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Prensky, S. D.: "Electronic Instrumentation," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
Zbar, P. B.: "Basic Electricity," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
 Klrcbboff's
Laws
Many types of circuits have components that are not in series, in parallel,
or in series-parallel. One example is a circuit with two voltages applied in Cbapl

8
different branches, as in Fig. 8-3. Another example is an unbalanced
bridge circuit. Where the rules of series and parallel circuits cannot be
applied, more general methods of analysis become necessary. These
methods include the application of Kirchhoff's laws, as described here,
and the network theorems explained in Chap. 9. Any circuit can be solved
by Kirchhoff's laws because they do not depend on series or parallel
connections. Stated in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoff,
the two basic rules for voltage and current are:
1. The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops must
total zero around any closed path.
2. At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents directed in
and out must total zero.
Specific methods for applying these basic rules are explained in the
following topics:

8-1 Kirchhoff's Current Law

8-2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
8-3 Method of Branch Currents
8-4 NodeNoltage Analysis
8-5 Method of Mesh Currents

8-1 tions that determine the algebraic signs for cur-

KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW rent and voltage terms; A convenient system for
The algebraic sum of the currents entering and currents is: Consider all currents into a branch
leaving any point in a circuit must equal zero. point as positive and all currents directed away
Or stated another way: The algebraic sum of the from that point as negative.
currents into any point of the circuit must equal As an example, in Fig. 8-1 we can write the
the algebraic sum of the currents out of that currents as:
point. Otherwise, charge would accumulate at
the point, instead of having a conducting path.
or
Algebraic Signs. In using Kirchhoff's laws to
solve circuits it is necessary to adopt conven- 5A+3A-8A=0
 Chapter 8
162 Kirchhoff's Laws

6A-2A-4A=0
For the opposite directions, refer to point d
at the bottom of Fig. 8-2. Here the branch cur-
rents into d combine to equal the main-line
current IT returning to the voltage source. Now
IT is directed out from d, with 13 and 14 _5 directed
in. The algebraic equation is

- IT + l3 + !4_5 = 0
Current 10 out from P equals 5 A + 3 A into P -6A+2A+4A=0

IA and IB are positive terms because these cur- The Iin = lout· Note that at either point c or
rents flow into P, but 10 directed out is negative. point din Fig. 8-2, the sum of the 2-A and 4-A
branch currents must equal the 6-A total line
Current Equations. For a circuit application, current. Therefore, Kirchhoff's current law can
refer to point c at the top of the diagram in be stated more briefly as: 4n = lout· In Fig. 8-2,
Fig. 8-2. The 6-A IT into point c divides into the the equations of current can be written:
2-A 13 and 4-A 14 _5 , both directed out. Note that At point c: 6A=2A+4A
14 _5 is the current through R4 and R5 . The alge- At point d: 2A+4A=6A
braic equation is
Kirchhoff's current law is really the basis for the
practical rule in parallel circuits that the total
line current must equal the sum of the branch
Substituting the values for these currents, currents.

v 1 = 30 v v4 = 40 v
a R 1 =5.Q c R 4 =10.Q e
---~~~ v-+~~~--~~--'~J ,~.,......+~~--
--+ --+
I 4 _5 = 4 A
IT= 6A I 3 = 2 A:
+
R3 = V3 = Rs= Vs=
VT= 240 V
60.Q 120 v 20 n so v
+ + +
I3 = 2 A l
IT= 6A
+--
+ I 4 _5 = 4 A
+--
b d f

FIGURE 8-2
Series-parallel circuit to illustrate Kirchhoff's
laws. See text for current and voltage equa-
tions.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 163

Practice Problems 8-1 The inside loop acdba includes \'i, \'3, Vz,
(answers on page 174) and VT. The other inside loop, cefdc with \'4, \fs,
(a) With a 1-A 11 , 2-A 12 , and 3-A 13 into a and \'3, does not include the voltage source.
point, how much is I out? Consider the voltage equation for the in-
(b) 11 into a point is 3 A. I out is 7 A. How side loop with VT. In the clockwise direction,
much is 12 in? starting from point a, the algebraic sum of the
voltages is
8-2
KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any
or
closed path is zero. If you start from any point at
one potential and come back to the same point
and the same potential, the difference of poten-
-30 v- 120 v - 90 v + 240 v = 0
tial must be zero.
\'i, \'3, and Vz have the negative sign, because
for each of these voltages the negative terminal
Algebraic Signs. In determining the algebraic is reached first. However, the source VT is a
signs for voltage terms, first mark the polarity of positive term because its plus terminal is
each voltage, as shown in Fig. 8-2. A conven- reached first, going in the same direction.
ient system then is: Go around any closed path For the opposite direction, going counter-
and consider any voltage whose plus terminal is clockwise, in the same loop from point b at the
reached first as positive, and vice versa. This bottom, Vz, \'3, and Vi have positive values and
method applies to voltage drops and voltage VT is negative. Then
sources. Also, the direction can be clockwise or
counterclockwise. In any case, if you come back
to the starting point, the algebraic sum of all the
voltage terms must be zero. or
If you do not come back to the start, then
the algebraic sum is the voltage between the 90 v + 120 v + 30 v - 240 v= 0
start and finish points.
You can follow any closed path. The rea- When we transpose the negative term of
son is that the net voltage between any two -240 V, the equation becomes
points in a circuit is the same regardless of the
path used in determining the potential differ- 90 v + 120 v + 30 v = 240 v
ence.
This equation states that the sum of the voltage
Loop Equations. Any closed path is called a drops equals the applied voltage.
loop. A loop equation specifies the voltages
around the loop. l:V = VT. The Greek letter :L means "sum of."
Figure 8-2 has three loops. The outside In either direction, for any loop, the sum of the
loop, starting from point a at the top, through IR voltage drops V must equal the applied volt-
cefdb, and back to a, includes the voltage drops age VT. In Fig. 8-2, for the inside loop with the
\'i, \'4, \fs, and Vz, and the source VT. source VT,
 Chapter 8
164 Kirchhoff's Laws

Counterclockwise from b: terminal is reached first by going clockwise from

90V + 120V + 30V = 240V d to c in this loop.

This system does not contradict the rule for Practice Problems 8-2
algebraic signs. If 240 V were in the left side of (answers on page 174)
the equation, this term would have a negative Refer to Fig. 8-2.
sign. (a) For loop cefd, what is the total with -40 V
Stating a loop equation as ~V = VT elimi- for \'4 and -80 V for \1s?
nates the step of transposing the negative terms (b) For loop cefdc, what is the total with
from one side to the other to make them posi- -40 V for \'4, -80 V for \'s, and including
tive. In this form, the loop equations show that 120 V for \'3?
Kirchhoff's voltage law is really the basis for the
practical rule in series circuits that the sum of 8-3
the voltage drops must equal the applied volt- METHOD OF BRANCH CURRENTS
age. Now we can use Kirchhoff's laws to analyze the
When a loop does not have any voltage circuit in Fig. 8-3. The _problem is to find the
source, the algebraic sum of the IR voltage currents and voltages for the three resistors.
drops alone must total zero. For instance, in First, indicate current directions and mark
Fig. 8-2, for the loop cefdc without the source the voltage polarity across each resistor consist-
VT, going clockwise from point c, the loop ent with the assumed current. Remember that
equation of voltages is electron flow in a resistor produces negative
-\'4- Vs+ \'3 =0 polarity where the current enters. In Fig. 8-3,
-40 v - 80 v + 120 v = 0 we assume that the source "1. produces electron
0 =0 flow from left to right through R1 , while \'2
produces electron flow from right to left
Notice that \'3 is positive now, because its plus through R2 .

a R 1 =12 .Q c e
+
--+ +--
1, 12

V1 = +
84V

b d f
FIGURE 8-3
Application of Kirchhoff's laws to a circuit with
two sources in different branches. See text for
solution by finding the branch currents.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 165

The three different currents in R1 , R2 , and

R3 are indicated as 11 , 12 , and 13 . However, three
unknowns would require three equations for Multiplying (11 + 12 ) by 6 and combining terms
the solution. From Kirchhoff's current law, and transposing, the two equations are
13 = 11 + 12 , as the current out of point c must
equal the current in. The current through R3 , -1811 - 612 = -84
therefore, can be specified as 11 + 12 . -611 - 912 = -21
With two unknowns, two independent
equations are needed to solve for 11 and 12 . Divide the top equation by -6 and the bottom
These equations are obtained by writing two equation by -3 to make coefficients smaller
Kirchhoff's voltage law equations around two and to have all positive terms. The two equa-
loops. There are three loops in Fig. 8-3, the tions in their simplest form then become
outside loop and two inside loops, but we need
only two. The inside loops are used for the 311 + 12 = 14
solution here. 211 + 312 = 7

Writing the Loop Equations. For the loop Solving for the Currents. These two equa-
with \'i, start at point b, at the bottom left, and tions in the two unknowns 11 and 12 contain the
go clockwise through \'i, VR 1 , and VR 3 • This solution of the network. It should be noted that
equation for loop 1 is the equations include every resistance in the
circuit. 11 and 12 can be calculated by any of the
methods for the solution of simultaneous equa-
tions. Using the method of elimination, multiply
For the loop with \'z, start at point f, at the lower the top equation by 3 to make the 12 terms the
right, and go counterclockwise through \'z, VR 2 , same in both equations. Then
and VR 3 • This equation for loop 2 is
911 + 312 = 42
211 + 312 = 7

Using the known values of R1 , R2 , and R3 to Subtract the bottom equation from the top
specify the IR voltage drops, equation, term by term, to eliminate 12 • Then,
since the 12 term becomes zero,
VR1 = fl Rl = 1211
VR2 = I2R2 = 312
VR 3 = U1 + l2)R3 = 6(11 + 12)
Substituting these values in the voltage equation The 5-A 11 is the current through R1 . Its
for loop 1, direction is from a to c, as assumed, because
the answer for 11 is positive.
To calculate 12 substitute 5 for 11 in either of
the two loop equations. Using the bottom equa-
Also, in loop 2, tion for the substitution,
 Chapter 8
166 Kirchhoff's Laws

2(5) + 312 = 7 end. However, the polarity of \.'z is the same in

312 = 7 - 10 both diagrams, because it is a voltage source,
312 = -3 which generates its own polarity.
12 = -1 A To calculate 13 through R3 ,

The negative sign for 12 means this current is 13 = 11 + 12

opposite to the assumed direction. Therefore, 12 =5+(-1)
flows through R2 from c to e instead of the 13 =4A
direction from e to c.
The 4 A for 13 is in the assumed direction from c
Why the Solution for 12 is Negative. In to d. Although the negative sign for 12 only
Fig. 8-3, 12 was assumed from points e to c means a reversed direction, its algebraic value
through R2 because Vz produces electron flow of -1 must be used for substitution in the alge-
in this direction. However, the other voltage braic equations written for the assumed direc-
source Vi produces electron flow through R2 in tion.
the opposite direction from points c to e. This
solution of -1 A for 12 shows that the current Calculating the Voltages. With all the cur-
through R2 produced by \.1i is more than the rents known, the voltage across each resistor
current produced by Vz. The net result is 1 A can be calculated as follows:
through R2 from c to e.
The actual direction of 12 is shown in VR1 = 11 Rl = 5 x 12 = 60 v
Fig. 8-4 with all the values for the solution of VR2 = 12R2 :;:: 1 x 3 = 3 v
this circuit. Notice that the polarity of VR 2 is VR3 = l3R3 = 4 x 6 = 24 v
reversed from the assumed polarity in Fig. 8-3.
Since the net electron flow through R2 is actu- All the currents are taken as positive, in the
ally from c to e, the end of R2 at c is the negative correct direction, to calculate the voltages. Then

R 1 =12 n R 2 = 3r2
VR, =GOV VR
2
=3V
a + c e
+
--+ --+
1 =1A
11 =5 A I 2
I
+13 = 4 A

v, = +
84 v VR3
24 v
= R 3 = 6r2 21 V-=- V2
+
+

b d f
FIGURE 8-4
Solution of Fig. 8-3 with all currents and volt-
ages.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 167

the polarity of each IR drop is determined from around the loops. Then loop equations are
the actual direction of current, with electron written to satisfy Kirchhoff's voltage law. Solv-
flow into the negative end (see Fig. 8-4). Notice ing the loop equations, we can calculate the
that VR 3 and VR 2 have opposing polarities in loop unknown branch currents.
2. Then the sum of +3 Vand -24 Vequals the Another method uses the voltage drops to
-21 V of Vz. specify the currents at a branch point, also
called a node. Then node equations of currents
Checking the Solution. As a summary of all are written to satisfy Kirchhoff's current law.
the answers for this problem, Fig. 8-4 shows the Solving the node equations, we can calculate
network with all the currents and voltages. The the unknown node voltages. This method of
polarity of each V is marked from the known node-voltage analysis often is shorter than the
directions. In checking the answers, we can see method of branch currents.
whether Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws A node is simply a common connection for
are satisfied: two or more components. A principal node has
three or more connections. In effect, a principal
At point c: Sa = 4a +la
node is just a junction or branch point, where
At point d: 4a +la =Sa
currents can divide or combine. Therefore, we
Around the loop with \'i:
can always write an equation of currents at a
84 V - 60 V - 24 V = 0 clockwise
principal node. In Fig. 8-S, points N and G are
from b
principal nodes.
Around the loop with Vz:
However, one node must be the reference
21 V + 3 V - 24 V = 0 counterclockwise
for specifying the voltage at any other node. In
from f Fig. 8-S, point G connected to chassis ground is
It should be noted that the circuit has been the reference node. Therefore, we need only
solved using only the two Kirchhoff laws, with- write one current equation for the other node
out any of the special rules for series and paral- N. In general, the number of current equations
lel circuits. Any circuit can be solved just by required to solve a circuit is one less than its
applying Kirchhoff's laws for the voltages principal nodes.
around a loop and the currents at a branch
point. Writing the Node Equations. The circuit of
Fig. 8-3, earlier solved by the method of branch
Practice Problems 8-3 currents, is redrawn in Fig. 8-S to be solved now
(answers on page 174) by node-voltage analysis. The problem here is
Refer to Fig. 8-4. to find the node voltage VN from N to G. Once
(a) How much is the voltage around loop this voltage is known, all the other voltages and
cefd? currents can be determined.
(b) How much is the voltage around loop The currents in and out of node N are
cefdc? specified as follows: II is the only current
through the 12-Q RI. Therefore, II is VR/ RI or
8-4 VR/12 Q. Similarly 12 is VR/3 Q. Finally, 13 is
NODE-VOLTAGE ANALYSIS VR/6 Q.
In the method of branch currents, these cur- Note that VR 3 is the node voltage VN that we
rents are used for specifying the voltage drops are to calculate. Therefore, /3 can also be stated
 Chapter 8
168 Kirchhoff's Laws

R 1 =12 n
+

V1 =84V
+
+

FIGURE 8-5
Node-voltage analysis for the same circuit as in
Fig. 8-3. See text for solution by finding VN
across R3 from the principal node N to ground.

as VN/6 Q. The equation of currents at node

Nis

or Using the value of each Vin terms of VN.

There are three unknowns here, but \.'ii 1

This equation has only the one unknown, VN.
and VR 2 can be specified in terms of VN and the
Clearing fractions by multiplying each term by
known values of \.1i and Vz. We can use
12, the equation is
Kirchhoff's voltage law, because the applied
voltage V must equal the algebraic sum of the
voltage drops. For the loop with \.1i of 84 V, (84 - VN) + 4(21 - VN) = 2VN
84 - VN + 84 - 4VN = 2VN
or -7VN = -168
VN=24V
For the loop with Vz of 21 V,
This answer of 24 V for VN is the same as that
or calculated for VR 3 by the method of branch cur-
rents. The positive value means the direction of
Now substitute these values of \.'ii 1
and \.'ii 2
13 is correct, making VN negative at the top of R3
in the equation of currents: in Fig. 8-5.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 169

Calculating All Voltages and Currents. The However, the voltages are specified as IR so
reason for finding the voltage at a node, rather that the equation of voltages can be solved to
than some other voltage, is the fact that a node find a loop current. This procedure with voltage
voltage must be common to two loops. As a equations is used for the method of branch
result, the node voltage can be used for calcu- currents explained before with Fig. 8-3 and to
lating all the voltages in the loops. In Fig. 8-5, the method of mesh currents to be described
with a VN of 24 V, then VR 1 must be next with Fig. 8-6.
84 - 24 = 60 V. Also, I1 is 60 V/12 Q, which
equals 5 A. Practice Problems 8-4
To find \.'a 2 , it must be 21 - 24, which (answers on page 174)
equals -3 V. The negative answer means that (a) Figure 8-5 has how many principal nodes?
I2 is opposite to the assumed direction and the (b) How many node equations are necessary
polarity of \.'a 2 is the reverse of the signs shown to solve ·a circuit with three principal
across R2 in Fig. 8-5. The correct directions are nodes?
shown in the solution for the circuit in Fig . .8-4.
The magnitude of I2 is 3 V/3 Q, which 8-5
equals 1 A. METHOD OF MESH CURRENTS
The following comparisons can be helpful A mesh is the simplest possible closed path. The
in using node equations and loop equations. A circuit in Fig. 8-6 has the two meshes acdba and
node equation applies Kirchhoff's current law cefdc. The outside path acefdba is a loop but
to the currents in and out of a node point. ~ot a mesh. Each mesh is like a single window
However, the currents are specified as VI R so frame. There is only one path without any
that the equation of currents can be solved to branches.
find a node voltage. A mesh current is assumed to flow around
A loop equation applies Kirchhoff's volt- a mesh without dividing. In Fig. 8-6, the mesh
age law to the voltages around a closed path. current IA flows through \.'i, R1 , and R3 ; mesh ·

a c e
+ +
R 1 =12 n

84V = +
V1

18 IA - 6 I 8 = 84 V - 6 IA + 9 I 8 = - 21 V

b d f
FIGURE 8-6
The same circuit as Fig. 8-3 analyzed as two
meshes. See text for solution by calculating the
assumed mesh currents IA and In.
 Chapter 8
170 Kirchhoff's Laws

current IB flows through Vz, R2 , and R 3 • A re- 18 n. Therefore, the voltage drop for IA is l8IA
sistance common to two meshes, such as R3 , in mesh A.
has two mesh currents, which are IA and IB In the second equation, for mesh B, the
here. total resistance is 3 + 6, or 9 n, making the
The fact that a mesh current does not total voltage drop 9IB for IB in mesh B. You can
divide at a branch point is the difference be- add all the resistances in a mesh for one RT,
tween mesh currents and branch currents. A because they can be considered in series for the
mesh current is an assumed current, while a assumed mesh current.
branch current is the actual current. However, Any resistance common to two meshes has
when the mesh currents are known, all the two opposite mesh currents. In Fig. 8-6, IA flows
individual currents and voltages can be deter- down while IB is up through the common R3 ,
mined. with both currents clockwise. As a result, a
As an example, Fig. 8-6, which has the common resistance has two opposing voltage
same circuit as Fig. 8-3, will now be solved by drops. One voltage is positive for the current of
using the assumed mesh currents IA and IB. The the mesh whose equation is being written. The
mesh equations are opposing voltage is negative for the current of
the adjacent mesh.
l8IA - 6IB = 84 V in mesh A In mesh A, the common 6-n R 3 has the
-6IA + 9IB = -21 V in mesh B opposing voltages 6IA and -6IB. The 6IA of R 3
adds to the l2IA of R1 for the total positive
Writing the Mesh Equations. The number of voltage drop of l8IA in mesh A. With the op-
meshes equals the number of mesh currents, posing voltage of -6IB, then the equation for
which is the number of equations required. mesh A is l8IA - 6IB = 84 V
Here two equations are used for IA and IB in the The same idea applies to mesh B. How-
two meshes. ever, now the voltage 6IB is positive because the
The assumed current is usually taken in equation is for mesh B. The -6IA voltage is
the same direction around each mesh, in order negative here because IA is for the adjacent
to be consistent. Generally, the clockwise direc- mesh. The 6IB adds to the 3IB of R2 for the total
tion is used, as shown for IA and IB in Fig. 8-6. positive voltage drop of 9 IB in mesh B. With the
In each mesh equation, the algebraic sum opposing voltage of -6IA, the equation for
of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage. mesh B then is -6IA + 9IB = -21 V
The voltage drops are added going around The algebraic sign of the source voltage in
a mesh in the same direction as its mesh cur- a mesh depends on its polarity. When the as-
rent. Any voltage drop in a mesh produced by sumed mesh current flows into the positive ter-
its own mesh current is considered positive minal, as for \.'i in Fig. 8-6, it is considered
because it is added in the direction of the mesh positive for the right-hand side of the mesh
current. equation. This direction of electron flow pro-
Since all the voltage drops of a mesh cur- duces voltage drops that must add to equal the
rent in its own mesh must have the same posi- applied voltage.
tive sign, they can be written collectively as one With the mesh current into the negative
voltage drop, by adding all the resistances in the terminal, as for Vz in Fig. 8-5, it is considered
mesh. For instance, in the first equation, for negative. This is why Vz is -21 Vin the equa-
mesh A, the total resistance equals 12 + 6, or tion for mesh B. Then Vz is actually a load for
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 171

the larger applied voltage of \1i, instead of ~ The positive solutions mean that the electron
being the source. When a mesh has no source flow for both IA and IB is actually clockwise, as
voltage, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops assumed. When the solution for a mesh current
must equal zero. is negative, its direction is opposite to the as-
sumed direction.
Solving the Mesh Equations to Find the Mesh
Currents. The two equations for the two Finding the Branch Currents and Voltage
meshes in Fig. 8-6 are Drops. Referring to Fig. 8-6, the 5-A IA is the
only current through RI. Therefore, IA and II
l8IA - 6IB = 84 are the same. Then VR 1 across the 12-Q RI is
-6IA + 9IB = -21 5 x 12 or 60 V. The polarity of VR 1 is marked
negative at the left, with the electron flow into
These equations have the same coefficients as this side.
in the voltage equations written for the branch Similarly, the 1-A IB is the only current
currents, but the signs are different. The reason through R2 • The direction of this electron flow
is that the directions of the assumed mesh cur- through R2 is from left to right. Note that this
rents are not the same as for the branch cur- value of 1 A for IB clockwise is the same as
rents. -1 A for I2 , assumed in the opposite direction
The solution will give the same answers for in Fig. 8-3. Then VR 2 across the 3-Q R2 is 1 X 3
either method, but you must be consistent in or 3 V, with the left side negative.
algebraic signs. Either use the rules for meshes · The current I3 through R3 , common to
with mesh currents or the rules of loops with both meshes, consists of IA and IB. Then I3 is
branch currents, but do not mix the two meth- 5 - 1 or 4 A. The currents are subtracted be-
ods. cause IA and IB are in opposing directions
For smaller coefficients, divide the first through R3 . When all the mesh currents are
equation by 2 and the second equation by 3. taken one way, they will always be in opposite.
Then directions through any resistance common to
two meshes.
9IA - 3IB = 42 The direction of the net 4-A I3 through R3
-2IA + 3IB = -7 is downward, the same as IA, because it is larger
than IB. Then, VR 3 across the 6-Q R3 is
Add the equations, term by term, to eliminate 4 x 6 = 24 V, with the top negative.
IB. Then
The Set of Mesh Equations. The system for
algebraic signs of the voltages in the mesh
equations is different from the method used
with branch currents, but the end result is the
To calculate /B, substitute 5 for IA in the second same. The advantage of mesh currents is the
equation: pattern of algebraic signs for the voltages, with-
out the need for tracing any branch currents.
-2(5) + 3IB = -7 This feature is especially helpful in a more elab-
3IB = - 7 + 10 =3 orate circuit, such as the one in Fig. 8-7 that has
IB = 1 A three meshes. We can use Fig. 8-7 for more
 Chapter 8
172 Kirchhoff's Laws

R, In mesh B: -2IA + SIB - 210 = 0

In mesh C: 0 - 2JB + 610 = -8

:_v2 = The zero term in equations A and C repre-

- av sents a missing mesh current. Only mesh B has
+
all three mesh currents.
·In summary, the only positive IR voltage
Ra in a mesh is for the RT of each mesh current in
FIGURE 8-7 its own mesh. All other voltage drops for any
A circuit with three meshes. Each R is 2 Q. See
adjacent mesh current across a common resist-
text for mesh equations. ance are always negative. This system of alge-
braic signs for the voltage drops is the same
practice in writing mesh equations, without whether the source voltage in the mesh is zero,
doing the numerical work of solving a set 1 of positive, or negative.
three equations. Each R is 2 Q.
Practice Problems 8-5
In mesh A: (answers on page 174)
1 A set with any number of simultaneous linear equa- Answer true or false.
tions, for any number of meshes, can be solved by (a) A network with four mesh currents needs
determinants. This procedure is shown in mathe- four mesh equations for a solution.
matics textbooks (see the bibliography at the end of (b) An R common to two meshes has oppos-
this book). ing mesh currents.

Summary
1. Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all voltages.
around any closed path must equal zero. Or the sum of the voltage
drops equals the applied voltage.
2. Kirchhoff's current law states that the algebraic sum of all currents
directed in and out at any point in a closed path must equal zero. Or
the current in equals the current out.
3. A closed path is a loop. The method of using algebraic equations for
the voltages around the loops to calculate the branch currents is
illustrated in Fig. 8-3.
4. A principal node is a branch point where currents divide or combine.
The method of using algebraic equations for the currents at a node to
calculate each node voltage is illustrated in Fig. 8-5.
5. A mesh is the simplest possible loop. A mesh current is assumed to
flow around the mesh without branching. The method of using
algebraic equations for the voltages around the meshes to calculate
the mesh currents is illustrated in Fig. 8-6.
 Chapter 8
Kirchhoff's Laws 173

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.
1. The algebraic sum of all voltages around any mesh or any loop must
equal zero.
2. A mesh with two resistors has two mesh currents.
3. With /1 = 3 A and /2 = 2 A directed into a node, the current 13
directed out must equal 5 A.
4. In a loop without any voltage source, the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops must equal zero.
5. The algebraic sum of +40 V and -10 V equals +30 V.
6. A principal node is a junction where branch currents can divide or
combine.
7. In the node-voltage method, the number of equations of current
equals the number of principal nodes.
8. In the mesh-current method, the number of equations of voltage
equals the number of meshes.
9. When all mesh currents are clockwise, or all counterclockwise, any
resistor common to two meshes has two currents in opposite direc-
tions.
10. The rules of series voltages and parallel currents are based on
Kirchhoff's laws.

Essay Questions
1. State Kirchhoff's current law in two ways.
2. State Kirchhoff's voltage law in two ways.
3. What is the difference between a loop and a mesh?
4. What is the difference between a branch current and a mesh current?
5. Define a principal node.
6. Define a node voltage.
7. Use the values in Fig. 8-4 to show that the algebraic sum is zero for all
voltages around the outside loop acefdba.
8. Use the values in Fig. 8-4 to show that the algebraic sum is zero for all
the currents in and out at node c and at node d.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Find the current /1 through R1 in Fig. 8-8 by the method of mesh

currents.
 Chapter 8
174 Kirchhoff's Laws

R,=sn R,

-=-
-=- 12v, v=
+

R3
FIGURE 8-8 FIGURE 8-9
For Probs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. For Prob. 6.

2. Find the voltage Vz across R2 in Fig. 8-8 by the method of node-

voltage analysis.
3. Find all the currents and voltages in Fig. 8-8 by the method of branch
currents.
4. Check your answers for Prob. 3 by showing that the algebraic sum is
zero for the voltages in the three paths.
5. Reverse the polarity of Vz in Fig. 8-8 and calculate the new /1,
compared with Prob. 1. (Hint: Use mesh currents to eliminate the
need for tracing the branch currents.)
6. Write the mesh equations for the circuit in Fig. 8-9. Each R is 1 Q.
No solution is necessary.

Answers to Practice Problems

8-1 (a) 6A 8-3 (b) ov
(b) 4A 8-4 (a) Two
8-2 (a) 120 V (b) Two
(b) ov 8-5 (a) T
8-3 (a) 24 V (b) T
 Network
Theorems
A network is just a combination of components, such as resistances,
interconnected in anyway. However, networks generally need more than apter
the rules of series and parallel circuits for analysis. Kirchhoff's laws can
always be applied for any circuit conneCtions. The network theorems,
though, usually provide shorter methods of solving the circuit. The reason
is that the theorems enable us to convert the network into a simpler
circuit, equivalent to the original. Then the equivalent circuit can be solved
g
by the rules of series and parallel circuits.
Only the applications are given here, although all the network
theorems can be derived from Kirchhoff's laws. It should also be noted
that resistance networks with batteries are shown as examples but the
theorems can be applied to both de and ac networks. The network
theorems explained here are

9~ 1 Superposition
9·2 Thevenin's Theorem
9-3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage Sources
9-4 Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit
9-5 Norton's Theorem
9 -6 Thevenin-Norton· Conversions
9-7 Conversion of Voltage and Current Sources
9-8 Millman's Theorem
9-9 T and w Networks

9.1 In order to use one source at . a time, all

SUPERPOSITION other sources are "killed" temporarily. This
This theorem is very useful because it extends means disabling the source so that it cannot
the use of Ohm's law to circuits that have more generate voltage or current, without changing
than one source.. In.. brief, we can calculate the the. resistance of the circuit. A. voltage. source
effect of one source at a time and then super- such as ·a battery is killed by assuming a short
impose the results of all the sources. As a defi· circuit across its two terminals.
nitkm, the superposition theorem states that In
a network with two or more sources the current Voltage Divider with Two ·Sources. The
or voltage for any component is the algebraic problem in Fig. 9~1 is to find the voltage at Pto
sum of the effects produced by each source chassis ground for the circuit in (a). The method
pcting separately. is to calculate the voltage at P contributed by
 Chapter 9
176 Network Theorems

v, = + 240 v
a
-!-
p

+1'30~
R,
60kr2

V 2 = -90 V

-!-
(a)

v, = + 240 v
a a
-!-
p p

+160~ -30~
R, R,
60kr2 60kr2

V2 = -90 V

-!-
(b) (c)
FIGURE 9-1
Superposition applied to a voltage divider with
two sources. (a) Actual circuit with +130 V
between p and chassis ground. (b) vl produc-
ing +160 Vat P (c) V2 producing -30 Vat P

each source separately, as in (b) and (c), and Furthermore, the voltage across R1 be-
the11 superimpose these voltages. comes the same as the voltage from P to
To find the effect of Vi first, short-circuit Vz ground. To find this VR 1 across R1 as the contri-
as shown in Fig. 9-1 b. Note that the bottom of bution of the Vi source, we use the voltage
R1 then becomes connected to chassis ground divider formula:
because of the short circuit across \'z. As a
result, R2 and R1 form a series voltage divider Ri
for the Vi source. R
1 + R2 X \'i
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 177

60 kQ 2 Requirements for Superposition. All the

30 kQ + 60 kQ x 240 v = 3 x 240 v components must be linear and bilateral in
VR1=160V order to superimpose currents and voltages.
Linear means that the current is proportional to
This voltage is positive at P because \'i is the applied voltage. Then the currents calcu-
positive. lated for different source voltages can be super-
Next find the effect of Vz alone, with \'i imposed.
short-circuited as shown in Fig. 9-lc. Then Bilateral means that the current is the
point a at the top of R2 becomes grounded. R1 same amount for opposite polarities of the
and R2 form a series voltage divider again, but source voltage. Then the values for opposite
here the R2 voltage is the voltage at P to directions of current can be combined algebra-
ground. ically. Networks with resistors, capacitors, and
With one side of R2 grounded and the air-core inductors are generally linear and bilat-
other side to point P, VR 2 is the voltage to calcu- eral. These are also passive components,
late. Again we have a series divider but this time meaning they do not amplify or rectify. Active
for the negative voltage Vz. Using the voltage components, such as transistors, semiconduc-
divider formula for VR 2 as the contribution of Vz tor diodes, and electron tubes are never bilat-
to the voltage at P, eral and often are not linear.

R2 Practice Problems 9-1

vR2=R
1 + R
2
xVz (answers on page 200)
(a) In Fig. 9-1 b, which R is shown grounded at
30 kQ 1
= -30-kQ_+_6_0_k_Q x -90 v = 3x -90 v one end?
(b) In Fig. 9-lc, which Ris shown grounded at
one end?

This voltage is negative at Pbecause Vz is nega-

9-2
tive.
THEVENIN'S THEOREM
Finally, the total voltage at Pis:
Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engi-
neer, this theorem is very useful in simplifying
VP = Vi + Vz = 160 - 30 the voltages in a network. By Thevenin' s theo-
VP= 130V rem many sources and components, no matter
how they are interconnected, can be repre-
This algebraic sum is positive for the net ~ sented by an equivalent series circuit with re-
because the positive \'i is larger than the nega- spect to any pair of terminals in the network
tive Vz. (see Fig. 9-2). Imagine that the block at the left
By means of superpositions, therefore, this contains a network connected to terminals a
problem was reduced to two series voltage divi- and b. Thevenin' s theorem states that the entire
ders. The same procedure can be used with network connected to a and b can be replaced
more than two sources. Also, each voltage di- by a single voltage source \{,h in series with a
vider can have any number of series resist- single resistance Rrh' connected to the same
ances. two terminals.
 Chapter 9
178 Network Theorems

r
Network RTh a RTh is the open-circuit resistance across

+ a terminals a and b, but with all the sources killed.

This means, find the resistance looking back into
< the network from the ab terminals. Although the

b
> -T. . _v_Th---oo terminals are open, an ohmmeter across ab
would read the value of RTh as the resistance of
b the remaining paths in the network, without any
FIGURE 9-2 sources operating.
Any network in the block at the left can be
reduced to the Thevenin equivalent circuit at
the right. Thevenizing a Circuit. As an example, refer
to Fig. 9-3a, where we want to find the voltage
\4ih is the open-circuit voltage across the ab \1r, across the 2-Q RL and its current IL. To use
terminals. This means, find the voltage that the Thevenin's theorem, mentally disconnect RL.
network produces across the two terminals with The two open ends then become the a and b
an open circuit between a and b. The polarity of terminals. Now we find the Thevenin equivalent
VTh is such that it will produce current from a to of the remainder of the circuit that is still con-
b in the same direction as in the original net- nected to a and b. In general, open the part of
work. the circuit to be analyzed and then "thevenize"

V = 36V

(a) (b)

c--·
R 1 =3.Q RTh = 2 n
a

Short
across
v
R2 =
6.Q

(c)
Rab= 2

b
n
rv (d)
Ob
(e)
FIGURE 9-3
Application of Thevenin's theorem. (a) Original
circuit with terminals a and b across RL. (b)
Disconnect RL to find vab is 24 v. (c) Short-
circuit Vto find Rab is 2 Q. (d) Thevenin equiva-
lent. (e) RL reconnected at terminals a and b to
find VL is 12 V.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 179

the remainder of the circuit connected to the series with Rrh and \4h. Using the voltage di-
two open terminals. vider formula for the 2-Q RTh and 2-Q Rv
Our only problem now is to find the value \.{ = Ilz X 24 V = 12 V. To find IL as \{!Rv
of the open-circuit voltage VTh across ab and the the value is 12V12 Q, which equals 6 A
equivalent resistance RTh· The Thevenin equiv- These answers of 6 A for IL and 12 V for \.{
alent always consists of a single voltage source apply to RL in the original circuit in Fig. 9-3a
in series with a single resistance as in Fig. 9-3d. and the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9-3e. Note that
The effect of opening RL is shown in the 6-A IL also flows through RTh·
Fig. 9-3b. As a result, the 3-Q RI and 6-Q R2 The same answers could be obtained by
form a series voltage divider, without RL. solving the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 9-3a,
Furthermore, the voltage across R2 now is using Ohm's law. However, the advantage of
the same as the open-circuit voltage across thevenizing the circuit is that the effect of RL can
terminals a and b. Therefore, VR 2 with RL open be calculated easily for different values. Sup-
is ~b· This is the \4h we need for the Thevenin pose that RL were changed to 4 Q. In the
equivalent circuit. Using the voltage divider for- Thevenin circuit, the new value of \.{ would be
mula, % X 24 V = 16 V. The new IL would be
16 V/4 Q, which equals 4 A In the original
VR2 = % x 36 v = 24 v circuit, a complete new solution would be re-
quired eac_h time RL was changed.
or
Looking Back from the ab Terminals. Which
way to look at the resistance of a series-parallel
circuit depends on where the source is con -
The polarity of this voltage is positive at the a nected. In general, we calculate the total resist-
terminal. ance from the outside terminals of the circuit in
To find Rrh, the 2-Q RL is still discon- toward the source, as the reference.
nected. However, now the source Vis short- When the source is short-circuited for
circuited. So the circuit looks like (c) in Fig. 9-3. thevenizing a circuit, the a and b terminals be-
The 3-Q RI is now in parallel with the 6-Q R2 , as come the reference. Looking back from a and b
they are both connected across the same two to calculate Rrh, the viewpoint becomes re-
points. This combined resistance is I% or 2 Q versed from the way \4h is determined.
for the value of Rrh· For Rrh' imagine that a source could be
As shown in Fig. 9-3d, the Thevenin circuit connected across a and band calculate the total
to the left of terminals a and b then consists of resistance working from the outside in toward
the equivalent voltage \4h equal to 24 V, in the ab terminals. Actually an ohmmeter across
series with the equivalent series resistance Rrh ab would read this resistance.
equal to 2 Q. This Thevenin equivalent applies This idea of reversing the reference is il-
for any value of RL because RL was discon- lustrated in Fig. 9-4. The circuit in (a) has the ab
nected. We are actually thevenizing the circuit terminals open, ready to be thevenized. This
that feeds the open ab terminals. circuit is similar to Fig. 9-3 but with the 4-Q R3
To find \.{ and IL we can finally reconnect inserted between R2 and terminal a. The inter-
RL to the ab terminals of the Thevenin equiva- esting point is that R3 does not change the value
lent circuit, as shown in Fig. 9-3e. Then RL is in of ~b produced by the source V, but R3 does
 Chapter 9
180 Network Theorems

R 1 =3 .Q

V = 36V vab
r
= 24 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9-4
Thevenizing the circuit of Fig. 9-3b, but with a
4_g R3 in series with the a terminal. (a) Vab is
still 24 V (b) Rab is 2 + 4 = 6 g, (c) Thevenin
equivalent.

increase the value of RTh· When we look back 9-3

from terminals a and b, the 4 Q of R3 is in series THEVENIZING A CIRCUIT
with 2-Q to make RTh 6 Q, as shown in (b). WITH TWO VOLTAGE SOURCES
Let us consider why ~b is the same 24 V The circuit in Fig. 9-5 has already been solved
with or without R 3 . Since R3 is connected to the by Kirchhoff's laws, but we can use Thevenin's
open terminal a, the source V cannot produce theorem to find the current 13 through the mid-
current in R3 . Therefore, R3 has no IR drop. A dle resistance R3 . As shown in Fig. 9-Sa, first
voltmeter would read the same 24 V across R2 mark the terminals a and b across R3 . In
and from a to b. Since ~b equals 24 V, this is Fig. 9-Sb, R3 is disconnected. To calculate VTh'
the value of VTh· find vab across the open terminals.
Now consider why R3 does change the
value of Rrh· Remember that we must work Superposition Method. With two sources we
from the outside in toward ab to calculate the can use superposition to calculate ~b· First
total resistance. Then the 3-Q R1 and 6-Q R2 are short-circuit \.'z. Then the 84 V of \.'i is divided
in parallel for a combined resistance of 2 Q. between R1 and R2 . The voltage across R2 is
Furthermore, this 2 Q is in series with the 4-Q between terminals a and b. To calculate this
R 3 because R 3 is in the main line from the ab divided voltage across R2 ,
terminals. Then Rrh is 2 + 4 = 6 Q. As shown
in Fig. 9-4c, the Thevenin equivalent circuit VR 2 = o/is X \.'i = Ys X (-84)
consists of \4-h = 24 V and Rrh = 6 Q.
VR2 = -16.8 v
This is only the contribution of \.'i to ~b· The
Practice Problems 9-2 polarity is negative at terminal a.
(answers on page 200) To find the voltage that \.'z produces be-
Answer true or false. For a Thevenin tween a and b, short-circuit \.'i. Then the voltage
equivalent circuit, across R1 is connected from a to b. To calculate
(a) The a and b terminals are open to find both this divided voltage across R1 ,
VTh and RTh·
(b) The source voltage is killed only to ~l = 121i 5 x \.'z = % x (-21)
find Rrh· ~l = -16.8 v
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 181

R 1 =12 n R 1 =12 n

v, = 84 v
b
V2"="21 V 1
1' r4V vab = VTh
- 33.6 v

rb
"'J 21 v

(a) (b)

RTh = 2.4 n

a
R,=
12 n

(c) (d)
FIGURE 9-5
Thevenizing a circuit with two voltage sources
\'i and Vz. (a) Original circuit with a and b
terminals across the middle resistor R3 .
(b) Disconnect R3 to find \{b is -33.6 V.
(c) Short-circuit \'i and Vz to find Rab = 2.4 Q.
(d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to
ab terminals.

Both \'i and Vz produce -16.8 V across nals a and b. Then VTh produces current
the ab terminals with the same polarity. There- through the total resistance of 2.4 Q for Rrh and
fore, they are added. 6 Q for R3 :
The resultant value of ~b = -33.6 V,
shown in Fig. 9-Sb, is the value of VTh· The 13 = VTh = 33.6 = 33.6 = 4 A
negative polarity means the a terminal is nega- Rrh + R3 2.4 + 6 8.4
tive with respect to b.
To calculate Rrh• short-circuit the sources This answer of 4 A for 13 is the same value
\'i and Vz, as shown in Fig. 9-Sc. Then the 12-Q calculated before, using Kirchhoff's laws, in
R1 and 3-Q R2 are in parallel across the ab Fig. 8-4.
terminals. Their combined resistance is 36/i. 5 , or It should be noted that this circuit can be
2.4 Q, which is the value of RTh· solved by superposition alone, without using
The final result is the Thevenin equivalent Thevenin's theorem, if R3 is not disconnected.
in Fig. 9-Sd with an Rrh of 2.4 Q and a VTh of However, opening the ab terminals for the
33.6 V, negative toward the a terminal. Thevenin equivalent simplifies the superposi-
In order to find the current through R3 , it is tion, as the circuit then has only series voltage
reconnected as a load resistance across termi- dividers without any parallel current paths. In
 Chapter 9
182 Network Theorems

general, a circuit can often be simplified by Thevenin equivalent in (b) consists of just two
disconnecting a component to open the ab ter- voltage dividers. Both the R3 R4 divider and
minals for Thevenin's theorem. R1 R2 divider are across the same 30-V source.
Since the open terminal a is at the junction
Short-cut Method. The circuit in Fig. 9-5b of R3 and R4 , this divider can be used to find the
with two voltage sources feeding the a and b potential at point a. Similarly the potential at
terminals can be thevenized quicker by using terminal b can be found from the R1 R2 divider.
the following formulas for \4:-h and Rrh: Then ~b is the difference between the potenti-
als at terminals a and b.
\l _ \'1 Rz + VzR1 Note the voltages for the two dividers. In
Th - Rl + R2 the divider with the 3-Q R3 and 6-Q R4 , the
(-84)(3) + (-21 )(12) -252 -252 bottom voltage \'a4 is % X 30 = 20 V. Then \'a3
=---------=-----
12 + 3 15 at the top is 10 V because both must add up to
equal the 30-V source. The polarities are
\4:-h = -~i4 = -33.6 v marked negative at the top, the same as V.
Similarly, in the divider with the 6-Q R1
\'1 and Vz are considered negative because the and 4-Q R2 , the bottom voltage \'a is
top is negative, compared with our reference at 4/io X 30 = 12 V. Then VR 1 at the top is 18 V, as
the bottom of the diagram. the two must add up to equal the 30-V source.
To find RTh the two resistances in series with The polarities are also negative at the top, the
the sources are combined in parallel: same as V.
Now we can determine the potentials at
12 x3 36 terminals a and b, with respect to a common
Rrh = 12 +3 = 15 = 2 ·4 Q reference, in order to find ~b· Imagine that the
positive side of the source V is connected to a
Practice Problems 9-3 chassis ground. Then we would use the bottom
(answers on page 200) line in the diagram as our reference for volt-
In the Theuenin equivalent circuit in ages. Note that VR 4 at the bottom of the R 3 R4
Fig. 9-5d, divider is the same as the potential of terminal
(a) How much is RT? a, with respect to ground. This value is -20 V,
(b) How much is VRL? with terminal a negative.
Similarly, Va2 in the R1 R2 divider is the
9-4 potential at b with respect to ground. This value
THEVENIZING A BRIDGE is -12 V, with terminal b negative. As a result,
CIRCUIT ~b is the difference between the -20 Vat a
As another example of Thevenin's theorem, we and the -12 V at b, both with respect to the
can find the current through the 2-Q RL at the common ground reference.
center of the bridge circuit in Fig. 9-6a. When The potential difference ~b then equals
RL is disconnected to open the ab terminals, the -20 - (-12), or -20 + 12, equaling -8 V.
result is shown in (b). Notice how the circuit has Terminal a is 8 V more negative than b. There-
become simpler because of the open. Instead of fore, \4:-h is 8 V, with the negative side toward
the unbalanced bridge in (a) which would re- the a terminal, as shown in the Thevenin equiv-
quire Kirchhoff's laws for a solution, the alent in Fig. 9-6d.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 183

}1av
V= -
30V = V= -:-
30 v-=-

~) ~)

a b RTh = 4.4 n a
Rab I
4.4.Q I

IL = 1.25 A+

d Short across V d c b

(c) (d)
FIGURE 9-6
Thevenizing a bridge circuit. (a) Original circuit
with a and b terminals across the middle resis-
tor RL. (b) Disconnect RL to find ~b of -8 V.
(c) With V short-circuited, Rab is 2 +
2.4 = 4.4 Q. (d) Thevenin equivalent with RL
reconnected to ab terminals.

~b can also be found as the difference are connected by the short circuit across the
between \'a 3 and VR 1 in Fig. 9-6b. In this case VR 3 source V. Similarly, the 6-Q R1 and 4-Q R2 are
is 10 Vand VR 1 is 18 V, both being positive with in parallel for a combined resistance RTb of
respect to the top line connected to the negative 2
4/i 0 = 2.4 n. Furthermore, the short circuit
side of the source V. The potential difference across the source now provides a path that
between terminals a and b then is 10 - 18, connects RTa and RTb in series. The entire re-
which also equals -8 V. Note that ~b must sistance is 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 n for Rab or RTh"
have the same value no matter which path is The Thevenin equivalent in Fig. 9-6d rep-
used to determine the voltage. resents the bridge circuit feeding the open ab
To find RTh• the 30-V source is short-cir- terminals, with 8 v for VTh and 4.4 n for Rrh·
cuited while the ab terminals are still open. Now connect the 2-Q RL to the ab terminals in
Then the circuit looks like Fig. 9-6c. Looking order to calculate IL. This current is
back from the ab terminals, the 3-Q R 3 and 6-Q
R4 are in parallel for a combined resistance RTa
of 1%or 2 Q. The reason is that R3 and R4 are I - VTh 8 8 1 25
joined at terminal a, while their opposite ends L- RTh + RL = 4.4 +2 = 6.4 = · A
 Chapter 9
184 Network Theorems

This 1.25 A is the current through the 2-Q RL at among series components. This comparison is
the center of the unbalanced bridge in Fig. 9-6a. illustrated in Fig. 9- 7.
Furthermore, the amount of IL for any value of
RL in (a) can be calculated from the equivalent Example of a Current Source. A source of
circuit in (d). electrical energy supplying voltage is often
shown with a series resistance, which represents
Practice Problems 9-4 the internal resistance of the source as in
(answers on page 200) Fig. 9- 7 a. This method corresponds to showing
In the Thevenin equivalent circuit in an actual voltage source, such as a battery for
Fig. 9-6d, de circuits. However, the source may be repre-
(a) How much is RT? sented also as a current source with a parallel
(b) How much is VRL? resistance, as in Fig. 9-7 b. Just as a voltage
source is rated at, say, 10 V, a current source
9-5 may be rated at 2 A. For the purpose of analyz-
NORTON'S THEOREM ing parallel branches, the concept of a current
Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Bell source may be more convenient than a voltage
Telephone Laboratories, this theorem is used source.
for simplifying a network in terms of currents If the current I in Fig. 9-7 bis a 2-A source,
instead of voltages. In many cases, analyzing the it supplies 2 A no matter what is connected
division of currents may be easier than voltage across the output terminals a and b. Without
analysis. For current analysis, therefore, Nor- anything connected across a and b, all the 2 A
ton's theorem can be used to reduce a network flows through the shunt R. When a load resist-
to a simple parallel circuit, with a current ance RL is connected across a and b, then the
source. The idea of a current source is that it 2-A I divides according to the current-division
supplies a total line current to be divided among rules for parallel branches.
parallel branches, corresponding to a voltage Remember that parallel currents divide
source applying a total voltage to be divided inversely to branch resistances but directly with

R la I I
1a 1a
I
I I I
+ I I I
=v I
I
I
I
Ri R
I
I
I
I
Ri G
I
I
I
I
GL

I
b 'b !b
Source Load Source 1 Load Source 1 Load

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9-7
General forms for a voltage or current source
connected to a load RL across terminals a
and b. (a) V source with series R. (b) I source
with parallel R. ( c) I source with parallel con-
ductance G.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 185

conductances. For this reason it may be prefer- The value of RN is the resistance looking
able to consider the current source shunted by back from the open ab terminals. These termi-
the conductance G, as shown in (c). We can nals are not short-circuited for RN but are open,
always convert between resistance and con- as in calculating RTh for Thevenin's theorem.
ductance, because 1 IR in ohms is equal to G in Actually, the single resistor is the same for both
siemens. the Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits. In
The symbol for a current source is a circle the Norton case, this value of Rab is RN in paral-
with an arrow inside, as shown in Fig. 9-7b and lel with the current source; in the Thevenin
c, to show the direction of current. This direc- case, it is RTh in series with the voltage source.
tion must be the same as the current produced
by the polarity of the corresponding voltage Nortonizing a Circuit. As an example, let us
source. Remember that a source produces recalculate the current IL in Fig. 9-9a, which
electron flow out from the negative terminal. was solved before by Thevenin's theorem. The
An important difference between voltage first step in applying Norton's theorem is to
and current sources is that a current source is imagine a short circuit across the ab terminals,
killed by making it open, compared with short- as shown in (b). How much current is flowing in
circuiting a voltage source. Opening a current the short circuit? Note that a short circuit across
source kills its ability to supply current without ab short-circuits RL and the parallel R2 . Then
affecting any parallel branches. A voltage the only resistance in the circuit is the 3-Q R1 in
source is short-circuited to kill its ability to sup- series with the 36-V source as shown in (c). The
ply voltage without affecting any series compo- short-circuit current, therefore, is
nents.
IN= 36 v = 12 A
The Norton Equivalent Circuit. As illustrated 3Q
in Fig. 9-8, Norton's theorem states that the
entire network connected to terminals a and b This 12-A IN is the total current available from
can be replaced by a single current source IN in the current source in the Norton equivalent
parallel with a single resistance RN. The value of shown in Fig. 9-9e.
IN is equal to the short-circuit current through To find RN, remove the short circuit across
the ab terminals. This means, find the current a and b and consider the terminals open, with-
that the network would produce through a and out RL. Now the source Vis considered to be
b with a short circuit across these two terminals. short-circuited. As shown in Fig. 9-9d, the re-

Network
a
---------oa
)
b
.___ __.... _ _ _-Ob

FIGURE 9-8
Any network in the block at the left can be
reduced to the Norton equivalent circuit at the
right.
 Chapter 9
186 Network Theorems

R 1 =3.Q R 1 =3 .n R 1 =3.Q
a a

v-::-36 V
-
R2 =
6.Q
V
-
= 36 V R2 =
6.Q
Short
circuit

b b b
(a) (b) (c)

R 1 =3.Q
a a a

+l6A
b b b
(d) {e) {f)
FIGURE 9-9
Same circuit as shown in Fig. 9-3 but solved by
Norton's theorem. (a) Original circuit.
(b) Short circuit across a and b terminals.
(c) Short-circuit IN is 3% = 12 A (d) Open
ab terminals, but short-circuit V to find
Rab = 2 Q, the same as RTh· (e) Norton equiv-
alent circuit. (f) RL reconnected to ab terminals
to find IL is 6 A

sistance seen looking back from the ab termi- same current we calculated in Fig. 9-3, by
nals is 6 Qin parallel with 3 Q, which equals 2 Q Thevenin's theorem. Also, \{can be calculated
for the value of RN. as ILRL, or 6 A X 2 Q, which equals 12 V.
The resultant Norton equivalent is shown
in Fig. 9-9e. It consists of a 12-A current source Looking at the Short-circuit Current. In
IN shunted by the 2-Q RN. The arrow on the some cases, there may be a question of which
current source shows the direction of electron current is IN when the ab terminals are short-
flow from terminal b to terminal a, as in the circuited. Imagine that a wire jumper is con-
original circuit. nected between a and b to short-circuit these
Finally, to calculate IL, replace the 2-Q RL terminals. Then IN must be the current that
between the ab terminals, as shown in Fig. 9-9/. flows in this wire between terminals a and b.
The current source still delivers 12 A, but now Remember that any components directly
that current divides between the two branches across these two terminals are also short-cir-
of RN and RL. Since these two resistances are cuited by the wire jumper. Then these parallel
equal, the 12-A IN divides into 6 A for each paths have no effect. However, any compo-
branch, and IL is equal to 6 A. This value is the nents in series with terminal a or terminal b are
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 187

in series with the wire jumper. Therefore, the in the original circuit is the current that flows
short-circuit current IN also flows through the through R 3 and the short-circuited ab terminals.
series components. RN is 14.4 n looking back from the open ab
An example of a resistor in series with the terminals with the source V short-circuited the
short circuit across the ab terminals is shown in same way as for Rrh·
Fig. 9-10. The idea here is that the short-circuit
IN is a branch current, not the main -line current. Practice Problems 9-5
In (a) the short circuit connects R3 across R2 • (answers on page 200)
Also, the short-circuit current IN is now the Answer true or false. For a Norton equiva-
same as the current I3 through R3. Note that I3 is lent circuit,
only a branch current. (a) The a and b terminals are short-circuited to
To calculate I3 , the circuit is solved by find IN.
Ohm's law. The parallel combination of R 2 with (b) The a and b terminals are open to find RN.
R3 equals 72/is or 4 n. The RT is 4 + 4 = 8 n.
Then IT is 48 v /8 n = 6 A 9-6
This IT of 6 A in the main line divides into THEVENIN-NORTON
4 A for R2 and 2 A for R3. The 2-A I3 for R3 CONVERSIONS
flows through the short-circuited ab terminals. Thevenin' s theorem says that any network can
Therefore, this current of 2 A is the value of IN. be represented by a voltage source and series
To find RN in Fig. 9-lOb, the short circuit is resistance, while Norton's theorem says that the
removed from the ab terminals. Now the source same network can be represented by a current
V is short-circuited. Looking back from the source and shunt resistance. It must be possible,
open ab terminals, the 4-Q R 1 is in parallel with therefore, to convert directly from a Thevenin
the 6-Q R2 • This combination is 24/i 0 = 2.4 n. form to a Norton form and vice versa. Such
The 2.4 Q is in series with the 12-Q R 3 to make conversions are often useful.
Rab = 2.4 + 12 = 14.4 Q.
The final Norton equivalent is shown in Norton from Thevenin. Consider the
Fig. 9-lOc. IN is 2 A because this branch current Thevenin equivalent circuit in Fig. 9-11 a. What

R 1 =4!2 R 1 =4!2
a

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9-10
Nortonizing a circuit where the short-circuit IN
is a branch current. (a) IN is 2 A through
short-circuited ab terminals and R 3 . (b)
RN = Rab = 14.4 Q. (c) Norton equivalent.
 Chapter 9
188 Network Theorems

.----....----oa

:
~------.ab

(a) (b)
FIGURE 9-11
Thevenin equivalent circuit in (a) corresponds
to the Norton equivalent in (b).

is its Norton equivalent? Just apply Norton's RN is connected in parallel with IN, but Rrh is in
theorem the same as for any other circuit. The series with '4h.
short-circuit current through the ab terminals is Now all that is required is to calculate the
open-circuit voltage in Fig. 9-llb to find the
equivalent VTh' Note that with terminals a and b
open, all the current of the current source flows
through the 3-Q RN. Then the open-circuit volt-
The resistance, looking back from the open ab age across the ab terminals is
terminals with the source VTh short-circuited, is
equal to the 3 Q of Rrh· Therefore, the Norton
equivalent consists of a current source that sup-
plies the short-circuit current of 5 A, shunted by As a result, we have the original Thevenin cir-
the same 3-Q resistance that is in series in the cuit, consisting of the 15-V source VTh in series
Thevenin circuit. The results are shown in with the 3-Q RTh·
Fig. 9-llb.

Thevenin from Norton. For the opposite con- Conversion Formulas. In summary, the fol-
version, we can start with the Norton circuit of lowing formulas can be used for these conver-
Fig. 9-11 band get back to the original Thevenin sions:
circuit. To do this, apply Thevenin's theorem,
the same as for any other circuit. First, we find Thevenin from Norton
the Thevenin resistance by looking back from Rrh =RN
the open ab terminals. An important principle VTh =IN x RN
here, though, is that while a voltage source is
short-circuited to find Rrh• a current source is Norton from Thevenin
an open circuit. Therefore, we have just the 3-Q
RN, in parallel with the infinite resistance of the RN= RTh
open current source. The combined resistance IN= VTh + Rrh
then is 3 n.
In general, the resistance RN always has the Another example of these conversions is
same value as RTh· The only difference is that shown in Fig. 9-12b and c.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 189

r·
R 1 =3r2 RTh = 2 n
a --------oa
R2
sn <===>
r4V <====>
....__ _ _ _ _ _ _-<> b
b ob

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9-12
Example of Thevenin-Norton conversions. (a)
Original circuit, the same as Figs. 9-3a and
9-9a. (b) Thevenin equivalent. (c) Norton
equivalent.

Practice Problems 9-6 Two Sources in Parallel Branches. Referring

(answers on page 200) to Fig. 9-14a, assume that the problem is to find
Answer true or false. In Thevenin-Norton I3 through the middle resistor R3 . Note that \1i
conversions, with R1 and \'2 with R2 are branches in parallel
(a) RN and Rrh have the same value. with R3 • All three branches are connected
(b) IN is \[Link] RTh· across the ab terminals.
(c) VTh is IN X RN. When we convert \1i and \'2 to current
sources in (b), the circuit has all parallel
9-7 branches. I1 is 8 4/i 2 or 7 A, while I2 is 2 %, which
CONVERSION OF VOLTAGE AND also happens to be 7 A I1 has its parallel R of
CURRENT SOURCES 12 Q while I2 has its parallel R of 3 Q.
Norton conversion is a specific example of the Furthermore, I 1 and I2 can be combined for
general principle that any voltage source with its the one equivalent current source Ir shown in
series resistance can be converted to an equiva- (c). Since both sources produce current in the
lent current source with the same resistance in
parallel. In Fig. 9-13, the voltage source in (a) is
equivalent to the current source in (b). Just
3.n I
divide the source V by its series R to calculate
the value of I for the equivalent current source
shunted by the same R. Either source will sup-
("""i"
ply the same current and voltage for any com - V = 15V l ~
ponents connected across the ab terminals.
Conversion of voltage and current sources
can often simplify circuits, especially with two or
1 Voltage
source
I
1
ob
.___ _ _-+---ob
Current
source
more sources. Current sources are easier for
parallel connections where we can add or di- (a) (b)
vide currents. Voltage sources are easier for FIGURE 9-13
series connections, where we can add or divide The voltage source in (a) corresponds to the
voltages. current source in (b).
 Chapter 9
190 Network Theorems

R 1 =12 n a R 2 =3.Q

I
I
I
V1 = 84V
Ra I
[Link]
I
I
I
Voltage b Voltage
source 1 source 2

(a)

a a
la= 4 Ai
t
R,= Ra= R2= R = Ra=
12 n 6.Q 3.Q 2.4 n 6n

Current b Current b
source 1 source 2

(b) (c)
FIGURE 9-14
Converting voltage sources in parallel branches
to current sources that can be combined. (a)
Original circuit. (b) V1 and V2 converted to
parallel current sources I1 and I2 . (c) Circuit
with one combined current source IT.

same direction through RL, they both are added Kirchhoff's laws in Fig. 8-4 and by Thevenin's
for IT = 7 + 7 = 14 A. theorem in Fig. 9-5.
The shunt R for the 14-A combined source
is the combined resistance of the 12-Q R1 and Two Sources in Series. Referring to Fig. 9-15,
the 3-Q R2 in parallel. This R equals 36/i 5 or assume that the problem is to find the current IL
2.4 Q, as shown in (c). through the load resistance RL between termi-
To find IL, we can use the current-divider nals a and b. This circuit has the two current
formula for the 6- and 2.4-Q branches, dividing sources I1 and I2 in series with each other.
the 14-A IT from the current source. Then The problem here can be simplified by
converting I1 and I2 to the series voltage sources
\.'i and Vz shown in (b). The 2-A I1 with its shunt
IL = 2.4 x 14 = 33.6 = 4 A 4-Q R1 is equivalent to 4 X 2 or 8 V for \.'i with
2.4 + 6 8.4 a 4-Q series resistance. Similarly, the 5-A I2 with
its shunt 2-Q R2 is equivalent to 5 X 2, or 10 V,
The voltage VR 3 across the ab terminals is for Vz with a 2-Q series resistance. The polarities
ILRL, which equals 4 X 6 = 24 V These are of \.'i and Vz produce electron flow in the same
the same values calculated for VR 3 and I3 by direction as I1 and I2 .
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 191

Source 1 a Source 1 a a

h
--+
=2A
R 1 =4 Q

RL =
3Q
v,r.v=rn RL=
3Q
RL =
3Q

VT =18 V

V2 ~10V

Source 2 b Source 2 b b

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 9-15
Converting current sources in series to voltage
sources that can be combined. (a) Original
circuit. (b) 11 and /2 converted to series V1 and
V2 . (c) Circuit with one combined voltage
source VT.

The series voltages can now be combined branches with different voltage sources. A typi-
as in Fig. 9-lSc. The 8 V of \1i_ and 10 V of Vz cal example is shown in Fig. 9-16. For all the
are added because they are series-aiding, re- branches, the ends at point y are connected to
sulting in the total VT of 18 V. And, the resist- chassis ground. Furthermore, the opposite ends
ances of 4 Q for R1 and 2 Q for R2 are added for of all the branches are also connected to the
a combined R of 6 Q. This is the series resist- common point x. The voltage Vxy, therefore, is
ance of the 18-V source VT connected across the common voltage across all the branches.
terminals a and b. Finding the value of Vxy gives the net effect
The total resistance of the circuit in (c) is R
plus Rv or 6 + 3 = 9 Q. With 18 V applied, Branch 1 Branch 2 Branch 3
IL = 1% = 2 A through RL between the ab ter-
minals.
Practice Problems 9-7
(answers on page 200)
A voltage source has 21 V in series with +
~v,
3 Q. For the equivalent current source, ~32V
(a) How much is I?
(b) How much is the shunt R?
9-8 FIGURE 9-16
MILLMAN'S THEOREM Example of Millman's theorem to find Vxy, the
This theorem provides a shortcut for finding the common voltage across branches with separate
common voltage across any number of parallel voltage sources.
 Chapter 9
192 Network Theorems

of all the sources in determining the voltage at x be analyzed quickly. For instance, Fig. 9-17 has
with respect to chassis ground. To calculate this been solved before by other methods. For Mill-
voltage man's theorem the common voltage Vxy across
all the branches is the same as \'3 across R3 .
This voltage is calculated with Formula (9-1 ), as
follows:

This formula is derived from converting the

v - -84/12 + 016 - 21/3
xy - 1/12 + 1/6 + 1/3
voltage sources to current sources and combin-
ing the results. The numerator with VI R terms = -7 + 0 - 7 = -14 = -14 g
is the sum of the parallel current sources. The
7 /12 7 /12 x 7
denominator with 1 IR terms is the sum of the Vxy = -24 V = \'3
parallel conductances. The net Vxy then is in the The negative sign means that point x is the
form of I! G or I X R, which is in units of volt- negative side of Vxy. With \'3 known to be 24 V
age. across the 6-n R3 , 13 must be 2% = 4 A. Simi-
larly, all the voltages and currents in this circuit
Calculating Vxy. For the values in Fig. 9-16, can then be calculated. (See Fig. 8-4 in
Chap. 8.)
v - 3214 + 012 - 814 - 8 +0 - 2 As another application, the example of
xy - 114 + 1/2 + 1/4 - 1 superposition in Fig. 9-1 has been redrawn in
Vxy =6 V Fig. 9-18 to show the parallel branches with a
common voltage Vxy to be calculated by Mill-
Note that in branch 3, \'3 is considered man' s theorem. Then
negative because it would make point x nega- v _ 240 V13o kn - 90 v160 kn
tive. However, all the resistances are positive. xy - 11(30 kn) + l/(60 kn)
The positive answer for Vxy means that point x
is positive with respect to y. = 8 mA - 1.5 mA =6 5 X 60 = 390
3/(60 kn) . 3 3
In branch 2, \'z is zero because this branch
has no voltage source. However, R2 is still used Vxy = 130 V = VP
in the denominator.
This method can be used for any number
of branches but they must all be in parallel,
without any series resistances between the R1 =
branches. In a branch with several resistances, 12n

they can be combined as one RT. When a

-
branch has more than one voltage source, they V1 -=-
can be combined algebraically for one VT. 84 v-=-
+

Applications of Millman's Theorem. In many FIGURE 9-17

cases, a circuit can be redrawn to show the The same circuit as in Fig. 8-4 for Kirchhoff's
parallel branches and their common voltage laws, but shown with parallel branches to cal-
Vxy. Then with Vxy known the entire circuit can culate Vxy by Millman's theorem.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 193

The network in Fig. 9-20 is called a 7T (pi)

or Li (delta) network, as the shape is similar to
R1 = these Greek letters. Actually, the network can
p so kn have RA either at the top or bottom, between Re
and RB. Note that when the single point c of the
+ delta is separated into two points c' and c" for
v, = 240 v V 2 = 90 V the 7T network, the connections are not really

FIGURE 9-18
J J changed. The 7T and Li are different names for
the same network.
Conversion Formulas. In the analysis of net-
Same circuit as in Fig. 9-1 for superposition, works, it is often helpful to convert a Li to Y or
but shown with parallel branches to calculate vice versa. Either it may be impossible to solve the
Vxy by Millman's theorem. circuit without the conversion, or the conversion
makes the solution simpler. The formulas for
This answer of 130 V from point P to ground, these transformations are given here. All are
using Millman's theorem, is the same value derived from Kirchhoff's laws. Note that letters
calculated before by superposition. are used as subscripts for RA, RB, and Re in the
Li while the resistances are numbered R1 , R 2 ,
Practice Problems 9-8 and R 3 in the Y.
(answers on page 200)
Conversions of Y to Li, or T to 7T (9-2)
For the example of Millman's theorem in
Fig. 9-16, RA= RiR2 + RzR3 + R3Rl
(a) How much is VR/ Ri
(b) How much is VR 3 ?
RB = Rl Rz + RzR3 + R3Rl
9-9 Rz
T AND '" NETWORKS Re= RiR2 + RzR3 + R3R1
The network in Fig. 9-19 is called a T (tee) or Y R3
(wye) network, as suggested by its shape. T and
or
Y are different names for the same network, the
only difference being that the R2 and R 3 arms L all cross products in Y
are at an angle in the Y. Ril = - - - - - - - - - -
opposite R in Y

a b

a b

c
FIGURE 9-19 FIGURE 9-20
The form of a T or Y network. The form of a 'TT or ~ network.
 Chapter 9
194 Network Theorems

These formulas can be used to convert a Y

network to an equivalent ~. or a T network to 7T.
Both networks will have the same resistance
across any pair of terminals.
The three formulas have the same general
form, indicated at the bottom as one basic rule.
The symbol L is the Greek capital letter sigma,
meaning "sum of."
For the opposite conversion:

Conversion of ~ to Y or 7T to T (9-3)
RBRe FIGURE 9-21
Conversion between Y and ~ networks. See
text for conversion formulas.

possible cross products of the arms of the wye,

using two arms at a time. There are three such
cross products. The sum of the three cross
products is then divided by the opposite arm to
find the value of each side in the delta. Note
or
that the numerator remains the same for the
sum of the three cross products. However, each
R = product of two adjacent R in ~ side of the delta is calculated by dividing this
Y ~ all R in~ sum by the opposite arm.
For the case of the ~-to-Y conversion,
each arm of the wye is found by taking the
As an aid in using these formulas, the product of the two adjacent sides in the delta
following scheme is useful. Place the Y inside and dividing by the sum of the three sides of the
the ~. as shown in Fig. 9-21. Notice that the ~ delta. The product of two adjacent resistors
has three closed sides, while the Y has three excludes the opposite resistor. The denomina-
open arms. Also note how resistors can be tor for the sum of the three sides remains the
considered opposite each other in the two net- same in the three formulas. However, each arm
works. For instance, the open arm R1 is oppo- is calculated by dividing this sum into each cross
site the closed side RA; R2 is opposite RB; and product.
R3 is opposite Re.
Furthermore, each resistor in an open arm
has two adjacent resistors in the closed sides. An Example of Conversion. The values
For R1 , its adjacent resistors are RB and Re; shown for the equivalent Y and ~ in Fig. 9-21
also, Re and RA are adjacent to R 2 , while RA are calculated as follows: Starting with 4, 6, and
and RB are adjacent to R3 . 10 Q for sides RA, RB, and Re, respectively, in
In the formulas for the Y-to-~ conversion, the delta, the corresponding arms in the wye
each side of the delta is found by first taking all are:
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 195

minals Pi and P2 • One of them can be replaced

R1 -- RBRC
by an equivalent wye. We use the bottom delta
RA+ RB+ Re
with RA across the top, in the same form as
= 6 x 10 - 60 - 3 Q Fig. 9-21. We then replace this delta RARBRc by
4+6+10 - 20 -
an equivalent wye R1 R2R3 as shown in b. Using
R - RcRA the conversion formulas,
2 - 20

= 10 x 4 = 40 = 2 Q
20 20
R - RARB
3 - 20

= 4 x 6 = 24 = 1 2 Q
20 20 .

As a check on these values, we can calcu-

late the equivalent delta for this wye. Starting We next use these values for R1 , R2 , and R3 in
with values of 3, 2, and 1.2 Q for R1 , R2 , and R3 , an equivalent wye to replace the original delta.
respectively, in the wye, the corresponding val- Then the resistances form the series-parallel
ues in the delta are: circuit shown in (c). The combined resistance of
the two parallel branches here is 4 X 6% di-
RA = RiR2 + R2R3 + R3Rl 6 + 2.4 + 3.6 vided by 10%, which equals 8%2 , or 2.5 n.
Ri 3 Adding this 2.5 Q to the series R1 of 2 Q, the
total resistance is 4.5 Q in (d).
=g=4n
3 This 4 .5 Q is the RT for the entire bridge
circuit between terminals P3 and P4 connected
RB=g=g=6Q to the source V. Then IT is 30 V/4.5 n, which
R2 2
equals 6% A supplied by the source.
R0 =.!..£=1£=10n Another approach to finding RT for the
R3 1.2 bridge circuit in Fig. 9-22a is to recognize that
the bridge also consists of two T or Y networks
These results show that the Y and ~ networks in between terminals P3 and P4 . One of them can
Fig. 9-21 are equivalent to each other when be transformed into an equivalent delta. The
they have the values obtained with the conver- result is another series-parallel circuit but with
sion formulas. the same RT of 4.5 n.
Simplifying a Bridge Circuit. As an example
of the use of such transformations, consider the Practice Problems 9-9
bridge circuit of Fig. 9-22. The total current IT (answers on page 200)
from the battery is desired. Therefore, we must In the standard form for conversion,
find the total resistance RT. (a} Which R in the Y is opposite RA in the~?
One approach is to note that the bridge in (b) Which two resistors in the~ are adjacent to
a consists of two deltas connected between ter- R1 in the Y?
 Chapter 9
196 Network Theorems

V= -::-
30 v-=- p1

(a) (b)

6.Q
R = 2.5 n

Rr=
R 3 =~.Q
3
4.5.Q

R 1 =2.Q

(c) (d)
FIGURE 9-22
Solving a bridge circuit by ~-to-Y conversion.
(a) Original circuit. (b) HowYof R1R2 R3 corre-
sponds to~ of RAR8 R0 . (c) The Y substituted
for the ~ network. Result is a series-parallel
circuit with same RT as the original bridge cir-
cuit. (d) RT is 4.5 Q between points P3 and P4 .
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 197

Summary
1. Superposition theorem. In a linear, bilateral network having more
than one source, the current and voltage in any part of the network
can be found by adding algebraically the effect of each source
separately. All other sources are temporarily killed by short-circuiting
voltage sources and opening current sources.
2. Thevenin's theorem. Any network with two open terminals a and b
can be replaced by a single voltage source VTh in series with a single
resistance Rrh driving the ab terminals. VTh is the voltage produced
by the network across terminals a and b. RTh is the resistance across
the open ab terminals, with all sources killed.
3. Norton's theorem. Any two-terminal network can be replaced by a
single current source IN in parallel with a single resistance RN. The
value of IN is the current produced by the network through the
short-circuited terminals. RN is the resistance across the open termi-
nals with all sources killed.
4. Millman's theorem. The common voltage across parallel branches
with different V sources can be determined with Formula (9-1 ).
5. A voltage source Vwith its series R can be converted to an equivalent
current source I with parallel R, or vice versa. The value of I is VI R,
or Vis I X R. The value of R is the same for both sources. However,
R is in series with V but in parallel with I.
6. The comparison between delta and wye networks is illustrated in
Fig. 9-21. To convert from one network to the other, Formula (9-2)
or (9-3) is used.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. \4_.h is an open-circuit voltage.

2. IN is a short-circuit current.
3. RTh and RN have the same value.
4. A voltage source has series resistance.
5. A current source has parallel resistance.
6. A voltage source is killed by short-circuiting the terminals.
7. A current source is killed by opening the source.
8. A 7T network is the same as a T network.
 Chapter 9
198 Network Theorems

9. Millman's theorem is useful for parallel branches with different

voltage sources.
10. A 10-V source has a 2-Q series R. Its equivalent current source is 2 A
in parallel with 10 Q.

Essay Questions
1. State the superposition theorem.
2. In applying the superposition theorem, how do we kill or disable
voltage sources and current sources?
3. State the method of calculating '4h and RTh for a Thevenin equiva-
lent circuit.
4. State the method of calculating IN and RN for a Norton equivalent
circuit.
4. How is a voltage source converted to a current source, and vice
versa?
6. For what type of circuit is Millman's theorem used?
7. Draw a delta network and a wye network and give the six formulas
needed to convert from one to the other.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Refer to Fig. 9-23. Show the Thevenin equivalent and calculate \{.
2. Show the Norton equivalent of Fig. 9-23 and calculate IL.
3. In Fig. 9-23, convert Vand R1 to a current source and calculate IL.
4. Use Ohm's law to solve Fig. 9-23 as a series-parallel circuit in order
to calculate \{ and IL. (Note: RL is not opened for Ohm's law.)

R 1 =4S1

FIGURE 9-23
For Probs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
 Chapter 9
Network Theorems 199

v, v,
- 150 v+ 150 v +
-!- ~

V2 V2
+ 30V _ + 30V _

-!- ~
FIGURE 9-24 FIGURE 9-25
For Probs. 6 and 7. For Prob. 8.
5. Why is the value of\{ across the ab terminals in Prob. 4 not the same
as ~b for the Thevenin equivalent circuit in Prob. 1?
6. Refer to Fig. 9-24. Determine \Ip by superposition.
7. Redraw Fig. 9-24 as two parallel branches to calculate VP by Mill-
man's theorem.
8. Refer to Fig. 9-25. Calculate\{ across RL by Millman's theorem and
also by superposition.
9. Show the Thevenin equivalent of Fig. 9-26, where the ab terminals
are across the middle resistor R2 . Then calculate VR 2 •
10. In Fig. 9-26, solve for VR 2 by superposition.
11. In Fig. 9-26, solve for VR 2 by Millman's theorem.
12. In Fig. 9-27, solve for all the currents by Kirchhoff's laws.
13. In Fig. 9-27, find \'3 by Millman's theorem.
14. Convert the T network in Fig. 9-28 to an equivalent '7T network.
15. Convert the '7T network in Fig. 9-29 to an equivalent T network.
16. Show the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the diagram in
Fig. 9-30.

FIGURE 9-26 FIGURE 9-27

For Probs. 9, 10, and 11. For Probs. 12 and 13.
 Chapter 9
200 Network Theorems

R2 = 8 .s1 R 3 =5 .s1
a b
a b
R,=
9 ,Q Re=
32 ,Q

c
FIGURE 9-28 c c
For Prob. 14. FIGURE 9-29
For Prob. 15.
20 k.Q 4.7 k.Q
a

V = 60V

FIGURE 9-30
For Prob. 16.

Answers to Practice Problems

9-1 (a) R1 9-6 (a) T
(b) R2 (b) T
9-2 (a) T (c) T
(b) T 9-7 (a) 7A
9-3 (a) 8.4 Q (b) 3Q
(b) 24 v 9-8 (a) 6V
9-4 (a) 6.4 Q (b) 14 v
(b) 2.5 v 9-9 (a) R1
9-5 (a) T (b) RB and R0
(b) T
 Review of
Chapters
Sande
Summary
1. Methods of applying Kirchhoff's laws. include (a) equations of volt-
ages using the branch currents in the loops to specify the voltages;
(b) equations of currents at a node using the node voltages to specify
the node currents; (c) equations of voltages using assumed mesh
currents to specify the voltages.
2. Methods of reducing a network to a simple equiyalent circuit include
(a) superposition theorem using one source at a time; (b) Thevenin's
theorem to convert the network to a series circuit with one source;
(c) Norton's theorem to convert the network to a parallel circuit with
one source; (d) Millman's theorem to find the common voltage
across parallel branches with different sources; (e) delta-wye con-
versions to transform a network into a series-parallel circuit.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. In Fig. 8-3, Vg can be found by using Kirchhoff's laws with either

branch currents or mesh currents.
2. In Fig. 8·3, Vg can be found by superposition, thevenizing, or using
Millman's theorem.
3. In Fig. 9·6, IL cannot be found by delta-wye conversion because RL
disappears in the transformation.
4. In Fig. 9-6, IL can be calculated with Kirchhoff's laws, using mesh
currents for three meshes.
5. With superposition, we can use Ohm's law for circuits that have more
than one source.
202 Review of Chapters 8 and 9

6. A Thevenin equivalent is a parallel circuit.

7. A Norton equivalent is a series circuit.
8. Either a Thevenin or a Norton equivalent of a network will produce
the same current in any load across the ab terminals.
9. A Thevenin-Norton conversion means converting a voltage source to
a current source.
10. The units are volts for (volts/ohms) -:- siemens.
11. A node voltage is a voltage between current nodes.
12. A 'TT network can be converted to an equivalent T network.
13. A 10-V source with 10-Q series R will supply 5 V to ·a 10-Q load RL.
14. A 10-A source with 10-Q parallel Rwill supply 5Atoa10-Q load RL.
15. Current sources in parallel can be added when they supply current in
the same direction through RL.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Cutler, P.: "Outline for DC Circuit Analysis," McGraw-Hill Book Com-

pany, New York.
Hayt and Kemmerlin..g: "Engineering Circuit Analysis," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Lippin, G.: "Circuit Problems and Solutions," Hayden Book Company,
New York.
Mueller, G. V.: "Introduction to Electrical Engineering,'' McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Romanowitz, A. H.: ''Electric Fundamentals and Circuit Analysis,'' John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
 Conductors
and
Insulators
Conductors have very low resistance. Less than 1nfor10 ft of copper
wire is a typical value. The function of the wire conductor is to connect a pt
source of applied voltage to a load resistance with minimum IR voltage
drop in the conductor. Then all the applied voltage can produce current in
the load resistance.
At the opposite extreme, materials having a very high resistance of
many megohms are insulators. Some common examples are air, paper,
mica, glass, plastics, rubber, cotton, and shellac or varnish.
10
Between the extremes of conductors and insulators are semicon-
ductor materials such as carbon, silicon, and germanium. Carbon is used
in the manufacture of resistors. Silicon and germ~nium are used for
transistors. The following topics are covered:

10-1 Function of the Conductor

10-2 Standard Wire Gage Sizes
10-3 Types of Wire Conductors
104 Printed Wiring
10-5 Switches
10-6 Fuses
10-7 Pilot Lamps
10-8 Wire Resistance
10-9 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
10-10 Ion Current in Liquids and Gases
10-11 Electrons and Hole Charges in Semiconductors
10-12 Insulators

10..1 ment in the bulb. When the current of approxi ·

FUNCTION OF THE CONDUCTOR mately 0.9 A flows in the bulb and the series
In Fig. 10-1, the resistance of the two 10-ft conductors, the IR voltage drop across the con-
lengths of copper-wire conductors is approxi· ductors is 0.54 V with 119.5 V across the bulb.
mately 0.6 n. This is negligibly small compared Practically all the applied voltage is across the
with the 144-0 resistance for the tungsten fiJa- filament of the bulb. Since the bulb then has its
 Cha ter 10
204 Conductors and Insulators

,-+
: /= 0.9 A Bulb
120-V filament
120 v 119.5 v
source 143.4 n
[Link]
100-W
Copper conductors, bulb Conductors
each 10 ft R = 0.6 n
IR= 0.54 V
P= 0.49 W

(a) (b)
FIGURE 10-1
The conductors should have minimum resist-
ance to light the bulb with full brilliance. (a)
Wiring diagram. (b) Schematic diagram.

rated voltage of 120 V, approximately, it will Practice Problems 10-1

dissipate its rated power of 100 W and light with (answers on page 223)
full brilliance. Refer to Fig. 10-1.
The current in the wire conductors and the (a) How much is R for the 20 ft of copper
bulb is the same, since they are in series. How- wire?
ever, the IR voltage drop in the conductor is (b) How much is the IR voltage drop for the
practically zero because its R is almost zero. wire conductors?
Also, the I 2 R power dissipated in the con-
ductor is negligibly small, allowing the conduc- 10-2
tor to operate without becoming hot. Therefore, STANDARD WIRE GAGE SIZES
Table 10-1 lists the standard wire sizes in the
the conductor delivers energy from the source
system known as the American Wire Gage
to the load with minimum loss, by means of
(AWG), or Brown and Sharpe (B&S) gage. The
electron flow in the copper wires.
gage numbers specify the size of round wire in
Although the resistance of wire conductors
terms of its diameter and cross-sectional cir-
is very small, for some cases of excessive cur-
cular area. Note the following:
rent the resultant IR drop can be appreciable.
The complaint that the size of a television pic- 1. As the gage numbers increase from 1 to
ture shrinks at night is one example. With many 40, the diameter and circular area de-
lights and possibly other appliances on, the high crease. Higher gage numbers indicate
value of current can produce too much voltage thinner wire sizes.
drop in the power line. A 30-V IR drop results 2. The circular area doubles for every three
in only 90 Vat the load, which is low enough to gage sizes. For example, No. 10 wire has
reduce the picture size. As additional examples, approximately twice the area of No. 13
excessive IR drop in the line and low voltage at wire.
the load can be the cause of a toaster that does 3. The higher the gage number and the thin-
not heat quickly or an electric motor that does ner the wire, the greater the resistance of
not start properly. the wire for any given length.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 205

TABLE 10-1. Copper Wire Table

OHMS PER OHMS PER
1000 FT 1000 FT
CIRCULAR- OF COPPER CIRCULAR- OF COPPER
GAGE DIAMETER, MIL WIRE GAGE DIAMETER, MIL WIRE
NO. MIL AREA AT 2s°C NO. MIL AREA AT 2s°C

1 289.3 83,690 0.1264 21 28.46 810.1 13.05

2 257.6 66,370 0.1593 22 25.35 642.4 16.46
3 229.4 52,640 0.2009 23 22.57 509.5 20.76
4 204.3 41,740 0.2533 24 20.10 404.0 26.17
5 181.9 33,100 0.3195 25 17.90 320.4 33.00
6 162.0 26,250 0.4028 26 15.94 254.1 41.62
7 144.3 20,820 0.5080 27 14.20 201.5 52.48
8 128.5 16,510 0.6405 28 12.64 159.8 66.17
9 114.4 13,090 0.8077 29 11.26 126.7 83.44
10 101.9 10,380 1.018 30 10.03 100.5 105.2
11 90.74 8234 1.284 31 8.928 79.70 132.7
12 80.81 6530 1.619 32 7.950 63.21 167.3
13 71.96 5178 2.042 33 7.080 50.13 211.0
14 64.08 4107 2.575 34 6.305 39.75 266.0
15 57.07 3257 3.247 35 5.615 31.52 335.0
16 50.82 2583 4.094 36 5.000 25.00 423.0
17 45.26 2048 5.163 37 4.453 19.83 533.4
18 40.30 1624 6.510 38 3.965 15.72 672.6
19 35.89 1288 8.210 39 3.531 12.47 848.1
20 31.96 1022 10.35 40 3.145 9.88 1069
*20 to 25 ° C or 68 to 77 ° F is considered average
room temperature.

In typical applications, hookup wire for The number of circular mils in any circular area
radio receiver circuits with current in the order is equal to the square of the diameter in mils.
of milliamperes is generally about No. 22 gage.
For this size, 0.5 to 1 A is the maximum current
the wire can carry without heating.
House wiring for circuits where the current
is 5 to 15 A is about No. 14 gage. Minimum
sizes for house wiring are set by Fire Underwrit-
ers requirements in most localities. A gauge for
measuring wire size is shown in Fig. 10-2.

Circular Mils. The cross-sectional area of

round wire is measured in circular mils, abbre-
viated cmil. A mil is one-thousandth of an inch,
or 0.001 in. One circular mil is the cross-sec- Wire gage, actual size. (Hammel, Riglander &
tional area of a wire with a diameter of 1 mil. Co. Inc.)
 Chapter 10
206 Conductors and Insulators

Example 1. What is the area in circular mils of a

wire with a diameter of 0.005 in?

Answer. We must convert the diameter to mils.

Since 0.005 in equals 5 mil,

Circular mil area = (5 mil) 2

Area = 25 cmil Diam= 5 mil
Area= 25 cmil
Note that the circular mil is a unit of area, Diam= 10 mil
obtained by squaring the diameter, while the mil Area = 100 cmil

is a linear unit of length equal to thousandths of FIGURE 10-3

an inch. Therefore, the circular-mil area in- Cross-sectional areas for round wire. Double
creases as the square of the diameter. As illus- the diameter equals four times the circular
area.
trated in Fig. 10-3, doubling the diameter quad-
ruples the area. Circular mils are convenient for nected to ground to shield the inner conductor
round wire because the cross section is speci- against external magnetic interference.
fied without using the formula '7Tr2 or '7Td 2 14 for Constant spacing between two conductors
the area of a circle. provides a transmission line, such as a coaxial
Practice Problems 10-2 cable. The twin-lead transmission line in
(answers on page 223) Fig. 10-4e is commonly used in television for
' (a) How much is R for 1 ft of No. 22 wire? connecting the antenna to the receiver. Gage
(b) What is the cross-sectional area in cmil for No. 20 wire is generally used for the copper
wire with a diameter of 0.025 in? conductors.
Very thin wire such as No. 30 often has an
10-3 insulating coating of enamel or shellac. It may
TYPES OF WIRE CONDUCTORS look like copper, but the coating must be
Most wire conductors are copper, although alu- scraped off at the ends to make a good connec-
minum and silver are also used. Generally the tion to the wire. ·
copper is tinned with a thin coating of solder, 1 Heavier wires generally are in an insulating
which gives it a silvery appearance. The wire sleeve, which may be rubber, cotton, or one of
can be solid or stranded, as shown in Fig. 10-4a many plastics. General-purpose wire for con-
and b. necting electronic components is generally
Stranded wire is flexible and less likely to plastic-coated hookup wire of No. 20 gage.
break open. Sizes for stranded wire are equiva- Hookup wire that is bare should be enclosed in
lent to the sum of the areas for the individual a hollow insulating sleeve called spaghetti.
strands. For instance, two strands of No. 30
wire are equivalent to solid No. 27 wire. Practice Problems 10-3
Two or more conductors in a common (answers on page 223)
covering form a wire cable. The two-conductor Answer true or false.
line in Fig. 10-4d is called coaxial cable. The (a) The plastic coating on wire conductors has
metallic braid is one conductor, which is con- very high resistance.
(b) Coaxial cable is a shielded transmission
1 See Appendix H for more information about solder. line.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 207

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 10-4
Types of wire conductors: (a) solid; (b)
stranded; (c) braid; (d) coaxial cable; (e) twin-
lead cable.

10-4 ponents can be replaced without disturbing the

PRINTED WIRING printed wiring. Just break the old component in
Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plas- the middle with diagonal cutting pliers. Then
tic insulating board with printed wiring, as solder the new component to the old leads.
shown in Fig. 10-5. This is a printed-circuit (PC) However, the best way is to desolder the leads
or printed-wiring (PW) board. One side has the and solder the new component into the printed
components, such as resistors, capacitors, coils, wiring.
tubes, transistors, and diodes. The other side For desoldering, use a solder-sucker tool,
has the conducting paths printed with silver or with a soldering iron, to clean each terminal.
copper on the board, instead of using wir~s. Another method is to use wire braid. Put the
Sockets, small metal eyelets, or just holes in the braid on the joint and heat until the solder runs ·
board are used to connect the components to up into the braid. The terminal must be clean
the wiring. With a bright light on one side, you enough to lift out the component easily without
can see through to the opposite side to trace the damaging the PC board.
connections. However, the circuit is usually A small crack in the printed wiring can be
drawn on the PC board. repaired by soldering a short length of bare wire
It is important not to use too much heat over the open. If a larger section of printed
in soldering 1 or desoldering. Otherwise the wiring is open, or if the board is cracked, you
printed wiring can be lifted off the board. Use a can bridge the open with a length of hookup
small iron of about 25 to 35 W rating. When wire soldered at two convenient end terminals
soldering semiconductor diodes and transistors, of the printed wiring.
hold the lead with pliers or connect an alligator
clip as a heat sink to conduct heat away from Practice Problems 10-4
the semiconductor junction. (answers on page 223)
In some cases, defective R, L, and C com- (a) Which is the best size iron to use on a PC
board, 25, 100, or 150 W?
1 More details of solder, soldering, and desoldering (b) How much is the resistance of a printed-
are described in Appendix H. wire conductor with a break in the middle?
 Chapter 10
208 Conductors and Insulators

Input and output connections

FIGURE 10-5
Printed-wiring board from television receiver.
Components are mounted on front, with
printed wiring on opposite side. (RCA)

10-5 or make, position; open is the oFF, or break,

SWITCHES position.
As shown in Fig. 10-6, switches are commonly The switch is in series with the voltage
used to open or close a circuit. Closed is the ON, source and its load. 'In the oN position, the

Switch

v R

/11''
Bulb

(a) (b)
FIGURE 10-6
Single-pole single-throw switch to open or
close one circuit. (a) Wiring diagram with knife
switch. (b) Schematic with general symbol for a
switch S.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 209

Antenna 1 Antenna 2

=v
R, lS~ef To receiver

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 10-7
Switch applications. (a) SPOT switch to make
one connection to either of two circuits. (b)
DPDT switch to make two connections to either
of two circuits. (c) Construction of DPDT knife
switch.

closed switch has very little resistance. Then nas. Six connections are necessary here, two for
maximum current can flow in the load, with each of the circuits to be switched and two for
practically zero voltage drop across the switch. the center. contacts.
Open, the switch has infinite resistance, and no Figure 10-8 illustrates a toggle switch, and
current flows in the circuit. Fig. 10-9 illustrates a rotary switch. Additional
Note that the switch is in just one side of types include the knife switch and the push-
the line, but the entire series circuit is open button switch. A spring switch that is normally
when the switch is turned off. In the open posi- closed is indicated as NC; normally open is NO.
tion, the applied voltage is across the switch
contacts. Therefore, the insulation must be
good enough to withstand this amount of volt-
age without arcing.
The switch in Fig. 10-6 is a single-pole
single-throw (SPST) switch. It provides an ON or
OFF position for one circuit. Two connections

are necessary.
Figure 10-7 shows double-throw switches
for two circuits. sl in (a) is single-pole double-
throw (SPOT) to switch one side of the circuit.
This switching can be done because R1 and R2
both have a common line. Three connections
are necessary, one for the common line and
one for each of the circuits to be switched.
In Fig. 10-7 b 5 2 is double-pole double-
throw (DPDT) to switch both sides of two cir- FIGURE 10-8
cuits. This switching is done because there is no DPDT toggle switch. Length is 1 in. Note six
common return line for the two separate anten- soldering lugs. (J-B-T Instruments Inc.)
 Chapter 10
210 Conductors and Insulators

FIGURE 10-9
Rotary switch with three wafers or decks on a
common shaft. (Centro/ab)

In general, larger switches are necessary ment, blowing the fuse and opening the series
for high-current circuits, where the contacts circuit. The purpose is to let the fuse blow be-
must be heavy for minimum resistance. In fore the components are damaged. The blown
high-voltage circuits, wider spacing is needed fuse can easily be replaced by a new one, after
for maximum insulation between contacts in the the overload has been eliminated. A glass-car-
open position. tridge fuse with holders is shown in Fig. 10-10.
This is a type 3AG fuse, with a diameter of %in
Practice Problems 10-5 and length of 1 %in. AG is an abbreviation of
(answers on page 223) "automobile glass" since that was one of the
(a) How much is the IR voltage drop across a first applications of fuses in a glass holder to
closed switch? make the wire link visible.
(b) How many connections are needed for a The metal fuse element may be made of
SPOT switch? aluminum, tin-coated copper, or nickel. Fuses
are available in a current rating from 1/s00 A to
10-6 hundreds of amperes. The thinner the wire
FUSES element in the fuse, the smaller is its current
Many circuits have a fuse in series as a protec- rating. A 2-in length of No. 28 wire can serve as
tion against an overload resulting from a short a 2-A fuse. As typical applications, the rating for
circuit. Excessive current melts the fuse ele- plug fuses in each branch of house wiring is

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 10-10
Fuses. (a) Glass-cartridge type. (b) and (c) Fuse
holders.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 211

often 15 A; the high-voltage circuit in a televi- ov

sion receiver is usually protected by a glass-
cartridge %-A fuse.
r-0-,
I
I
I
I

Slow-blow Fuses. These have a coiled con-

struction. They are designed to open only on a
continued overload, such as a short circuit. The
purpose of coiled construction is to prevent the
fuse from blowing on just a temporary current
surge. As an example, a 1-A slow-blow fuse will
hold a 400 percent overload in current up to 2 s. (a)
120 v
Circuit Breakers. These have a thermal ele-
ment in the form of a spring. The spring ex- At
r-0-1 B I
pands with heat and trips open the circuit. The
circuit breaker can be reset for normal opera-
!
r---t. , ' o~n •
tion, however, after the short has been elimi- I

nated and the thermal element cools down. Vr1=12ov 0.20v 0ov
I
I
I
I
Wire Links. A short length of bare wire is often I I

used as a fuse in television receivers. For in- -=- -=- -=-

(b)
stance, a 2-in length of No. 24 gage wire can
hold a current of 500 mA but burn open with an FIGURE 10-11
overload. The wire link can be mounted be- When a fuse opens, the applied voltage is
tween two terminal strips on the chassis. Or, the across the fuse terminals. (a) Circuit closed
wire link may be wrapped over a small insulator with good fuse. Note schematic symbol. (b)
Fuse open.
to make a separate component.

Testing Fuses. With glass fuses, you can usu- Referring to Fig. 10-11, notice the results
ally see if the wire element inside is burned when measuring the voltages to ground at the
open. When measured with an ohmmeter, a two fuse terminals. In (a), the voltage is the
good fuse has practically zero resistance. An same 120 Vat both ends because there is no
open fuse reads infinite ohms. Power must be voltage drop across the good fuse. In (b), how-
off or the fuse must be out of the circuit to test a ever, terminal B reads 0 V, as this end is dis-
fuse with an ohmmeter. connected from VT because of the open fuse.
When you test with a voltmeter, a good These tests apply to either de or ac voltages.
fuse has zero volts across its two terminals (Fig.
10-11 a). If you read appreciable voltage across
the fuse, this means it is open. In fact, the full Practice Problems 10-6
applied voltage is across the open fuse in a (answers on page 223)
series circuit, as shown in (b). This is why fuses (a) How much is the resistance of a good fuse?
also have a voltage rating, which gives the max- (b) How much is the IR voltage drop across a
imum voltage without arcing in the open fuse. good fuse?
 Chapter 10
212 Conductors and Insulators

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 10-12
Panel lamps and sockets. Diameter of base is
%in. (a) Bayonet base; (b) screw-type base; (c)
bayonet socket; (d) screw-type socket with
glass bezel; (e) miniature lamp and socket.
(Dia light Corp.)

10-7 10-8
PILOT LAMPS WIRE RESISTANCE
A small incandescent bulb is often used as a The longer a wire, the higher is its resistance.
panel lamp to light a dial or as a pilot lamp that More work must be done to make electrons drift
lights to show that the equipment is on. Typical from one end to the other. However, the thicker
lamps and sockets are shown in Fig. 10-12. The the wire, the less the resistance, since there are
side wall of the socket is one connection. In the more free electrons in the cross-sectional area.
bayonet socket in (c), the center connection has As a formula,
a spring to hold the bulb tight. To insert or
remove the bulb, press down and twist slightly. R=p-
1
(10-1)
The mounting for a pilot lamp usually has a A
colored glass cover called a bezel, as shown
in (d). where R is the total resistance, 1the length, A
Power is applied to the pilot lamp when the the cross-sectional area, and p the specific re-
oN-oFF switch is turned on. The lamp is usually sistance or resistivity. The factor p then enables
connected as a parallel branch so that the different materials to be compared for resist-
equipment can operate if the bulb burns out. ance according to their nature without regard to
Most bulbs are rated at 6.3 V. However, some different lengths or areas. Higher values of p
are for 120-V operation, directly from the mean more resistance. Note that p is Greek
power line. A neon bulb can also be used on letter rho, corresponding to r.
120 V as a panel lamp.
Specific Resistance. Table 10-2 lists resist-
Practice Problems 10-7 ance values for different metals having the
(answers on page 223) standard wire size of a 1-ft length with a cross-
Answer true or false. sectional area of 1 cmil. This rating is the spe-
(a) A bezel is a glass cover for a pilot lamp. cific resistance of the metal, in circular-mil
(b) The pilot lamp is usually connected as a ohms per foot. Since silver, copper, gold, and
parallel branch. aluminum are the best conductors, they have
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 213

TABLE 10-2. Properties of Conducting Materials'"

p=SPECIFIC TEMPERATURE
RESISTANCE, COEFFICIENT, MELTING
DESCRIPTION AT 20°c, PER °C, POINT,
MATERIAL AND SYMBOL CMIL·!J/FT a oc

Aluminum Element (Al) 17 0.004 660

Carbon Element (C) t -0.0003 3000
Constantan 55% Cu, 295 0 (average) 1210·
45% Ni, alloy
Copper Element (Cu) 10.4 0.004 1083
Gold Element (Au) 14 0.004 1063
Iron Element (Fe) 58 0.006 1535
Manganin 84% Cu, 12% Mn, 270 0 (average) 910
4% Ni, alloy
Nichrome 65% Ni, 23% Fe, 676 0.0002 1350
12% Cr, alloy
Nickel Element (Ni) 52 0.005 1452
Silver Element (Ag) 9.8 0.004 961
Steel 99.5% Fe, 100 0.003 1480
0.5% C, alloy
Tungsten Element (W) 33.8 0.005 3370
*Listings approximate only, since precise values de-
pend on exact composition of material.
tCarbon has about 2500 to 7500 times the resistance
of copper. Graphite is a form of carbon.

the lowest values of specific resistance. Tung- Example 3. How much is the resistance of a 100-ft
sten and iron have a much higher resistance. length of No. 23 copper wire?

Example 2. How much is the resistance of 100 ft of Answer.

No. 20 copper wire? Note that from Table 10-1, the
cross-sectional area for No. 20 wire is 1022 cmil; R = P_!_ = 10 .4 cmil · Q X 100 ft
A ft 509.5 cmil
from Table 10-2, the p for copper is 10.4. Using
Formula (10-1) gives R =2 Q

Answer. Note that the increase of 3 in gage size provides

R _ _!_ _ 10 4 cmil · Q X 100 ft one-half the circular area and double the resist-
- PA - · ft 1022 cmil
ance, approximately, for the same wire length.
R =1Q
All the units cancel except the ohms for R. Note that Units of Ohm-Centimeters for p. Except for
1 Q for 100 ft is approximately 1/i. 0 the resistance of wire conductors, specific resistances are usually
10.35 Q for 1000 ft of No. 20 copper wire listed in compared for the standard size of a 1-cm cube.
Table 10-1, showing that the resistance is propor- Then p is specified in Q ·cm for the unit cross-
tional to length. sectional area of 1 cm 2 .
 Chapter 10
214 Conductors and Insulators

As an example, pure germanium has ance wire because R is greater than for copper
p = 55 Q ·cm, as listed in Table 10-3. This wire, for the same length.
value means that R is 55 Q for a cube with a
cross-sectional area of 1 cm 2 and length of Practice Problems 10-8
1 cm. (answers on page 223)
For other sizes, use Formula (10-1) with I (a) Does Nichrome wire have less or more
in cm and A in cm 2 . Then all the units of size resistance than copper wire?
cancel to give R in ohms. (b) For 100 ft of No. 14 copper wire, R is
0.26 Q. How much is R for 1000 ft?
Example 4. How much is the resistance for a slab of
germanium 0.2 cm long with a cross-sectional area 10-9
of 1 cm 2 ? TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
OF RESISTANCE
Answer. This factor with the symbol alpha (a) states how
much the resistance changes for a change in
R = P_J_ = 55 Q. cm X 0.2 cm
temperature. A positive value for a means R
A 1 cm 2
R = 11 Q increases with temperature; with a negative a, R
decreases; zero for a means R is constant.
Types of Resistance Wire. For applications in Some typical values of a, for metals and for
heating elements, as in a toaster, an incandes- carbon, are listed in Table 10-2 in the fourth
cent light bulb, or a heater, it is necessary to use column.
wire that has more resistance than good con-
Positive a. All metals in their pure form, such
ductors like silver, copper, or aluminum.
as copper and tungsten, have a positive tem-
Higher resistance is preferable so that the re-
perature coefficient. The a for tungsten, for
quired amount of 12 R power dissipated as heat
example, is 0.005. Although a is not exactly
in the wire can be obtained without excessive
current. Typical materials for resistance wire are constant, an increase in wire resistance caused
by a rise in temperature can be calculated ap-
the elements tungsten, nickel, or iron and al-
loys1 such as manganin, Nichrome, and con- proximately from the formula
stantan. These types are generally called resist- (10-2)
1 An alloy is a fusion of elements, without chemical
action between them. Metals are commonly alloyed where R0 is the resistance at 20 ° C, Rt is the
to alter their physical characteristics. higher resistance at the higher temperature,
and /).tis the temperature rise above 20°C.

TABLE 10-3. Comparison of Specific Example 5. A tungsten wire has a 14-Q Rat 20°C.
Resistances Calculate its resistance at 120 °C.
p, O·CM,
MATERIAL AT 25°C DESCRIPTION Answer. The temperature rise At here is 100°C·
a is 0.005. Substituting in Formula (10-2), '
Silver 1.6 x 10- 6 Conductor
Germanium 55 Semiconductor
Rt = 14 + 14(0.005 x 100)
Silicon 55,000 Semiconductor
Mica 2 x 10 12 Insulator = 14 + 7
Rt= 21 0
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 215

The added resistance of 7 Q increases the wire re- 100-W 120-V incandescent bulb has a current
sistance by 50 percent because of the 100°C rise in of 0 .833 A when the bulb lights with normal
temperature. brilliance at its rated power, since I = P!V. By
Ohm's law, the hot resistance is VI I, or
In practical terms, a positive a means that 120 V/0.833 A, which equals 144 Q. If, how-
heat increases R in wire conductors. Then I is ever the filament resistance is measured with
reduced, with a specified applied voltage. an o'hmmeter when the bulb is not lit, the cold
resistance is only about 10 Q.
The Nichrome heater elements in appli-
Negative a. Note that carbon has a negative ances and the tungsten heaters in vacuum tubes
temperature coefficient. In general a is negative also become several hundred degrees hotter in
for all semiconductors, including germanium normal operation. In these cases, only the cold
and silicon. Also, all electrolyte solutions, such resistance can be measured with an ohmmeter.
as sulfuric acid and water, have a negative a. The hot resistance must be calculated from
A negative value of a means less resistance voltage and current measurements with the
at higher temperatures. The resistance of semi- normal value of load current.
conductor diodes and transistors, therefore, can
be reduced appreciably when they become hot Example 6. The heater of a vacuum tube has 6.3 V
with normal load current. with its normal load current of 0.3 A. How much is
The negative a has a practical application the hot resistance?
in the use of carbon thermistors. A thermistor
can be connected as a series component to R _ ~ _ 6.3
Answer. - I - 0.3
decrease its resistance to compensate for the
increased hot resistance of wire conductors. R = 21 Q

Zero a. This means R is constant with changes It should be noted that the cold resistance of this
heater measured with an ohmmeter equals 2 Q,
in temperature. The metal alloys constantan
which is about one-tenth of the hot resistance.
and manganin, for example, have the value of
zero for a. They can be used for precision
wirewound resistors, which do not change re- Superconductivity. The opposite effect of hot
sistance when the temperature increases. resistance is to cool a metal down to very low
temperatures to reduce its resistance. Near ab-
solute zero at 0 K or -273°C, some metals
Hot Resistance. With resistance wire made of
abruptly lose practically all their resistance. As
tungsten, Nichrome, iron, or nickel, there is
an example, the metal tin when cooled by liquid
usually a big difference in the amount of resist-
helium becomes superconductive at 3. 7 K. Tre-
ance the wire has when hot in normal operation
mendous currents can be produced, resulting in
and when cold without its normal load current.
very strong electromagnetic fields. Such work at
The reason is that the resistance increases for
very low temperatures, 1 near absolute zero, is
higher temperatures, with a positive tempera-
called cryogenics.
ture coefficient for these materials, as shown in
Table 10-2. 1 See Appendix D, Physics Units, for a description of

As an example, the tungsten filament of a different temperature scales.

 Chapter 10
216 Conductors and Insulators

Practice Problems 10-9 Such charged particles are commonly formed

(answers on page 223) in liquids and gases.
Answer true or false.
(a) Metal conductors have more R at higher The Ion. An ion is an atom that has a net
temperatures. electric charge, either positive or negative, re-
(b) A thermistor has a negative temperature sulting from a loss or gain of electrons. See
coefficient. Fig. 10-13. In (a), the sodium atom is neutral,
with 11 positive charges in the nucleus balanced
10-10 by 11 electrons in the outside shells. This atom
ION CURRENT IN LIQUIDS has only 1 electron in the shell farthest from the
AND GASES nucleus. When the sodium is in a liquid solu-
We usually think of metal wire for a conductor, tion, this 1 electron can easily leave the atom.
but there are other possibilities. Liquids such as The reason may be another atom close by that
salt water or dilute sulfuric acid can also allow needs 1 electron for a stable ring of 8 electrons
the movement of electric charges. For gases, in its outside shell. Notice that if the sodium
consider the neon glow lamp, where neon atom loses 1 valence electron, the atom will still
serves as a conductor. have an outside ring of 8 electrons, as shown in
The mechanism may be different for con- (b). This sodium atom now is a positive ion, with
duction in metal wire, liquids, or gases, but in a charge equal to 1 proton. An ion still has the
any case the current is a motion of charges. characteristics of the element because the nu-
Furthermore, either positive or negative cleus is not changed.
charges can be the carriers that provide electri-
cal current. The amount of current is QI T For Current of Ions. Just as in electron flow, op-
one coulomb of charge per second, the current posite ion charges are attracted to each other,
is one ampere. while like charges repel. The resultant motion of
In solid materials like the metals, the atoms ions provides electrical current. In liquids and
are not free to move among each other. There- gases, therefore, conduction of electricity re-
fore, conduction of electricity must take place sults mainly from the movement of ions. This
by the drift of free electrons. Each atom remains motion of ion charges is called ionization cur-
neutral, neither gaining nor losing charge, but
the metals are good conductors because they
have plenty of free electrons that can be forced ,,.----
.... --- ..... '
......
.,..--... ...
/ ~/ ............ '. \
/
to drift through the solid substance.
, , , ~-2\-1 I
!",,....-....
/ ~-2\
. . "'
In liquids and gases, however, each atom is
{~t0Jti
able to move freely among all the other atoms
because the substance is not solid. As a result,
the atoms can easily take on electrons or lose
\'
\
' '-,................
'
'
____
___ ...._
......
,
1-8 I

/
/
/
~ t 0 ; -8*
\
',~
'
..... ..._... ...." I

electrons, particularly the valence electrons in

Na atom
the outside shell. The result is an atom that is no
longer electrically neutral. Adding one or more (a) (b)
electrons produces a negative charge; the loss FIGURE 10-13
of one or more electrons results in a positive Formation of ions. (a) Normal sodium (Na)
charge. The charged atoms are called ions. atom. (b) Positively charged sodium (Na+) ion.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 217

rent. Since an ion includes the nucleus of the have a negative value of a, as more ionization at
atom, the ion charge is much heavier than an higher temperatures lowers the resistance.
electron charge and moves with less velocity.
We can say that ion charges are less mobile than Ionization in Gases. Gases have a minimum
electron charges. striking or ionization potential, which is the low-
The direction of ionization current can be est applied voltage that will ionize the gas. Be-
the same as electron flow or the opposite. When fore ionization the gas is an insulator, but the
negative ions move, they are attracted to the ionization current makes the ionized gas a low
positive terminal of an applied voltage, in the resistance. The ionized gas usually glows.
same direction as electron flow. However, when Argon, for instance, emits blue light when the
positive ions move, this ionization current is in gas is ionized. Ionized neon gas glows red. The
the opposite direction, toward the negative ter- amount of voltage needed to reach the striking
minal of an applied voltage. potential varies with different gases and de-
For either direction, though, the amount of pends on the gas pressure. For example, a neon
ionization current is determined by the rate at glow lamp for use as a night light ionizes at
which the charge moves. If 3 C of positive ion approximately 70 V.
charges move past a given point per second, the
current is 3 A, the same as 3 C of negative ions Ionic Bonds. The sodium ion in Fig. 10-14 has
or 3 C of electron charges. a charge of + 1 because it is missing 1 electron.
If such positive ions are placed near negative
Ionization in Liquids. Ions are usually formed ions with a charge of -1, there will be an elec-
in liquids when salts or acids are dissolved in trical attraction to form an ionic bond.
water. Salt water is a good conductor because A common example is the combination of
of ionization, but pure distilled water is an insu- sodium (Na) ions and chlorine (Cl) ions to form
lator. In addition, metals immersed in acids or table salt (NaCl), as shown in Fig. 10-14. Notice
alkaline solutions produce ionization. Liquids that the 1 outer electron of the Na atom can fit
that are good conductors because of ionization into the 7 -electron shell of the Cl atom. When
are called electrolytes. In general, electrolytes these two elements are combined, the Na atom

//
,,,.,.---- ...... .........
, ........... ', " .....
~ .... ....
,,.--- .... ,
--- ,., ------- ...
,,
......
....
...... ~
M
I
I~
I 1¥" ,.....-...~'
L K e - 2 \ -1
~

,,' .................
\•
~'
I ~ ,,,,--...,'

r • ( e-rr;
\ I

(' __
,

~ (e--.-.~.
,,.- ... ' \
8

, ...........
\ \
I\ +11
I
}
8 \ \ I - 8 I ,,, /-81
\ ' ' " ~,
- I \ ''-...,_,,.,, ~ I \ ... .... ~ /
___ ,,, "'/
'... ----
____
......... .,,,,,,. _..../
/
........ ___ .... ..... ___ ......,, #
' .... ...............

Na (sodium) atom + Cl (chlorine) atom - - - - - - - . Na+ 1 c1- 1 (sodium chloride)

molecule
FIGURE 10-14
Ionic bond between atoms of sodium (Na) and
chlorine (Cl) to form a molecule of sodium
chloride (NaCl).
 Chapter 10
218 Conductors and Insulators

gives up 1 electron to form a positive ion, with a Si 2 molecule

stable L shell having 8 electrons; also, the Cl
atom adds this 1 electron to form a negative ,.-----......... ,,,,.-----.....
ion, with a stable M shell having 8 electrons. 11: . . . ~,... ', / , . .............. '
I , ~...-....," \ I , ................ ' \
The two opposite types of ions are bound in ,\Xt/
NaCl because of the strong attractive force be-
-4'-2
I•'
l
\-8'
1 Q.t.1ll (
\~I,,,,\
\
I/(\,
814 ' l
-2\-4
1 I I
/_g/
j
tween opposite charges close together.
\ '-'~/,# I\ ' ......../ I I
The ions in NaCl can separate in water to
make salt water a conductor of electricity, while
' ___
. . . .._..--,,,. //
......... ' ' ........................
____, .,. JI
pure water is not. When current flows in salt Si atom Si atom
water, then, the moving charges must be ions, FIGURE 10-15
as another example of ionization current. Covalent bond between silicon (Si) atoms.

Practice Problems 10-10 semiconductor with a small amount of impurity

(answers on page 223) atoms.
(a) How much is I for 2 C/s of positive ion As a specific example, silicon, with a va-
charges? lence of 4, is combined with phosphorus, with a
(b) Which have the greatest mobility, positive valence of 5. Then the doped germanium has
ions, negative ions, or electrons? covalent bonds with an excess of 1 electron for
each impurity atom of phosphorus. The result is
10-11 a negative, or N-type, semiconductor.
ELECTRONS AND HOLE CHARGES For the opposite case, silicon can be doped
IN SEMICONDUCTORS with aluminum, which has a valence of 3. Then
The semiconductor materials like germanium covalent bonds formed with the impurity atoms
and silicon are in a class by themselves as con - have 7 outer electrons, instead of the 8 with a
ductors, because the charge carriers for current pair of silicon atoms.
flow are neither ions nor free valence electrons. The 1 missing electron for each covalent
With a valence of -+-4 for these elements, the bond with an impurity atom corresponds to a
tendency to gain or lose electrons to form a positive charge called a hole. The amount of
stable 8 shell is the same either way. As a result, charge for each hole is 0.16 x 10-13 C, the
these elements tend to share their outer elec- same as for an electron, but of opposite polar-
trons in pairs of atoms. ity. This type of doping results in a P-type semi-
An example is illustrated in Fig. 10-15, for conductor with positive hole charges.
two silicon (Si) atoms, each sharing its 4 va- For either N- or P-type semiconductors the
lence electrons with the other atom to form one charges can be made to move by an applied
Si 2 molecule. This type of combination of atoms voltage that produces current. When electrons
sharing their outer electrons to form a stable move, the current direction is the same as for
molecule is called a covalent bond. electron flow. When the positive hole charges
The covalent-bond structure in germanium move, the direction is opposite from electron
and silicon is the basis for their use in transis- current. For either electrons or hole charges,
tors. The reason why is that, although the cova- when 1 C moves past a given point in 1 s, the
lent-bond structure is electrically neutral, it per- amount of current is 1 A However, electrons
mits charges to be added by doping the have greater mobility than hole charges.
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 219

For semiconductor diodes, the P and N them. The other is to store an electric charge
types are combined. In a PNP transistor, the N when voltage is applied.
type is between two P types. The opposite case, An insulator maintains its charge because
a P type between two N types, results in the electrons cannot flow to neutralize the charge.
NPN transistor. More details of semiconductors The insulators are commonly called dielectric
in general, as important solid-state compo- materials, therefore, meaning that they can
nents, and transistors in particular, as com- store a charge.
monly used for amplifier circuits, are given in Among the best insulators, or dielectrics,
Chap. 30, which explains the operation of semi- are air, vacuum, rubber, wax, shellac, glass,
conductor diodes and transistors. Solid-state mica, porcelain, oil, dry paper, textile fibers,
integrated circuits are in Chap. 31. and plastics such as Bakelite, formica, and poly-
styrene. Pure water is a good insulator, but salt
water is not. Moist earth is a fairly good con-
Practice Problems 10-11
ductor, while dry, sandy earth is an insulator.
(answers on page 223)
For any insulator, a high enough voltage
(a) What is the polarity of the hole charges in
can be applied to break down the internal struc-
P-type doped semiconductors?
ture of the material, forcing the dielectric to
(b) What is the electron valence of silicon and
conduct. This dielectric breakdown is usually
germanium?
the result of an arc, which ruptures the physical
(c) What are the charge carriers in N-type
structure of the material, making it useless as an
semiconductors?
insulator. Table 10-4 compares several insula-
tors in terms of dielectric strength, which is the
10-12 voltage breakdown rating. The higher the di-
INSULATORS electric strength, the better the insulator, since it
Substances that have very high resistance, of is less likely to break down with a high value of
the order of many megohms, are classed as applied voltage. The breakdown voltages in
insulators. With such high resistance, an insula- Table 10-4 are approximate values for the
tor cannot conduct appreciable current when standard thickness of 1 mil, or 0.001 in. More
voltage is applied. As a result, insulators can thickness allows a higher breakdown-voltage
have either of two functions. One is to isolate rating. Note that the value of 20 V/mil for air or
conductors to eliminate conduction between vacuum is the same as 20 kV/in.

TABLE 10-4. Voltage Breakdown of Insulators

DIELECTRIC DIELECTRIC
STRENGTH, STRENGTH,
MATERIAL V/MIL MATERIAL V/MIL
Air or vacuum 20 Paraffin wax 200-300
Bakelite 300-550 Phenol, molded 300-700
Fiber 150-180 Polystyrene 500-760
Glass 335-2000 Porcelain 40-150
Mica 600-1500 Rubber, hard 450
Paper 1250 Shellac 900
Paraffin oil 380
 Chapter 10
220 Conductors and Insulators

Insulator Discharge Current. An insulator in lator at the instant of breakdown causes

contact with a voltage source stores charge, the spark.
producing a potential on the insulator. The
Corona is undesirable as it reduces the
charge tends to remain on the insulator, but it
potential by brush discharge into the surround-
can be discharged by one of the following
ing air. In addition, the corona often indicates
methods:
the beginning of a spark discharge. A potential
of the order of kilovolts is usually necessary for
corona, as the breakdown voltage for air is
1. Conduction through a conducting path.
approximately 20 kV/in. To reduce the corona
For instance, a wire across the charged
effect, conductors that have high voltage should
insulator provides a discharge path. Then
be smooth, rounded, and thick. This equalizes
the discharged dielectric has no potential.
the potential difference from all points on the
2. Brush discharge. As an example, high
conductor to the surrounding air. Any sharp
voltage on a sharp pointed wire can dis-
point can have a more intense field, making it
charge through the surrounding atmos-
more susceptible to corona and eventual spark
phere by ionization of the air molecules.
discharge.
This may be visible in the dark as a bluish
or reddish glow, called the corona effect. Practice Problems 10-12
3. Spark discharge. This is a result of break- (answers on page 223)
down in the insulator because of a high (a) Which has a higher voltage breakdown
potential difference, rupturing the dielec- rating, air or mica?
tric. The current that flows across the insu- (b) Can 30 kV arc across an air gap of 1 in?

Summary
1. A conductor has very low resistance. All the metals are good con-
ductors, the best being silver, copper, and aluminum. Copper is
generally used for wire conductors.
2. The sizes for copper wire are specified by the American Wire Gage.
Higher gage numbers mean thinner wire. Typical sizes are No. 22
gage hookup wire for electronic circuits and No. 14 for house wiring.
3. The cross-sectional area of round wire is measured in circular mils.
One mil is 0.001 in. The area in circular mils equals the diameter in
mils squared.
4. R = p( I! A). The factor p is specific resistance. Wire resistance
increases directly with length I, but decreases inversely with the
cross-sectional area A, or the square of the diameter.
5. A switch inserted in one side of a circuit opens the entire series
circuit. When open, the switch has the applied voltage across it.
6. A fuse protects the circuit components against overload, as excessive
current melts the fuse element to open the entire series circuit. A
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 221

good fuse has very low resistance and practically zero voltage
across it.
7. Ionization in liquids and gases produces atoms that are not electri-
cally neutral. These are ions. Negative ions have an excess of
electrons; positive ions have a deficiency of electrons. In liquids and
gases, electrical current is a result of movement of the ions.
8. In the semiconductors, such as germanium and silicon, the charge
carriers are electrons in N type and positive hole charges in P type.
One hole charge is 0.16 x 10-18 C, the same as one electron.
9. The resistance of pure metals increases with temperature. For
semiconductors and liquid electrolytes, the resistance decreases at
higher temperatures.
10. An insulator has very high resistance. Common insulating materials
are air, vacuum, rubber, paper, glass, porcelain, shellac, and plastics.
Insulators are also called dielectrics.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. A 10-ft length of copper-wire conductor gage No. 20 has a total

resistance of (a) less than 1 Q; (b) 5 Q; (c) 10.4 Q; (d) approximately
1 MQ.
2. A copper-wire conductor with 0.2-in diameter has an area of (a) 200
cmil; (b) 400 cmil; (c) 20,000 cmil; (d) 40,000 cmil.
3. If a wire conductor of 0.1-Q resistance is doubled in length, its
resistance becomes (a) 0.01 Q; (b) 0.02 Q; (c) 0.05 Q; (d) 0.2 n.
4. If two wire conductors are tied in parallel, their total resistance is
(a) double the resistance of one wire; (b) one-half the resistance of
one wire; (c) the same as one wire; (d) two-thirds the resistance of
one wire.
5. The hot resistance of the tungsten filament in a bulb is higher than its
cold resistance because the filament's temperature coefficient is
(a) negative; (b) positive; (c) zero; (d) about 10 Q per degree.
6. A closed switch has a resistance of (a) zero; (b) infinity; (c) about
100 Q at room temperature; (d) at least 1000 Q.
7. An open fuse has a resistance of (a) zero; (b) infinity; (c) about 100 Q
at room temperature; (d) at least 1000 Q.
8. Insulating materials have the function of (a) conducting very large
currents; (b) preventing an open circuit between the voltage source
and the load; (c) preventing a short circuit between conducting wires;
(d) storing very high currents.
 Chapter 10
222 Conductors and Insulators

9. An ion is (a) a free electron; (b) a proton; (c) an atom with unbal-
anced charges; (d) a nucleus without protons.
10. Ionization current in liquids and gases results from a flow of (a) free
electrons; (b) protons; (c) positive or negative ions; (d) ions that are
lighter in weight than electrons.

Essay Questions
1. Name three good metal conductors in their order of resistance. Give
one application.
2. Name four insulators. Give one application.
3. Name two semiconductors. Give one application.
4. Name two types of resistance wire. Give one application.
5. What is meant by the dielectric strength of an insulator?
6. Why does ionization occur more readily in liquids and gases, com-
pared with the solid metals? Give an example of ionization current.
7. Define the following: ion, ionic bond, covalent bond, molecule.
8. Draw a circuit with two bulbs, a battery, and an SPOT switch that
determines which bulb lights.
9. Why is it not possible to measure the hot resistance of a filament with
an ohmmeter?
10. Give one way in which negative ion charges are similar to electron
charges and one way in which they are different.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A copper wire has a diameter of 0.032 in. (a) How much is its
circular-mil area? (b) What is its AWG size? (c) How much is the
resistance of a 100-ft length?
2. Draw the schematic diagram of a resistance in series with an open
SPST switch and a 100-V source. (a) With the switch open, how
much is the voltage across the resistance? How much across the
open switch? (b) With the switch closed, how much is the voltage
across the switch and across the resistance? (c) Do the voltage drops
around the series circuit add to equal the applied voltage in both
cases?
3. Draw the schematic diagram of a fuse in series with the resistance of
a 100-W 120-Vbulb connected to a 120-V source. (a) What size fuse
 Chapter 10
Conductors and Insulators 223

100 ft of No. 16 wire

+
FIGURE 10-16
100 ft of No. 16 wire

For Probs. 13 and 14.

can be used? (b) How much is the voltage across the good fuse?
(c) How much is the voltage across the fuse if it is open?
4. Compare the resistance of two conductors: 100 ft of No. 10 gage
copper wire and 200 ft of No. 7 gage copper wire.
5. How much is the hot resistance of a 300-W 120-V bulb operating
with normal load current?
6. How much is the resistance of a slab of silicon 0.1 cm long with a
cross-sectional area of 1 cm 2 ?
7. A cable with two lengths of No. 10 copper wire is short-circuited at
one end. The resistance reading at the open end is 10 Q. What is the
cable length in feet? (Temperature is 25 ° C.)
8. (a) How many hole charges are needed to equal 1 C? (b) How many
electrons? (c) How many ions with a negative charge of 1 electron?
9. (a) If a copper wire has a resistance of 4 Q at 25 °C, how much is its
resistance at 75 °C? (b) If the wire is No. 10 gage, what is its length in
feet?
10. A coil is wound with 3000 turns of No. 20 copper wire. If the average
amount of wire in a turn is 4 in, how much is the total resistance of
the coil? What will be its resistance if No. 30 wire is used instead?
(Temperature is 25°C.)
11. Calculate the voltage drop across 1000 ft of No. 10 gage wire
connected to a 2-A load.
12. What is the smallest size of copper wire that will limit the line drop to
5 V, with 120 Vapplied and a 6-A load? The total line length is 200 ft.
13. Refer to Fig. 10-16. Calculate the load current I for the IR drop of
24.6 V that reduces VR to 95.4 V with the 120-V supply.
14. From Fig. 10-16, calculate the value of RL.

Answers to Practice Problems

10-1 (a) R = 0.6 Q 10-2 (a) 0.016 Q
(b) IR = 0.54 V (b) 625 cmil
 Chapter 10
224 Conductors and Insulators

10-3 (a) True 10-8 (b) 2.6 Q

(b) True 10-9 (a) True
10-4 (a) 25W (b) True
( b) Infinite ohms 10-10 (a) I= 2 A
10-5 (a) Zero (b) Electrons
(b) Three 10-11 (a) Positive
10-6 (a) Zero (b) Four
(b) Zero (c) Electrons
10-7 (a) True 10-12 (a) Mica
(b) True (b) Yes
10-8 (a) More
 Resistors
In many applications, resistance must be inserted into a circuit. The
purpose is either to reduce the current or to produce a desired IR voltage
drop. The components for these uses, manufactured with a specific R, are
Chapter
resistors. Actually, resistors are probably the most common component in
all kinds of electronic equipment, from a small AM radio to a color
television receiver. The main types are the carbon resistors shown in
Fig. 11-2 and the wirewound resistors in Fig. 11-1. More details are ex-
plained in the following topics:
II
11-1 Resistor Types
11-2 Variable Resistors
11-3 Potentiometers and Rheostats
11-4 Resistor Color Coding
11-5 Power Rating of Resistors
11-6 Choosing the Resistor for a Circuit
11-7 Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors
11-8 Resistor Troubles

11-1 Both carbon and wirewound resistors can

RESISTOR TYPES be either fixed or variable. A fixed resistor has a
The two main characteristics of a resistor are its specific R that cannot be adjusted. A variable
R in ohms and the wattage rating. Resistors are resistor can be adjusted for any value between
available in a very wide range of R values, from zero ohms and its maximum R. Carbon-com-
a fraction of an ohm to many megohms. The position variable resistors are commonly used
power rating may be as high as several hundred for controls, such as the volume control in a
watts or as low as Yio W. radio or the contrast control in a television
The power rating is important because it receiver. An application for a variable wire-
specifies the maximum wattage the resistor can wound resistor is to divide the voltage from a
dissipate without excessive heat. Dissipation power supply.
means that the power is wasted as 12 R loss,
since the resultant heat is not used. Too much Wirewound Resistors. In this construction,
heat can make the resistor burn open. resistance wire such as Advance or manganin is
Wirewound resistors are used where the wrapped around an insulating core. Insulating
power dissipation is about 5 W or more. For materials commonly used are porcelain, ce-
2 W or less, carbon resistors are preferable ment, phenolic materials like Bakelite, or just
because they are smaller and cost less. Most plain pressed paper. The wire is bare, but usu-
common in electronic equipment are small car- ally the entire unit is encased in an insulator.
bon resistors with a power rating of 1 W or less. Examples are shown in Fig. 11-1. The length of
Usually, higher R values have smaller wattage wire used and its specific resistivity determine
ratings because they have less current. ·the resistance of the unit.
 Chapter 11
226 Resistors

used where accurate, stable resistance values

are required, as for meter shunts and multi-
pliers.

Carbon-Composition Resistors. This type is

made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed
with a powdered insulating material in the pro-
portions needed for the desired resistance
value. As shown in Fig. 11-2, the resistor ele-
ment is usually enclosed in a plastic case for
(a)
(b) insulation and mechanical strength. Joined to
FIGURE 11-1 the two ends of the carbon resistance element
Wirewound resistors. (a) Fixed R, 5-in long, are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire
50 W. (b) Variable R, 2-in diameter, 50 W. for soldering the resistor connections into a
(P R. Mallory} circuit. These are called axial leads because
they come straight out from the ends. Carbon
Since they are generally for low-resistance resistors are commonly available in resistance
high-power applications, wirewound resistors values of 1 Q to 20 MO. Their power rating is
are available in power ratings from 5 W to sev- generally 1/i. 0 , 1/s, %, %, 1, or 2 W.
eral hundred watts, with a resistance range of
less than 1 Q to several thousand ohms. In Carbon-Film Resistors. These have a car-
addition, wirewound precision resistors are bon-film coating around an insulator, like alu-

Molded
resistance element

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11-2
Carbon-composition resistors. (a) Internal
construction. Tinned leads have coating of sol-
der. (b) Sizes of %, Yz, 1, and 2 W with length
of 0.7 in. (Allen-Bradley)
 Chapter 11
Resistors 227

mina. The cost is less than for the hot-molded tor element by a metal spring wiper. As the shaft
carbon-composition type. of the control is rotated, the variable arm moves
the wiper to make contact at different points.
Metal-Film Resistors. These have a conduc- When the contact moves closer to one end,
tive coating on a glass substrate. The advantage the resistance decreases between this end and
is more exact resistance values. the variable arm. The variable resistance is zero
when the wiper contacts this end but is maxi-
Cermet-Film Resistors. These have a carbon mum with the variable arm at the opposite end.
coating fired onto a solid ceramic substrate. The Between the two outside ends, the resistance is
purpose is to have more precise R values and not variable but always has the maximum resist-
greater stability with heat. They are often made ance of the control.
in a small square, with leads to fit a PC board. A Carbon controls are available with a total
flat package with multiple leads can be used for resistance value from 1000 Q to 5 MQ, approxi-
several resistors in one unit. mately. Their power rating is usually Yz to 2 W.
A carbon control is often combined with an
Practice Problems 11-1 ON-OFF switch, which is a separate unit operated
(answers on page 239) by the control shaft. A common example is the
State whether the following would be a power ON-OFF switch and volume control for a
carbon or wirewound resistor. receiver.
(a) R is 100 kQ, with a 1-W power rating.
(b) R is 10 Q, with a 10-W power rating. Tapered Controls. The way that R varies with
shaft rotation is called the taper of the control.
11-2 With a linear taper, one-half rotation changes R
VARIABLE RESISTORS by one-half the maximum value. For a nonlin-
These can be wirewound, as in Fig. 11-1, or the ear taper, though, R can change more gradually
carbon type shown in Fig. 11-3. Inside the metal at one end, with bigger changes at the opposite
case, the control has a circular disk that is the end of the control. An audio taper, as an exam-
carbon-composition resistance element. Joined ple, allows smaller changes in R at low-volume
to the two ends are the outside soldering-lug settings.
terminals 1 and 3. The middle lug 2 is con-
nected to the variable arm contacting the resis- Decade Resistance Box. As shown in
Fig. 11-4, the decade box is a convenient ar-
Solder terminals rangement for obtaining any one resistance
2
within a wide range of values. Inside the box are
five series strings of resistors, with one string for
each dial switch.
The first dial connects in resistances of 1 to
9 Q and is the units dial. The second dial has
units of ten from 10 to 90 Q and is the tens dial.
The hundreds dial has resistances from 100 to
FIGURE 11-3 900 Q, the fourth dial provides a resistance of
Variable carbon-resistance control. Diameter 1000 to 9000 Q, and the top dial is 10,000 to
% in. 90,000 Q.
 Chapter 11
228 Resistors

current in a circuit. The controls can be used for

either de or ac applications.
A rheostat, a variable R with two terminals
connected in series with the load, is used to
adjust the current in the circuit. Decreasing the
series R increases I. The power rating must be
enough for the highest current in the rheostat.
A potentiometer, generally called pot for
short, has three terminals. The fixed maximum
R across the two ends is connected across a
voltage source. Then the variable arm is used to
vary the voltage division between the center
terminal and the ends.

Potentiometer Circuit. The purpose of the

circuit in Fig. 11-5 is to tap off a variable part of
the 100 V from the source. Consider this as
input to the potentiometer and the variable
voltage as output. Two pairs of connections to
the three terminals are necessary, with one
terminal common to the input and output. One
pair connects the source voltage to the outside
terminals 1 and 3. The other pair of connec-
tions is between the variable arm at the center
terminal and an end terminal.
When the variable arm is at the middle
value of R in Fig. 11-5, the 50 V is tapped off
FIGURE 11-4
between 2 and 1 as one-half the 100-V input.
Decade resistance box. (Heath Company)
The other 50 V is between 2 and 3.
The five dial sections are connected in As the control is turned up to move the
series. Then any value from 1 to 99,999 Q can variable arm closer to 3, more of the input
be obtained. voltage is available between 2 and 1. With the
control at maximum R, the voltage between 2
Practice Problems 11-2 and 1 is the entire 100 V.
(answers on page 239) When the variable arm is at minimum R,
(a) In Fig. 11-3, which terminal provides a rotated to terminal 1, the output between 2 and
variable R? 1 is zero. Now all the applied voltage is between
(b) Is an audio taper linear or nonlinear? 2 and 3. Note that the source is not shorted,
since the maximum R of the potentiometer is
11-3 always across the input, regardless of where the
POTENTIOMETERS AND variable arm is set.
RHEOSTATS Examples of small potentiometers are
These are variable resistances, either carbon or shown in Fig. 11-6. A precision potentiometer
wirewound, used to control the voltage and with a screwdriver adjustment is shown in
 Chapter 11
Resistors 229

100 v 100 V R =
500 k.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 11-5
Potentiometer connected across source to
function as a voltage divider. (a) Wiring dia-
gram. (b) Schematic diagram.

Fig. 11-7. In this type, a wirewound resistance method is to wire the unused terminal to the
element may be used to provide a precise num- center terminal, which converts the potentiom-
ber of turns for a specific R. eter to a rheostat.
Either end of the potentiometer can be
Potentiometer Used As a Rheostat. Com- used for the rheostat. The direction of increas-
mercial rheostats are generally wirewound ing R with shaft rotation reverses, however, for
high-wattage resistors. However, in many ap-
plications for electronic circuits a small, low- Ratchet
wattage rheostat is needed. One example is a
continuous tone control in a receiver, which
needs the variable series resistance of a rheostat
but dissipates very little power. A method of
wiring a potentiometer as a rheostat is to con -
nect just one end of the control and the variable
arm, using only two terminals. The third termi-
nal is open, not connected to anything. Another

FIGURE 11-7
FIGURE 11-6 Precision potentiometer with screw adjustment.
Small potentiometers. Diameter % to % in. Height is % in. (Spectral Electronics Corpora-
(Centralab) tion)
 Chapter 11
230 Resistors

connections at opposite ends. Also, the taper is color band close to the edge indicates the first
reversed on a nonlinear control. digit in the numerical value of resistance. The
second band gives the second digit. The third
band is the decimal multiplier, giving the num-
Practice Problems 11-3
ber of zeros after the two digits. The resulting
(answers on page 239)
number is the resistance in ohms.
(a) How many terminal lugs are used on a
As examples, in Fig. 1 l -9a the first stripe is
rheostat?
yellow for 4; the second stripe is violet for 7; the
(b) How many terminal lugs are used on a
orange multiplier means "add three zeros to
potentiometer?
4 7," or "this multiplier is 10 3 ." Therefore, this
(c) In Fig. 11-5, with a 500-kQ linear potenti-
resistance value is 47 X 10 3 , or 47,000 Q.
ometer, how much is the output voltage
The example in Fig. 11-9b illustrates that
with 400 kQ between lugs 1 and 2?
black for the third stripe just means ''do not add
any zeros to the first two figures." Since this
11-4 resistor has yellow, violet, and black stripes, the
RESISTOR COLOR CODING resistance value is 4 7 Q..
Because carbon resistors are small physically,
they are color-coded to indicate their resistance Resistors Under 10 a. These resistors have a
value in ohms. The basis of this system is the third stripe of gold or silver, which are fractional
use of colors for numerical values, as listed in decimal multipliers. When the third stripe is
Table 11-1. In memorizing these colors, re- gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1. Silver is
member that the dark colors, black and brown, a multiplier of0.01. For example, in Fig. ll-9c
correspond to the lowest numbers, zero and the color stripes are yellow, violet, and gold.
one, through lighter colors, to white for nine. The resistance is 4 7 X 0 .1, therefore, which
The color coding is standardized by the Elec- equals 4.7 Q. If the multiplier were silver, the
tronics Industries Association (EIA). These resistance would be 47 X 0.01, or 0.47 Q.
codes are summarized in Appendix G. Gold and silver are fractional multipliers
only in the third stripe. However, gold and silver
Resistance Color Bands. This code is the are most often used as a fourth stripe to indicate
most common system used for color-coding how accurate the resistance value is.
insulated carbon resistors having axial leads, as
illustrated in Fig. 11-8. Color bands are printed
at one end of the insulating body, which is
Band D tolerance lf Silver
Gold 5%
1O%

usually tan. Reading from left to right, the first

TABLE 11-1. Color Code

COLOR VALUE COLOR VALUE
Black 0 Green 5
BandA BandB Band C
Brown 1 Blue 6 first second decimal
Red 2 Violet 7 digit digit multiplier
Orange 3 Gray 8 FIGURE 11-8
Yellow 4 White 9 How to read color stripes on carbon resistors.
 Chapter 11
Resistors 231

R = 47,000 Q ±5% R = 47 Q ±5% R=4.7Q ±10%

Orange Black Gold
Gold Gold Silver

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 11-9
Examples of color-coded R values.

Resistor Tolerance. The amount by which the coded with stripes, however, like carbon resis-
actual resistance can be different from the tors. In this case, the first stripe is double the
color-coded value is the tolerance, usually given width of the others to indicate a wirewound
in percent. For instance, a 100,000-Q resistor resistor.
with +10 percent tolerance can have a resist-
ance 10 percent below or above the coded
value. This resistance, therefore, is between Preferred Resistance Values. In order to min-
90,000 and 110,000 Q. The inexact value of imize the problem of manufacturing different
carbon resistors is a disadvantage resulting from resistance values for an almost unlimited variety
their economical construction, but in most cir- of circuits, certain values of fixed carbon-com-
cuits 5 to 10 percent variation in resistance can position resistors are manufactured in large
be tolerated. quantities so that they are cheaper and more
As illustrated in Fig. 11-8, silver in the easily available than unusual sizes. For resistors
fourth band indicates a tolerance of +10 per- of-+-10 percent tolerance, the preferred values
cent; gold is +5 percent. When there is no are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68,
fourth stripe, the tolerance is +20 percent. The and 82 and their decimal multiples, such as
smaller the tolerance, the more accurate the 820, 8200, 82,000, or 820,000. In this way, a
resistance value and the higher the cost. Some preferred value is available for any resistance
resistors may have a fifth color band to desig- within 10 percent. For more accurate resistors
nate a military failure rate, indicating reliability. of low tolerance, there are additional preferred
values. (See Appendix G, Table G-4.)

Wirewound Resistor Marking. Usually, wire-

wound resistors are physically big enough to Practice Problems 11-4
have their resistance value and tolerance (answers on page 239)
printed on the insulating case. The tolerance of (a) What is the color for 5?
most is +5 percent, except for precision resis- (b) What is the tolerance for a silver stripe?
tors, which have a tolerance of -+-1 percent or (c) What is the multiplier for yellow in the third
less. Some small wirewound resistors may be stripe?
 Chapter 11
232 Resistors

11-5 shelf life of resistors is usually no problem,

POWER RATING OF RESISTORS therefore. Actually, the only components that
In addition to having the required ohms value, a should be used fresh from manufacture are
resistor should have a wattage rating high batteries and electrolytic capacitors.
enough to dissipate the J2 R power produced by
the current flowing through the resistance, Practice Problems 11-5
without becoming too hot. Carbon resistors in (answers on page 239)
normal operation are often quite warm, up to a Answer true or false.
maximum temperature of about 85°C, which is (a) A 5-Q 50-W resistor is physically larger
close to the 100 ° C boiling point of water. Car- than a 5-MQ 1-W resistor.
bon resistors should not be so hot, however, (b) Resistors should not operate above a tem-
that they "sweat" beads of liquid on the insulat- perature of 0 ° C.
ing case. Wirewound resistors operate at very
high temperatures, a typical value being 300 ° C 11-6
for the maximum temperature. If a resistor be- CHOOSING THE RESISTOR
comes too hot because of excessive power dis- FOR A CIRCUIT
sipation, it can change appreciably in resistance In determining what size resistor to use, the first
value or burn open. requirement is to have the amount of resistance
The power rating is a physical property needed. In Fig. 11-lOa, for example, suppose
depending on the resistor construction, espe- that a resistor is to be inserted in series with RI
cially physical size. Note the following: for the purpose of limiting the current through
the 900-Q resistance to 0.1 A with a 100-V
1. A larger physical size indicates a higher source. Since the total resistance required is
power rating. 1000 Q, the 100-Q resistor R2 is added in series
2. Higher-wattage resistors can operate at with RI. The current through both RI and R2 is
higher temperatures. then 0.1 A.
3. Wirewound resistors are physically larger The J2 R power dissipated in R2 is 1 W,
with higher wattage ratings than carbon equal to 0.01 X 100. However, a 2-W resistor
resistors. would normally be used. This safety factor of 2
in the power rating is common practice with
For a common example, a 2-W carbon resistor carbon resistors so that they will not become too
is about 1 in long with %in diameter. hot in normal operation.
For both types, a higher power rating al- A resistor with a higher wattage rating but
lows a higher voltage rating. This rating gives the same resistance would allow the circuit to
the highest voltage that may be applied across operate normally and last longer without break-
the resistor without internal arcing. In wire- ing down. However, it can be inconvenient
wound resistors, excessive voltage can produce when the next larger size is wirewound and
an arc between turns; in carbon resistors, the physically bigger. Wirewound resistors can op-
arc is between carbon granules. erate closer to their power rating, assuming
adequate ventilation, because of their higher
Shelf Life. Resistors keep their characteristics maximum operating temperature, compared
almost indefinitely, when not used. Without any with carbon resistors.
current in a circuit to heat the resistor, the Another example is shown in Fig. 11-lOb.
resistor has practically no change with age. The The 10-MQ resistor R4 is used with R3 to pro-
 Chapter 11
Resistors 233

R, =
goon
,-+ , .. -+
~I= 0.1 A l /= 20 µA
I I

R2=
100 n
100 v 2-W 400V
R4=
resistor 10 MD
.!._w
4
resistor

(a) (b)
FIGURE 11-10
Examples of power rating for resistors. (a) R2
dissipates 1 W, but a 2-W resistor is used for a
safety factor of 2. (b) R4 dissipates 0.004 W, but
a %-W resistor is used.

vide an IR voltage drop equal to one-half the 11-7

applied voltage of 400 V. Since R3 and R4 are SERIES AND PARALLEL
equal, each has an IR voltage drop of 200 V. COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS
Their total series resistance of 20 MQ limits the in some cases two or more resistors are com-
current in the circuit to 20 µA. bined in series or parallel to obtain a desired
The J2 R power dissipated in R4 is 4 mW. resistance value with a higher wattage rating.
The wattage rating used, however, is %W. In Several examples are shown in Fig. 11-11.
this case, the wattage rating is much higher than The total resistance depends on the series
the actual amount of power dissipated in the and parallel connections. However, the combi-.
resistor. nation has a power rating equal to the sum of
Notice the small amount of power dissi- the individual wattage ratings, whether the re-
pated in this circuit, with an applied voltage of sistors are in series or in parallel. The reason is
400 V. The reason is that the very high resist- that the total physical size increases with ~ach
ance limits the current to a low value. added resistor. Such combinations can be used
In general, using a resistor with a high to obtain a higher power rating.
enough wattage rating automatically provides In Fig. 11-11 a, the two equal resistors in
the required voltage rating. The exception, series double the resistance. Also, the power
however, is a low-current high-voltage circuit rating of the combination is twice the value for
where the applied voltage is of the order of a one resistor.
kilovolt or more. In Fig. 11-11 b, the two equal resistors in
parallel have one-half the resistance. However,
Practice Problems 11-6 the combined power rating is still twice the
(answers on page 239) value for one resistor.
(a) In Fig. 11-10 a, how much is the product of In Fig. 11-11 c, the series-parallel combi-
Vz XI? nation of four resistors makes RT the same as
(b) In Fig. 11-lOb, how much is the product of each R. However, the total power rating is four
\'4 x I? times the value for one resistor.
 Chapter 11
234 Resistors

RT= 20 .Q RT= 5.Q RT= 10 .Q

2W 2W 4W

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 11-11
Total resistance and wattage rating for series
and parallel combinations. All resistors are
10 Q with 1-W rating. (a) In series, add wattage
ratings. (b) In parallel, add wattage ratings.
(c) In series-parallel, add wattage ratings.

Practice Problems 11-7 Checking Resistors with an Ohmmeter.

(answers on page 239) Since the ohmmeter has its own voltage source,
(a) Two5-kQ 5-W resistors in series have Rrof it is always used without any external power
10 kQ and what power rating? applied to the resistance being measured. Just
(b) Two 5-kQ 5-W resistors in parallel have Rr connect the ohmmeter leads across the resist-
of 2.5 kQ and what power rating? ance to be measured.
An open resistor reads infinitely high
11-8 ohms. For some reason, infinite ohms is often
RESISTOR TROUBLES confused with zero ohms. Remember, though,
The most common trouble in resistors is an that infinite ohms means an open circuit. The
open. When the open resistor is a series com- current is zero but the resistance is infinitely
ponent, there is no current in the entire series high. Furthermore, it .is practically impossible
path and it cannot operate. Carbon-composi- for a resistor to become short-circuited in itself.
tion resistors are often partially open, with The resistor may be short-circuited by some
much higher resistance than the color-coded other part of the circuit. However, the con-
value. struction of resistors is such that the trouble
they develop is an open, with infinitely high
Noisy Controls. In applications such as vol- ohms.
ume and tone controls, carbon controls are The ohmmeter must have an ohms scale
preferred because the smoother change in re- capable of reading the resistance value, or the
sistance results in less noise when the variable resistor cannot be checked. In checking a
arm is rotated. With use, however, the resist- 10-MQ resistor, for instance, if the highest
ance element becomes worn by the wiper con- reading is 1 MQ, the ohmmeter will indicate
tact, making the control noisy. When a volume infinite resistance, even if the resistor has its
or tone control makes a scratchy noise as the normal value of 10 MQ. An ohms scale of
shaft is rotated, it indicates a worn-out resist- 100 MQ or more should be used for checking
ance element. such high resistances.
 Chapter 11
Resistors 235

Ohmmeter Ohmmeter
reads reads
sooo n 10,000 n

(a) (b)
FIGURE 11-12
Parallel resistance of R1 can lower ohmmeter
reading for testing R2 . (a) R1 and R2 in parallel.
( b) R2 isolated from R1 .

Similarly, in checking resistance values of For very high resistances, it is important

less than 10 r2, a low-ohms scale of about 100 r2 not to touch the ohmmeter leads. There is no
or less is necessary. Otherwise, the ohmmeter danger of shock, but .the body resistance of
will read a normally low resistance value as zero Qbout 50,000 r2 as a parallel path will lower the
ohms. ohmmeter reading.
When checking resistance in a circuit, it is
important to be sure there are no parallel paths
across the resistor being measured. Otherwise, Practice Problems 11-8
the measured resistance can be much lower (answers on page 239)
than the actual resistor value, as illustrated in (a) What is the ohmmeter reading for a short ·
Fig. 11-12a. Here, the ohmmeter reads the circuit?
resistance of R2 in parallel with R1 . To check (b) What is the ohmmeter reading for an open
across R2 alone, one end is disconnected, as in b. resistor?

TABLE 11-2. Comparison of Resistor Types

CARBON-COMPOSITION RESISTORS WIREWOUND RESISTORS
Carbon granules in binder Turns of resistance wire
R up to 20 MQ R down to a fraction of 1 Q
Color-coded for resistance value Resistance printed on unit
For low-current circuits; power ratings of 1/io For high-current circuits; ratings of 5 to
to 2 W over 100 W
Variable potentiometers and rheostats up to Low-resistance rheostats for varying current;
5 MQ, for controls such as volume and tone potentiometers up to 50 kQ for voltage
in receivers divider in power supply
 Chapter 11
236 Resistors

Summary
1. The two main types of resistors are carbon-composition and wire-
wound. Their characteristics are compared in Table 11-2. The
schematic symbols for fixed and variable resistances are summarized
in Fig. 11-13.
2. A rheostat is a variable series resistance with two terminals to adjust
the amount of current in a circuit.
3. A potentiometer is a variable voltage divider with three terminals.
4. Carbon resistors are practically always color-coded, as in Fig. 11-8
and 11-9, to indicate the resistance value.
5. The wattage rating of carbon resistors depends mainly on their
physical size, larger resistors being able to dissipate more power. The
power rating is not part of the color coding but may be printed on the
resistor or judged from its size.
6. With carbon resistors the wattage rating should be about double the
actual J2 R power dissipation for a safety factor of 2 or more.
7. Carbon resistors can be combined for a higher wattage rating. The
total power rating is the sum of the individual wattage values, whether
in series or in parallel. In series, though, the total resistance in-
creases; in parallel, the combined resistance decreases.
8. The most common trouble in resistors is an open. An ohmmeter
reads infinite ohms across the open resistor, assuming there is no
parallel path.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Which of the following are typical resistance and power-dissipation

values for a wirewound resistor? (a) 1 MQ, %W; (b) 500 Q, 1 W;
(c) 50,000 Q, 1 W; (d) 10 Q, 50 W.
2. Which of the following are typical resistance and power-dissipation
values for a carbon-composition resistor? (a) 100,000 Q, 1 W;
(b) 5 Q, 5 W; (c) 10,000 Q, 10 W; (d) 1000 Q, 100 W.
3. For a carbon-composition resistor color-coded with yellow, violet,
orange, and silver stripes from left to right, the resistance and
tolerance are (a) 740 Q -+-5 percent; (b) 4700 Q -+-10 percent;
(c) 7400 Q -+-1 percent; (d) 47,000 Q -+-10 percent.
4. For a carbon-composition resistor color-coded with green, black,
gold, and silver stripes from left to right, the resistance and tolerance
 Chapter 11
Resistors 237

3
2 2 2
2

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 11-13
Schematic symbols for types of resistance. (a)
Fixed R. (b) Any type of variable R. (c) Tapped
R. (d) Potentiometer. (e) Potentiometer used as
rheostat.

are (a) 0.5 Q +5 percent; (b) 0.5 Q +10 percent; (c) 5 Q +10
percent; (d) 50 Q + 10 percent.
5. A resistor with the color-coded value of 100 Q and +20 percent
tolerance can have an actual resistance between (a) 80 and 120 Q;
(b) 90 and 110 Q; (c) 98 and 102 Q; (d) 100 and 120 Q.
6. Two 1000-Q 1-W resistors are connected in parallel. Their combined
resistance value and wattage rating is (a) 500 Q, 1 W; (b) 500 Q, 2 W;
(c) 1000 Q, 2 W; (d) 2000 Q, 2 W.
7. A resistor is to be connected across a 45-V battery to provide 1 mA of
current. The required resistance with a suitable wattage rating is .
(a) 4.5 Q, 1 W; (b) 45 Q, 10 W; (c) 450 Q, 2 W; (d) 45,000 Q, %W.
8. Which of the following is a preferred resistor value? (a) 47; (b) 520;
(c) 43,000; (d) 54,321.
9. When checked with an ohmmeter, an open resistor reads (a) zero;
(b) infinite; (c) high but within the tolerance; (d) low but not zero.
10. One precaution in checking resistors with an ohmmeter is: (a) Check
high resistances on the lowest ohms range. (b) Check low resistances
on the highest ohms range. (c) Disconnect all parallel resistance
paths. (d) Check high resistances with your fingers touching the test
leads.

Essay Questions
1. Show how to connect two 1000-Q 1-W resistors to obtain 2000 Q
with a power rating of 2 W.
2. State the colors corresponding to digits 1 to 9, inclusive.
 Chapter 11
238 Resistors

3. Give the color coding for the following resistance values: 1 MO,
33,000 Q, 8200 Q, 150 0, and 68 Q.
4. A 50-Q rheostat RI is in series with a 25-Q R2 , with a 50-V source.
Draw a graph of I against RI as it is varied in 10-Q steps.
5. Why do high-resistance carbon-composition resistors, of the order of
megohms, usually have a low power rating of 1 W or less?
6. Name three factors that determine the resistance of a wirewound
resistor.
7. Describe briefly how you would check a 5-MQ resistor to see if it is
open. State two precautions to make sure the check is not mislead-
ing.
8. Show how to connect resistors for the following examples: (a) two
20-kQ 1-W resistors for a total of 10,000 Q with a power rating of
2 W; (b) two 20-kQ 1-W resistors for a total of 40,000 Q with a power
rating of 2 W; (c) four 10-kQ 1-W resistors for a total of 10,000 Q with
a power rating of 4 W; (d) three 10-kQ resistors for a total of
15,000 Q.
9. Show the schematic diagram of a 50-kQ potentiometer to tap off a
variable voltage from a 45-V battery.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A current of 1 mA flows through a 1-MQ 2-W carbon resistor.

(a) How much power is dissipated as heat in the resistor? (b) How.
much is the maximum power that can b·; dissipated without excessive
heat?
2. A resistor is to be connected across a 10-V battery for the desired
current of 1 mA. (a) What size resistance is required? (b) How much
is its power dissipation in this circuit? (c) State the wattage rating of
the resistor to be used. (d) Can this be a carbon resistor?
3. Give the resistance and tolerance for the following examples of
resistors with color stripes: (a) yellow, violet, yellow, and silver;
(b) red, red, green, and silver; (c) orange, orange, black, and gold;
(d) white, brown, brown, and gold; (e) red, red, gold, and gold;
( f) brown, black, orange, no tolerance band.
4. For resistors color-coded in the body-end-dot system shown in
Appendix G, what is the resistance for the following: (a) body brown,
end black, dot orange; (b) resistor completely red?
 Chapter 11
Resistors 239

5. Determine the resistance and power rating of a carbon-composition

resistor to fit the following requirements: 5-V IR drop, with 100-mA
current and a safety factor of 2 for power dissipation.
6. Fill in the resistance values of the total R for the following dial settings
on the decade box in Fig. 11-4.

Dial Settings
Rx 104 Rx 103 Rx 102 Rx 10 R TOTAL R

9 6 7 4 2
0 5 6 8 3
6 7 0 5 4
1 2 3 4 5
5 4 3 2 1

Answers to Practice Problems

11-1 (a) Carbon 11-4 (c) 104
(b) Wirewound 11-5 (a) T
11-2 (a) Terminal 2 (b) F
(b) Nonlinear 11-6 (a) 1W
11-3 (a) Two (b) 4mW
(b) Three 11-7 (a) lOW
(c) 80 v (b) lOW
11-4 (a) Green 11-8 (a) 0Q
(b) -+-10 percent (b) Infinite ohms
 Batteries
A battery is a group of cells which produce electrical energy from their
internal chemical reaction. Specifically, the battery is a source of steady de Chapter
voltage. More generally, a battery is a good example of. a generator with
an internal resistance that affects the output voltage.
This chapter describes the main types, such as dry batteries for
portable equipment and the lead-acid wet cell used in automobile batteries
and many industrial applications (Fig. 12-1). Most common is the car-
bon -zinc dry cell with an output of 1.5 V. The output of the lead-acid cell is
13
2.2 V. Additional types often used are the 1.35-V mercury cell and the
1.25-V nickel-cadmium cell.
The chemical battery has always been important as a de voltage
source for radio and electronic equipment. The reason is that to amplify a
signal an amplifier needs de operating potentials in order to conduct.
Originally, all radio receivers used batteries. Then rectifier power supplies
were developed to convert the ac power line to de voltage, eliminating the
need for batteries. However, now batteries are used more than ever for
transistorized portable equipment which can operate without being con-
nected to the ac power line. The topics here explaining batteries are:

12-1 Functions of Batteries

12-2 The Voltaic Cell
12-3 Carbon-Zinc Dry Cell
12-4 Series and Parallel Cells
12-5 Lead-Acid Wet Cell
12-6 Types of Electromotive Cells
12-7 Internal Resistance of a Generator
12-8 Matching a Load Resistance to the Generator
12-1 The A and C batteries are seldom used, but
FUNCTIONS OF BATTERIES the function of the B battery is the same now as
From the old days of radio, dry batteries are still it always was. For a vacuum-tube amplifier, the
called A, B, or C batteries, according to their B battery supplies positive de plate voltage to
original functions in vacuum-tube operation. attract the electrons emitted from the cathode.
The A battery supplies current to heat the fila · This acceleration of electrons to the anode or
ment so that electrons can be emitted from the plate is necessary for the flow of plate current.
cathode. A typical rating for an A battery is In fact, the plate supply for amplifier tubes is still
4.5 V with a load cummt of 150 mA The C called B + voltage, whether it comes from a
battery was used for a small negative grid bias of battery or a rectifier power supply.
-1.5 to - 7 .5 V, with practically no current Furthermore, transistors also need a
drain. steady de voltage for the collector electrode,
 Chapter 12
Batteries 241

Practice Problems 12-1

(answers on page 262)
(a) How much is the output voltage of the
lead-acid wet cell?
(b) How much is the output voltage of the
carbon-zinc dry cell?

12-2
THE VOLTAIC CELL
When two different conducting materials are
immersed in an electrolyte, as illustrated in
(a) (b) Fig. 12-2a, the chemical reaction of forming a
FIGURE 12-1
new solution results in the separation of
Typical batteries. (a) Miniature 9-V battery for charges. This arrangement for converting
transistor radio. (b) Lead-acid 12-Vautomobile chemical energy into electrical energy is a vol-
battery, with six cells in series.
taic cell.
The charged conductors are the elec-
which corresponds to the plate in a tube. The trodes, serving as the terminals of the cell for
collector voltage may be positive or negative, connection to an external circuit. Then the pc-
depending on whether the transistor is NPN or tential difference resulting from the separated
PNP. Positive collector voltage, also called B + charges enables the cell to function as a source
voltage, is needed for NPN transistors, which of applied voltage. As shown in Fig. 12-2b, the
are most common. Common values of B + voltage across the cell's terminals forces current
voltage for transistor batteries are 4.5 and 9 V. to flow in the external circuit to light the bulb.
Note that these values are multiples of 1.5 V, Electrons from the negative terminal of the cell
which is the output voltage of the basic carbon - flow through the external circuit and return to
zinc dry cell. the positive terminal. The chemical action in the

,._.
fI I
v
+
Negative
electrode Positive
electrode

(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-2
Voltaic cell converting chemical energy into
electrical energy. (a} Electrodes in electrolyte.
(b) Schematic diagram.
 Chapter 12
242 Batteries

cell continuously separates charges to maintain is a voltaic cell with a difference of potential
the terminal voltage that produces current in between the two electrodes.
the circuit. When the potential difference of a cell is
used to produce current in an external circuit,
Separation of Charges in the Cell. When electrons leave the negative electrode, go
metals dissolve in water or an electrolyte, the through the external load resistance, and are
chemical action of forming the solution causes added to the positive electrode. This current
separation or dissociation of molecules, which tends to neutralize the charges generated by the
results in electrically charged ions. Figure 12-3 cell. The chemical reaction can increase, how-
illustrates the action of zinc dissolving in an ever, to maintain the separation of charges as
ammonium chloride solution as the electrolyte. the cell works harder to produce its output
Where the electrode contacts the solution, mol- voltage. With the negative zinc electrode in
ecules of zinc dissolve to form a different com - Fig. 12-3, as more electrons are lost through
pound, which is zinc ammonium chloride. This the external circuit, more ions can be formed by
chemical reaction requires zinc ions. Each zinc the zinc dissolving in solution. Eventually, all the
ion in solution is positive, with a deficiency of 2 zinc will dissolve, and the cell then cannot sepa -
electrons. In the solution process, then, each rate charges to produce output voltage.
molecule of zinc dissolving in the electrolyte
Primary Cells. In a primary cell, the chemical
leaves 2 surplus electrons on the zinc electrode.
process of forming the solution is not reversible.
In Fig. 12-3, zinc ions are shown in solu-
For instance, zinc can dissolve in ammonium
tion with two positive charges, corresponding to
chloride, but the process cannot be reversed to
the 2 electrons left behind. As a result, the
form the zinc electrode from the solution. The
entire solid zinc conductor has excess electrons
many forms of dry cells, such as the flashlight
that make the electrode negative with respect to
cell, are examples of a primary cell.
the solution. With a second electrode, other
than zinc, immersed in the electrolyte, the result Secondary Cells. Here the chemical action is
reversible. The electrodes can dissolve in solu-
tion with current in one direction, or the current
Negative zinc can be reversed to make the solution build up
electrode
the electrodes. When the electrodes are going
into solution, the cell is discharging as the cur-
rent tends to neutralize the separated charges.
Then the cell is used as a voltage source to
produce current in a load resistance.
For the opposite case, reversing the cur-
rent to re-form the plates is charging the cell.
The charging current must be supplied by an
external voltage source, with the cell then serv-
Ammonium chloride ing just as a load resistance. Since a secondary
electrolyte cell can be recharged, it is also a storage cell.
FIGURE 12-3 The most common form of storage cell is the
Zinc electrode being charged negative by ion- lead-sulfuric acid cell generally used in auto-
ization in electrolyte. mobile batteries.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 243

Cell Requirements. The two conductors used (-) Terminal

for electrodes in the electrolyte must be differ-
ent to form a voltaic cell. With the same elec- Plastic
inner seal
trodes, each could become charged, but there
would be no difference of potential across the
terminals. The voltage output of one voltaic cell Expansion
space Carbon rod
is approximately 1 to 2 V, depending only on (+)electrode
the materials used for the electrodes and the
electrolyte. The physical size of the cell deter- Mix core
mines its current capacity, since larger elec-
trodes can supply more current.

Practice Problems 12-2

(answers on page 262) Insulating outer
Answer true or false. jacket

(a) The lead-acid cell can be recharged.

(b) The carbon-zinc cell is a storage cell.

12-3 FIGURE 12-4

CARBON-ZINC DRY CELL Construction of carbon-zinc dry cell. This is
Figure 12-4 shows an internal view. The can is No. 6 size, 6 in high.
zinc, which functions both as a container to hold
the electrolyte and as the negative electrode.
The positive electrode is a carbon rod down the To mimm1ze polarization, hydrogen gas
center but not low enough to touch the zinc. must be removed from the carbon electrode.
The electrolyte is a solution of ammonium This is the function of the manganese dioxide,
chloride, called sal ammoniac, and water. The which is the depolarizer or depolarizing agent,
electrolyte is not in liquid form, however, but is in the dry cell. Rich in oxygen, the manganese
a paste produced by saturating granulated car- dioxide releases oxygen that combines with the
bon and powdered manganese dioxide with the hydrogen to form water. As a result, the dry cell
ammonium chloride solution. Although not can supply more output voltage, without the
completely dry, the cell can be mounted in any collection of hydrogen gas around the carbon.
position, while a cell with liquid electrolyte must
be upright.
Local Action. If the zinc electrode contains
Polarization. When zinc dissolves in ammo- impurities, such as iron and carbon, small vol-
nium chloride, the ammonia molecules, which taic cells are formed that do not add to the
contain nitrogen and hydrogen, release hydro- output voltage of the cell. This local action at
gen. The resulting collection of hydrogen the zinc electrode does use up the zinc, how-
around the carbon electrode is called polariza- ever. To minimize local action, the zinc elec-
tion of the cell. Polarization reduces the output trode is generally coated with mercury, a proc-
voltage of the dry cell. ess called amalgamation.
 Chapter 12
244 Batteries

Shelf Life. Because of local action and drying of using the applied voltage of 1.5 V from a
of the paste electrolyte, a dry cell slowly loses its No. 6 dry cell. In (a), the load resistance R1 of
ability to produce output voltage, even when out 6 Q across the 1.5-V source voltage allows a
of use and stored on a shelf. For this reason, value of current equal to 1.%, which is 0 .25 A,
dry cells are usually dated and should be used or 250 mA. This amount happens to be the
when fresh from manufacture. The shelf life for same as the maximum current rating.
dry cells of medium size is about a year. For In (b), though, the higher value of 150 Q
very small sizes, such as penlight cells, the shelf for R2 , as the load resistance, limits the current
life may be only a few months. to 1.o/i 50 , equal to 0.010 A, or 10 mA. This value
is less than the current rating, which means only
Operating Characteristics. The output volt- that the ceil can be in service a longer time. It
age of a carbon-zinc-sal ammoniac dry cell is need not work so hard to produce the 1.5-V
1.4 to 1.6 V, regardless of size. However, larger output with less current drain.
sizes with more zinc, electrolyte, and depolar- In (c), the 5-Q load resistance R3 is low
izer have a higher current rating. Maximum enough to result in more current than the rated
ratings for continuous operation range from a value of the cell. This much current is not desir-
few milliamperes for the very small cells to %A able for long cell life, but assuming that the
for the relatively large No. 6 dry cell, which is 1.5-V output is maintained, the current must be
6 in high, with a diameter of 21/z in. The size D 1.5 V/5 Q, which equals 0.3 A. In summary,
flashlight cell has a current rating of 50 mA for then, the current drain in a cell connected to a
approximately 60 h of service. This size is 2% in load resistance is equal to the output voltage of
high, with a diameter of 1 % in. the cell divided by the resistance in the circuit.

Current Drain Depends on the Load Resist- Practice Problems 12-3

ance. It is important to note that the current (answers on page 262)
rating is only a guide to typical values permissi- Answer true or false.
ble for normal service life. The amount of cur- (a) The voltage output of a size D cell is less
rent produced by a cell connected to a load than that of a No. 6 cell.
resistance equals VI R, by Ohm's law. (b) A cell rated at 250 mA will produce this I
Figure 12-5 illustrates three different cases for any value of RL.

(5_V___ 1.5 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 12-5
The current drain from the cell depends on the
load resistance. (a) VI R1 equals normal current
rating of %A or 250 mA. (b) VI R2 equals I of
10 mA. (c) VI R3 equals I of 300 mA.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 245

12-4 The parallel connection is equivalent to

SERIES AND PARALLEL CELLS increasing the size of the electrodes and elec-
An applied voltage higher than the emf of one trolyte, which increases the current capacity.
cell can be obtained by connecting cells in se- The voltage output of the battery, however, is
ries. The total voltage available across the bat- the same as for one cell.
tery of cells is equal to the sum of the individual Identical cells in parallel all supply equal
values for each cell. Parallel cells have the same parts of the load current. For example, with
voltage as one cell but have more current ca- three identical parallel cells producing a load
pacity. current of 300 mA, each cell has a drain of
Figure 12-6 shows the series-aiding con- 100 mA. Bad cells should not be connected in
nections for three dry cells. Here the three parallel with good cells, however, since the cells
1.5-V cells in series provide a total battery volt- in good condition will supply more current,
age of 4.5 V. Notice that the two end terminals which may overload the good cells. In addition,
A and B are left open to serve as the plus and a cell with lower output voltage will act as a load
minus terminals of the battery. These terminals resistance, draining excessive current from the
are used for connecting the battery to the load cells that have higher output voltage.
circuit, as shown in (c).
In the lead-acid battery in Fig. 12-lb short Series-Parallel Connections. In order to pro-
heavy metal straps connect the cells in series. vide higher output and more current capacity,
The current capacity of a battery with series cells can be connected in series-parallel combi-
cells is the same as for one cell because the nations. Figure 12-8 shows four No. 6 cells in
same current flows through all the series cells. series-parallel to form a battery that has a 3-V
output with a current capacity of %~A. Two of
the 1.5-V cells in series provide 3 V total output
Parallel Connections. For more current ca- voltage. This series string has a current capacity
pacity, the battery has cells in parallel as shown of 14 A, however, as for one cell.
in Fig. 12- 7. All the positive terminals are To double the current capacity, another
strapped together, as are all the negative termi- string is connected in parallel. The two strings in
nals. Any point on the positive side can be the parallel have the same 3-V output as one string,
plus terminal of the battery, and any point on but with a current capacity of %~ A instead of
the negative side is the negative terminal. the 14 A for one string.

4.5V----
1_
Terminal-.!/ 'V Terminal
A B

(b) (c)
(a)
FIGURE 12-6
Cells in series to add voltages. (a) Wiring. (b)
Schematic symbol. ( c) Battery connected to
load resistance.
 Chapter 12
246 Batteries

~ ~
1.5 v - 1.5 v
4 ~ c
1.5 v
D

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 12-7
Cells in parallel to increase rating for maximum
current. (a) Wiring. (b) Schematic symbol. (c)
Battery connected to load resistance.

I
3V

L
(a) (b)

I I r
3V
E
3V
,... -+
I
I
I= 0.1 A
RL=

T----....T_t (c)
F

(d)
30.Q

FIGURE 12-8
Cells in series-parallel combinations. {a) Wiring
two 3-V strings, each with two 1.5-V cells in
series. (b) Wiring the two 3-V strings in parallel.
(c) Schematic symbol. (d) Battery connected to
load resistance.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 247

Referring to the circuit in Fig. 12-8d, note Safety-fill vents Covers

that the 3-V source produces 100 mA, or 0.1 A,

equal to 3 V/30 Q. The rated current capacity is
Connecting
500 mA, but the actual load current is only strap
0.1 A.

Practice Problems 12-4

(answers on page 262)
(a) How many series cells are needed for 9-V Plates

output?
(b) How many parallel cells are needed to
double the current rating?

12-5
LEAD-ACID WET CELL FIGURE 12-9
Where high values of load current are neces- Construction of lead -acid cell.
sary, the lead-acid cell is the type most com-
monly used. In the application of battery power
to start an automobile, for example, the load be pasted into the grid. In manufacture of the
current at starting time is 200 to 300 A. One cell, after the plates are dried, a forming charge
lead-acid cell has an output of 2 to 2 .2 V, but produces the positive and negative electrodes.
they are generally used in a series combination In the forming process, the active material in the
of three for a 6-V battery and six in series for a positive plate is changed to lead peroxide to
12-V battery. produce the positive electrode. The negative
Since it is a storage cell, charging can be electrode is spongy lead.
done repeatedly to restore the output voltage,
as long as the cell is in good physical condition. Chemical Action. Sulfuric acid is a combina-
Heat with excessive discharging and charging, tion of hydrogen and sulfate ions. When the cell
however, shortens the useful life to about 3 discharges, lead peroxide of the positive elec-
years for an automobile battery. trode unites with hydrogen ions to form water
and with sulfate ions to form lead sulfate. The
Construction. The cutaway view of a lead-acid lead sulfate is also produced by combining lead
cell (Fig. 12-9) shows the component parts and on the negative plate with sulfate ions. There-
how they are assembled. Inside the cell, the fore, the net result of discharge is to produce
positive and negative electrodes consist of a more water, which dilutes the electrolyte, and to
group of plates welded to a connecting strap. form lead sulfate on the plates.
The plates are immersed in a dilute solution of As discharge continues, the sulfate fills the
sulfuric acid for the electrolyte, which contains pores of the grids, retarding circulation of acid in
8 parts of water to 3 parts of concentrated the active material. Lead sulfate is the white
sulfuric acid. powder often seen on the outside of old batter-
Each plate is a grid or framework, made of ies. When the combination of weak electrolyte
a lead-antimony alloy. This construction en- and sulfation on the plates lowers the output
ables the active material, which is lead oxide, to voltage, charging is necessary.
 Chapter 12
248 Batteries

On charge, the reversed direction of the supply less current for a longer time or more
ions flowing in the electrolyte results in a rever- current for a shorter time.
sal of the chemical reactions. Now the lead Note that the ampere-hour unit specifies
sulfate on the positive plate reacts with the coulombs of charge. As an example, 200 Ah
water and sulfate ions to produce lead peroxide corresponds to 200 A x 3600 s, which equals
and sulfuric acid. This action re-forms the posi- 720,000 A· s, or 7.2 x 105 C.
tive electrode and strengthens the electrolyte by The ratings of a lead-acid battery are for a
adding sulfuric acid. At the same time, charging temperature of 80 °F, approximately. Higher
enables the lead sulfate on the negative plate to temperatures increase the chemical reaction,
react with hydrogen ions, which also forms sul- but operation above 110 ° F shortens the battery
furic acid while re-forming lead on the negative life. Note that 80°F equals 26.7°C. See Ap-
electrode. pendix D for temperature scales.
As a result, the charging current can re- Lower temperatures reduce the voltage
store the cell to full output with lead peroxide and current output. The ampere-hour capacity
on the positive plates, spongy lead on the nega- is reduced approximately 0.75 percent for each
tive plates, and the required concentration of decrease of 1 ° F. At 0 ° F the available output is
sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. The chemical only 60 percent of the rating. In cold weather,
formula for the lead-acid cell is therefore, it is important to have an automobile
battery up to full charge. In addition, the elec-
trolyte freezes more easily when diluted by
Charge
water in the discharged condition.
Discharge
2PbS04 + 2H2 0
Specific Gravity. The state of discharge for a
On discharge, the lead (Pb) and lead peroxide lead-acid cell is generally checked by measuring
(Pb0 2 ) electrodes supply Pb ions that combine the specific gravity of the electrolyte. This is a
with the sulfate ions (S04 ) to form lead sulfate ratio comparing the weight of a substance with
(PbS04 ) and water (H2 0). On charge, with re- the weight of water. For instance, concentrated
verse current through the electrolyte, the sulfuric acid is 1.835 times as heavy as an equal
chemical action is reversed. Then the Pb ions volume of water. Therefore, its specific gravity is
from the lead sulfate re-form the lead peroxide 1.835. The specific gravity of water is 1, since it
electrode. Also, the S04 ions combine with the is the reference.
H2 ions to produce more sulfuric acid. In a fully charged cell, the mixture of water
and sulfuric acid results in a specific gravity of
Current Ratings. Lead-acid batteries are rated 1.280, approximately, at room temperatures of
in terms of how much discharge current can be 70 to 80°F. As the cell discharges, the water
supplied continuously for a specified period of formed dilutes the acid and lowers the specific
time. The output voltage must be maintained gravity. When the specific gravity is down to
above a minimum level, which is 1.5 to 1.8 V about 1.150, the cell is completely discharged.
per cell. A common rating is ampere-hours Specific-gravity readings are taken with a
(Ah) based on an 8-h discharge. Typical values battery hydrometer, which has a calibrated float
are 100 to 300 Ah. For example, a 120-Ah that will rest higher in an electrolyte of higher
battery can supply load current of 12 %, or 15 A, specific gravity. The decimal point is usually
based on an 8-h discharge. The battery can omitted for convenience. For example, a spe-
 Chapter 12
Batteries 249

cific-gravity value of 1.250 is simply "twelve- flows from the negative terminal of the charging
fifty." A hydrometer reading of 1260 to 1280 voltage Ve to the less negative electrode of the
indicates full charge, approximately 1250 is battery and returns from the positive electrode
half-charge, and 1150 to 1200 is complete dis- of the battery to the more positive terminal of
charge. the charging voltage.
In the circuit outside the battery, the cur-
Charging the Lead-Acid Battery. The re- rent in (b) is in the reverse direction from the
quirements are illustrated in Fig. 12-10. An current in (a). Inside the battery, the ion current
external de voltage source is necessary to pro- produced in the electrolyte by the charging
duce current in one direction. Also, the charg- voltage is also opposite to the direction of ion
ing voltage must be more than the battery emf. current on discharge.
Approximately 2 .5 V per cell is enough to over- Note that the reversal of current is ob-
come the cell emf so that the charging voltage tained just by connecting the battery and charg-
can produce current opposite to the direction of ing voltage with + to + and - to - as shown
discharge current. in (b). The charging current is reversed because
The reversed directions of charge current the battery effectively becomes a load resistance
and discharge current are shown in Fig. 12-lOa for the charging voltage source when Ve is
and b. In (a), the battery is the voltage source VB higher than VB.
producing current in the load resistance RL.
The direction of electrons in the external circuit Battery Chargers. There are many commer-
is from the negative battery terminal, through cial types that can be plugged into the ac power
RL, and back to the positive terminal. Inside the line to convert a 120-V ac input to the de volt-
battery, the ion current is from the positive age output required for charging. Figure 12-11
electrode to the negative electrode. shows one type that supplies a 6- to 12-V de
In (b), however, the battery is effectively a output. Since automobile radios operate on this
load resistance across the external charging battery voltage, the 6- to 12-V output of the
voltage source Ve. The net voltage available to eliminator can serve as a voltage source for
produce charging current is the difference be- testing these receivers on the service bench
tween the source and battery voltages, which without a battery. In addition, the de voltage
equals 3 V here. The resultant electron current output can be used to charge a battery.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-10
Reversed directions for charge and discharge
current of battery. (a) V8 discharges to supply
current for RL. (b) Battery is load resistance for
the source of charging voltage V0 .
 Chapter 12
250 Batteries

12-6
TYPES OF ELECTROMOTIVE CELLS
Most common are the zinc-carbon dry cell for
primary batteries and the lead-acid wet cell for
secondary or storage batteries. A primary bat-
tery cannot be recharged since its chemical
reaction is not reversible. Sometimes the output
can be increased temporarily by resting a pri-
mary battery or improving the depolarizing
action at the electrodes. However, a secondary
battery can be recharged repeatedly to bring the

-
output up to the normal value when new.
Additional types are listed in Table 12-1 for
primary cells and 12-2 for secondary cells, wet
FIGURE 12-11 and dry. The specified voltages are nominal
Battery eliminator or charger. (Heath Com- values without a load. Output voltage with load
pany) current normally drops 10 to 20 percent. More
details on construction of recently developed
Practice Problems 12-5 types are given below.
(answers on page 262)
(a) How many lead-acid cells in series are Manganese-Alkaline Cell. The cathode is
needed for a 12-V battery? manganese dioxide and the anode is zinc in a
(b) How many hours are needed with a 5-A leakproof steel can (Fig. 12-12). The electrolyte
charging current to supply 100 Ah of is potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide,
charge? which is alkaline with negative hydroxyl (OH)

TABLE 12-1. Primary cells

TYPE VOLTAGE NOTES

Carbon-zinc 1.5 Most common type; A, B, and C batteries; for

flashlights and toys; lowest cost but low
current capacity.
Zinc-chloride 1.5 Similar to carbon-zinc type but higher current
capacity.
Manganese-alkaline 1.5 Hydroxide electrolyte; high current capacity.
Mercury 1.35 Cathode is mercuric oxide; stable voltage reference.
Mercury 1.4 Cathode is mercuric oxide with manganese dioxide;
miniature button sizes for cameras, electronic
watches, and hearing aids; high current capacity;
long shelf life.
Silver oxide 1.5 Hydroxide electrolyte; miniature button sizes.
Lithium 2.95 Long life; high cost; high current capacity and
energy density.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 251

TABLE 12-2. Secondary cells

TYPE VOLTAGE NOTES
Lead-acid 2.2 Wet electrolyte; lowest cost; very low ri and very
high current ratings.
Gelled-electrolyte, 2.1 Moist electrolyte; sealed unit; needs no water
lead-acid added; calcium-lead in small sizes.
Nickel-iron 1.36 Edison cell; wet hydroxide electrolyte; industrial
uses.
Nickel-cadmium 1.25 Most common rechargeable dry battery.
Silver-cadmium 1.1 Rechargeable dry cell; high current rating and
energy density.
Silver-zinc 1.86 Rechargeable dry cell; high efficiency.

ions, while an acid electrolyte has positive hy- a voltage-reference source. The general-pur-
drogen (H) ions. High conductivity of the elec- pose type with an output of 1.4 V uses manga-
trolyte results in higher current ratings than the nese dioxide with the mercuric oxide. Both
carbon-zinc cell. This is a primary cell, but some types are primary cells. The flat pellet construc-
alkaline batteries can be re-energized a few tion is illustrated in Fig. 12-13.
times. Output is 1.5 V.
Silver Oxide Cell. As shown in Fig. 12-14, the
Mercury Cell. The cathode is mercuric oxide, cathode is silver oxide, with a powdered zinc
with a zinc anode in an alkaline electrolyte. The anode in an alkaline electrolyte. This type is
anode and cathode are compacted powders in generally made in the button size for hearing
a liquid electrolyte, but they are in a double- aids, cameras, and electronic watches. Output
sealed can assembly. With pure mercuric oxide of this primary cell is 1.5 V.
for the cathode, voltage output is extremely
stable at 1.35 V. This type of cell can be used as Zinc-Air Cell. This is an experimental fuel cell
that extracts oxygen from the air to serve as the
cathode. Output is 1.45 V.

Nickel-Cadmium Cell. This is a dry cell but

rechargeable. It is the most common dry stor-
age battery.
In the charged condition, the anode is
nickel hydroxide with a cathode of metallic cad-
mium in an alkaline electrolyte of potassium
hydroxide in a sealed can (Fig. 12-15). Output
is 1.25 V.
The formula for the chemical reaction is

FIGURE 12-12 Cd + 2NiOH + 2KOH

Alkaline-type battery. Output is 1.5 V. ~ Cd(OH) 2 + NiO + 2KOH
 Chapter 12
252 Batteries

2. Cell seal Double cell top

(grommet)

5. Absorbelillll
and alkalin111 3. Zinc anode
electrolyte

4. Insulating ring
7. Depolarizer

8. Cell container 6. Barrier

FIGURE 12-13
Construction of pellet type of mercury cell.
(Mallory Battery Company)

This dry cell is a true storage cell with a reversi- Practice Problems 12-6
ble chemical reaction which allows recharging (answers on page 262)
up to 1000 times. The standard type may take (a) How much is the voltage output of the
as long as 15 h to recharge, but fast-charging nickel-cadmium cell?
units are available. New batteries may need (b) Is the mercury 1.35-V reference cell re-
recharging before use. chargeable?

Solar Battery. This contains photosensitive

silicon cells. The semiconductor units generate 12-7
voltage output when exposed to light. Typical INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A
output is 0.26 V per cell. GENERATOR
Any source that produces voltage output con-
tinuously is a generator. It may be a cell sepa-
rating charges by chemical action or a rotary
generator converting motion and magnetism
into voltage output, for common examples. In
any case, all generators have internal resist-
ance, which is labeled ri in Fig. 12-16.
The internal resistance ri is important
Gasket Anode cap
when a generator supplies load current because
its internal lri drop subtracts from the generated
Separator emf, resulting in lower voltage across the output
terminals. Physically, ri may be the resistance of
Si Iver oxide cathode Powdered zinc anode the wire in a rotary generator, or in a chemical
FIGURE 12-14 cell ri may be the resistance of the electrolyte
Button cell using silver oxide. Diameter is 0.3 between electrodes. More generally, the inter-
to 0.5 in. Output is 1.5 V. (Union Carbide Cor- nal resistance ri is the opposition to load cur-
poration) rent inside the generator.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 253

infinitely high. As an example, if a 1.5-V battery

is temporarily short-circuited, the short-circuit
current Isc is about 10 A. Then ri is V!lsc• which
equals i.s1i. 0 , or 0.15 Q for the internal resistance
of the battery. These are typical values for a
No. 6 dry cell.

Why the Terminal Voltage Drops with More

Load Current. Figure 12-17 illustrates how
the output of a 100-V dry battery can drop to
90 V because of the internal 10-V Iri drop. In
(a), the voltage across the output terminals is
equal to the 100 V of V0 because there is no
load current on an open circuit. With no cur-
FIGURE 12-15 rent, the voltage drop across ri is zero. Then the
Nickel-cadmium battery. Output is 1.25 V. full generated voltage is available across the
output terminals. This is the generated emf,
open-circuit voltage, or no-load voltage.
We cannot connect the test leads inside the
Since any current in the generator must
source to measure VG. However, measuring this
flow through the internal resistance, ri is in
no-load voltage without any load current pro-
series with the generated voltage, as shown in
vides a method of determining the internally
Fig. 12-16c. It may be of interest to note that,
generated emf.
with just one load resistance connected across a
In Fig. 12-17b with a load, however, the
generator, they are in series with each other
current of 0.1 A flows to produce a drop of
because RL is in series with ri.
10 V across the 100 Q of ri. Note that RT is
If there is a short circuit across the genera-
900 + 100 = 1000 n. Then IL equals 100/iooo•
tor, its ri prevents the current from becoming
which is 0.1 A.
As a result, the voltage output \{ equals
+ 100 - 10 = 90 V. This terminal voltage or load

fTVG';
voltage is available across the output terminals
when the generator is in a closed circuit with
load current. The 10-V Iri drop is subtracted
r;
-··· r;-···- from VG because they are series-opposing volt-
-.-··.-.···
_... ,, .. ,,.,_ ages.
"" ..
The graph in Fig. 12-18 shows how the
+ terminal voltage \{ drops with increasing load
(a) (b) (c) current IL. The reason is the greater internal
FIGURE 12-16 voltage drop across ri, as shown by the calcu-
Internal resistance ri is in series with the gener- lated values listed in Table 12-3.
ated voltage. (a) Physical arrangement for a Across the top row, infinite ohms for RL
voltaic cell. (b) Schematic. (c) Equivalent cir- means an open circuit. Then IL is zero, there is
cuit. no internal drop \.{, and \{ is the same as VG.
 Chapter 12
254 Batteries

I,i
10 v
A+ IL ~o.i"i\l_
T
-i
FIGURE 12-17
(a)
VG
100 v-=-
B
+
0
- ----~-cfo_n___.+ _JVL
(b)
=90V

Internal voltage drop decreases terminal volt-

age of generator. (a) Open-circuit voltage is the
V0 of 100 V because there is no load current.
(b) Terminal voltage VL between A and B is
reduced to 90 V because of the 10-V drop
across 100-Q ri with 0.1 A of IL. .

Across the bottom row, zero ohms for RL erator, the better it is in terms of being able to
means a short circuit. Then the short-circuit produce full output voltage when supplying
current of 1 A results in zero output voltage current for a load. For example, the very low ri,
because the entire generator voltage is dropped about 0.01 Q, for a 12-V lead-acid battery is the
across the internal resistance. Or we can say reason it can supply high values of load current
that with a short circuit of zero ohms across the and maintain its output voltage.
load, the current is limited to VG! ri. For the opposite case, a higher ri means
The lower the internal resistance of a gen- that the terminal voltage of a generator is much
less with load current. As an example, an old
dry battery with a 500-Q ri would appear nor-
100 mal when measured by a voltmeter but be use-
less because of low voltage when normal load
current flows· in an actual circuit.
> How to Measure ri. The internal resistance of
50
any generator can be measured indirectly by
determining how much the output voltage
drops for a specified amount of load current.
The difference between the no-load voltage and
0.5 1.0 the load voltage is the amount of internal volt-
IL, A age drop ILri. Dividing by IL gives the value of ri.
FIGURE 12-18 As a formula,
How terminal voltage \{ drops with more load
current IL. Graph is plotted for values in Table (12-1)
12-3.
 Chapter 12
Batteries 255

TABLE 12-3. For Fig. 12-17. How \{ drops with more IL

VG, r;, RL, Rr = RL + ri' IL= Va!Rr, V; = ILri, VL =Va - V;,
v [2 [2 [2 A v v
100 100 00 00 0 0 100
100 100 900 1000 0.1 10 90
100 100 600 700 0.143 14.3 85.7
100 100 300 400 0.25 25 75
100 100 100 200 0.5 50 50
100 100 0 100 1.0 100 0

Example 1. Calculate ri if the output of a generator The voltage output of 5.5 to 6.0 A can be
drops from 100 V with zero load current to 80 V with considered constant, compared with the wide
a 2-A IL. variations in load current. The relatively con-
stant \{ is shown by the graph in (b).
Answer. 100 - 80 20
ri = 2 2
Constant-Current Generator. The opposite
case is a generator that has very high resistance
A convenient technique for measuring ri is compared with the external load resistance,
to use a variable load resistance RL. Vary RL resulting in constant current although the out-
until the load voltage is one-half the no-load put voltage varies. Examples are found in vac-
voltage. This value of RL is also the value of ri, uum-tube circuits, where a tube can be a gener-
since they must be equal to divide the generator ator having internal resistance as high as 1 MQ.
voltage equally. For the same 100-V generator The constant-current generator shown in
with the 10-Q ri used in Example 1, if a 10-Q RL Fig. 12-20 has such high resistance, with an ri
were used, the load voltage would be 50 V, of0.9 MQ, that it is the main factor determining
equal to one-half the no-load voltage. how much current can be produced by VG. Here
You can solve this circuit by Ohm's law to RL varies in a 3: 1 range from 50 to 150 kQ.
see that IL is 5 A with a 20-Q Rr. Then the two Since the current is determined by the total
voltage drops of 50 V each add to equal the resistance of RL and ri in series, however, I is
100 V of the generator. essentially constant at 1.05 to 0.95 mA, or ap-
proximately 1 mA. This relatively constant IL is
Constant-Voltage Generator. A generator shown by the graph in (b).
with very low internal resistance is considered a Note that the terminal voltage \{ varies
constant-voltage source. Then the output volt- approximately in the same 3: 1 range as RL.
age remains essentially the same when the load Also, the output voltage is much less than the
current changes. This idea is illustrated in generator voltage because of its high internal
Fig. 12-19a for a 6-V lead-acid battery with an ri resistance compared with RL. This is a neces-
of 0.005 Q. If the load current varies over the sary condition, however, in a circuit with a con-
wide range of 1 to 100 A, for any of these stant-current generator.
values, the internal /ri drop across 0.005 Q is A more common example is to insert a
less than 0.5 V. series resistance to keep the current constant,
 Chapter 12
256 Batteries

6
Constant VL
5
r; =
0.005 4
n VL = !RL
approx. RL=
6V 0.055 to
5.555 n 2

2 3 4 5 6
RL,.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-19
Constant-voltage generator with low ri. The VL
stays approximately the same 6 V, as I varies
with RL. (a) Circuit. (b). Graph.

as shown in Fig. 12-21 a. R1 must be very high sidered as receiving 50 Vin series with 1 MQ or
compared with RL. In this example, IL is 50 µA 50 µA in shunt with 1 MQ.
with 50 V applied, and RT is practically equal to
the 1 MQ of R1 . The value of RL can vary over a Practice Problems 12-7
range as great as 10 : 1 without changing RT or (answers on page 262)
IL appreciably. (a) Does a constant-voltage source have high
The circuit with an equivalent constant- or low internal resistance?
current source is shown in (b). Note the arrow (b) Does the internal voltage drop of a voltage
symbol for a current source. As far as RL is source aid or oppose the generated volt-
concerned, its terminals A and B can be con- age?

1.2
I= 1 ;A'.+
approx .
1.0
Constant I
r; =
0.9M.Q 0.8
<(
RL = E 0.6
50 to -
.......

150 k.Q 0.4

Ve= 100 V
0.2

25 50 75 100 125 150

RL,k.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-20
Constant-current generator with high ri. The IL
stays approximately the same 1 mA, as VL var-
ies with RL. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph.
 Cha ter 12
Batteries 257

R,
Ve= 50 V
1 MS1

B B

(a) (b)
FIGURE 12-21
Voltage source in (a) equivalent to current
source in (b) for RL across terminals A and B.

12-8 higher resistance for RL, the output voltage \{ is

MATCHING A LOAD RESISTANCE higher, but the current is reduced.
TO THE GENERATOR Lower resistance for RL allows more cur-
In the diagram in Fig. 12-22, when RL equals ri, rent, but \{is less. When ri and RL both equal
the load and generator are matched. The 100 n, the combinations of current and voltage
matching is significant because the generator produce the maximum power of 100 W
then produces maximum power in RL, as veri- across RL.
fied by the values listed in Table 12-4. With generators having very low resist-
ance, however, matching is often impractical.
Maximum Power in Ru When RL is 100 n, For example, if a 6-V lead-acid battery with a
matching the 100 n of ri, maximum power is 0.003-Q internal resistance were connected to a
transferred from the generator to the load. With 0.003-Q load resistance, the battery could be

PL max at R L = r;
100 = 100 S1

80

:s: 60
RL = VG= 200 V
1-10,000 c.......;;, 40

VG= 200 V S1
IRL
VL
={ 20

200 400 600 800 1000

RL, S1

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 12-22
Circuit for varying RL to match ri. (a) Sche-
matic diagram. (b) Equivalent voltage divider
for voltage output across RL. ( c) Graph of
power output PL vs. RL.
 Chapter 12
258 Batteries

damaged by excessive current as high as When RL equals ri, the efficiency is only 50
1000 A. percent, since one-half the total generated
power is dissipated in ri, the internal resistance
Maximum Voltage across RL. If maximum of the generator. In conclusion, then, matching
voltage is desired, rather than power, the load the load and generator resistances is desirable
should have as high a resistance as possible. when the load requires maximum power rather
Note that RL and ri form a voltage divider for than maximum voltage or efficiency, assuming
the generator voltage, as illustrated in Fig. that the match does not result in excessive cur-
12-22. The values tabulated for IRL in Table rent.
12-4 show how the output voltage \{increases
with higher values of RL. Practice Problems 12-8
(answers on page 262)
Maximum Efficiency. Note also that the effi- Answer true or false.
ciency increases as RL increases because there (a) When RL = ri, the PL is maximum.
is less current, resulting in less power lost in ri. (b) \{ is maximum when RL is maximum.

TABLE 12-4. Effect of Load Resistance on Generator Outpue

EFFI-
Rv [ = Val RT, Tri, fRL, Pv pi' Pr- CIENCY =
Q A v v w w w PL/PT,%

1 1.98 198 2 4 396 400 1

50 1.33 133 67 89 178 267 33
RL = ri ~ 100 1 100 100 100 100 200 50
500 0.33 33 167 55 11 66 83
1000 0.18 18 180 32 3.24 35.24 91
10,000 0.02 2 198 4 0.04 4.04 99
*Values calculated approximately for circuit in Fig.
12-22, with V0 = 200 V and ri = 100 Q.

Summary

1. A voltaic cell consists of two different conductors as electrodes

immersed in an electrolyte. The voltage output depends only on the
chemicals in the cell. The current capacity increases with larger sizes.
A primary cell cannot be recharged. A secondary or storage cell can
be recharged.
2. A battery is a group of cells in series or in parallel. With cells in series,
their voltages add, but the current capacity is the same as one cell.
With cells in parallel, the voltage output is the same as that of one
cell, but the total current capacity is the sum of the individual values.
3. The zinc-carbon-sal ammoniac dry cell is the most common type of
 Chapter 12
Batteries 259

primary cell. Zinc is the negative electrode; carbon is the positive

electrode. Its output voltage is approximately 1.5 V.
4. The lead-acid cell is the most common form of storage battery. The
positive electrode is lead peroxide; spongy lead is the negative
electrode. Both are in a dilute solution of sulfuric acid for the
electrolyte. The voltage output is approximately 2.2 V per cell.
5. To charge a lead-acid battery, connect it to a de voltage equal to
approximately 2.5 V per cell. Connecting the positive terminal of the
battery to the positive side of the charging source and the negative
terminal to the negative side results in charging current through the
battery.
6. The mercury cell is a primary cell with an output of 1.35 or 1.4 V.
7. The nickel-cadmium cell is a dry cell that is rechargeable, with an
output of 1.25 V.
8. A constant-voltage generator has very low internal resistance. Output
voltage is relatively constant with changing values of load because of
the small internal voltage drop.
9. A constant-current generator has a very high internal resistance. This
determines the constant value of current in the generator circuit
relatively independent of the load resistance.
10. Any generator has an internal resistance ri. With load current Iv the
internal ILri drop reduces the voltage across the output terminals.
When IL makes the terminal voltage drop to one-half the zero load
voltage, the external RL equals the internal ri.
11. Matching a load to a generator means making the RL equal to the
generator's ri. The result is maximum power delivered to the load
from the generator.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Which ofthe following is false? (a) A lead-acid cell can be recharged.

(b) A primary cell has an irreversible chemical reaction. (c) A storage
cell has a reversible chemical reaction. (d) A carbon-zinc cell has
unlimited shelf life.
2. The output of a lead-acid cell is (a) 1.25 V; (b) 1.35 V; (c) 2.2 V;
(d) 6 v.
3. The current in a chemical cell is a movement of (a) positive hole
charges; (b) positive and negative ions; (c) positive ions only;
(d) negative ions only.
 Cha ter 12
260 Batteries

4. Cells are connected in series to (a) increase the voltage output;

(b) decrease the voltage output; (c) decrease the internal resistance;
(d) increase the current capacity.
5. Cells are connected in parallel to (a) increase the voltage output;
(b) increase the internal resistance; (c) decrease the current capacity;
(d) increase the current capacity.
6. Which of the following is a dry storage cell? (a) Edison cell; (b) car-
bon-zinc cell; (c) mercury cell; (d) nickel-cadmium cell.
7. When RL equals the generator ri, which of the following is maximum?
(a) Power in RL; (b) current; (c) voltage across RL; (d) efficiency of
the circuit.
8. Five carbon-zinc cells in series have an output of (a) 1.5 V; (b) 5.0 V;
(c) 7.5 V; (d) 11.0 V.
9. A constant-voltage generator has (a) low internal resistance; (b) high
internal resistance; (c) minimum efficiency; (d) minimum current
capacity.
10. A generator has a 100-V output on open circuit, which drops to 50 V
with a load current of 50 mA and an RL of 1000 Q. The internal
resistance ri equals (a) 25 Sl; (b) 50 Sl; (c) 100 Sl; (d) 1000 st.

Essay Questions
1. Draw a sketch illustrating the construction of a carbon-zinc dry cell.
Indicate the negative and positive electrodes and the electrolyte.
2. Draw a sketch illustrating construction of the lead-acid cell. Indicate
the negative and positive electrodes and the electrolyte.
3. Show the wiring for the following batteries: (a) six lead-acid cells for
a voltage output of approximately 12 V; (b) six standard No. 6 dry
cells for a voltage output of 4.5 V with a current capacity of 1lz A.
4. (a) What is the advantage of connecting cells in series? (b) What is
connected to the end terminals of the series cells?
5. (a) What is the advantage of connecting cells in parallel? (b) Why can
the load be connected across any one of the parallel cells?
6. How many cells are necessary in a battery to double the voltage and
current rating of a single cell? Show the wiring diagram.
7. Draw a diagram showing two 12-V lead-acid batteries being charged
by a 15-V source.
8. Why is a generator with very low internal resistance called a con-
stant-voltage source?
9. Why does discharge current lower the specific gravity in a lead-acid
cell?
 Chapter 12
Batteries 261

10. Would you consider the lead-acid battery a constant-current source

or constant-voltage source? Why?
11. List five types of chemical cells, giving two features of each.
12. Referring to Fig. 12-l 9b, draw the corresponding graph that shows
how I varies with RL.
13. Referring to Fig. 12-20b, draw the corresponding graph that shows
how \{ varies with RL.
14. Referring to Fig. 12-22c, draw the corresponding graph that shows
how \{ varies with RL.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A 1.5-V No. 6 carbon-zinc dry cell is connected across an RL of

1000 Q. How much current flows in the circuit?
2. Draw the wiring diagram for six No. 6 cells providing a 3-V output
with a current capacity of %A. Draw the schematic diagram of this
battery connected across a 10-Q resistance. (a) How much current
flows in the circuit? (b) How much power is dissipated in the resist-
ance? (c) How much power is supplied by the battery?
3. A 6-V lead-acid battery has an internal resistance of 0.01 Q. How
much current will flow if the battery has a short circuit?
4. How much is the specific gravity of a solution with equal parts of
sulfuric acid and water?
5. A lead-acid battery discharges at the rate of 8 A for 10 h. (a) How
many coulombs of charge must be put back into the battery to restore
the original charge, assuming 100 percent efficiency? (b) How long
will this recharging take, with a charging current of 2 A?
6. The output voltage of a battery drops from 90 Vat zero load to 60 V
with a load current of 50 mA. (a) How much is the internal ri of the
battery? (b) How much is RL for this load current? (c) How much RL
reduces the load voltage to one-half the no-load voltage?
7. A 100-V source with an internal resistance of 10 kQ is connected to
a variable load resistance RL. Tabulate I, \{, and power in RL for
values of 1 kQ, 5 kQ, 10 kQ, 15 kQ, and 20 kQ.
8. The output voltage of a source reads 60 V with a VIVM. When a
meter with 1000 Q /V sensitivity is used, the reading is 50 V on the
100-V range. How much is the internal resistance of the source?
9. A generator has an open-circuit emf of 180 V. Its terminal voltage
drops to 150 V with an RL of 5 kQ. Calculate ri.
10. Referring to Fig. 12-22, calculate PL when RL is 200 Q. Compare this
value with the maximum PL at RL = ri = 100 Q.
 Chapter 12
262 Batteries

Answers to Practice Problems

12-1 (a) 2.2V 12-5 (a) Six
(b) v
1.5 (b) 20 h
12-2 (a) T 12-6 (a) 1.25 V
(b) F (b) No
12-3 (a) F 12-7 (a) High
(b) F (b) Opposes
12-4 (a) Six 12-8 (a) T
(b) Two (b) T
264 Review of Chapters 10 to 12

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).
1. Which of the following is the best conductor? (a) Carbon; (b) silicon;
(c) rubber; (d) copper.
2. A 1-W 1-kQ carbon resistor with current of 2 mA dissipates a power
of (a) 4 W; (b) 4 mW; (c) 2 W; (d) 2 mW.
3. Which of the following cells has a reversible chemical reaction?
(a) Carbon-zinc; (b) lead-acid; (c) silver oxide; (d) mercury oxide.
4. A tungsten filament measures 10 Q with an ohmmeter. In a circuit
with 100 V applied, 2 A flows. The hot resistance of the filament
equals (a) 2 Q; (b) 10 Q; (c) 50 Q; (d) 100 Q.
5. Three resistors R1 , R2 , and R 3 are in series across a 100-V source. If
R2 opens: (a) the voltage across R2 is zero; (b) the total resistance of
R1 , R 2 , and R 3 decreases; (c) the voltage across R1 is 100 V; (d) the
voltage across R2 is 100 V.
6. The current flowing between electrodes inside a lead-acid battery is
(a) electron current; (b) proton current; (c) ionization current;
(d) polarization current.
7. With 300 V applied across two equal resistors in series, 1 mA of
current flows. Typical values for each resistor to be used here are
(a) 100 Q, 1 W; (b) 150,000 Q, Yz W; (c) 150,000 Q, 50 W;
(d) 300,000 Q, 2 w.
8. A carbon resistor is coded with brown, green, yellow, and gold stripes
from left to right. Its value is (a) 15,000 Q -+-10 percent; (b) 68,000 Q
-+-10 percent; (c) 150,000 Q -+-5 percent; (d) 500,000 Q -+-5 percent.
9. Thirty zinc-carbon dry cells are connected in series. The total voltage
output is (a) 1.5 V; (b) 30 V; (c) 45 V; (d) 60 V.
10. A45-V source with an internal resistance of 2 Q is connected across
a wirewound resistor. Maximum power will be dissipated in the
resistor when its R is (a) zero; (b) 2 Q; (c) 45 Q; (d) infinity.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Crouse, W. H.: "Electrical Appliance Servicing," McGraw-Hill Book

Company, New York.
Richter, H. P.: "Practical Electrical Wiring," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York.
Slurzberg, M., and W. Osterheld: "Essentials of Electricity and Electron-
ics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Marcus, A., and C. Thompson: "Electricity for Technicians," Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
 Magnetism
Electrical effects exist in two forms, voltage and current. In terms of
voltage, separated electric charges have the potential to do mechanical
work in attracting or repelling charges. Similarly, any electrical current has
·Cba
an associated magnetic field that can do the work of attraction or repul-
sion. Materials made of iron, nickel, and cobalt, particularly, concentrate
their magnetic effects at opposite ends, where the magnetic material
meets a nonmagnetic medium such as air.
As shown in Fig. 13-1, these points of concentrated magnetic
strength are north and south poles. The opposite magnetic poles corre-
IS
spond to the idea of opposite polarities of electric charges. The name
magnetism is derived from the iron oxide mineral magnetite. Ferro-
magnetism refers specifically to the magnetic properties of iron. The
topics explained here are:

13-1 The Magnetic Field

13-2 Magnetic Flux <P
13-3 Flux Density B
13-4 Induction by the Magnetic Field
13-5 Air Gap of a Magnet
13-6 Types of Magnets
13-7 Ferrites
13-8 Magnetic Shielding
13-9 The Hall Effect
13-1 decreases in strength inversely as the square of
THE MAGNETIC FIELD the distance from the poles of the magnet.
The practical effects of ferromagnetism result
from the magnetic field of force between the Reid Lines. In order to visualize the magnetic
two poles at opposite ends of the magnet. Al- field without iron filings, we show the field as
though the magnetic field is invisible, evidence lines of force, as in Fig. 13-2b. The direction of
of its force can be seeri when small iron filings the lines outside the magnet shows the path a
are sprinkled on a glass or paper sheet placed north pole would follow in the field, repelled
over a bar magnet (Fig. 13-2a). Each iron filing away from the north pole of the magnet and
becomes a small bar magnet. If the sheet is attracted to its south pole. Although we cannot
tapped gently to overcome friction so that the actually have a unit north pole by itself, the field
filings can move, they become aligned by the can be explored by noting how the north pole
magnetic field. moves on a small compass needle.
Many filings cling to the ends of the mag- The magnet can be considered as the gen-
net, showing that the magnetic field is strongest erator for an external magnetic field, provided
at the poles. The field exists in all directions bµt by the two opposite magnetic poles at the ends.
 Chapter 13
266 Magnetism

North North
pole pole

South South
pole pole

(a) (b)
FIGURE 13-1
Poles of a magnet. (a) Electromagnet (EM)
produced by current from battery. (b) Perma-
nent magnet (PM) without any external current
source.

This idea corresponds to the two opposite ter- North and South Magnetic Poles. The earth
minals on a battery as the source for an external itself is a huge natural magnet, with its greatest
electric field provided by opposite charges. strength at the north and south poles. Because
Magnetic field lines are unaffected by non- of the earth's magnetic poles, if a small bar
magnetic materials such as air, vacuum, paper, magnet is suspended so that it can turn easily,
glass, wood, or plastics. When these materials one end will always point north. This end of the
are placed in the magnetic field of a magnet, the bar magnet is defined as the north-seeking pole,
field lines are the same as though the material as shown in Fig. 13-3. The opposite end is the
were not there. south-seeking pole. When polarity is indicated
However, the magnetic field lines become on a magnet, the north-seeking end is the north
concentrated when a magnetic substance like pole (N) and the opposite end is the south pole
iron is placed in the field. Inside the iron, the (S). It should be noted that the magnetic north
field lines are more dense, compared with the pole differs by about 15 ° from true geographic
field in air. north on the axis of the earth's rotation.

___ ,. __ _
Lines of force
Glass
------ ---
.,,,..--- ___ _......____
/ ......... ...........

(
\
,,,...-
( (
...... .._
'~)
\
)
Iron filings
'~ ~ /
..........:_~S =====
..,,......-:;i =====N .~-~
_::::::--....
Magnet / (-"-. )'\.... .._\
'
' ......... ____
-------
..., ______
' ...... - - - - - - - : . . . . - /
-..... .,,,...,,,.. /
j

(a) (b)
FIGURE 13-2
Magnetic field of force around a bar magnet.
(a) Field outlined by iron filings. (b) Field indi-
cated by lines of force.
 Chapter 13
Magnetism 267

North 2. A north pole (N) tends to repel another

north pole (N), while a south pole (S)
tends to repel another south pole (S).

West East These forces are illustrated by the field of iron

filings between opposite poles in Fig. 13.4a and
between similar poles in (b).

South Practice Problems 13-1

FIGURE 13-3 (answers on page 279)
Definition of north and south poles of bar mag- Answer true or false.
net. (a) On a magnet, the north-seeking pole is
labeled N.
Similar to the force between electric (b) Like poles have a force of repulsion.
charges is a force between magnetic poles
causing attraction of opposite poles and repul- 13-2
sion between similar poles: MAGNETIC FLUX cf>
The entire group of magnetic field lines, which
1. A north pole (N) and a south pole (S) tend can be considered to flow outward from the
to attract each other. north pole of a magnet, is called magnetic flux.

FIGURE 13-4
Photos of magnetic field patterns produced by
iron filings. (a) Field between opposite poles.
The north and south poles could be reversed.
(b) Field between similar poles. The two north
poles could be south poles.
 Chapter 13
268 Magnetism

Its symbol is the Greek letter <P (phi). A strong Note that the conversion is arranged to make
magnetic field has more lines of force and more the weber units cancel, since we want maxwell
flux than a weak magnetic field. units in the answer. For the same 1-lb magnet
producing the magnetic flux of 5000 Mx, this
The Maxwell. One maxwell (Mx) unit equals flux corresponds to 50 µWb.
one magnetic field line. In Fig. 13-5, as an
example, the flux illustrated is 6 Mx because Systems of Magnetic Units. As explained in
there are 6 field lines flowing in or out for each Appendix D, Physics Units, units can be defined
pole. A 1-lb magnet can provide a magnetic basically in two ways. The centimeter-gram-
flux <P of about 5000 Mx. This unit is named for second (cgs) system defines small units. The
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), an impor- meter-kilogram-second (mks) system is for
tant Scottish mathematical physicist who con- larger units of a more practical size. Further-
tributed much to electrical and field theory. more, the Systeme International (SI) units are
in mks dimensions for an international standard
The Weber. This is a larger unit of magnetic of practical units, based on the ampere of cur-
flux. One weber (Wb) equals 1 X 10 8 lines or rent. More details of the SI units for electricity
maxwells. Since the weber is a large unit for and magnetism are described on page 290. For
typical fields, the microweber unit can be used. the units of magnetic flux cp, the maxwell is a
Then 1 µWb = 10- 6 Wb. This unit is named for cgs unit, while the weber is an mks or SI unit.
Wilhelm Weber (1804-1890), a German physi-
cist.
Practice Problems 13-2
To convert microwebers to lines, multiply
(answers on page 279)
by the conversion factor 10 8 lines per weber, as
The magnetic flux <P of 2000 lines is
follows:
(a) How many Mx?
(b) How many µWb?
1 µWb = 1 X 10- 6 Wb X 10 8 lines
Wb
= 1 X 10 lines
2 13-3
FLUX DENSITY B
1 µWb = 100 lines or Mx
As shown in Fig. 13-5, the flux density is the
¢= 6 Mx number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a
...,,-------~------ ........... section perpendicular to the direction of flux. As
// ------------ ........ , a formula:
'I
'-
/
\
,,.,.- . . . - - - - - - - - -....,
f
/ .......
\
\
J
"1
I

--~) =======N ~~~/

.....,- S======' ......._ (13-1)
//
/
/
/.""
f(
------- - ....... ....
, ....... \ .............
I l \ / '\
I ' ............. _,,,. J I
~----- where <P is the flux through an area A, and the
\
'............ p -------- _,,,./ / _..../

flux density is B.
B = 2 gauss -- ---------
1 cm 2
FIGURE 13-5 The Gauss. In the cgs system, this unit is one
Total flux <P is 6 lines or Mx. Flux density Bat line per square centimeter, or 1 Mx/cm 2 . As an
point Pis 2 lines per cm 2 or 2 G. example, in Fig. 13-5, the total flux <Pis 6 lines,
 Chapter 13
Magnetism 269

or 6 Mx. At point Pin this field, however, the Area= 9 cm 2

flux density Bis 2 G because there are 2 lines ¢=BX A= 16 X 9 = 144 Mx
per cm 2 . The flux density has a higher value
close to the poles where the flux lines are more • • • • • • • • • • • •
crowded. • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
As an example of flux density, B for a 1-lb • • • • • • • • • • • •
magnet would be 1000 G at the poles. This unit
is named for Karl F. Gauss (1777-1855), a • • • • B = p__ = 144 • • • •
German mathematician. • • • • · A 9 • • • • 3cm
• • • • B = 16G • • • •
Example 1. With a flux of 10,000 Mx through a • • • • • • • •
perpendicular area of 5 cm 2, what is the flux density
in gauss?
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Answer. B = ±_ = 10,000 Mx = 2000 Mx • • • • • • • • • • • •
A 5cm 2 cm 2
B = 2000 G I.
FIGURE 13-6
3cm

As typical values, B for the earth's mag- Comparison of total flux</> and flux density B.
netic field can be about 0.2 G; a large labora- Total area of 9 cm 2 has 144 lines or Mx. For
tory magnet produces B of 50,000 G. Since the 1 cm 2 the flux density is 144 Mx/9 cm 2 =
gauss is so small, it is often used in kilogauss 16 G.
units, where 1 kG = 10 3 G.

The Tesla. In SI, the unit of flux density B is = 400 x 10-2 = 80 x 10-2 Wb2
5 m
webers per square meter (Wb/m 2 ). One weber
B = 0.80 T
per square meter is called a tesla, abbreviated T.
This unit is named for Nikola Tesla (1857-
1943 ), a Yugoslav-born American inventor in It should be noted that all these units for
electricity and magnetism. flux or flux density apply to the magnetic field
When converting between cgs and mks produced either by a permanent magnet (PM)
units note that or by an electromagnet (EM). Also, the weber
and tesla in the mks system are practical units of
1m=100 cm magnetism, closely related to the practical volt
1 m 2 = 10,000 or 10 4 cm 2 and ampere units of electricity.
1 cm 2 = 0.0001 or 10-4 m 2
Comparison of Aux and Aux Density. Re-
2
As an example, 5 cm is 0.0005 m 2
.
member that the flux <f> includes total area, while
the flux density B is for a specified unit area.
Example 2. With a flux of 400 µWb through an area The difference between <f> and B is illustrated in
of 0.0005 m 2, what is the flux density in tesla units? Fig. 13-6 with cgs units. The total area A here is
9 cm 2 , equal to 3 cm X 3 cm. For one unit box
B _ ±_ _ 400 x 10-6 Wb of 1 cm 2 , 16 lines are shown. Therefore, the
Answer. - A - _5_x_l_0___4_m_
2
_
flux density B is 16 lines or maxwells per cm 2 ,
 Chapter 13
270 Magnetism

which equals 16 G. The total area includes nine poles at the ends, as a result of the magnetic
ofthese boxes. Therefore, the total flux <t> is 144 induction.
lines or maxwells, equal to 9 X 16 for B X A Note that the induced poles in the iron
For the opposite case, if the total flux <t> is have opposite polarity from the poles of the
given as 144 lines or maxwells, the flux density magnet. Since opposite poles attract, the iron
is found by dividing 144 by 9 cm 2 . This division bar will be attracted. Any magnet attracts to
of 14% equals 16 lines or maxwells per cm 2 , itself all magnetic materials by induction.
which is 16 G. Although the two bars in Fig. 13-7 are not
touching, the iron bar is in the magnetic flux of
the permanent magnet. It is the invisible mag-
Practice Problems 13-3
netic field that links the two magnets, enabling
(answers on page 279)
one to affect the other. Actually, this idea of
(a) The <t> is 9000 Mx through 3 cm 2 . How
magnetic flux extending outward from the mag-
much is Bin gauss units?
netic poles is the basis for many inductive ef-
(b) How much is B in tesla units for <t> of
fects in ac circuits. More generally, the magnetic
90 µWb through 0.0003 m 2 ?
field between magnetic poles and the electric
field between electric charges form the basis for
13-4 wireless radio transmission and reception.
INDUCTION BY THE MAGNETIC
FIELD Polarity of Induced Poles. Note that the north
The electrical effect of one body on another pole of the permanent magnet in Fig. 13-7
without any physical contact between them is induces an opposite south pole at this end of
called induction. For instance, a permanent the iron bar. If the permanent magnet were
magnet can induce an unmagnetized iron bar to reversed, its south pole would induce a north
become a magnet, without the two touching. pole. The closest induced pole will always be of
The iron bar then becomes a magnet, as shown opposite polarity. This is the reason why either
in Fig. 13-7. What happens is that the magnetic end of a magnet can attract another magnetic
lines of force generated by the permanent mag- material to itself. No matter which pole is used,
net make the internal molecular magnets in the it will induce an opposite pole, and the opposite
iron bar line up in the same direction, instead of poles are attracted.
the random directions in unmagnetized iron.
The magnetized iron bar then has magnetic Relative Permeability. Soft iron, as an exam-
ple, is very effective in concentrating magnetic
field lines, by induction in the iron. This ability
to concentrate magnetic flux is called permea-
bility. Any material that is easily magnetized has
high permeability, therefore, as the field lines
are concentrated because of induction.
Numerical values of permeability for dif-
ferent materials can be assigned in comparison
with air or vacuum. For example, if the flux
density in air is 1 G but an iron coil in the same
Magnetizing an iron bar by induction. position in the same field has a flux density of
 Cha ter 13
Magnetism 271

200 G, the relative permeability of the iron coil

equals 20 o/i, or 200.
The symbol for relative permeability is flr
(mu), where the subscript r indicates relative
permeability. Typical values for flr are 100 to
9000 for iron and steel. There are no units,
because flr is a comparison of two flux densities
and the units cancel. The symbol Km may also
be used for relative permeability, to indicate this
characteristic of a material for a magnetic field, (a) (b)
corresponding to K{ for an electric field. FIGURE 13-9
Examples of a closed magnetic ring without any
Practice Problems 13-4 air gap. (a) Two PM horseshoe magnets with
(answers on page 279) opposite poles touching. (b) Toroid electro-
Answer true or false. magnet.
(a) Induced poles always have opposite polar-
ity from the inducing poles. Referring to Fig. 13-8, note that the horse-
(b) The relative permeability of air or vacuum shoe magnet has more crowded magnetic lines
is approximately 300. in the air gap, compared with the widely sepa-
rated lines around the bar magnet in (b). Actu-
13-5 ~lly, the horseshoe magnet can be considered
AIR GAP OF A MAGNET as a bar magnet bent around to place the oppo-
As shown in Fig. 13-8, the air space between site poles closer. Then the magnetic lines of the
poles of a magnet is its air gap. The shorter the poles reinforce each other in the air gap. The
air gap, the stronger the field in the gap for a purpose of a short air gap is to concentrate the
given pole strength. Since air is not magnetic magnetic field outside the magnet, for maxi-·
and cannot concentrate magnetic lines, a larger mum induction in a magnetic material placed in
air gap only provides additional space for the the gap.
magnetic lines to spread out.
Ring Magnet without Air Gap. When. it is
desired to concentrate magnetic lines within a
magnet, however, it can be formed as a closed
magnetic loop. This method is illustrated in Fig.
Air
13-9a by the two permanent horseshoe mag-
gap nets placed in a closed loop with opposite poles
~
touching. Since the loop has no open ends,
there can be no air gap and no poles. The north
and south poles of each magnet cancel as op-
posite poles touch.
(a) (b) Each magnet has its magnetic lines inside,
FIGURE 13-8 plus the magnetic lines of the other magnet, but
The horseshoe magnet in (a) has a smaller air outside the magnets the lines cancel because
gap than the bar magnet in (b). they are in opposite directions. The effect of the
 Chapter 13
272 Magnetism

closed magnetic loop, therefore, is maximum magnetized by induction to form a closed loop.
concentration of magnetic lines in the magnet Then any external magnetic field is just concen-
with minimum lines outside. trated in the closed loop without inducing op-
The same effect of a closed magnetic loop posite poles in the permanent magnet. If per-
is obtained with the toroid or ring magnet in Fig. manent magnets are not stored this way, the
13-9b, made in the form of a doughnut. Iron is polarity can be reversed with induced poles
often used for the core. This type of electro- produced by a strong external field from a de
magnet has maximum strength in the iron ring, source; an alternating field can demagnetize the
with little flux outside. As a result, the toroidal magnet.
magnet is less sensitive to induction from exter-
nal magnetic fields and, conversely, has little Practice Problems 13-5
magnetic effect outside the coil. (answers on page 279)
It should be noted that, even if the winding
Answer true or false.
is over only a small part of the ring, practically
(a) A short air gap has a stronger field than a
all the flux is in the iron core because its perme-
large air gap, for the same magnetizing
ability is so much greater than air. The small
force.
part of the field in the air is called leakage flux.
(b) A toroid magnet has no air gap.
Keeper for a Magnet. The principle of the
closed magnetic ring is used to protect perma - 13-6
nent magnets in storage. In Fig. 13-lOa, four TYPES OF MAGNETS
PM bar magnets are in a closed loop while (b) The two broad classes are permanent magnets
shows a stacked pair. Additional even pairs can and electromagnets. An electromagnet needs
be stacked this way with opposite poles touch- current from an external source to maintain its
ing. The closed loop in (c) shows one perma- magnetic field. With a permanent magnet, not
nent horseshoe magnet with a soft iron keeper only is its magnetic field present without any
across the air gap. The keeper maintains the external current, but the magnet can maintain
strength of the permanent magnet as it becomes its strength indefinitely.

s PM N
N ::;

PM
PM PM
PM s N
s N
Iron
N PM s N keeper s

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 13-10
Storing permanent magnets in a closed loop,
with opposite poles touching. (a) Four bar
magnets. (b) Two bar magnets. (c) Horseshoe
with iron keeper across air gap.
 Chapter 13
Magnetism 273

Electromagnets. Current in a wire conductor

has an associated magnetic field. If the wire is
wrapped in the form of a coil, as in Fig. 13-11, Cone
the current and its magnetic field become con-
centrated in a smaller space, resulting in a
stronger field. With the length much greater
than its width, the coil is called a solenoid. It
acts like a bar magnet, with opposite poles at
the ends.
More current and more turns make a
stronger magnetic field. Also, the iron core
concentrates magnetic lines inside the coil. Soft
iron is generally used for the core because it is
easily magnetized and demagnetized. FIGURE 13-12
The coil in Fig. 13-11, with the switch Example of a PM loudspeaker.
closed and current in the coil, is an electromag-
net that can pick up the steel nail shown. If the to the current. As the tape passes through the
switch is opened, the magnetic field is reduced air gap of the head, small areas of the coating
to zero and the nail will drop off. This ability of become magnetized by induction. On playback,
an electromagnet to provide a strong magnetic the moving magnetic tape produces variations
force of attraction that can be turned on or off in electrical current.
easily has many applications in lifting magnets,
buzzers, bells or chimes, and relays. A relay is a Permanent Magnets. These are made of hard
switch with contacts that are opened or closed magnetic materials, such as cobalt steel, mag-
by an electromagnet. netized by induction in the manufacturing proc-
Another common application is magnetic ess. A very strong field is needed for induction
tape recording. The tape is coated with fine in these materials. When the magnetizing field is
particles of iron oxide. The recording head is a removed, however, a residual induction makes
coil that produces a magnetic field in proportion the material a permanent magnet. A common
PM material is alnico, a commercial alloy of
aluminum, nickel, and iron, with cobalt, copper,
and titanium added to produce about 12
s .-..\ grades. The Alnico V grade is often used for PM
I I
I loudspeakers (Fig. 13-12). In this application, a
typical size of PM slug for a steady magnetic
Coil of wire v field is a few ounces to about 5 lb, with a flux B
of 500 to 25,000 lines or maxwells. One advan-
tage of a PM loudspeaker is that only two con-
necting leads are needed for the voice coil, as
Steel nail the steady magnetic field of the PM slug is ob-
FIGURE 13-11 tained without any field-coil winding.
Electromagnet holding nail when switch S is Commercial permanent magnets will last
closed for current in coil. indefinitely if not subjected to high tempera-
 Chapter 13
274 Magnetism

tures, to physical shock, or to a strong demag- but in the opposite direction from the
netizing field. If th~magnet becomes hot, how- magnetizing field.
ever, the mOlecular structure can be
rearranged, resulting in loss of magnetism that The basis of all magnetic effects is the
is not recovered after cooling. The point at magnetic field associated with electric charges
which a magnetic material loses its ferromag- in motion. Within the atom, the motion of its
netic properties is the Curie temperature. For orbital electrons generates a magnetic field.
iron, this temperature is about 800 ° C, when the There are two kinds of electron motion in the
relative permeability. drops to unity. A perma- atom. First is the electron revolving in its orbit.
nent magnet does not become exhausted with This motion provides a diamagnetic effect.
use, as its magnetic properties are determined However, this magnetic effect is weak because
by the structure of the internal atoms and mole- thermal agitation at normal room temperature
cules. results in random directions that neutralize each
other.
More effective is the magnetic effect from
Classification of Magnetic Materials. When
the motion of each electron spinning on its own
we consider materials simply as either magnetic
axis. The spinning electron serves as a tiny
or nonmagnetic, this division is really based on
permanent magnet. Opposite spins provide op-
the strong magnetic properties of iron. How-
posite polarities. Two electrons spinning in op-
ever, weak magnetic materials can be important
posite directions form a pair, neutralizing the
in some applications. For this reason, a more
magnetic fields. In the atoms of ferromagnetic
exact classification includes the following three
materials, however, there are many unpaired
groups:
electrons with spins in the same direction, re-
sulting in a strong magnetic effect.
1. Ferromagnetic materials. These include In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms
iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and commercial are grouped in microscopically small arrange-
alloys such as alnico and Permalloy. They ments called domains. Each domain is an ele-
become strongly magnetized, in the same mentary dipole magnet, with two opposite
direction as the magnetizing field, with high poles. In crystal form, the iron atoms have do-
values of permeability from 50 to 5000. mains that are parallel to the axes of the crystal.
Permalloy has µr of 100,000 but is easily Still, the domains can point in different direc-
saturated at relatively low values of flux tions, because of the different axes. When the
density. material becomes magnetized by an external
2. Paramagnetic materials. These include magnetic field, though, the domains become
aluminum, platinum, manganese, and aligned in the same direction. With PM materi-
chromium. The permeability is slightly als, the alignment remains after the external
more than 1. They become weakly mag- field is removed.
netized in the same direction as the mag-
netizing field. Practice Problems 13-6
3. Diamagnetic materials. These include bis- (answers on page 279)
muth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, Answer true or false.
gold, and silver. The permeability is less (a) An electromagnet needs current to main-
than 1. They become weakly magnetized tain its magnetic field.
 Chapter 13
Magnetism 275

(b) A relay coil is an electromagnet. choke, instead of a coil. The purpose of the
(c) Steel is a diamagnetic material. choke is to reduce the current just for an
undesired radio frequency.
13-7
Practice Problems 13-7
FERRITES
(answers on page 279)
This is the name for recently developed non-
(a) Which has more R, the ferrites or soft iron?
metallic materials that have the ferromagnetic
(b) Which has more J2R losses, an insulator or
properties of iron. The ferrites have very high
a conductor?
permeability, like iron. However, a ferrite is a
ceramic material, while iron is a conductor. The 13-8
permeability of ferrites is in the range of 50 to MAGNETIC SHIELDING
3000. The specific resistance is 105 Q • cm,
The idea of preventing one component from
which makes the ferrite an insulator.
affecting another through their common electric
A common application is a ferrite core,
or magnetic field is called shielding. Examples
usually adjustable, in the coils for rf transform-
are the metal cover on a vacuum tube, the
ers. The ferrite core is much more efficient than braided copper-wire shield enclosing the inner
iron when the current alternates at a high fre-
conductor of a coaxial cable, or a shield of
quency. The reason is that less J2 R power is lost
magnetic material enclosing a cathode-ray tube.
by eddy currents in the core because of its very The [Link] in shielding is to prevent one
high resistance.
component from inducing an effect in the
A ferrite core is used in small coils and
shielded component. The shielding materials
transformers for signal frequencies up to
are always metals, but there is a difference in
20 MHz, approximately. The high permeability
using good conductors with low resistance like
means the transformer can be very small. How-
copper and aluminum or using good magnetic
ever, the ferrites are easily saturated at low
materials like soft iron or Mumetal. A good
values of magnetizing current. This disadvan-
conductor is best for two shielding functions.
tage means the ferrites are not used for power
One is to prevent induction of static electric
transformers.
charges. The other is to shield against the in-
Another application is in ferrite beads (Fig.
duction of a varying magnetic field. For static
13-13). A bare wire is used as a string for one or
charges, the shield provides opposite induced
more beads. The bead concentrates the mag-
charges, which prevent induction inside the
netic field of the current in the wire. This con-
shield. For a varying magnetic field, the shield
struction serves as a simple, economical rf has induced currents that oppose the inducing
field. Then there is little net field strength to
Ferrite produce induction inside the shield.
bead
The best shield for a steady magnetic field
is a good magnetic material of high permeabil-
ity. A steady field is produced by a permanent
----1 i n - - - - magnet, a coil with steady direct current, or the
FIGURE 13-13 earth's magnetic field. With a magnetic shield of
Ferrite bead equivalent to coil with 20 µH of high permeability, it concentrates the magnetic
inductance at 10 MHz. flux. Then there is little flux to induce poles in a
 Chapter 13
276 Magnetism

component inside the shield. The shield can be

considered as a short circuit for the lines of
magnetic flux.

Practice Problems 13-8

(answers on page 279)
Answer true or false.
(a) Magnetic material with high permeability is
a good shield for a steady magnetic field. FIGURE 13-15
(b) A conductor is a good shield against a Gaussmeter to measure flux density, with probe
varying magnetic field. containing indium-arsenide element. (RFL In-
dustries Inc.)
13-9
THE HALL EFFECT The amount of Hall voltage vH is directly
In 1879, E. H. Hall observed that a small volt- proportional to the value of flux density B. This
age is generated across a conductor carrying means that values of B can be measured by
current in an external magnetic field. The Hall means of vH. As an example, the gaussmeter in
voltage was very small with typical conductors, Fig. 13-14 uses an InAs probe in the magnetic
and little use was made of this effect. However, field to generate a proportional Hall voltage vH.
with the development of semiconductors, larger This value of vH is then read by the meter, which
values of Hall voltage can be generated. The is calibrated in gauss. The original calibration is
semiconductor material indium arsenide (InAs) made in terms of a reference magnet having a
is generally used. As illustrated in Fig. 13-13, specified flux density.
the InAs element inserted in the magnetic field
can generate 60 mV with B equal to 10 kG and Practice Problems 13-9
an I of 100 mA. The applied flux must be per- (answers on page 279)
pendicular to the direction of current. With (a) In Fig. 13-14, how much is the generated
current in the direction of the length of conduc- Hall voltage?
tor, the generated voltage is developed across (b) Does the gaussmeter in Fig. 13-15 meas-
the width. ure flux or flux density?

Magnetic
flux 1 .....--------
B = 10 kG t
Hall voltage
VH = 60 mV

FIGURE 13-14
The Hall effect. The voltage vH generated
across the element is proportional to the per-
pendicular flux density B.
 Cha ter 13
Magnetism 277

Summary
1. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are common examples of magnetic materials.
Air, paper, wood, and plastics are nonmagnetic, meaning there is no
effect with a magnetic field.
2. The pole of a magnet that seeks the magnetic north pole of the earth
is called a north pole; the opposite pole is a south pole.
3. Opposite magnetic poles have a force of attraction; similar poles
repel.
4. An electromagnetic needs current from an external source to provide
a magnetic field. Permanent magnets retain their magnetism indef-
initely.
5. Any magnet has an invisible field of force outside the magnet,
indicated by magnetic field lines. Their direction is from the north to
south pole outside the magnet.
6. The open ends of a magnet where it meets a nonmagnetic material
provide magnetic poles. At opposite open ends, the poles have
opposite polarity.
7. A magnet with an air gap has opposite poles with magnetic lines of
force across the gap. A closed magnetic ring has no poles. Practically
all the magnetic lines are in the ring.
8. Magnetic induction enables the field of a magnet to induce magnetic
poles in a magnetic material without touching.
9. Permeability is the ability to concentrate magnetic flux. A good
magnetic material has high permeability, similar to the idea of high
conductance for a good conductor of electricity.
10. Magnetic shielding means isolating a component from a magnetic
field. The best shield against a steady magnetic field is a material with
high permeability.
11. The Hall voltage is a small emf generated across the width of a
conductor carrying current through its length, when magnetic flux is
applied perpendicular to the current. This effect is generally used in
the gaussmeter to measure flux density.
12. Table 13-1 summarizes the units of magnetic flux cp and flux
density B.

TABLE 13-1. Magnetic Aux cf> and Aux Density B

NAME SYMBOL CGS UNITS MKS or SI UNITS
Flux, or total lines cf>= BX area 1 maxwell (Mx) =1 line 1 weber (Wb) = 108 Mx
1 M:
Flux density, or lines per B = _±____
area
1 gauss (G) = cm
1 tesla (T) = -1mWb
2-
unit area
 Chapter 13
278 Magnetism

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. Iron and steel are ferromagnetic materials with high permeability.

2. Ferrites are magnetic but have high resistance.
3. Air, vacuum, wood, paper, and plastics have practically no effect on
magnetic flux.
4. Aluminum is ferromagnetic.
5. Magnetic poles exist on opposite sides of an air gap.
6. A closed magnetic ring has no poles and no air gap.
7. A magnet can pick up a steel nail by magnetic induction.
8. Induced poles are always opposite from ~he original field poles.
9. Soft iron concentrates magnetic flux by means of induction.
10. Without current, an electromagnet has practically no magnetic field.
11. The total flux cp of 5000 lines equals 5 Mx.
12. A flux cp of 5000 Mx through a cross-sectional area of 5 cm 2 has a
flux density B of 1000 G or 1 kG.
13. The flux density B of 1000 G equals 1000 lines per cm 2.
14. A magnetic pole is a terminal where a magnetic material meets a
nonmagnetic material.
15. High permeability for magnetic flux corresponds to high resistance
for a conductor of current.

Essay Questions
1. Name two magnetic materials and three nonmagnetic materials.
2. Explain briefly the difference between a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet.
3. Draw a horseshoe magnet, with its magnetic field. Label the magnetic
poles, indicate the air gap, and show the direction of flux.
4. Define the following: relative permeability, shielding, induction, Hall
voltage. ·
5. Give the symbol, cgs unit, mks unit, and SI unit for magnetic flux and
for flux density.
6. How would you determine the north and south poles of a bar
magnet, using a magnetic compass?
7. Referring to Fig. 13-11, why can either end of the magnet pick up the
nail?
8. What is the difference between flux cp and flux density B?
 Chapter 13
Magnetism 279

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A magnetic pole produces 5000 field lines. How much is the flux <Pin
maxwells and webers?
2. If the area of this pole in Prob. 1 is 5 cm 2 , calculate the flux density B
in gauss units.
3. Calculate B in tesla units for a 50-µWb flux through an area of
5 X lQ-4 m2.
4. Convert 1000 G to tesla units.
5. For a flux density B of 3 kG at a pole with a cross-sectional area of
8 cm 2 , how much is the total flux <P in maxwell units?
6. Convert 24,000 Mx to weber units.
7. The flux density is 0.002 Tin the air core of an electromagnet. When
an iron core is inserted, the flux density in the core is 0.6 T. How
much is the relative permeability flr of the iron core?
8. Draw the diagram of an electromagnet operated from a 12-Vbattery,
in series with a switch. (a) If the coil resistance is 60 Q, how much is
the current in the coil with the switch closed? (b) Why is the magnetic
field reduced to zero when the switch is opened?
9. Derive the conversion of 1 µWb = 100 Mx from the fact that
1 µWb = 10- 6 Wb and 1 Wb = 10 8 Mx.
10. Derive the relation 1 T = 10 4 G. (Note: 1 m 2 = 10,000 cm 2 .)

Answers to Practice Problems

13-1 (a) T 13-6 (a) T
(b) T (b) T
13-2 (a) 2000 Mx (c) F
(b) 20 µWb 13-7 (a) Ferrites
13-3 (a) 3000 G (b) Conductor
(b) 0.3 T 13-8 (a) T
13-4 (a) T (b) T
(b) F 13-9 (a) 60 mV
13-5 (a) T (b) Flux density
(b) T
 Magnetic
units
A magnetic field is always associated with charges in motion. Therefore,
the magnetic units can be derived from the current that produces the field.
The current in a conductor and its magnetic flux through the medium
outside the conductor are related as follows: (1) The current I supplies a
magnetizing force, or magnetomotive force (mmf) that increases with the
amount of I. (2) The mmf results in a magnetic field intensity H that
decreases with the length of conductor, as the field is less concentrated
with more length. (3) The field intensity H produces a flux density B that
increases with the permeability of the medium.
More details of magnetk units based on the ampere of current are
explained in the following topics:

14-1 Ampere-turns {NJ)

14-2 Field Intensity (H)
14-3 Permeability (µ)
14-4 B-H Magnetization Curve
14-5 Magnetic Hysteresis
14-6 Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits
14-7 Relations between Magnetic Units
14-8 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Fields

14-1 magnetizing force, magnetic potential, or

AMPERE-TURNS (NI) magnetomotive force (mmf).
With a coil magnet, the strength of the magnetic As shown in Fig. 14-1, a solenoid with 5
field depends on how much current flows in the turns and 2 amperes has the sarne magnetizing
turns of the coil. The more current, the stronger for<::e as 10 turns with 1 ampere, as the product
is the magnetic field. Also, more turns in a of th~ amperes and turns is 10 for both cases.
specific length concentrate the field. The coil With thinner wire, more turns can be used in a
serves as a bar magnet, with opposite poles at given space. The amount of current is deter-
the ends, providing a magnetic field propor- mined by the resistance of the wire and the
tional to th~ ampere-turns. As a formula, source voltage. How many ampere-turns are
necessary depends on the required magnetic
Ampere-turns = NI (14·1) field strength.

where N is the number of turns, multiplied by Example 1. Calculate the ampere-turns for a coil
the current I in amperes. The quantity NI is the with 2000 turns and a 5-mA current.
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 281

The practical unit for NI is the ampere-

,... +
1/= 2A
,---+
I/= 1 A turn. The standard abbreviation for ampere-
I I
turn is A, the same as for the ampere, since the
v N=5 v N= 10 number of turns in a coil usually is constant but
the current can be varied.
The ampere-tum is an SI unit. The cgs unit
of mmf is the gilbert, 1 abbreviated Gb. One
ampere-tum equals 1.26 Gb. The number 1.26
NI= 5 X 2 = 10 N/=10X1=10
ampere - turns ampere - turns is approximately 47T/10, derived from the sur-
face area of a sphere, which is 47Tr2 .
(a) (b)
To convert NI to gilberts, multiply the am-
FIGURE 14-1
pere-turns by the constant conversion factor
Equal ampere-turns. {a) NI = 5 X 2 = 10. (b) 1.26 Gb/l A. As an example, 1000 A is the
NI = 10 X 1 = 10. same mmf as 1260 Gb. The calculations are

Answer. NI = 2000 x 5 x 10- 3 1000 Ax 1.26 lG~ = 1260 Gb

NI = 10 ampere-turns
Example 2. A coil with 4 amperes is to provide the
Note that the units of A for ampere-turns cancel
magnetizing force of 600 ampere-turns. How many
in the conversion.
turns are necessary?

N _NI_ 600 Practice Problems 14-1

Answer. - I - 4 (answers on page 293)
N = 150 turns (a) NJ is 243 ampere-turns. I is doubled from
2 to 4 A with the same turns. How much is
Example 3. A coil with 400 turns must provide 800 NI?
ampere-turns of magnetizing force. How much cur- (b) Convert 500 ampere-turns to gilberts.
rent is necessary?
14-2
Answer. I_ NI_ 800
- N - 400 FIELD INTENSITY (H)
The ampere-turns of mmf specify the magne-
I= 2 amperes
tizing force, but the intensity of the magnetic
Example 4. The wire in a solenoid of 250 turns has field depends on how long the coil is. At any
a resistance of 3 Q (a) How much is the current with point in space, a specific value of ampere-turns
the coil connected to a 6-Vbattery? (b) Calculate the for a long coil must produce less field intensity
ampere-turns. than a short coil that concentrates the same NJ.
Specifically, the field intensity Hin mks units is:
Answer.

(a) H = NI ampere-turns (14-2)

1 meters
I= 2 amperes
(b) NI = 250 x 2 1 William Gilbert (1540-1603) was an English scien-
NI = 500 ampere-turns tist who investigated the magnetism of the earth.
 Chapter 14
282 Magnetic Units

This formula is for a [Link] the intensity

at the center of an air core. With an iron core, H (a)
is the intensity through the entire core. By
means of units for H, the magnetic field inten-
sity can be specified for either electromagnets -1m-
or permanent magnets, since both provide the
same kind of magnetic field.
The length in formula (14-2) is between NI= 1000
(b)
poles. In Fig. 14-2a, the length is 1 m between
the poles at the ends of the coil. In (b), also, I is
1 m between the ends of the iron core. In (c),
though, I is 2 m between the poles at the ends of -1m-
Iron
the iron core, although the winding is only 1 m core
long.
The examples in Fig. 14-2 illustrate the (c)
following comparisons:

1. In all three cases, the mmf equal to NI is

1000 ampere-turns or 1000 A FIGURE 14-2
2. In both (a) and (b), H equals 1000 Alm. In
Relation between mmf and field intensity:
(a), this His the intensity at the center of H = mmf/length. (a) His 1000 Alm in air. (b)
the air core; in (b) this His the intensity H is 1000 Alm in the iron core. ( c) H is
through the entire iron core. 100012 = 500 Alm in the longer iron core.
3. In (c), because I is 2 m, His 100012, or
500 Alm. This H is the intensity in the
entire iron core. Note that the units of A and m cancel. The m in
the conversion factor becomes inverted to the
Units for H are basically mmf per unit of numerator.
length. In practical units, His ampere-turns per
meter. The cgs unit for His the oersted, 1 abbre- Practice Problems 14-2
viated Oe, which equals one gilbert of mmf per (answers on page 293)
centimeter. (a) His 250 ampere-turns. The length is dou-
To convert SI units of Alm to cgs units of bled from 0 .2 to 0 .4 m for the same NI.
Oe, multiply by the conversion factor How much is H?
0.0126 Oe per 1 Alm. As an example, (b) Convert 500 Alm to oersted units.
1000 Alm is the same Has 12.6 Oe. The cal-
culations are 14-3
PERMEABILITY (µ)
1000 AX 0.0126 Oe 12 6 0 Whether we say H is 1000 Alm or 12.6 Oe,
m 1 Alm = · e these units specify how much field intensity is
available to produce magnetic flux. However,
1 H. C. Oersted (1777-1851 ), a Danish physicist, the amount of flux actually produced by H de-
discovered electromagnetism. pends on the material in the field. A good mag-
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 283

netic material with high relative permeability T

µ = 126x10- 6 - -
can concentrate flux and produce a large value Alm
of flux density B, for a specified H. These fac-
tors are related by the formula: Example 5. A magnetic material has a µr of 500.
Calculate the absoluteµ as Bl H (a) in cgs units, and
B =µ xH (14-3) (b) in SI units.

or Answer

(a) µ = µr X µ0 in cgs units. Then

µ=-
B (14-4)
H G
µ = 500 x 1 Oe
Using SI units, B is the flux density in webers G
per square meter, or teslas; His the field inten- µ = 500 Oe
sity in ampere-turns per meter. In the cgs sys-
tem the units are gauss for B and oersted for H. ( b) µ = µr X µ0 in SI units. Then
The factor µ is the absolute permeability, not
referred to any other material, in units of Bl H. µ = 500 x 1.26 x 10-6 A;m
In the cgs system the units of gauss for B
and oersteds for H have been deft ned to give µ
µ = 630 x 10-6 A;m
the value of 1 GIOe, for vacuum, air, or space.
This simplification means that B and H have the
same numerical values in air or vacuum. For Example 6. For this example ofµ = 630 X 10- 6 in
SI units, calculate the flux density B that will be
instance, the field intensity Hof 12.6 Oe pro-
produced by the field intensity H equal to 1000 Alm.
duces the flux density of 12.6 G, in air.
Furthermore, the values of relative perme-
ability µr are the same as absolute permeability Answer. B = µH = ( 630 X 10-6 A;m )(1000 ~)
in Bl H units in the cgs system. The reason is
= 630 x 10- 3 T
that µ is 1 for air or vacuum, used as the refer- B = 0.63 T
ence for comparison. As an example, if µr for an
iron sample is 600, the absolute µ is also Note that the ampere-turns and meter units cancel,
600 GIOe. leaving only the tesla unit for the flux density B.
In SI, however, the permeability of air or
vacuum is not 1. Specifically, this value is Practice Problems 14-3
4'7T X 10- 7 , or 1.26 X 10-6 , with the symbol µ 0 . (answers on page 293)
Therefore, values of relative permeability µr (a) What is the value of µr for air, vacuum, or
must be multiplied by 1.26 X 10-6 for µ 0 to space?
calculateµ as Bl Hin SI units. For µr = 100, the (b) An iron core has 200 times more flux den-
SI value of µ is: sity than air for the same field intensity H.
How much is µr?
µ = µr X µo (c) An iron core produces 200 G of flux den-

= 100 x 1.26 x 10- 6 AT sity for 1 Oe of field intensity H. How

Im much isµ?
 Chapter 14
284 Magnetic Units

14-4 0.5
B-H MAGNETIZATION CURVE Saturation

The B-H curve in Fig. 14-3 is often used to

0.4
show how much flux density B results from
increasing the amount of field intensity H. This
'curve is for soft iron, plotted for the values in 0.3
Table 14-1, but similar curves can be obtained "'
~
.el

LJ
for all magnetic materials. ~-
N=100
0.2 R = 10 .Q
Calculating H and B. The values in Table I= 0.2 m
14-1 are calculated as follows:
0.1

1. The current I in the coil equals VI R. For a

10-Q coil resistance with 20 V applied, I is
2 A as listed in the top row of Table 14-1. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Increasing values of V produce more cur- H, ampere-turns/meter
rent in the coil. FIGURE 14-3
2. The ampere-turns NI of magnetizing force B-H magnetization curve for soft iron. No val-
increase with more current. Since the turns ues shown near zero, where µ may vary with
are constant at 100, the values of NI in- previous magnetization.
crease from 200 for 2 A in the top row to
1000 for 10 A in the bottom row. intensity H and permeability of the iron.
3. The field intensity H increases with higher The values of B in the last column are
NI. The values of Hare in mks units of obtained by multiplyingµ X H. However,
ampere-turns per meter. These values with SI units the values of µr listed must be
equal NI/0.2, as the length is 0.2 m. multiplied by 1.26 X 10-6 to obtain µ X H
Therefore, each NI is just divided by 0.2, in teslas.
or multiplied by 5, for the corresponding
values of H. Since H increases in the same Saturation. Note that the permeability de-
proportion as I, sometimes the horizontal creases for the highest values of H. With less µ,
axis on a B-H curve is calibrated only in the iron core cannot provide proportional in-
amperes, instead of in H units. creases in B for increasing values of H. In the
4. The flux density B depends on the field graph, for values of H above 4000 Alm, ap-

TABLE 14-1. B-H Values for Fig. 14-3

\!, R, I= V!R, N, I, H, B=µ. x H,
VOLTS OHMS AMPERES NI TURNS m Nl!m 11-r T

20 10 2 200 100 0.2 1000 100 0.126

40 10 4 400 100 0.2 2000 100 0.252
60 10 6 600 100 0.2 3000 100 0.378
80 10 8 800 100 0.2 4000 85 0.428
100 10 10 1000 100 0.2 5000 70 0.441
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 285

proximately, the values of B increase at a much second, as with rapidly reversing alternating
slower rate, making the curve relatively flat at current, the hysteresis can cause a considerable
the top. The effect of little change in flux density loss of energy. A large part of the magnetizing
when the field intensity increases is called satu- force is then used just for overcoming the inter-
ration. nal friction of the molecular dipoles. The work
The reason is that the iron becomes satu - done by the magnetizing force against this in-
rated with magnetic lines of induction. After ternal friction produces heat. This energy
most of the molecular dipoles and the magnetic wasted in heat as the molecular dipoles lag the
domains are aligned by the magnetizing force, magnetizing force is called hysteresis loss. For
very little additional induction can be produced. steel and other hard magnetic materials, the
When the value of µ is specified for a magnetic hysteresis losses are much higher than in soft
material, it is usually the highest value before magnetic materials like iron.
saturation. When the magnetizing force varies at a
slow rate, the hysteresis losses can be consid-
Practice Problems 14-4 ered negligible. An example is an electromagnet
(answers on page 293) with direct current that is simply turned on and
Refer to Fig. 14-3. off, or the magnetizing force of an alternating
(a) How much is B, in tesla units, for 1500 current that reverses sixty times per second or
ampere-turns per meter? less. The faster the magnetizing force changes,
(b) What value of H starts to produce satura- however, the greater is the hysteresis effect.
tion?
Hysteresis Loop To show the hysteresis char-
14-5 acteristics of a magnetic material, its values of
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS flux density B are plotted for a periodically
Hysteresis means "a lagging behind." With re- reversing magnetizing force. See Fig. 14-4. This
spect to the magnetic flux in an iron core of an curve is the hysteresis loop of the material. The
electromagnet, the flux lags the increases or larger the area enclosed by the curve, the
decreases of magnetizing force. The hysteresis greater the hysteresis loss. The hysteresis loop
results from the fact that the magnetic dipoles is actually a B-H curve with an ac magnetizing
are not perfectly elastic. Once aligned by an force.
external magnetizing force, the dipoles do not On the vertical axis, values of flux density B
return exactly to their original positions when are indicated. The units can be gauss, or teslas.
the force is removed. The effect is the same as if The horizontal axis indicates values of field
the dipoles were forced to move against an intensity H. On this axis the units can be oer-
internal friction between molecules. Further- steds, ampere-turns per meter, ampere-turns,
more, if the magnetizing force is reversed in or just magnetizing current, as all factors are
direction by reversal of the current in an elec- constant except I.
tromagnet, the flux produced in the opposite Opposite directions of current result in the
direction lags behind the reversed magnetizing opposite directions of +Hand - H for the field
force. lines. Similarly, opposite polarities are indicated
for flux density as + B or - B.
Hysteresis Loss. When the magnetizing force The current starts from zero at the center,
reverses thousands or millions of times per when the material is unmagnetized. Then posi-
 Chapter 14
286 Magnetic Units

+ B, teslas

-H + H ampere-turns
' meter

-B
FIGURE 14-4
Hysteresis loop for magnetic materials. This is
a B-H curve like in Fig. 14-3, but H alternates
in polarity with alternating current.

tive H values increase ,B to saturation at + Bmax· retentivity. In Fig. 14-4, the residual induction is
Next H decreases to zero, but B drops to the 0.6 T, in either the positive or negative direc-
value of BR, instead of zero, because of hystere- tion.
sis. When H becomes negative, B drops to zero The value of - He, which equals the mag-
and continues to - Bmax• which is saturation in netizing force that must be applied in the re-
the opposite direction from + Bmax because of verse direction to reduce the flux density to
the reversed magnetizing current. zero, is the coercive force of the material. In Fig.
Then as the -H values decrease, the flux 14-4, the coercive force -He is 300 Alm.
density is reduced to - BR. Finally, the loop is
completed with positive values of H producing Demagnetization. In order to demagnetize a
saturation at Bmax again. The curve does not magnetic material completely, the residual in-
return to the zero origin at the center because of duction BR must be reduced to zero. This usu-
hysteresis. As the magnetizing force periodically ally cannot be accomplished by a reversed de
reverses, the values of flux density are repeated magnetizing force, because the material then
to trace out the hysteresis loop. would just become magnetized with opposite
The value of either +BR or - BR, which is polarity. The practical way is to magnetize and
the flux density remaining after the magnetizing demagnetize the material with a continuously
force has been reduced to zero, is the residual decreasing hysteresis loop. This can be done
induction of a magnetic material, also called its with a magnetic field produced by alternating
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 287

current. Then as the magnetic field and the produced by ampere-turns NI of magnetomo-
material are moved away from each other, or tive force. Therefore, the mmf corresponds to
the current amplitude is reduced, the hysteresis voltage.
loop becomes smaller and smaller. Finally, with Opposition to the production of flux in a
the weakest field, the loop collapses practically material is called its reluctance, comparable
to zero, resulting in zero residual induction. with resistance. The symbol for reluctance is CR.
This method of demagnetization is also Reluctance is inversely proportional to permea-
called degaussing. One application is degauss- bility. Iron has high permeability and low reluc-
ing the metal electrodes in a color picture tube, tance. Air or vacuum has low permeability and
with a degaussing coil providing alternating high reluctance.
current from the power line. Another example In Fig. 14-5, the ampere-turns of the coil
is erasing the recorded signal on magnetic tape produce magnetic flux throughout the magnetic
by demagnetizing with an ac bias current. path. The reluctance is the total opposition to
the flux<f>. In (a), there is little reluctance in the
Practice Problems 14-5 closed iron path, and few ampere-turns are
(answers on page 293) necessary. In (b), however, the air gap has high
Answer true or false. reluctance, which requires many more am-
(a) Hysteresis loss increases with higher fre- pere-turns for the same flux as in (a).
quencies. The three factors-flux, ampere-turns, and
(b) Degaussing is done with alternating cur- reluctance-are related as follows:
rent.
<!> = mmf (14-5)
14-6 CR
OHM'S LAW FOR MAGNETIC
CIRCUITS which is known as Ohm's law for magnetic
In comparison with electric circuits, the mag- circuits, corresponding to I = VI R. The mmf is
netic flux <f> corresponds to current. The flux <f> is considered to produce flux <f> in a magnetic

Ampere-turns Ampere-turns
of mmf of mmf

MMF
<t>=-
!R

Flux <P

(a) (b)
FIGURE 14-5
Two examples of a magnetic circuit. (a) Closed
iron path having low reluctance requiring little
mmf. (b) Higher-reluctance path with air gap
requiring more mmf.
 Chapter 14
288 Magnetic Units

material against the opposition of its reluctance 14-7

·CR. This relationship corresponds to emf or RELATIONS BETWEEN MAGNETIC
voltage producing current in a conducting ma- UNITS
terial against the opposition of its resistance. The following examples show how the values of
Remember that the units for the flux <:f> are NI, H, <j>, B, and CR depend on each other.
maxwells and webers. These units measure total These calculations are in SI units, which are
lines, as distinguished from flux density B, generally used for magnetic circuits.
which equals lines per unit area. Example 9. For a coil having 50 turns and 2 am-
There are no specific units for reluctance, peres, how much is the mmf?
but it can be considered as an mmf I <:f> ratio, just
as resistance is a VI I ratio. Then CR is ampere- Answer. mmf = NI = 50 X 2
turns per weber in SI units, or gilberts per max- mmf = 100 A
well in the cgs system.
The units for mmf are either gilberts in the The value of 100 ampere-turns for NJ is the mmf
cgs system or ampere-turns in SI. Note that the producing the magnetic field, with either an air core
symbol A is used for ampere-turns in the fol- or an iron core.
lowing examples.
Example 10. If this coil is on an iron core with a
length of 0.2 m, how much is the field intensity H
Example 7. A coil has an mmf of 600 A and reluc- throughout the iron?
tance of 2 X 10 6 AIWb. Calculate the total flux <Pin
H _ mmf _ 100 A
microwebers.
Answer.
- I - 0.2 m

mmf 600 A H = 500 Alm

Answer.
<P = CR = 2 X 10 6 AIWb
This is an example of calculating the field intensity of
<P = 300 x 10- 6 Wb = 300 µ.Wb
the external magnetic field from the mmf of the
current in the coil.
Example 8. A magnetic material has a total flux <P of
80 µ.Wb with an mmf of 160 A Calculate the reluc- Example 11. If this iron core with an Hof 500 Alm
tance in ampere-turns per weber. has a relative permeability 11-r of 200, calculate the
flux density B in teslas.
mmf 160 A
Answer. <R = -<P- = 80 x 10- 6 Wb Answer. B = µ.H = 11-r X 1.26 X I0- 6 X H
= 200 x 1.26 x 10-6 _I_ x 5oo A
<R = 2 x 10 6 ~ Alm m
B = 0.126 T

Example 12. For this iron core with a flux density B

Practice Problems 14-6 of 0.126 T, if its cross-sectional area is 2 X 10- 4 m 2,
(answers on page 293) calculate the amount of flux <P in the core.
Answer true or false.
(a) Air has higher reluctance than soft iron. Answer. Use the relations between flux and den-
(b) More reluctance means more flux for a sity: <P = B X Area. Since B = 0.126 T, or
specified mmf. 0.126 Wblm 2 , then
 Cha ter 14
Magnetic Units 289

cp =BX Area sponds to the higher voltage needed to produce

the same current in a higher resistance.
= 0.126 ~
m
X 2 X 10-4 m2

= 0.252 x 10-4 Wb = 25.2 x 10- 6 Wb Practice Problems 14-7

<P = 25.2 µWb (answers on page 293)
Answer true or false.
Example 13. With the mmf 100 A for the coil in Fig. (a} More I in a coil produces more mmf for a
14-Sa and a value for cp of approximately 25 X 10- 6 specified number of turns.
Wb in the iron core, calculate its reluctance ffi. (b} More length for the coil produces more
field intensity H for a specified mmf.
Answer. Using Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, ( c} Higher permeability in the core produces
more flux density B for a specified H.
ffi = mmf = 100 A
<P 25 x 10-6 Wb
14-8
ffi = 4 x 10 6 A!Wb COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC AND
Example 14. If the reluctance of the path with an air ELECTRIC FIELDS
gap in Fig. 14-5b were 400 X 10 6 A/Wb, how much As shown in Fig. 14-6a, there is an external field
mmf would be required for the same flux of 25 µWb? of lines of force between two electric charges,
similar to the magnetic field between the mag-
Answer. mmf = cp X ffi netic poles in (b}. We cannot see the force of
attraction and repulsion, just as the force of
= 25 x 10- 6 Wb x 400 x 106 ~ gravity is invisible, but the force is evident in the
mmf = 10,000 A work it can do. For both fields, the force tends
to make opposite polarities attract and similar
Notice that the 10,000 ampere-turns of polarities repel.
mmf here is 100 times more than the 100 am- The electric lines show the path an elec-
pere-turns in Example 13, because of the higher tron would follow in the field; the magnetic lines
reluctance with an air gap. This idea corre- show how a north pole would move. The entire

~<---Volts of e m f - - - )

• I -----•----........... ' t
'- ' I I ,,,.,,,.. - - - - - - - - - - ...... ' , \ I 1 I'
~ . . .'Q\
I I/~~-=-------_.:_-_-_-_-_~~'\
I/~,.."'*

.
..,._ - ::. _____ .,._____ + ---
"""" ::::------·----- ..........
.¥,1/1 I ,~-------_::-_::-;,,,. , \ - ...
~--- . . - - - _ _ ,,,.. j ti-
; .I.
'
Flux density
\,
---·---
Intensity E
,,.
I

Flux 1/; Flux density Intensity H Flux </J

(a) (b)
FIGURE 14-6
Comparison of electric and magnetic fields.
(a) Attraction between opposite static charges.
(b) Attraction between opposite magnetic poles.
 Chapter 14
290 Magnetic Units

group of electric lines of force of the static creases as the square of the distance between
charges is called electrostatic flux. Its symbol is charges. Typical values of q are in micro-
the Greek letter lf; (psi), corresponding to cp for coulombs, since the coulomb is a very large unit
magnetic flux. of charge.
In general, magnetic flux is associated with
moving charges, or current, while electrostatic
International System of Units. In order to
flux is associated with the voltage between static
provide a closer relation between practical units
charges. For electric circuits, the application of
for both electricity and magnetism, these mks
magnetic flux is often a coil of wire, which is the
units were standardized in 1960 by international
construction of an inductor. With current, the
agreement. The abbreviation is SI, for systeme
wire has a magnetic field. As a coil, the wire's
international. Table 14-2 lists the magnetic SI
magnetic flux is concentrated in the coil. Fur-
units. The corresponding electrical SI units in-
thermore, when the magnetic field varies, the
clude the coulomb, which is used for both elec-
change in magnetic flux produces an induced
tric flux and charge, the ampere for current, the
voltage, as explained in Chap. 15, Electromag-
volt for potential, and the ohm for resistance.
netic Induction, and Chap. 18, Inductance.
The henry unit for inductance and the farad unit
For the case of an electric field, the appli-
for capacitance are also SI units in the mks
cation is often an insulator between two con -
system.
ducting plates, which is the construction of a
In Table 14-2, note that the reciprocal of
capacitor. With voltage across the insulator, it
reluctance is permeance, corresponding to
has an electric field. As a capacitor, the insula-
conductance as the reciprocal of resistance.
tor's electric field is concentrated between the
The SI unit for conductance is the siemens (S),
plates. Furthermore, when the electric field var-
replacing the mho; both equal 1 /(1 Q). This unit
ies, the result is induced current through any
is named after Ernst van Siemens, a European
conducting path connected to the capacitor.
inventor.
More details are explained in Chap. 21, Capac-
As another comparison, the permeability µ
itance.
of a magnetic material with magnetic flux corre-
sponds to the electric permittivity {of an insula-
Coulomb's Law. The electric lines of force in
tor with electric flux. Just as permeability is the
Fig. 14-6a illustrate the force on an electron in
ability of a magnetic material to concentrate
the field. The amount of force between two
magnetic flux, permittivity is the ability of an
charges is given by Coulomb's law:
insulator to concentrate electric flux. The sym-
bol K( is used for relative permittivity, corre-
F =9 x 109 x q1 q2 {14-6) sponding to Km for relative permeability.
~

where q 1 and q2 are in coulomb units, F is in Practice Problems 14-8

newtons, and r is the distance in meters be- (answers on page 293)
tween the charges. The constant factor 9 x 109 Give the SI units for the following:
converts the values to SI units of newtons for (a) Voltage potential.
the force in air or vacuum. (b) Magnetic potential.
Coulomb's law states that the force in- (c) Electrical current.
creases with the amount of charge, but de- (d) Magnetic flux.
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 291

TABLE 14-2. International System of MKS Units (SI) for Magnetism

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT

Flux cf> Weber (Wb)

Flux density B Wblm 2 = tesla (T)
Potential Mmf Ampere-turn (A)
Field intensity H Ampere-turn per meter (Alm)
Reluctance CR Ampere-turn per weber (AIWb)
Permeance Weber per ampere-turn (Wbl A)

Relativeµ. None, pure number

B tesla (T)
Permeability µ = µr X 1.26 X I0-6
H = ampere-turn per meter (Alm)

Summary
Table 14-2 summarizes the magnetic units and their definitions.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false

1. A current of 4 amperes through 200 turns provides an mmf of

NI = 200 ampere-turns.
2. For the mmf of 200 NI with 100 turns, a current of 2 amperes is
necessary.
3. An mmf of 200 A across a flux path of 0.1 m provides the field
intensity Hof 2000 Alm.
4. A magnetic material with relative permeability µr of 100 has an
absolute permeabilityµ of 126 G/Oe in cgs units.
5. There are no units for relative permeability µr.
6. Hysteresis losses are greater in soft iron than in air.
7. Magnetic saturation means that flux density B does not increase in
proportion to increases in field intensity H.
8. The units for a B-H curve can be teslas plotted against ampere-turns.
9. In Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, reluctance ffi is the opposition to
flux cp.
10. Ampere-turns of mmf between magnetic poles do not depend on the
length of the coil.
 Chapter 14
292 Magnetic Units

Essay Questions
1. In Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, what magnetic quantities corre-
spond to V, I, and R?
2. Why can reluctance and permeability be considered opposite char-
acteristics?
3. Give the SI magnetic unit and symbol for each of the following:
(a) flux; (b) flux density; (c) field intensity; (d) absolute permeability.
4. What cgs units correspond to the following mks units? (a) weber;
(b) tesla; (c) ampere-turn; (d) ampere-turn per meter.
5. Define the following: (a) saturation; (b) relative permeability;
(c) relative permittivity.
6. Explain briefly how to demagnetize a metal object that has become
temporarily magnetized.
7. Draw a B-H curve withµ, N, L, and Vthe same as in Fig. 14-3, but
with a coil resistance of 5 Q.
8. Give the formula for Coulomb's law of the force between electrostatic
charges, with SI units.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A coil of 2000 turns with a 100-mA current has a length of 0.2 m.

(a) Calculate the mmf in ampere-turns. (b) Calculate the field inten-
sity H in ampere-turns per meter.
2. If the current is increased to 400 mA in the coil of Prob. 1, calculate
the increased values of mmf and H.
3. An iron core has a flux density B of 3600 G with an Hof 12 Oe.
Calculate (a) the permeabilityµ in cgs units; (b) the permeabilityµ in
SI units; (c) the relative permeability µr of the iron core.
4. A coil of 250 turns with a 400-mA current is 0.2 m long with an iron
coil ofthe same length. Calculate the following in mks units: (a) mmf;
(b) H; (c) B in the iron core with a µr of 200; (d) B with an air core
instead of the iron core.
5. Referring to the B-H curve in Fig. 14-3, calculate theµ in SI units for
the iron core at: (a) Hof 3000 Alm; (b) 5000 Alm.
6. Referring to the hysteresis loop in Fig. 14-4, give the values of (a)
residual induction BR, and (b) coercive force -H0 .
7. A battery is connected across a coil of 100 turns and a 20-Q R, with
an iron core 0.2 m long. (a) Draw the circuit diagram. (b) How much
battery voltage is needed for 200 ampere-turns? (c) Calculate Hin
 Chapter 14
Magnetic Units 293

the iron core in ampere-turns per meter. (d) Calculate Bin teslas in
the iron core if its µr is 300. (e) Calculate <Pin webers at each pole
with an area of 8 x 10-4 m 2 • ( /) How much is the reluctance ffi of the
iron core, in ampere-turns per weber?
8. In cgs units, how much is the flux density B in gauss, for a field
intensity Hof 24 Oe, withµ of 500?
9. Calculate the force, in newtons, between two4-µC charges separated
by 0.1 m in air or vacuum.

Answers to Practice Problems

14-1 (a) 486 14-5 (b) T
(b) 530 Gb 14-6 (a) Reluctance
14-2 (a) 125 (b) mmf
(b) 6.3 Oe 14-7 (a) T
14-3 (a) 1 (b) F
(b) 200 (c) T
(c) 200 G!Oe 14-8 (a) Volt
14-4 (a) 0.2 T (b) Ampere-turn
(b) 4000 Alm (c) Ampere
14-5 (a) T (d) Weber
 Blectro~
mapetlc
Induction
The link between electricity and magnetism was discovered in 1824 by
Oersted, who found that current in a wire could move a magnetic com-
pass needle. A few years later the opposite effect was discovered: A
Cha
magnetic field in motion forces electrons to move, producing current. This
important effect was studied by Faraday, Henry, and Lenz. 1 Electromag-
netism, therefore, includes the magnetic effects of electrical current.
Electrons in motion have an associated magnetic field; a moving
magnetic field forces electrons to move, producing current. These elec-
15
tromagnetic effects have many practical applications that are the basis for
motors and generators. Perhaps most important, the fundamental reac-
tion of an inductance to a change in current is an electromagnetic effect.
The details of electromagnetism are analyzed in the following topics:

15·1 Magnetic Field Around an Electrical Current

15-2 Magnetic Polarity of a Coil
15-3 Motor Action between Two Magnetic Fields
15-4 Induced Current
15-5 Lenz' Law
15-6 Generating an Induced Voltage
15-7 Faraday's Law of Induced Voltage

15-1 that the field is strongest at this point. Further-

MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND AN more, the field strength decreases inversely as
ELECTRICAL CURRENT the square of the distance from the conductor.
In Fig. 15-1, the iron filings aligned in concen- It is important to note the following two factors
tric rings around the conductor show the mag- about the magnetic lines of force:
netic field of the current in the wire. The iron
filings are dense next to the conductor, showfng 1. The magnetic lines are circular, as the field
is symmetrical with respect to the wire in
1
Michael Faraday (1791-1867), eminent British the center.
physicist and pioneer in electromagnetism; Joseph 2. The magnetic field with circular lines of
Henry (1797-1878), American physicist; H. F. E. force is in a plane perpendicular to the
Lenz (1804-1865}, Russian physicist. current in the wire.
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 295

e d moving electrons in the vacuum of a cathode-

ray tube has an associated magnetic field. In all
cases, the magnetic field has circular lines of
force in a plane perpendicular to the direction
of motion of the electric charge.
f
a
Clockwise and Counterclockwise Fields.
With circular lines of force, the magnetic field
would tend to move a magnetic pole in a cir-
b c
cular path. Therefore, the direction of the lines
FIGURE 15-1 must be considered as either clockwise or
counterclockwise. This idea is illustrated in
Iron filings in magnetic field around current in a
conductor.
Fig. 15-2, showing how a north pole would
move in the circular field.
From points c to d in the wire, its circular The directions are tested with a magnetic
magnetic field is in the horizontal plane because compass needle. When the compass is in front
the wire is vertical. Also, the vertical conductor of the wire, the north pole on the needle points
between points ef and ab has the associated up. On the opposite side, the compass points
magnetic field in the horizontal plane. Where down. If the compass were placed at the top, its
the conductor is horizontal, as from b to c and d needle would point toward the back of the wire;
to e, the magnetic field is in a vertical plane. below the wire, the compass would point for-
These two requirements of a circular mag- ward.
netic field in a perpendicular plane apply to any Combining all these directions, the result is
charge in motion. Whether electron flow or a the circular magnetic field shown, with counter-
motion of positive charges is considered, the clockwise lines of force. This direction has the
associated magnetic field must be at right angles magnetic lines upward at the front of the con-
to the direction of current. ductor and downward at the back.
In addition, the current need not be in a Instead of testing every conductor with a
wire conductor. As an example, the beam of magnetic compass, however, we can use the

Counterclockwise
field

FIGURE 15-2
Rule for determining direction of counter-
clockwise field around straight conductor. The
reverse direction of electron flow would pro-
vide clockwise field.
 Chapter 15
296 Electromagnetic Induction

following rule to determine the circular direc- one field is clockwise and the other counter-
tion of the magnetic field: If you look along the clockwise. Therefore, the fields aid here, mak-
wire in the direction of electron flow, the mag- ing a stronger total field. On either side of the
netic field is counterclockwise. In Fig. 15-2, the conductors, the two fields are opposite in direc-
line of electron flow is from left to right. Facing tion and tend to cancel each other. The net
this way, you can assume the circular magnetic result, then, is to strengthen the field in the
flux in a perpendicular plane has lines of force space between the conductors.
in the counterclockwise direction.
The opposite direction of current produces Practice Problems 15-1
a reversed field. Then the magnetic lines of (answers on page 309)
force have clockwise rotation. If the charges Answer true or false.
were moving from right to left in Fig. 15-2, the (a) Magnetic field lines around a conductor
associated magnetic field would be in the oppo- are circular in a perpendicular plane.
site direction, with clockwise lines of force. (b) In Fig. 15-3, the field is strongest between
the conductors.
Fields Aiding or Canceling. When the mag-
netic lines of two fields are in the same direc- 15-2
tion, the lines of force aid each other, making MAGNETIC POLARITY OF A COIL
the field stronger. With magnetic lines in oppo- Bending a straight conductor around in the
site directions, the fields cancel. form of a loop, as shown in Fig. 15-4, has two
In Fig. 15-3 the fields are shown for two effects. First, the magnetic field lines are more
conductors with opposite directions of current. dense inside the loop. The total number of lines
The dot in the middle of the field at the left is the same as for the straight conductor, but in
indicates the tip of an arrowhead to show cur- the loop the lines are concentrated in a smaller
rent up from the paper. The cross symbolizes space. Furthermore, all the lines are aiding in
the back of an arrow to indicate current into the
paper.
Notice that the magnetic lines between the
conductors are in the same direction, although

Clockwise Counterclockwise
field field

FIGURE 15-3
Magnetic fields aiding between parallel con- FIGURE 15-4
ductors with opposite directions of current. Magnetic poles of a current loop.
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 297

(a) (b)
FIGURE 15-5
Magnetic poles of a solenoid. (a) Coil winding.
(b) Equivalent bar magnet.

the same direction inside the loop. This makes whether it has an iron core or not. Adding an
the loop field effectively the same as a bar mag- iron core increases the flux density inside the
net with opposite poles at opposite faces of the coil. In addition, the field strength then is uni-
loop. form for the entire length of the core. The po-
[Link] is the same, however, for air-core or
Solenoid as a Bar Magnet. A coil of wire iron-core coils.
conductor with more than one turn is generally The magnetic polarity depends on the di-
called a solenoid. An ideal solenoid, however, rection of current flow and the direction of
has a length much greater than its diameter. winding. The current is determined by the con-
Like a single loop, the solenoid concentrates nections to the voltage source. Electron flow is .
the magnetic field inside the coil and provides from the negative side of the voltage source,
opposite magnetic poles at the ends. These through the coil, and back to the positive termi-
effects are multiplied, however, by the number nal.
of turns as the magnetic field lines aid each
other in the same direction inside the coil. Out-
side the coil, the field corresponds to a bar
magnet with north and south poles at opposite
N
ends, as illustrated in Fig. 15-5.

Magnetic Polarity. To determine the magnetic

polarity, use the left-hand rule illustrated in Fig.
15-6: If the coil is grasped with the fingers of the
left hand curled in the direction of electron flow
around the coil, the thumb points to the north ----11-+__
pole of the coil. The left hand is used here FIGURE 15-6
because the current is electron flow. Left-hand rule for north pole of a coil with
The solenoid acts like a bar magnet current I.
 Chapter 15
298 Electromagnetic Induction

N N N N

.+
/II
+I I

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 15-7
Four examples for determining the magnetic
polarity of a coil. In (b) the battery polarity is
opposite from (a) to reverse the direction of
current. In (d) the direction of winding is re-
versed from (c).

The direction of winding can be over and fields in the same direction. Therefore, the sim-
under, starting from one end of the coil, or ilar fields of the two like poles repel each other.
under and over with respect to the same starting A more fundamental reason for motor
point. Reversing either the direction of winding action, however, is the fact that the force in a
or the direction of current reverses the mag- magnetic field tends to produce motion from a
netic poles of the solenoid. See Fig. 15-7. With stronger field toward a weaker field. In Fig.
both reversed, though, the polarity is the same. 15-8, note that the field intensity is greatest in
the space between the two north poles. Here the
Practice Problems 15-2
(answers on page 309) Strong
(a) In Fig. 15-5, if the battery is reversed, will -., field /,,.,...-

the north pole be at the left or right? "\ I/

--, I\ ,,,.,.-
(b) If one end of a solenoid is a north pole, is
the opposite end a north or south pole?
\ j· I /
.... ~ I I f ,,.-
Weaker \ } / \ \ I Weaker
field // I \.\~ field
15-3 ~/ '~
MOTOR ACTION BETWEEN TWO ~Repulsion~
MAGNETIC FIELDS -:::::~, /;//
\ \ '\ // ;
The physical motion resulting from the forces of / \ \ ,11 \
magnetic fields is called motor action. One ex- _,,, t ~ --
/ I I \
ample is the simple attraction or repulsion be- _,./
I
;
j \
.l.
"'-
.......
tween bar magnets. -
I
I "'
\
-
We know that like poles repel and unlike // ",
_,,,. Strong '--
poles attract. It can also be considered that field
fields in the same direction repel and opposite FIGURE 15-8
fields attract. Repulsion between north poles of two bar mag-
Consider the repulsion between two north nets, showing motion from stronger field to
poles illustrated in Fig. 15-8. Similar poles have weaker field.
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 299

field lines of similar poles in both magnets rein- tI

force in the same direction. Farther away the H Force
field intensity is less, for essentially one magnet HM
~
1_..J.-,
(-..Jr..I ,,.
/ upward
---;::..c~~-
only. As a result there is a difference in field
strength, providing a net force that tends to
___ ( ._.
":::_~---

("""1""''
.)

-..J.~.)
produce motion. The direction of motion is ---(~-i=:::--

always toward the weaker field. ___":::_~~--

To remember the directions, we can con- c~I;J
I
I
sider that the stronger field moves to the weaker I
I
field, tending to equalize the field intensity. I
Otherwise, the motion would make the strong FIGURE 15-9
field stronger and the weak field weaker. This Motor action of current in a straight conductor
must be impossible, because then the magnetic in an external magnetic field. The net force of
field would multiply its own strength without any the resultant magnetic field here moves the
work being added. conductor upward to the weaker field.

Force on a Straight Conductor in a Magnetic In Fig. 15-9, electrons flow in the wire
Field. Current in a conductor has its associ- conductor in the plane of the paper, from the
ated magnetic field. When this conductor is bottom to top of the page. This flow provides
placed in another magnetic field from a sepa- ~he counterclockwise field H1 around the wire,
rate source, the two fields can react to produce in a perpendicular plane cutting through the
motor action. The conductor must be perpen- paper. The external field HM has lines of force
dicular to the magnetic field, however, as illus- from left to right in the plane of the paper. Then
trated in Fig. 15-9. This way, the perpendicular lines of force in the two fields are parallel above
magnetic field of the current then is in the same and below the wire.
plane as the external magnetic field. · Below the conductor, its field lines are left·
Unless the two fields are in the same plane, to right in the same direction as the external
they cannot affect each other. In the same field. Therefore, these lines reinforce to pro-
plane, however, lines of force in the same di- duce a stronger field. Above the conductor the
rection reinforce to make a stronger field, while lines of the two fields are in opposite directions,
lines in the opposite direction cancel and result causing a weaker field. As a result, the net force
in a weaker field. of the stronger field makes the conductor move
To summarize these directions: upward out of the page, toward the weaker
field.
1. With the conductor at 90°, or perpendicu- If electrons flow in the reverse direction in
lar to the external field, the reaction be- the conductor, or if the external field is re-
tween the two magnetic fields is maximum. versed, the motor action will be in the opposite
2. With the conductor at 0 °, or parallel to the direction. Reversing both the field and the cur-
external field, there is no effect between rent results in the same direction of motion.
them.
3. When the conductor is at an angle between Rotation of a Current Loop in a Magnetic
0 and 90 °, only the perpendicular compo- Field. With a loop of wire in the magnetic field,
nent is effective. opposite sides of the loop have current in op-
 Chapter 15
300 Electromagnetic Induction

posite directions. Then the associated magnetic

fields are opposite. The resulting forces are
upward on one side and downward on the
other side on the loop, making it rotate. This
effect of a force in producing rotation is called
torque.
The principle of motor action between
magnetic fields producing rotational torque is
the basis of all electric motors. Also, the mov-
ing-coil meter described in Sec. 7-1 is a similar
Microammeter
application. Since the torque is proportional to
current, the amount of rotation indicates how FIGURE 15-10
much current flows through the coil. Induced current produced by magnetic flux
cutting across a conductor.
Practice Problems 15-3
(answers on page 309) rent. The fact that current flows is indicated by
Answer true or false. the microammeter.
(a) In Fig. 15-8, the field is strongest between When the magnet is moved downward,
the two north poles. current flows in the direction shown. If the
(b) In Fig. 15-9, if both the magnetic field and magnet is moved upward, current will flow in
current are reversed, the motion will still be the opposite direction. Without motion, there is
upward. no current.

15-4 Direction of Motion. The motion is necessary

INDUCED CURRENT
in order to have the flux lines of the magnetic
Just as electrons in motion provide an associ-
field cut across the conductor. This cutting can
ated magnetic field, when magnetic flux moves,
be accomplished by motion of either the field or
the motion of magnetic lines cutting across a
the conductor. When the conductor is moved
conductor forces free electrons in the conduc-
upward or downward, it cuts across the flux.
tor to move, producing current. This action is
The generator action is the same as moving the
called induction because there is no physical
field, except that the relative motion is opposite.
connection between the magnet and the con-
Moving the conductor upward, for instance,
ductor. The induced current is a result of gen-
corresponds to moving the magnet downward.
erator action as the mechanical work put into
moving the magnetic field is converted into
electrical energy when current flows in the con- Conductor Perpendicular to External Aux.
ductor. In order to have electromagnetic induction, the
Referring to Fig. 15-10, let the conductor conductor and the magnetic lines of flux must
AB be placed at right angles to the flux in the air be perpendicular to each other. Then the mo-
gap of the horseshoe magnet. Then, when the tion makes the flux cut through the cross-sec-
magnet is moved up or down, its flux cuts tional area of the conductor. As shown in Fig.
across the conductor. The action of magnetic 15-10, the conductor is at right angles to the
flux cutting across the conductor generates cur- lines of force in the field H.
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 301

The reason the conductor must be per- weaker field, the conductor will be forced
pendicular is to make its induced current have downward, staying with the magnet to oppose
an associated magnetic field in the same plane the work of pulling the magnet away from the
as the external flux. If the field of the induced conductor.
current does not react with the external field, The effect of electromagnetic induction is
there can be no induced current. increased where a coil is used for the conduc-
tor. Then the turns concentrate more conductor
How Induced Current Is Generated. The in- length in a smaller area. As illustrated in Fig.
duced current can be considered the result of 15-11, moving the magnet into the coil enables
motor action between the external field Hand the flux to cut across many turns of conductors.
the magnetic field of free electrons in every
cross-sectional area of the wire. Without an Practice Problems 15-4
external field, the free electrons move at ran- (answers on page 309)
dom without any specific direction and they Answer true or false. Refer to Fig. 15-10.
have no net magnetic field. When the conductor (a) If the conductor is moved up, instead of
is in the magnetic field H, there still is no induc- the magnet down, the induced current will
tion without relative motion, since the magnetic flow in the same direction.
fields for the free electrons are not disturbed. (b) The electron flow through the meter is
When the field or conductor moves, however, from terminal A to B.
there must be a reaction opposing the motion.
The reaction is a flow of free electrons resulting 15-5
from motor action on the electrons. LENZ' LAW
Referring to Fig. 15-10, for example, the This basic principle is used to determine the
induced current must flow in the direction direction of an induced voltage or current.
shown because the field is moved downward, Based on the principle of conservation of en-
pulling the magnet away from the conductor. ergy, Lenz' law simply states that the direction·
The induced current of electrons then has a of the induced current must be such that its own
clockwise field with lines of force aiding H magnetic field will oppose the action that pro-
above the conductor and canceling H below. duced the induced current.
With motor action between the two magnetic In Fig. 15-11, for example, the induced
fields tending to move the conductor toward the current has the direction that produces a north
pole at the left to oppose the motion by repul-
Motion sion of the north pole being moved in. This is
why it takes some work to push the permanent
magnet into the coil. The work expended in
moving the permanent magnet is the source of
energy for the current induced in the coil.
Using Lenz' law, we can start with the fact
that the left end of the coil in Fig. 15-11 must be
a north pole to oppose the motion. Then the
FIGURE 15-11 direction of the induced current is determined
Induced current produced by magnetic ffux by the left-hand rule for electron flow. If the
cutting across turns of wire in a coil. fingers coil around the direction of electron flow
 Chapter 15
302 Electromagnetic Induction

shown, under and over the winding, the thumb / Deficiency of electrons
will point to the left for the north pole. B y..

For the opposite case, suppose that the

north pole of the permanent magnet in Fig. i
Magnet moves
down

15-11 is moved away from the coil. Then the

induced pole at the left end of the coil must be a Excess
south pole, by Lenz' law. The induced south electrons
pole will attract the north pole to oppose the
motion of the magnet being moved away. For a
south pole at the left end of the coil, then, the
electron flow will be reversed from the direction +
shown in Fig. 15-11. We could actually generate FIGURE 15-12
an alternating current in the coil by moving the Voltage induced across open ends of conductor
magnet periodically in and out. cut by magnetic flux.

vided by the separation of electric charges in the

Practice Problems 15-5
conductor.
(answers on page 309)
The potential difference is an electromo-
Refer to Fig. 15-11.
tive force, generated by the work of cutting
(a} If the north end of the magnet is moved
across the flux. You can measure this potential
away from the coil, will its left side be north
difference with a voltmeter. However, a con-
or south?
ductor cannot store electric charge. Therefore,
(b} If the south end of the magnet is moved in,
the voltage is present only while the motion of
will the left end of the coil be north or
flux cutting across the conductor is producing
south?
the induced voltage.
15-6 Induced Voltage Across a Coil. With a coil, as
GENERATING AN INDUCED in Fig. 15-13a, the induced emf is increased by
VOLTAGE the number of turns. Each turn cut by flux adds
Consider the case of magnetic flux cutting a to the induced voltage, since they all force free
conductor that is not in a closed circuit, as electrons to accumulate at the negative end of
shown in Fig. 15-12. The motion of flux across the coil, with a deficiency of electrons at the
the conductor forces free electrons to move, but positive end.
with an open circuit, the displaced electrons The polarity of the induced voltage follows
produce opposite electric charges at the two from the direction of induced current. The end
open ends. of the conductor to which the electrons go and
For the directions shown, free electrons in where they accumulate is the negative side of
the conductor are forced to move to point A the induced voltage. The opposite end with a
Since the end is open, electrons accumulate deficiency of electrons is the positive side. The
here. Point A then develops a negative poten- total emf across the coil is the sum of the in-
tial. duced voltages, since all the turns are in series.
At the same time, point B loses electrons Furthermore, the total induced voltage acts
and becomes charged positive. The result is a in series with the coil, as illustrated by the
potential difference across the two ends, pro- equivalent circuit in Fig. 15-13b, showing the
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 303

Motion

Excess Deficiency
electrons of electrons

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 15-13
Voltage induced across coil cut by magnetic
flux. (a) Motion of flux generating voltage
across coil. ( b) Induced voltage acts in series
with coil. ( c) Induced voltage is a source that
can produce current in external load circuit
connected across coil.

induced voltage as a separate generator. This north pole by Lenz' law, to oppose the north
generator represents a voltage source with a pole being moved in.
potential difference resulting from the separa- · Notice how motors and generators are
tion of charges produced by electromagnetic similar in using the motion of a magnetic field,
induction. The source v then can produce cur- but with opposite applications. In a motor, cur-
rent in an external load circuit connected across rent is supplied for an associated magnetic field
the negative and positive terminals, as shown in to react with the external flux to produce motion
Fig. 15-13c. of the conductor. In a generator, motion must.
The induced voltage is in series with the be supplied so that the flux and conductor can
coil because current produced by the generated cut across each other to induce voltage across
emf must flow through all the turns. An induced the ends of the conductor.
voltage of 10 V, for example, with RL equal to
5 Q, results in a current of 2 A, which flows Practice Problems 15-6
through the coil, the equivalent generator v, (answers on page 309)
and the load resistance RL. Refer to Fig. 15-13.
The direction of current in Fig. 15-13c (a) Is terminal A or B the negative side of the
shows electron flow around the circuit. Outside induced voltage?
the source v, the electrons move from its nega- (b) Is terminal A or B the negative side of \'aL?
tive terminal, through RL, and back to the posi-
tive terminal of v because of its potential differ- 15-7
ence. FARADAY'S LAW OF
Inside the generator, however, the electron INDUCED VOLTAGE
flow is from the + terminal to the - terminal. The voltage induced by magnetic flux cutting
This direction of electron flow results from the the turns of a coil depends upon the number of
fact that the left end of the coil in (a) must be a turns and how fast the flux moves across the
 Chapter 15
304 Electromagnetic Induction

conductor. Either the flux or the conductor can As an example, if the flux cp is 4 Wat one
move. Specifically, the amount of induced volt- time but then changes to 6 Wb, the change in
age is determined by the following three factors: flux is 2 Wb for dcp. The same idea applies to a
decrease as well as an increase. If the flux
1. Amount of flux. The more magnetic lines changed from 6 to 4 Wb, dcp would still be 2 Wb.
of force that cut across the conductor, the However, an increase is usually considered a
higher is the amount of induced voltage. change in the positive direction, with an upward
2. Number of turns. The more turns in a coil, slope, while a decrease has a negative slope
the higher the induced voltage. The Vind is downward.
the sum of all the individual voltages gen- Similarly, dt means a change in time. If we
erated in each turn in series. consider the flux at a time 2 s after the start, and
3. Time rate of cutting. The faster the flux at a later time 3 s after the start, the change in
cuts a conductor, the higher the induced time is 3 - 2, or 1 s for dt. Time always in-
voltage. Then more lines of force cut the creases in the positive direction.
conductor within a specific period of time. Combining the two factors of dcp and dt, we
can say that for magnetic flux increasing by
These factors are of fundamental impor-
2 Wb in 1 s, dcp! dt equals 2/i, or 2 Wb/s, which
tance in many applications. Any conductor with
states the time rate of change of the magnetic
current will have voltage induced in it by a
flux. For 300 turns cut by the changing flux of
change in current and its associated magnetic
2 Wb/s, then, the induced voltage is 300 x 2,
flux.
or 600 V.
The amount of induced voltage can be
calculated by Faraday's law:
Analysis of Induced Voltage as Nd<[>/ dt. This
N dcp (webers) fundamental concept of voltage induced by a
Vind = dt (seconds) (l 5 -l) change in flux is illustrated by the graphs in Fig.
15-14, for the values listed in Table 15-1. The
where N is the number of turns and dcp/ dt linear rise in (a) shows values of flux cp increas-
specifies how fast the flux cp cuts across the ing at a uniform rate. In this case, the curve
conductor. goes up 2 Wb for every 1-s interval of time. The
With dcp! dt in webers per second, the in- slope of this curve, then, equal to dcpl dt, is
duced voltage is in volt units. As an example, if 2 Wb/s. Note that, although cp increases, the
the magnetic flux cuts across 300 turns at the rate of change is constant because the linear
rate of 2 Wb/s, vind = 300 X 2, or 600 V. It is rise has a constant slope.
assumed that all the flux links all the turns, For induced voltage, only the dcp! dt factor
which is true with an iron core. is important, not the actual value of flux. To
emphasize this basic concept, the graph in (b)
Time Rate of Change. The symbol d in dcp shows the dcp! dt values alone. This graph is just
and dt is an abbreviation for delta (~), which a straight horizontal line for the constant value
means a change. 1 The dcp means a change in of 2 Wb/s.
the flux cp, while dt means a change in time. The induced-voltage graph in (c) is also a
1In calculus, dt represents only an infinitesimally straight horizontal line. Since vind = N(dcp! dt),
small change, but we are using this symbol for rate of the graph of induced voltage is just the dcp! dt
change in general. values multiplied by the number of turns. The
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 305

Constant v =N if
600-~--------

~
..c
Constant if
2i----.....__.....__....____
~

>;;..' 300'-----1---4---+--~
~1{;
150 1-----1---4---+--~

0 2 3 4 0 2 3 4 0 2 3 4
Time, s Time,s Time,s

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 15-14
Graphs of induced voltage produced by flux
changes d<f>I dt in a coil with an N of 300 turns.
(a) Linear increase of flux <f>. (b) Constant rate
of change d<f>ldt at 2 Wb/s. (c) Constant in-
duced voltage of 600 V.

result is a constant 600 V, with 300 turns cut by example, the value of 2 Wb/s for dcp! dt can be
flux changing at the constant rate of 2 Wb/s. doubled by either increasing dcp to 4 Wb or
The example illustrated here can be differ- reducing dt to Yz s. Then dcp! dt is 'Yi or %.s'
ent in several ways without changing the basic which equals 4 Wb/s in either case. The same
fact that the induced voltage is equal to flux changing within a shorter time means a
N( dcpl dt). First, the number of turns or the faster rate of flux cutting for a higher value of
dcp! dt values can be greater than the values dcp! dt and more induced voltage.
assumed here, or less. More turns will provide For the opposite case, a smaller value of
more induced voltage, while fewer turns mean dcp! dt, with less flux or a slower rate of change,
less voltage. Similarly, a higher value for dcp! dt results in a smaller value of induced voltage.
results in more induced voltage. When dcpl dt decreases, the induced voltage has
Note that two factors are included in opposite polarity, compared with an increase.
dcp! dt. Its value can be increased by a higher Finally, it should be noted that the dcpl dt
value of dcp or a smaller value of dt. As an graph in Fig. 15-14b has the constant value of

TABLE 15-1. Induced-Voltage Calculations for Fig. 15-14

dcpldt, N(dcp/dt),
cf>, Wb def>, Wb t, s dt, s Wb/s N,TURNS v
2 2 I I 2 300 600
4 2 2 I 2 300 600
6 2 3 I 2 300 600
8 2 4 I 2 300 600
 Chapter 15
306 Electromagnetic Induction

2 Wb/s because the flux is increasing at a linear has the polarity such that the current it pro-
rate. However, the flux need not have a uniform duces and the associated magnetic field will
rate of change. Then the d<f>! dt values will not oppose the change in flux producing the in-
be constant. In any case, though, the values of duced voltage. If the external flux increases, the
d<f>I dt at all instants of time will determine the magnetic field of the induced current will be in
instantaneous values of the induced voltage the opposite direction. If the external field de-
equal to N(d<f>!dt). creases, the magnetic field of the induced cur-
rent will be in the same direction as the external
Polarity of the Induced Voltage. The polarity field to oppose the change by sustaining the
is determined by Lenz' law. The induced volt- flux. In short, the induced voltage has the po-
age has the polarity that opposes the change larity that opposes the change.
causing the induction. Sometimes this fact is
indicated by using a negative sign for vind in Practice Problems 15-7
Formula (15-1). However, the absolute polarity (answers on page 309)
depends on whether the flux is increasing or (a) The magnetic flux of 10 Wb changes to
decreasing, the method of winding, and which 8 Wb in 1 s. How much is d<f>I dt?
end of the coil is the reference. (b) The flux of 10 µWb changes to 8 µWb in
When all these factors are considered, vind 1 µs. How much is d<f>I dt?

Summary
1. Current in a straight conductor has an associated magnetic field with
circular lines of force in a plane perpendicular to the conductor. The
direction of the circular field is counterclockwise when you look
along the conductor in the direction of electron flow.
2. With two fields in the same plane, produced by either current or a
permanent magnet, lines of force in the same direction aid each
other to provide a stronger field. Lines of force in opposite directions
cancel and result in a weaker field.
3. A solenoid is a long, narrow coil of wire which concentrates the
conductor and its associated magnetic field. Because the fields for all
turns aid inside the coil and cancel outside, a solenoid has a resultant
electromagnetic field like a bar magnet with north and south poles at
opposite ends.
4. The left-hand rule for polarity of an electromagnet says that when
your fingers curl around the turns in the direction of electron flow,
the thumb points to the north pole.
5. Motor action is the motion that results from the net force of two fields
that can aid or cancel each other. The direction of the resultant force
is always from the stronger field to the weaker field.
6. Generator action refers to induced voltage. For N turns,
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 307

vind = N( dcp! dt), with dcp! dt in webers per second. There must be a
change in the flux to produce induced voltage.
7. Lenz' law states that the polarity of the induced voltage will oppose
the change in magnetic flux causing the induction.
8. The faster the flux changes, the higher is the induced voltage.
9. When the flux changes at a constant rate, the induced voltage has a
constant value.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. A vertical wire with electron flow downward through this page has an
associated magnetic field counterclockwise in the plane of the paper.
2. Lines of force of two magnetic fields in the same direction aid each
other to produce a stronger resultant field.
3. Motor action always tends to produce motion toward the weaker
field.
4. In Fig. 15-6, if the battery connections are reversed, the· magnetic
poles of the coil will be reversed.
5. A solenoid is a long, narrow coil that acts as a bar magnet only when
current flows.
6. A torque is a force tending to cause rotation.
7. In Fig. 15-9, if the poles of the external field are reversed, the motor
action will be downward.
8. In Fig. 15-10, if the conductor is moved down, instead of the magnet,
the induced current flows in the opposite direction.
9. An induced voltage is present only while the flux is changing.
10. Faraday's law determines the amount of induced voltage.
11. Lenz' law determines the polarity of an induced voltage.
12. Induced voltage increases with a faster rate of flux cutting.
13. An induced voltage is effectively in series with the turns of the coil in
which the voltage is produced.
14. A decrease in flux will induce a voltage of opposite polarity from an
increase in flux, with the same direction of field lines in both cases.
15. The flux of 1000 lines increasing to 1001 lines in 1 s produces a flux
change dcp! dt of 1 line per s.
16. The flux of 2 lines increasing to 3 lines in 1 µs corresponds to a flux
change dcp! dt of 1,000,000 lines per s.
17. In question 16, dcp!dt equals 0.01 Wb/s.
18. The induced voltage will be much greater for the example in question
16, compared with question 15, with the same number of turns.
 Chapter 15
308 Electromagnetic Induction

19. The more turns in a coil, the higher is its induced voltage.
20. In Fig. 15-14, the flux <f> is increasing, but its rate of change d<f>I dt is
constant.

Essay Questions
1. Draw a diagram showing two conductors connecting a battery to a
load resistance through a closed switch. (a) Show the magnetic field
of the current in the negative side of the line and in the positive side.
(b) Where do the two fields aid? Where do they oppose?
2. State the rule for determining the magnetic polarity of a solenoid.
(a) How can the polarity be reversed? (b) Why are there no magnetic
poles when the current through the coil is zero?
3. Why does the motor action between two magnetic fields result in
motion toward the weaker field?
4. Why does current in a conductor perpendicular to this page have a
magnetic field in the plane of the paper?
5. Why must the conductor and external field be perpendicular to each
other in order to have motor action or to generate induced voltage?
6. Explain briefly how either motor action or generator action can be
obtained with the same conductor in a magnetic field.
7. Assume that a conductor being cut by the flux of an expanding
magnetic field has 10 V induced with the top end positive. Now
analyze the effect of the following changes: (a) The magnetic flux
continues to expand but at a slower rate. How does this affect the
amount of induced voltage and its polarity? (b) The magnetic flux is
constant, neither increasing nor decreasing. How much is the in-
duced voltage? (c) The magnetic flux contracts, cutting across the
conductor with the opposite direction of motion. How does this affect
the polarity of the induced voltage?
8. Redraw the graph in Fig. 15-14c for the case of 500 turns, with all
other factors the same.
9. Redraw the circuit with the coil and battery in Fig. 15-6, showing two
different ways to reverse the magnetic polarity.
10. Referring to Fig. 15-14, suppose that the flux decreases from 8 Wb to
zero at the same rate as the increase. Tabulate all the values as in
Table 15-1 and draw the three graphs corresponding to those in
Fig. 15-14.
 Chapter 15
Electromagnetic Induction 309

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. A magnetic flux of 900 Mx cuts across a coil of 1000 turns in 1 µs.

How much is the voltage induced in the coil? [1 Mx = 10-s Wb]
2. Refer to Fig. 15-13. (a) Show the induced voltage here connected to
a load resistance RL of 100 Q. (b) If the induced voltage is 100 V, how
much current flows in RL? (c) Give one way to reverse the polarity of
the induced voltage. (d) Why will this method reverse the direction of
current through RL?
3. Calculate the rate of flux change dcp! dt in webers per second for the
following: {a) 6 Wb increasing to 8 Wb in 1 s; (b) 8 Wb decreasing to
6 Wb in 1 s; (c) 5000 Mx increasing to 6000 Mx in 5 µs.
4. Calculate the induced voltage produced in 400 turns by each of the
flux changes in Prob. 3.
5. Draw a circuit with a 20-V battery connected to a 100-Q coil of 400
turns with an iron core 0.2 m long. Using SI magnetic units, calculate
{a) I; (b) NI; (c) the field intensity H; (d) the flux density Bin a core
with a [Link] of 500; (e) the total flux cp at each pole with an area of
6 X 10-4 m 2 ; {f) show the direction of winding and magnetic polarity
of the coil.
6. For the coil in Prob. 5: (a) If the iron core is removed, how much will
the flux be in the air-core coil? (b) How much induced voltage would
be produced by this change in flux while the core is being moved out
in 1 s? (c) How much is the induced voltage after the core is re-
moved?

Answers to Practice Problems

15-1 (a) T 15-4 (b) T
(b) T 15-5 (a) South
15-2 (a) Left (b) South
(b) South pole 15-6 (a) A
15-3 (a) T (b) A
(b) T 15-7 (a) 2 Wbls
15-4 (a) T (b) 2 Wbls
 AlternatlDI
Voltage
and
Current
This unit begins the analysis of ac voltage, as used in the ac power line,
and the alternating current it produces in an ac circuit. Figure 16-1 shows
the variations and polarity reversals of the power-line voltage. Audio and
Cha
radio signals are also important examples of ac voltages.
We can utilize the rules for de circuits as an introduction to the
analysis of ac circuits. All the de principles of series and parallel circuits
with Ohm's-law calculations still apply. However, the new factor to
consider with an ac source is that the yoltage alternately reverses its
polarity, producing current that reverses in direction. Most important, the
16
voltage and current are always changing instead of remaining at a steady
value.
This characteristic of varying values is the reason why ac circuits have
so many useful applications. For instance, a transformer can operate only
with. alternating current. This is just one example of inductance L in ac
circuits, where the changing magnetic flux of a varying current can
produce induced voltage. The details of inductance follow in Chaps. 18,
19, and 20.
A similar but opposite effect in ac circuits is capacitance C. The C is
important with the changing electric··field of a varying voltage. Just as L
has a big effect with an alternating current, the C has an effect which
depends on alternating voltage. The details of capacitance are explained
in Chaps. 21, 22, and 23.
The Land Care additional factors, besides R, in ac circuits. The
main difference between them is that R is th~ same in either a de or ac
circuit, but the effects of Land C depend onhaving an ac source. How fast
the ac variations occur determines the frequency and allows a greater or
smaller reaction by L and C. Therefore, the effect is different for different
frequencies~ One important application is a resonant circuit with L and C
which is tuned to a particular frequency. All applications of tuning in radio
and television are examples of resonance in an LC circuit.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 311

FIGURE 16-1
Oscilloscope photo of ac power-line voltage
with frequency of 60 Hz. Four cycles shown.

In general, electronic circuits are combinations of R, L, and C with

both direct current and alternating current. The audio and radio signals
are ac voltages or currents. However, the amplifiers using transistors or
tubes need de voltages in order to conduct any current at all. The result is
direct current with a superimposed ac signal. Furthermore, the combina-
tion can include variations with different frequencies in the one circuit. To
begin the analysis of ac circuits, the special features of alternating voltage
and current are explained in the following topics:

16-1 Alternating-Voltage Generator

16-2 The Sine Wave
16-3 Alternating Current
16-4 Voltage and Current Values for a Sine Wave
16-5 Frequency
16-6 Period
16-7 Wavelength
16-8 Phase Angle
16-9 The Time Factor in Frequency and Phase
16-10 AC Circuits with Resistance
16-11 Nonsinusoidal AC Waveforms
16-12 Harmonic Frequencies

16-1 above the center have positive polarity, while

ALTERNATING-VOLTAGE the values below center are negative.
GENERATOR Figure 16-2 illustrates how such a voltage
We can define an ac voltage as one that contin- waveform is produced by a rotary generator.
uously varies in magnitude and periodically The conductor loop rotates through the mag-
reverses in polarity. In Fig. 16-1, the variations netic field to generate the induced ac voltage
up and down on the waveform show the across its open terminals. The magnetic flux
changes in magnitude. The zero axis is a hori- shown here is vertical, with lines of force down
zontal line across the center. Then voltages in the plane of the paper.
 Chapter 16
312 Alternating Voltage and Current

fore, the induced voltage provides a potential

difference v across the loop, varying in the same
way as the wave of voltage shown in Fig. 16-1. If
) the loop rotates at the speed of 60 revolutions
per second, the ac voltage will have the fre-
quency of 60 Hz.
v =max

(a) (b)
The Cycle. One complete revolution of the
FIGURE 16-2 loop around the circle is a cycle. In Fig. 16-3,
Loop rotating in magnetic field to produce the generator loop is shown in its position at
alternating induced voltage v. (a) Loop con- each quarter-turn during one complete cycle.
ductors moving parallel to field results in zero The corresponding wave of induced voltage
voltage. ( b) Loop conductors cutting across also goes through one cycle. Although not
field produce maximum induced voltage. shown, the magnetic field is from top to bottom
of the page as in Fig. 16-2.
In (a) the loop is in its horizontal starting At position A in Fig. 16-3, the loop is flat
position in a plane perpendicular to the paper. and moves parallel to the magnetic field, so that
When the loop rotates counterclockwise, the the induced voltage is zero. Counterclockwise
two longer conductors move around a circle. rotation of the loop moves the dark conductor
Note that in the flat position shown, the two to the top at position B, where it cuts across the
long conductors of the loop move vertically up field to produce maximum induced voltage. The
or down through the paper but parallel to the polarity of the induced voltage here makes the
vertical flux lines. In this position, motion of the open end of the dark conductor positive. This
loop does not induce a voltage because the conductor at the top is cutting across the flux
conductors are not cutting across the flux. from right to left. At the same time, the opposite
When the loop rotates through the upright conductor below is moving from left to right,
position in (b), however, the conductors cut causing its induced voltage to have opposite
across the flux, producing maximum induced polarity. Therefore, maximum induced voltage
voltage. The shorter connecting wires in the is produced at this time across the two open
loop do not have any appreciable voltage in- ends of the loop. Now the top conductor is
duced in them. positive with respect to the bottom conductor.
Each of the longer conductors has oppo- In the graph of induced voltage values
site polarity of induced voltage because the one below the loop in Fig. 16-3, the polarity of the
at the top is moving to the left while the bottom dark conductor is shown with respect to the
conductor is moving to the right. The amount of other conductor. Positive voltage is shown
voltage varies from zero to maximum as the above the zero axis in the graph. As the dark
loop moves from a flat position to upright, conductor rotates from its starting position par-
where it can cut across the flux. Also, the polar- allel to the flux toward the top position, where it
ity at the terminals of the loop reverses as the cuts maximum flux, more and more induced
motion of each conductor reverses during each voltage is produced, with positive polarity.
half-revolution. When the loop rotates through the next
With one revolution of the loop in a com- quarter-turn, it returns to the flat position
plete circle back to the starting position, there- shown in C, where it cannot cut across flux.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 313

90° i------One cycle------

180°

~o 'J'J'
270°
0
0V
I
I
l
10V

1 I
I

4 turn
ov
3
10V

4 turn
I
I
ov
I
I
1 turn
I I I I
+ 10 V I I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I

90° 360°
!!. rad rr rad
2
-10 v
FIGURE 16-3
One cycle of alternating voltage generated by
rotating loop. Magnetic field not shown here is
from top to bottom of page, as in Fig. 16-2.

Therefore, the graph of induced voltage values to zero as the loop returns to its flat position at
decreases from its maximum value to zero at A, the same as at the start. This cycle of values
the half-turn, just as it is zero at the start. The of induced voltage is repeated as the loop con-
half-cycle of revolution is called an alternation. tinues to rotate, with one complete cycle of
The next quarter-turn of the loop moves it voltage values, as shown, for each circle of
to the position shown at Din Fig. 16-3, where revolution.
the loop cuts across the flux again for maximum Note that zero at the start and zero after
induced voltage. Note, however, that here the the half-turn of an alternation are not the same.
dark conductor is moving left to right at the At the start, the voltage is zero because the loop
bottom of the loop. This motion is reversed is flat, but the dark conductor is moving upward
from the direction it had when it was at the top, in the direction that produces positive voltage.
moving right to left. Because of the reversed After one half-cycle, the voltage is zero with the
direction of motion during the second half-rev- loop flat, but the dark conductor is moving
olution, the induced voltage has opposite po- downward in the direction that produces nega-
larity, with the dark conductor negative. This tive voltage. After one complete cycle, the loop
polarity is shown in the graph as negative volt- and its corresponding waveform of induced
age below the zero axis. The maximum value of voltage are the same as at the start. A cycle can
induced voltage at the three-quarter turn is the be defined, therefore, as including the varia-
same as at the first quarter-turn but with oppo- tions between two successive points having the
site polarity. same value and varying in the same direction.
When the loop completes the last quar-
ter-turn in the cycle, the induced voltage returns Angular Measure. Because the cycle of volt-
 Chapter 16
314 Alternating Voltage and Current

age in Fig. 16-3 corresponds to rotation of the

loop around a circle, it is convenient to consider
parts of the cycle in angles. The complete circle
includes 360°. One half-cycle, or one alterna-
tion is 180° of revolution. A quarter-turn is
90 ° '. The circle next to the loop positions in Fig.
16-3 illustrates the angular rotation of the dark
conductor as it rotates counterclockwise from 0
to 90 to 180° for one half-cycle and then to
270 °, returning to 360 ° to complete the cycle.
circumference
Therefore, one cycle corresponds to 360 °. FIGURE 16-4
One radian is the angle equal to 5 7 .3 °. The
Radian Measure. In angular measure it is complete circle has 27T rad.
convenient to use a specific unit angle called the
radian (abbreviated rad), which is an angle
(b) How many degrees are in a complete
equal to 5 7 .3 °. Its convenience is due to the fact
cycle?
that a radian is the angular part of the circle that
includes an arc equal to the radius r of the
16-2
circle, as shown in Fig. 16-4. The circumference
THE SINE WAVE
around the circle equals 277r. A circle includes
The voltage waveform in Figs. 16-1 and 16-3 is
277 rad, then, as each radian angle includes one
called a sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or sinusoid
length r of the circumference. Therefore, one
because the amount of induced voltage is pro-
cycle equals 277 rad.
portional to the sine of the angle of rotation in
As shown in the graph in Fig. 16-3, divi-
the circular motion producing the voltage. The
sions of the cycle can be indicated by angles in
sine is a trigonometric function 1 of an angle
either degrees or radians. Zero degrees is also
equal to the ratio of the opposite side to the
zero radians, 360° is 277 rad, 180° is 77 rad, 90°
hypotenuse. This numerical ratio increases
is 7712 rad, and 270 ° is 77 rad plus 7712 rad,
from zero for 0° to a maximum value of 1 for
which equals 377/2 rad.
90 ° as the side opposite the angle becomes
The constant 277 in circular measure is
larger.
numerically equal to 6.2832. This is double the
The voltage waveform produced by the
value of 3.1416 for 77. The 77 is a symbol for the
circular motion of the loop is a sine wave, be-
ratio of the circumference to the diameter for
cause the induced voltage increases to a maxi-
any circle, which always has the numerical
mum at 90 °, when the loop is vertical, in the
value of 3.1416. The fact that 277 rad
same way that the sine of the angle of rotation
is 360 ° can be shown numerically as
increases to a maximum at 90 °. The induced
2 x 3.1416 x 57.3° = 360°.
voltage and sine of the angle correspond for the
Practice Problems 16-1 i See Appendix E for an explanation of the sine,
(answers on page 336) cosine, and tangent functions of an angle. More
Refer to Fig. 16-3. details are in B. Grob, "Mathematics Outline and
(a) How much is the induced voltage at 77/2 Review Problems for Basic Electronics,'' McGraw-
rad? Hill Book Company, New York.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 315

TABLE 16-1. Values in a Sine Wave

ANGLE B
DEGREES RADIANS SIN B LOOP VOLTAGE

0 0 0 Zero
'TT
30 0.500 50% of maximum
6
'TT
45 0.707 70.7% of maximum
4
'TT
60 0.866 86.6% of maximum
3
'TT
90 1.000 Positive maximum value
2
180 'TT 0 Zero
3'TT
270 -1.000 Negative maximum value
2
360 2'TT 0 Zero

full 360° of the cycle. Table 16-1 lists the nu- Answer. v = VM sin e = 100 sin e
merical values of the sine for several important At 30°: v = VMsin 30° = 100 X 0.5
angles, to illustrate the specific characteristics of v = 50V
a sine wave. At 45°: v = VM sin 45° = 100 X 0.707
Notice that the sine wave reaches 1lz its v = 70.7 v
At 90°: v = VM sin 90 ° = 100 X 1
maximum value in 30°, which is only% of 90°.
v = 100 v
This fact means that the sine wave has a sharper
At 270°: v = VMsin 270° = 100 X -1
slope of changing values when the wave is near v = -100 v
the zero axis, compared with the more gradual
The value of -100 Vat 270° is the same as that at
changes near the maximum value.
90° but with opposite polarity.
The instantaneous value of a sine-wave
voltage for any angle of rotation is expressed by Between zero at 0 ° and maximum at 90 °
the formula the amplitudes of a sine wave increase exactly
as the sine value for the angle of rotation. These
v = VMsin () (16-1) values are for the first quadrant in the circle.
From 90 to 180°, in the second quadrant, the
where () (Greek letter theta) is the angle, sin is values decrease as a mirror image of the first
the abbreviation for its sine, VM is the maximum 90 °. The values in the third and fourth quad-
voltage value, and v is the instantaneous value rants, from 180 to 360°, are '?Xactly the same as
for any angle. 0 to 180° but with opposite sign. At 360° the
waveform is back to 0 ° to repeat its values every
Example 1. A sine wave of voltage varies from zero 360°.
to a maximum of 100 V. How much is the voltage In summary, the characteristics of the
at the instant of 30° of the cycle? 45°? 90°? 270°? sine-wave ac waveform are:
 Chapter 16
316 Alternating Voltage and Current

1. The cycle includes 360 ° or 2'7T rad. resulting sine wave of alternating current is
2. The polarity reverses each half-cycle. shown at the right in the diagram. Note that the
3. The maximum values are at 90 and 270°. frequency is the same for v and i.
4. The zero values are at 0 and 180 °. During the first half-cycle of v in Fig. 16-5,
5. The waveform changes its values the fast- terminal 1 is positive with respect to terminal 2.
est when it crosses the zero axis. Since the direction of electron flow is from the
6. The waveform changes its values the slow- negative side of v, through R, and back to the
est when it is at its maximum value. The positive side of v, current flows in the direction
values must stop increasing before they indicated by arrow a for the first half-cycle. This
can decrease. direction is taken as the positive direction of
current in the graph for i, corresponding to
A perfect example of the sine-wave ac wave- positive values of v.
form is the 60-Hz power-line voltage in The amount of current is equal to vi R. If
Fig. 16-1. several instantaneous values are taken, when v
is zero, i is zero; when v is 50 V, i equals
Practice Problems 16-2 50 V/100, or 0.5 A; when v is 100 V, i equals
(answers on page 336) 100 V/100, or 1 A For all values of applied
A sine-wave voltage has a peak value of voltage with positive polarity, therefore, the
170. What is its value at current is in one direction, increasing to its
(a) 30°. maximum value and decreasing to zero, just like
(b) 270°. the voltage.
(c) 360°. On the next half-cycle, the polarity of the
alternating voltage reverses. Then terminal 1 is
16-3 negative with respect to terminal 2. With re-
ALTERNATING CURRENT versed voltage polarity, current flows in the
When a sine wave of alternating voltage is con- opposite direction. Electron flow is from termi-
nected across a load resistance, the current that nal 1 of the voltage source, which is now the
flows in the circuit is also a sine wave. In Fig. negative side, through R, and back to terminal
16-5 let the sine-wave voltage at the left in the 2. This direction of current, as indicated by
diagram be applied across R of 100 n. The arrow b in Fig. 16-5, is negative.

+ 1+ .. a +
--, '
b+l
en
ti R= ~
0 rv v Q)
c.
> 100 n E ~

2 <( Time

FIGURE 16-5
A sine wave of alternating voltage applied
across R produces a sine wave of alternating
current in the circuit.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 317

The negative values of i in the graph have motion of electrons against resistance that pro-
the same values as in the first half-cycle, corre- duces power dissipation. In short, resistance R
sponding to the reversed values of applied volt- has the same effect in reducing I for either
age. As a result, the alternating current in the direct current or alternating current.
circuit has sine-wave variations corresponding
exactly to the sine-wave alternating voltage. Practice Problems 16-3
Only the waveforms for v and i can be (answers on page 336)
compared. There is no comparison between Refer to Fig. 16-5.
relative values, because the current and voltage (a) When vis 70.7 V, how much is i?
are different quantities. (b) How much is i at 30°?
It is important to note that the negative
half-cycle of applied voltage is just as useful as 16-4
the positive half-cycle in producing current. The VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES
only difference is that the reversed polarity of FOR A SINE WAVE
voltage produces the opposite direction of cur- Since an alternating sine wave of voltage or
rent. current has many instantaneous values through
Furthermore, the negative half-cycle of the cycle, it is convenient to define specific
current is just as effective as the positive values magnitudes for comparing one wave with an-
when heating the filament to light a bulb. With other. The peak, average, or root-mean-square
positive values, electrons flow through the fila- (rms) value can be specified as indicated in Fig.
ment in one direction. Negative values produce 16-6. These values can be used for either cur-
electron flow in the opposite direction. In both rent or voltage.
cases, electrons flow from the negative side of
the voltage source, through the filament, and Peak Value. This is the maximum value VM or
return to the positive side of the source. For IM. For example, specifying that a sine wave has
either direction, the current heats the filament. a peak value of 1 70 V states how much it is,
The direction does not matter, since it is just the since all other values during the cycle follow a

Av= 0.637 peak

+ Rrns = 0.707 peak

·-0
;:..
ai Peak-to-
"'C
.€ 27T peak value
a.
E
<t

__________ _J
FIGURE 16-6
Amplitude values for a sine wave of voltage or
current.
 Chapter 16
318 Alternating Voltage and Current

sine wave. The peak value applies to either the Since the peak value of the sine is 1 and
positive or the negative peak. the average equals 0.637, then
In order to include both peak amplitudes,
the peak-to-peak (p-p) value may be specified. Average value = 0.637 X peak value (16-2)
For the same example, the peak-to-peak value
is 340 V, double the peak value of 1 70 V, since With a peak of 170 V, for example, the average
the positive and negative peaks are symmetri- value is 0.637 X 170 V, which equals approxi-
cal. It should be noted, though, that the two mately 108 V.
opposite peak values cannot occur at the same
time. Furthermore, in some waveforms the two
peaks are not equal. Root-Mean-Square, or Effective, Value. The
most common method of specifying the amount
Average Value. This is an arithmetical aver- of a sine wave of voltage or current is by stating
age of all the values in a sine wave for one its value at 45°, which is 70.7 percent of the
alternation, or half-cycle. The half-cycle is used peak. This is its root-mean-square value, abbre-
for the average because over a full cycle the viated rms. Therefore,
average value is zero, which is useless for com-
parison purposes. If the sine values for all an- rms value = 0. 707 x peak value (16-3)
gles up to 180 °, for one alternation, are added
and then divided by the number of values, this or
average equals 0.637. These calculations are
shown in Table 16-2. \{.ms = 0. 707 vmax and /rms = 0 ·707 /max

TABLE 16-2. Derivation of Average and RMS Values for a Sine-wave Alternation
INTERVAL ANGLE 8 SIN 8 (SIN 8)2
1 15° 0.26 0.07
2 30° 0.50 0.25
3 45° 0.71 0.50
4 60° 0.87 0.75
5 75° 0.97 0.93
6 90° 1.00 1.00
7* 105° 0.97 0.93
8 120° 0.87 0.75
9 135° 0.71 0.50
10 150° 0.50 0.25
11 165° 0.26 0.07
12 180° 0.00 0.00
Total 7.62 6.00
Average~ i~ = 0.635t
7 2
ff; = vo.s = 0.707
*For angles between 90 and 180°, sin 8 =
sin (180° - 8).
t More intervals and precise values are needed for
the exact average of 0.637.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 319

With a peak of 1 70 V, for example, the rms power. An alternating voltage with an rms value
value is 0.707 X 170, or 120 V, approximately. of 120 V, for instance, is just as effective in
This is the voltage of the commercial ac power heating the filament of a light bulb as 120 V
line, which is always given in rms value. from a steady de voltage source. For this rea-
It is often necessary to convert from rms to son, the rms value is also the effective value.
peak value. This can be done by inverting For- Unless indicated otherwise, all sine-wave
mula (16-3), as follows: ac measurements are in rms values. The capital
letters V and I are used, corresponding to the
Peak = _
1 X rms = 1.414 X rms (16-4) symbols for de values. As an example,
0 707 V = 120 V for the ac power-line voltage.
or The ratio of the rms to average values is
the form factor. For a sine wave, this ratio is
vmax = 1.414 \{ms and /max = 1.414 /rms
0.707 !0.637 = 1.11.
Note that sine waves can have different
Dividing by 0. 707 is the same as multiplying by
amplitudes but still follow the sinusoidal wave-
1.414.
form. Figure 16-7 compares a low-amplitude
For example, the commercial power line
voltage with a high-amplitude voltage. Although
voltage with an rms value of 120 V has a peak
different in amplitude, they are both sine waves.
value of 120 X 1.414, which equals 1 70 V, ap-
In each wave, therms value is 0.707 of the peak
proximately. Its peak-to-peak value is 2 X 170,
value.
or 340 V, which is double the peak value. As a
formula,
Practice Problems 164
Peak-to-peak value = 2.828 X rms value (answers on page 336)
(16-5) (a) Convert 170 V peak to rms value.
(b) Convert 10 V rms to peak value.
The factor 0. 707 for rms value is derived
as the square root of the average (mean) of all 16-5
the squares of the sine values. If we take the FREQUENCY
sine for each angle in the cycle, square each The number of cycles per second is the fre-
value, add all the squares, divide by the number quency, with the symbol f. In Fig. 16-3, if the
of values added to obtain the average square,
and then take the square root of this mean
value, the answer is 0. 707. These calculations
are shown in Table 16-2 for one alternation
from 0 to 180°. The results are the same for the
opposite alternation. __.....
The advantage of the rms value derived in Time
terms of the squares of the voltage or current
values is that it provides a measure based on the
ability of the sine wave to produce power, which
is / 2 R or V2 IR. As a result, the tms value of an FIGURE 16-7
alternating sine wave corresponds to the same Waveforms A and B have different amplitudes,
amount of direct current or voltage in heating but both are sine waves.
 Chapter 16
320 Alternating Voltage and Current

loop rotates through 60 complete revolutions, has no relation to frequency. Two waveforms
or cycles, during 1 s, the frequency of the gen- can have the same frequency with different
erated voltage is 60 cps, or 60 Hz. You see only amplitudes (Fig. 16-7), the same amplitude but
one cycle of the sine waveform, instead of 60 different frequencies (Fig. 16-8), or different
cycles, because the time interval shown here is amplitudes and frequencies. The amplitude in-
%o s. Note that the factor of time is involved. dicates how much the voltage or current is,
More cycles per second means a higher fre- while the frequency indicates the time rate of
quency and less time for one cycle, as illustrated change of the amplitude variations, in cycles per
in Fig. 16-8. Then the changes in values are second.
faster for higher frequencies.
A complete cycle is measured between two Frequency Units. The unit called the hertz
successive points that have the same value and (Hz), named after H. Hertz, is used for cycles
direction. In Fig. 16-8 the cycle is between suc- per second. Then 60 cps = 60 Hz. All the met-
cessive points where the waveform is zero and ric prefixes can be used. As examples:
ready to increase in the positive direction. Or
the cycle can be measured between successive 1 kilocycle per second = 1 X 10 3 Hz = 1 kHz
peaks. 1 megacycle per second = 1 X 10 6 Hz = 1 MHz
On the time scale of 1 s, waveform a goes 1 gigacycle per second = 1 X 10 9 Hz = 1 GHz
through one cycle, while waveform b has much
faster variations, with four complete cycles dur- Audio and Radio Frequencies. The entire
ing 1 s. Both waveforms are sine waves, even frequency range of alternating voltage or cur-
though each has a different frequency. rent from 1 Hz to many megahertz can be con-
In comparing sine waves, the amplitude sidered in two broad groups: audio frequencies
(af) and radio frequencies (rf). Audio is a Latin
word meaning "I hear." The audio range in-
- - - 1 cycle - - -
cludes frequencies that can be heard in the
+
form of sound waves by the human ear. This
range of audible frequencies is approximately
·-0 or--~r-----'r-~+--~r-~~
___... 16 to 16,000 Hz.
...
Time,s The higher the frequency, the higher the
I

I pitch or tone of the sound. High audio frequen-

I
cies, about 3000 Hz and above, can be consid-
1 cycle i ered to provide treble tone. Low audio fre-
+
quencies, about 300 Hz and below, provide
bass tone.
·-0 Or--t--~t--,....,_.t--1---t--..-~~ Loudness is determined by amplitude. The
... 1 ~
greater the amplitude of the af variation, the
Time,s
louder is its corresponding sound.
Alternating current and voltage above the
(b) audio range provide rf variations, since electri-
FIGURE 16-8 cal variations of high frequency can be trans-
Number of cycles per second (Hz) is the fre- mitted by electromagnetic radio waves. The
quency. (a) The f = 1 Hz. (b) The f = 4 Hz. more common frequency bands for radio
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 321

TABLE 16-3. Examples of Common {16-6)

Frequencies or

FREQUENCY USE
The higher the frequency, the shorter the pe-
60 Hz Ac power line
50-15,000 Hz Audio equipment
riod. In Fig. 16-8, the period for wave a with a
535-1605 kHz AM radio band frequency of 1 Hz is 1 s, while the higher-fre-
54-60 MHz lV channel 2 quency wave of 4 Hz in (b) has the period of
14 s for a complete cycle.
88-108 MHz FM radio band

broadcasting are listed in Appendix B. Some Units of Time. The second is the basic unit,
applications are listed here, though, in but for higher frequencies and shorter periods,
Table 16-3. smaller units of time are convenient. Those
used most often are:
Sonic and Supersonic Frequencies. These
terms refer to sound waves, which are varia - T = 1 millisecond = 1 ms = 1 x 10-3 s
tions in pressure generated by mechanical vi- T = 1 microsecond = 1 µs = 1 x 10-6 s
brations, rather than electrical variations. The T = 1 nanosecond = 1 ns = 1 x 10-9 s
velocity of transmission for sound waves equals
1130 ft/s, through dry air at 20°C. Sound These units of time for period are reciprocals of
waves above the audible range of frequencies the corresponding units for frequency. The re-
are called supersonic waves. The range of fre- ciprocal of frequency in kilohertz gives the pe-
quencies for supersonic applications, therefore, riod Tin milliseconds; the reciprocal of mega-
is from 16,000 Hz up to several megahertz. hertz is microseconds; the reciprocal of
Sound waves in the audible range of frequen- gigahertz is nanoseconds.
cies below 16,000 Hz can be considered sonic
or sound frequencies, reserving audio for elec- Example 2. An alternating current varies through
trical variations that can be heard when con- one complete cycle in 1/i. 000 s. Calculate the period
verted to sound waves. and frequency.

1
Practice Problems 16-5 Answer. T = 1000 s
(answers on page 336)
(a) What is the frequency of the bottom wave- f = l = _1
1
_ = 1000 = 1000
T 1iooo 1
form in Fig. 16-8?
f = 1000 Hz
(b) Convert 1605 kHz to megahertz.
Example 3. Calculate the period for the two fre-
16-6 quencies of 1 MHz and 2 MHz.
PERIOD Answer.
The amount of time for one cycle is the period.
Its symbol is T for time. With a frequency of (a) For 1 MHz,
60 Hz, as an example, the time for one cycle is
1
~ 0 s. Therefore, the period is 1~ 0 sin this case.
The frequency and period are reciprocals of
T = 1 xl 106 = 1 X 10-6
each other: T = 1 µs
 Chapter 16
322 Alternating Voltage and Current

(b) For 2 MHz, Wavelength of Radio Waves. For electro-

magnetic radio waves, the velocity in air or
T = 2 xl 106 = 0.5 X 10-6 vacuum is 186,000 mils, or 3 x 10 10 cm/s,
which is the speed of light. Therefore,
T = 0.5 µs
10
Practice Problems 16-6 "" ( ) = 3 X 10 cm Is (16-8)
I\ cm f(Hz)
(answers on page 336)
(a) T = %oo s. Calculate f.
(b) f = 400 Hz. Calculate T. Note that the higher the frequency is, the
shorter the wavelength. For instance, the
16-7 short-wave radio broadcast band of 5. 95 to
WAVELENGTH 26.1 MHz includes higher frequencies than the
When a periodic variation is considered with standard radio broadcast band of 540 to
respect to distance, one cycle includes the 1620 kHz.
wavelength, which is the length of one complete
wave or cycle (Fig. 16-9). For example, when a Example 4. Calculate ;\ for a radio wave with f of
30 GHz.
radio wave is transmitted, variations in the elec-
tromagnetic field travel through space. Also,
with sound waves, the variations in air pressure Answer. ;\ = 3 X 10 10 cm/s 3 10 cm
30 X 10 9 Hz = 30 X
corresponding to the sound wave move through
air. In these applications, the distance traveled
= 0.1 x 10
;\ = 1 cm
by the wave in one cycle is the wavelength. The
wavelength depends upon the frequency of the Such short wavelengths are called microwaves. This
variation and its velocity of transmission: range includes ;\ of 1 m or less, for frequencies of
300 MHz or more.
velocity
A=---- (16-7) Example 5. The length of a TV antenna is ;\/2 for
frequency
radio waves with f of 60 MHz. What is the antenna
where A (lambda) is the symbol for one com- length in centimeters and feet?
plete wavelength.
Answer.

10
- A.=40cm - (a) ;\ = 3 X 10 cm/s = _1__ X 1Q4
60 X 10 6 Hz 20 cm
+
= 0.05 x 10 4

... ;\ = 500 cm
6
;:.. 40~ Then, ;\/2 = 50 % = 250 cm.
Distance, cm
(b) Since 2.54 cm = 1 in,
;\/2 = 250 cm = 100 in approximately
FIGURE 16-9 2.54 cm/in
Wavelength ;\ is the distance traveled by the ;\/ 2 = 100 in = 81113 ft
wave in one cycle. 12 in/ft
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 323

This half-wave dipole antenna is made with two To convert to inches:

quarter-wave poles, each 50 in long.
0.0328 ft X 12 = 0.3936 in
Example 6. For the 6-m band used in amateur
radio, what is the corresponding frequency? To convert to centimeters:

Answer. The formula ;\ = vi f can be inverted to 0.3936 in X 2.54 = 1 cm approximately

f = vi;\. Then
Note that for sound waves with a frequency
f=3 X 10 cm/s =3 10
X 10 cm/s
of 34.44 kHz in this example, the wavelength is
6m 6 X 10 2 cm

= t X 10
8
X += 0.5 x 10 8 Hz
the same 1 cm as radio waves with the much
higher frequency of 30 GHz, as calculated in
Example 4. The reason is that radio waves have
f = 50 X 10 6 Hz or 50 MHz a much higher velocity.
Wavelength of Sound Waves. The velocity is
much lower, compared with radio waves, be- Practice Problems 16-7
cause sound waves result from mechanical vi- (answers on page 336)
brations rather than electrical variations. For Answer true or false.
average conditions the velocity of sound waves (a) The higher the frequency, the shorter the
in air equals 1130 ft/s. To calculate the wave- wavelength A.
length, therefore, (b) The higher the frequency, the longer the
period T
A = 1130 ft/s (16-9) (c) The velocity of propagation for radio
/Hz waves in free space is 3 x 10 10 cm/s.
This formula can also be used for supersonic
waves. Although their frequencies are too high 16-8
to be audible, supersonic waves are still sound PHASE ANGLE
waves rather than radio waves. Referring back to Fig. 16-3, suppose that the
generator started its cycle at point B, where
Example 7. What is the wavelength of the sound maximum voltage output is produced, instead
waves produced by a loudspeaker at a frequency of of starting at the point of zero output. If we
100 Hz? compare the two cases, the two output voltage
waves would be as in Fig. 16-10. Each is the
Answer. ;\ = 1130 ft!s same waveform of alternating voltage, but wave
100 Hz
B starts at maximum, while wave A starts at
;\ = 11.3 ft zero. The complete cycle of wave B through
Example 8. For supersonic waves at a frequency of
360° takes it to the maximum value from which
34.44 kHz, calculate the wavelength in feet and in it started. Wave A starts and finishes its cycle at
centimeters. zero. With respect to time, therefore, wave B is
ahead of wave A in its values of generated
\ - 1130 -328 voltage. The amount it leads in time equals one
Answer. I\ - 34.44 x 10 3 - . x 10-3 quarter-revolution, which is 90 °. This angular
;\ = 0.0328 ft difference is the phase angle between waves B
 Chapter 16
324 Alternating Voltage and Current

+
Sine wave A -

/~Cosine wave B
I
I
~ oi..-~_._~~r--~~'~~--~~~~
> ____..
Time

(a) (b)

FIGURE 16-10
Two voltage waveforms 90° out of phase. (a)
Wave B leads wave A by 90 °. ( b) Phasors V8
and VA for the two voltages with phase angle
() = 90°.

and A. Wave B leads wave A by the phase angle A starts at zero, corresponding to the sine of 0 °,
of 90°. has its peak amplitude at 90 and 270 °, and is
The 90° phase angle between waves Band back to zero after one cycle of 360 °. Wave B
A is maintained throughout the complete cycle starts at its peak value, corresponding to the
and in all successive cycles, as long as they both cosine of 0 °, has its zero value at 90 and 270 °,
have the same frequency. At any instant of time and is back to the peak value after one cycle of
for wave B, it has the value that A will have 90 ° 360°.
later. For instance, at 180° wave A is at zero, However, wave B can also be considered a
but B is already at its negative maximum value, sine wave that starts 90 ° before wave A in time.
where wave A will be later at 270 °. This phase angle of 90 ° for current and voltage
In order to compare the phase angle be- waveforms has many applications in sine-wave
tween two waves, they must have the same ac circuits with inductance or capacitance.
frequency. Otherwise, the relative phase keeps The sine and cosine waveforms really have
changing. Also, they must have sine-wave vari- the same variations, but displaced by 90°. In
ations, as this is the only kind of waveform that fact, both waveforms are called sinusoids. The
is measured in angular units of time. The am- 90° angle is called quadrature phase.
plitudes can be different for the two waves,
although they are shown the same here. We can Phase-Angle Diagrams. To compare phases
compare the phase of two voltages, two cur- of alternating currents and voltages, it is much
rents, or a current with a voltage. more convenient to use phasor diagrams corre-
sponding to the voltage and current waveforms,
The 90° Phase Angle. The two waves in Fig. as shown in Fig. 16-lOb. The arrows here rep-
16-10 represent a sine wave and a cosine wave resent the phasor quantities corresponding to
90 ° out of phase with each other. The 90 ° the generator voltage.
phase angle means that one has its maximum A phasor is a quantity that has magnitude
amplitude when the other is at zero value. Wave and direction. The length of the arrow indicates
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 325

the magnitude of the alternating voltage, in rms, which phase is chosen as the reference. Gener-
peak, or any ac value as long as the same ally, the reference phasor is horizontal, corre-
measure is used for all the phasors. The angle sponding to 0 °. Two possibilities are shown in
of the arrow with respect to the horizontal axis Fig. 16-11. In (a) the voltage wave A or its
indicates the phase angle. phasor ~ is the reference. Then the phasor VB
The terms phasor and vector are used for a is 90 ° counterclockwise. This method is stand-
quantity that has direction, requiring an angle to ard practice, using counterclockwise rotation as
specify the value completely. However, a vector the positive direction for angles. Also, a leading
quantity has direction in space while a phasor angle is positive. In this case, then, VB is 90 °
quantity varies in time. As an example of a counterclockwise from the reference ~ to show
vector, a mechanical force can be represented that wave B leads wave A by 90 °.
by a vector arrow at a specific angle, with re- However, wave B is shown as the refer-
spect to either the horizontal or vertical direc- ence in (b). Now VB is the horizontal phasor. In
tion. order to have the same phase angle, ~ must be
For phasor arrows, the angles shown rep- 90 ° clockwise, or - 90 ° from VB. This arrange-
resent differences in time. One sinusoid is ment shows that negative angles, clockwise
chosen as the reference. Then the timing of the from the 0 ° reference, are used to show a
variations in another sinusoid can be compared lagging phase angle. The reference determines
to the reference by means of the angle between whether the phase angle is considered leading
the phasor arrows. or lagging in time.
The phasor corresponds to the entire cycle The phase is not actually changed by the
of voltage, but is shown only at one angle, such method of showing it. In Fig. 16-11, ~and VB
as the starting point, since the complete cycle is are 90 ° out of phase. VB leads ~ by 90 ° in
known to be a sine wave. Without the extra time. There is no fundamental difference
details of a whole cycle, phasors represent the whether we say VB is ahead of ~ by + 90 ° or ~
alternating voltage or current in a compact form is behind VB by -90 °.
that is easier for comparing phase angles.
In Fig. 16-lOb, for instance, the phasor ~
represents the voltage wave A, with a phase
angle of 0 °. This angle can be considered as the v•t
plane of the loop in the rotary generator where
it starts with zero output voltage. The phasor VB
is vertical to show the phase angle of 90 ° for
this voltage wave, corresponding to the vertical
generator loop at the start of its cycle. The angle
between the two phasors is the phase angle.
The symbol for a phase angle is () (theta).
bL_
VA

VA
FB-90°

In Fig. 16-10, (} = 90°.

(a) (b)
Phase-Angle Reference. The phase angle of FIGURE 16-11
one wave can be specified only with respect to Leading and lagging phase angles of 90 °.
another as reference. How the phasors are (a) VA is the reference, and VB leads by + 90 °.
drawn to show the phase angle depends on (b) VB is the reference, and VA lags by -90°.
 Chapter 16
326 Alternating Voltage and Current

.,... .... - .... , WaveD

' , 120 Hz

'' \
\
\
\
\
\
I
goo I
I
I
I
I
/
/

.___ _ _ _ _ _ 360 0 = 1
120 s -------
'--~J
(a) (b)
FIGURE 16-12
Phase angle of 60 ° is the time for 6%60 or %of
the cycle. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.

Two waves and their corresponding means the two waves are in phase (Fig. 16-13).
phasors can be out of phase by any angle, either Then the amplitudes add.
less or more than 90 °. For instance, a phase
angle of 60° is shown in Fig. 16-12. For the Out-of-phase Waveforms. An angle of 180°
waveforms in (a), wave Dis behind C by 60° in means opposite phase, or the two waveforms
time. For the phasors in (b), this lag is shown by are exactly out of phase (Fig. 16-14). Then the
the phase angle of -60°. amplitudes are opposing. Equal values of op-
posite phase cancel each other.
In-phase Waveforms. A phase angle of 0°

(a)
(a)

(b) (b)
FIGURE 16-13 FIGURE 16-14
Two waves in phase with angle of 0 °. Two waves out of phase with angle of 180°.
(a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram. (a) Waveforms. (b) Phasor diagram.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 327

Practice Problems 16-8 of 120 Hz. The period T for each wave then is
(answers on page 336) 1/i. 20 s. Since 60° is one-sixth of the complete
Give the phase angle in cycle of 360 °, this phase angle represents one-
(a) Fig. 16-10. sixth of the complete period of 1/i. 20 s. Multiply-
(b) Fig. 16-12. ing % X 1/i. 20 , the answer is 1/720 s for the time
(c) Fig. 16-13. corresponding to the phase angle of 60 °. If we
consider wave D lagging wave C by 60 °, this lag
16-9 is a time delay of 1/720 s.
THE TIME FACTOR IN FREQUENCY More generally, the time for a phase angle
AND PHASE 8 can be calculated as
It is important to remember that the waveforms
we are showing are just graphs drawn on paper. (16-10)
The physical factors represented are variations
in amplitude, usually on the vertical scale, with
respect to equal intervals on the horizontal With f in Hz and 8 in degrees, then t is in
scale, which can represent either distance or seconds. The formula gives the time of the
time. To show wavelength, as in Fig. 16-9, the phase angle as its proportional part of the total
cycles of amplitude variations are plotted period of one cycle. For the example of 8 equal
against distance or length units. To show fre- to 60° with fat 120 Hz,
quency, the cycles of amplitude variations are
shown with respect to time in angular measure. 8 1 60 1 1 1
The angle of 360 ° represents the time for one t = 360 x7= 360 x 120 = 6 x 120
cycle, or the period T. 1
As an example of how frequency involves t = 720 s
time, a waveform with stable frequency is actu-
ally used in electronic equipment as a clock Practice Problems 16-9
reference for very small units of time. Assume a (answers on page 336)
voltage waveform with the frequency of (a) In Fig. 16-12, how much time corresponds
10 MHz. The period Tis 0.1 µs. Every cycle is to 180°?
repeated at 0.1-µs intervals, therefore. When (b) For two waves with the frequency of
each cycle of voltage variations is used to indi- 1 MHz, how much time is the phase angle
cate time, then, the result is effectively a clock of 36°?
that measures O.l-µs units. Even smaller units
of time can be measured with higher frequen-
cies. In everyday applications, an electric clock 16-10
connected to the power line keeps correct time AC CIRCUITS WITH RESISTANCE
because it is controlled by the exact frequency An ac circuit has an ac voltage source. Note the
of 60 Hz. symbol in Fig. 16-15 used for any source of
Furthermore, the phase angle between two sine-wave alternating voltage. This voltage con-
waves of the same frequency indicates a specific nected across an external load resistance pro-
difference in time. As an example, Fig. 16-12 duces alternating current of the same wave-
shows a phase angle of 60 °, with wave C lead- form, frequency, and phase as the applied
ing wave D. They both have the same frequency voltage.
 Chapter 16
328 Alternating Voltage and Current

___...
Time

(a) (b)
FIGURE 16-15
Ac circuit with R alone. (a) Schematic diagram,
with rms values of V and I. (b) Waveforms
showing I in phase with V.

The amount of current equals VI R by 4 A through the 20-Q R2 produces an IR voltage

Ohm's law. When Vis an rms value, Iis also an drop of 80 V for Vz. Note that the sum of \1i and
rms value. For any instantaneous value of V Vz in series equals the 120 V applied.
during the cycle, the value of I is for the corre-
sponding instant of time. Parallel AC Circuit with R. In Fig. 16-17, the
In an ac circuit with only resistance, the 10-Q R1 and 20-Q R2 are in parallel across the
current variations are in phase with the applied 120-V ac source. Therefore the voltage across
voltage, as shown in Fig. 16-16. This in-phase the parallel branches is the same as the applied
relationship between V and I means that such voltage.
an ac circuit can be analyzed by the same meth- Each branch current, then, is V divided by
ods used for de circuits, since there is no phase each branch R. For R1 , its branch current is
angle to consider. Components that have R 1201i 0 , or I1 = 12 A. In the R2 branch, the cur-
alone include resistors, the filaments for incan- rent is 12%0 , or I2 = 6 A. The total line current
descent light bulbs, and vacuum-tube heaters. IT is 12 + 6 = 18 A.
The calculations in ac circuits are generally
in rms values, unless otherwise noted. In Fig.
Series-Parallel AC Circuit with R. See Fig.
16-lSa, for example, the 120 V applied across
16-18. The 20-Q R2 and 20-Q R3 are in parallel
the 10-Q R produces rms current of 120/i. 0 , or
I = 12 A. The rms power dissipation is J2 R, or /=4 A
144 x 10 = 1440 w.
R1 = IR 1 =
Series AC Circuit with R. In Fig. 16-16, RT is 10n 40 v
30 Q, equal to the sum of 10 Q for R1 plus 20 Q
for R2 . The I is V/ RT, or 12 %0 , for I = 4 A. The
current is the same in all parts of a series circuit. IR 2 =
80 v
This principle applies for either an ac or de
source and for R, L, or C components.
With 4 A through the 10-Q R1 , its IR volt- FIGURE 16-16
age drop is 4 X 10, or \1i = 40 V. The same Series ac circuit with R.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 329

IT= 18 A like resistance, but reactance has a phase angle

of +90 °. The XL is at + 90 ° while Xe is at
-90°.
VA = R1 = Resistance has a phase angle of 0°. React-
120 v 10 n ance has a phase angle of +90 °. Therefore,
when Rand X are combined, the phase angle of
the ac circuit is between 0 and +90°, or be-
FIGURE 16-17 tween 0 and -90°.
Parallel ac circuit with R. Furthermore,. the ohms of resistance and
reactance must be combined by phasor addition
for a bank resistance of 10 Q. This 10-Q bank is because of the 90 ° phase angle between the
in series with the 20-Q R1 for a total of 30 Q for two. The resultant sum is called impedance,
RT across the 120-V source. Therefore, the with the symbol Z, which is the total opposition
main-line current IT is 12%0 = 4 A. of resistance and reactance to a sine-wave al-
The voltage drop across RI in the main line ternating current. The methods of combining R,
is IT X RI, or 4 X 20 = 80 V for \.'i. Subtract- XL, and Xe to find the total Zand phase angle 8
ing this 80-V drop from the source Vof 120 V, are explained in detail in Chap. 25, Alternat-
the remaining 40 Vis across the bank of R 2 and ing-current Circuits.
R1 in parallel. Since these resistances are equal,
the 4-A IT divides equally with 2 A in the R2 Practice Problems 16-10
branch and 2 A in th~ R3 b~anch. (answers on page 336)
Calculate RT in
AC Circuits with R and Reactance for L or (a) Fig. 16-16.
C. The opposition of inductance and capaci- (b) Fig. 16-17.
tance to sine-wave alternating current is called (c) Fig. 16-18.
reactance, indicated as X. The symbols are XL
for inductive reactance and Xe for capacitive 16-11
reactance. The opposition is measured in ohms, NONSINUSOIDAL AC WAVEFORMS
The sine wave is the basic waveform for ac
variations for several reasons. This waveform is
R 1 =20 .Q
produced by a rotary generator, as the output is
v, = 80 v
proportional to the angle of rotation. In addi-
tion, electronic oscillator circuits with induct-
ance and capacitance naturally produce sine-
wave variations.
'\..J VT= R2 = 40 V Because of its derivation from circular mo-
120 v 20.Q
tion, any sine wave can be analyzed in angular
measure, either in degrees from 0 to 360 ° or in
radians from 0 to 2'7T rad.
Another feature of a sine wave is its basic
FIGURE 16-18 simplicity, as the rate of change for the ampli-
Series-parallel ac circuit with R. tude variations corresponds to a cosine wave
 Chapter 16
330 Alternating Voltage and Current

+ 10 + 10

~
Time
--+--
20 v ..."'
Tv
20
0 peak-to-peak 0 peak-to-peak
> >
-10
_L -10
_1_
(a) (b)

+15
+ 10 Tv
Time
--+--
Tv
20 0
~
Time
__..
20
peak-to-peak
..."' peak-to-peak > _l_
I
0
> -5
- 10
_l__
~ One cycle
T=4 µs
_j L One cycle
T= 4 µs
_j
(c) (d)
FIGURE 16-19
Comparison of sine wave with nonsinusoidal ac
waveforms. (a) Sine wave. (b) Sawtooth wave.
(c) Symmetrical square wave. (d) Unsymmetri-
cal rectangular wave.

which is similar but 90 ° out of phase. The sine for any of the waveforms is 4 µs and the
wave is the only waveform that has this charac- corresponding frequency is 1/,i MHz =
teristic of a rate of change with the same wave- 0.25 MHz.
form as the original changes in amplitude. 2. Peak amplitude is measured from the zero
In many electronic applications, however, axis to the maximum positive or negative
other waveshapes are important. Any waveform value. However, peak-to-peak is better for
that is not a sine or cosine wave is a nonsinus- measuring nonsinusoidal waveshapes be-
oidal waveform. Common examples are the cause they can have unsymmetrical peaks,
square wave and sawtooth wave in Fig. 16-19. as in (d). For all the waveforms shown
With nonsinusoidal waveforms, for either here, though, the peak-to-peak (p-p} am-
voltage or current, there are important differ- plitude is 20 V.
ences and similarities to consider. Note the 3. Therms value 0.707 of maximum applies
following comparisons with sine waves. only to sine waves, as this factor is derived
from the sine values in the angular mea-
sure used only for the sine waveform.
1. In all cases, the cycle is measured between 4. Phase angles apply only to sine waves, as
two points having the same amplitude and angular measure is used only for sine
varying in the same direction. The period waves. Note that the horizontal axis for
is the time for one cycle. In Fig. 16-19, T time is divided into angles for the sine wave
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 331

in (a), but there are no angles shown for the 16-12

nonsinusoidal waveshapes. HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Consider a repetitive nonsinusoidal waveform,
such as a 100-Hz square wave. Its fundamental
The sawtooth wave in (b) represents a rate of repetition is 100 Hz. Exact multiples of
voltage that slowly increases, with a uniform or the fundamental frequency are called harmonic
linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then frequencies. The second harmonic is 200 Hz,
drops sharply to its starting value. This wave- the third harmonic is 300 Hz, etc. Even multi-
form is also called a ramp voltage. It is also ples are even harmonics while odd multiples
often referred to as a time base because of its are odd harmonics.
constant rate of change. Harmonics are useful in analyzing dis-
Note that one complete cycle includes the torted sine waves or nonsinusoidal waveforms.
slow rise and the fast drop in voltage. In this Such waveforms consist of a pure sine wave at
example, the period T for a complete cycle is the fundamental frequency plus harmonic fre-
4 µs. Therefore, these sawtooth cycles are re- quency components. For example, Fig. 16-20
peated at the frequency of %MHz, which illustrates how a square wave corresponds to a
equals 0.25 MHz. The sawtooth waveform of fundamental sine wave with odd harmonics.
voltage or current is often used for horizontal Typical audio waveforms include odd and even
deflection of the electron beam in the cathode- harmonics. It is the harmonic components that
ray tube (CRT) for oscilloscopes and lV receiv- IJlake one source of sound different from an-
ers. other with the same fundamental frequency.
The square wave in (c) represents a Another unit for frequency multiples is the
switching voltage. First, the 10-V peak is instan- octave, which is a range of 2 : 1. Doubling the
taneously applied in positive polarity. This volt- frequency range from 100 to 200 Hz, or 200 to
age remains on for 2 µs, which is one half-cycle. 400 Hz and 400 to 800 Hz, are examples of
Then the voltage is instantaneously reduced to raising the frequency by one octave. The reason ·
zero and applied in reverse polarity for another for this name is that an octave in music includes
2 µs. The complete cycle then takes 4 µs and eight consecutive tones.
the frequency is %MHz.
The rectangular waveshape in (d) is simi-
lar, but the positive and negative half-cycles are
not symmetrical, either in amplitude or in time.
However, the frequency is the same 0.25 MHz
and the peak-to-peak amplitude is the same
20 V, as in all the waveshapes.
I
I
I
Practice Problems 16-11 I
(answers on page 336)
(a) In Fig. 16-19c, for how much time is the ----1/100 s---
waveform at + 10 V? FIGURE 16-20
(b) In Fig. 16-19d, what voltage is the positive Fundamental and harmonic frequencies for a
peak amplitude? 100-Hz square wave.
 Chapter 16
332 Alternating Voltage and Current

Practice Problems 16-12

(answers on page 336)
(a) What frequency is the fourth harmonic of (b) What frequency is one octave above
12 MHz? 220 Hz?

Summary
1. Alternating voltage continuously varies in magnitude and reverses in
polarity. Alternating voltage applied across a load resistance pro-
duces alternating current in the circuit.
2. A complete set of values repeated periodically is one cycle of the ac
waveform. The cycle can be measured from any one point on the
wave to the next successive point having the same value and varying
in the same direction. One cycle includes 360 ° in angular measure,
or 27T rad.
3. The rms value of a sine wave is 0. 707 X peak value.
4. The peak amplitude, at 90 and 270° in the cycle, is 1.414 X rms
value.
5. Peak-to-peak value is double the peak amplitude, or 2 .828 X rms for
a symmetrical ac waveform.
6. The average value is 0.637 X peak value.
7. The frequency equals the number of cycles per second. One cps is
1 Hz; 1 MHz equals 1 million cps. The audio-frequency (af) range is
16 to 16,000 Hz. Higher frequencies up to 300,000 MHz are radio
frequencies (rf).
8. The amount of time for one cycle is the period T The period and
frequency are reciprocals: T = l!f, or f = l!T The higher the
frequency, the shorter the period.
9. Wavelength f.. is the distance a wave travels in one cycle. The higher
the frequency, the shorter the wavelength. The wavelength also
depends on the velocity at which the wave travels: f.. =velocity/
frequency.
10. Phase angle is the angular difference in time between corresponding
values in the cycles for two waveforms- of the same frequency.
11. When one sine wave has its maximum value while the other is at
zero, the two waves are 90° out of phase. Two waveforms with zero
phase angle between them are in phase; a 180 ° phase angle means
opposite phase.
12. The length of a phasor arrow indicates amplitude, while the angle
corresponds to the phase. Leading phase is shown by counterclock-
wise angles.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 333

13. Sine-wave alternating voltage Vapplied across a load resistance R

produces alternating current I in the circuit. The current has the same
waveform, frequency, and phase as the applied voltage because of
the resistive load. The amount of I = VI R.
14. The sawtooth wave and square wave are two common examples of
nonsinusoidal waveforms. These amplitudes are usually measured in
peak-to-peak value.
15. Harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the fundamental fre-
quency.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. Ac voltage varies in magnitude and reverses in polarity.

2. De voltage always has one polarity.
3. Sine-wave alternating current flows in a load resistor with sine-wave
voltage applied.
4. When two waves are 90° out of phase, one has' its peak value when
the other is at zero.
5. When two waves are in phase, they have their peak values at the
same time.
6. The positive peak of a sine wave cannot occur at the same time as the .
negative peak.
7. The angle of 90 ° is the same as '7T rad.
8. A period of 2 µs corresponds to a higher frequency than T of 1 µs.
9. A wavelength of 2 ft corresponds to a lower frequency than a
wavelength of 1 ft.
10. When we compare the phase between two waveforms, they must
have the same frequency.

Fill in the missing answers.

11. For the rms voltage of 10 V, the p-p value is ___ V.
12. With 120 V rms across 100 Q Rv the rms current equals ___ A.
13. For a peak value of 100 V, therms value is ___ V.
14. The wavelength of a 1000-kHz radio wave is ___ cm.
15. The period of a 1000-kHz voltage is ___ ms.
16. The period of %o s corresponds to a frequency of ___ Hz.
17. The frequency of 100 MHz corresponds to a period of ___ µs.
18. The square wave in Fig. 16-19c has the frequency of ___ MHz.
19. Therms voltage for the sine wave in Fig. 16-19c is ___ V.
 Chapter 16
334 Alternating Voltage and Current

20. The ac voltage across R2 in Fig. 16-18 is ___ V.

21. For an audio signal with a T of 0.001 s, its frequency is ___ Hz.
22. For the 60-Hz ac power-line voltage, the third harmonic is
___ Hz.
23. For a 10-V average value, the rms value is ___ V.
24. For a 340-V p-p value, the rms value is ___ V.

Essay Questions
1. (a) Define an alternating voltage. (b) Define an alternating current.
(c) Why does ac voltage applied across a load resistance produce
alternating current in the circuit?
2. (a) State two characteristics of a sine wave of voltage. (b) Why does
the rms value of 0. 707 X peak value apply just to sine waves?
3. Draw two cycles of an ac sawtooth voltage waveform, with a peak-
to-peak amplitude of 40 V. Do the same for a square wave.
4. Give the angle, in degrees and radians, for each of the following: one
cycle, one half-cycle, one quarter-cycle, three quarter-cycles.
5. The peak value of a sine wave is 1 V. How much is its average value?
Rms value? Effective value? Peak-to-peak value?
6. State the following ranges in Hz: (a) audio frequencies; (b) radio
frequencies; (c) standard AM radio broadcast band; (d) FM broadcast
band; (e) VHF band; (f) microwave band. (Hint: See Appendix B.)
7. Make a graph with two waves, one with a frequency of 500 kHz and
the other with 1000 kHz. Mark the horizontal axis in time and label
each wave.
8. Draw the sine waves and phasor diagrams to show (a) two waves
180° out of phase; (b) two waves 90° out of phase.
9. Give the voltage value for the 60-Hz ac line voltage with an rms value
of 120 Vat each of the following times in a cycle: 0 °, 30 °, 45 °, 90 °,
180°' 270°' 360°.
10. (a) The phase angle of 90° equals how many radians? (b) For two
sine waves 90° out of phase with each other, compare their ampli-
tudes at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360°.
11. Tabulate the sine and cosine values every 30° from 0 to 360° and
draw the corresponding sine wave and cosine wave.
12. Draw a graph of the values for (sin 8) 2 plotted against 8 for every 30°
from 0 to 360°.
13. Why is the wavelength of a supersonic wave at 34.44 kHz the same
1 cm as for the much higher-frequency radio wave at 30 GHz?
14. Draw the sine waves and phasers to show wave \.'i leading wave Vz
by 45°.
 Chapter 16
Alternating Voltage and Current 335

15. Why are amplitudes for nonsinusoidal waveforms generally meas-

ured in peak-to-peak values, rather than rms or average value?
16. Define harmonic frequencies, giving numerical values.
17. Define one octave, with an example of numerical values.
18. Which do you consider more important for applications of alternating
current-the polarity reversals or the variations in value?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. The 60-Hz power-line voltage of 120 Vis applied across a resistance

of 10 Q. (a) How much is therms current in the circuit? (b) What is
the frequency of the current? (c) What is the phase angle between the
current and the voltage? (d) How much de applied voltage would be
necessary for the same heating effect in the resistance?
2. What is the frequency for the following ac variations? (a) 10 cycles in
1 s; (b) 1 cycle in 1/io s; (c) 50 cycles in 1 s; (d) 50 cycles in% s; (e) 50
cycles in 5 s. ·
3. Calculate the time delay for a phase angle of 45 ° at the frequency of
(a) 500 Hz; (b) 2 MHz.
4. Calculate the period T for the following frequencies: (a) 500 Hz;
(b) 5 MHz; (c) 5 GHz.
5. Calculate the frequency for the following periods: (a) 0.05 s;
(b) 5 ms; (c) 5 µs; (d) 5 ns.
6. Referring to Fig. 16-18, calculate the J2R power dissipated in R1 , R2 ,
and R3 .
7. Referring to Fig. 16-19, give the positive and negative peak values for
each waveform in (a), (b), (c), and (d).
8. An ac circuit has a 5-MQ resistor R1 in series with a 10-MQ resistor R2
across a 200-V source. Calculate I, \1i, \.'z, P1 , and P2 •
9. The same two resistors as in Prob. 8 are in parallel. Calculate /1 , 12 ,
\1i, \.'z, P1 , and P2 .
10. A series-parallel ac circuit has two branches across the 60-Hz 120-V
power line. One branch has a 10-Q R1 in series with a 20-Q R2 • The
other branch has a 10-MQ R3 in series with a 20-MQ R4 . Find \1i, \.':z,
\'3, and \'4.
11. How much rms I does a 300-W 120-V bulb take from the 120-V
60-Hz power line? What is the frequency and phase of I, compared
with V?
12. In Fig. 16-21, calculate \'[Link]' period T, and frequency f.
 Chapter 16
336 Alternating Voltage and Current

78µV

v
o--~~--~~---~~
Time

FIGURE 16-21
For Prob. 12.

Answers to Practice Problems

16-1 (a) lOV 16-7 (b) F
(b) 360° (c) T
16-2 (a) 85V 16-8 (a) 90°
(b) -170 v (b) 60°
(c) OV (c) oo
16-3 (a) 0.707 A 16-9 (a) 1/z40 s
(b) 0.5 A (b) 0.1 µs
16-4 (a) 120 V rms 16-10 (a) 30 Q
(b) 14.14 V peak (b) 6.66 Q
16-5 (a) 4 Hz (c) 30 Q
(b) 1.605 MHz 16-11 (a) 2 µs
16-6 (a) 400 Hz (b) 15 v
(b) %00 s 16-12 (a) 48 MHz
16-7 (a) T (b) 440 Hz
 The
eo~HzAC
Power
Line
Practically all homes in the United States are supplied alternating voltage
at 115 to 125 V, rms, with the frequency of exactly 60 Hz. This is a Chapter
sine-wave voltage produced by a rotary generator. The electrical power is
distributed by power lines from the generating station to the main line in
the home. Here the 120-V line is connected to all the wall outlets and
electrical equipment in parallel. This 120-V source of commercial electri-
cal power is the 60-Hz power line, or mains, indicating that it is the main
[Link] aff the parallel branches. Some practical features of the ac power
17
· 11ne are· described in the following topics:

17-1 Advantages of 120-V 60-Hz AC Power

17-2 Motors and Generators
17·3 Fluorescent Lighting
17~4 Residential Wiring
17-5 Three-phase Power

17-1 tions, where large amounts of power are used,

ADVANTAGES OF 120-V 60-Hz AC the main line is often 208 to 240 V, three-phase.
POWER The three-phase ac power is more efficient for
With an rms value of 120 V, the ac power is the operation of large motors.
equivalent to 120-V de power in heating effect. The advantage of ac over de power is
With a higher value than 120 V there would be greater efficiency in distribution from the gener-
more danger of a fatal electric shock. Lower ating station. Ac voltages can easily be stepped
voltages would be less efficient in supplying up by means of a transformer, with very little
power. loss, but a transformer cannot operate on direct
A higher voltage has the advantage of less current. The reason is that a transformer needs
J2Rloss, since the same power can be produced a varying current in the primary winding, with
with less I. The 12 R power increases as the its varying magnetic field, to produce induced
square of the current. For industrial applica- voltage in the secondary winding.
 Chapter 17
338 The 60-Hz AC Power Line

Therefore, the alternating voltage at the (b) A power transformer can step up or down
generating station can be stepped up to values an ac voltage but not a de voltage.
as high as 80 kV for high-voltage distribution (c) The 120 V of the ac power line is an rms
lines. These high-voltage lines supply large value.
amounts of power with much less current and (d) The audio frequency range includes the
less J2 R loss, compared with a 120-V line. At the value of 60 Hz.
home, the lower voltage required is supplied
from a step-down transformer. 17-2
Furthermore, ac voltage in the home at MOTORS AND GENERATORS
120 V can easily be stepped up or down by a A generator converts mechanical energy into
relatively small power transformer, in electronic electrical energy; a motor does the opposite,
equipment operating from the power line. The converting electricity into rotary motion. The
input voltage to the transformer is stepped up main parts in the assembly of motors and gen -
when the secondary winding has more turns erators are essentially the same (Fig. 17-1 ).
than the primary winding. Or, less turns in the
secondary results in voltage step-down.
The frequency of 60 Hz is convenient for
commercial ac power. Much lower frequencies
would require transformers that would be too
big. Also, too low a frequency for alternating
current in a lamp could cause the light to flicker.
Too high a frequency results in excessive iron-
core losses from eddy currents and hysteresis in
the transformer. It should be noted that the
frequency of the ac power mains in most Euro-
pean countries is 50 Hz.
All power companies in the continental
United States, except in Texas, are tied to a
power grid that maintains the nominal ac
power-line frequency between 59.98 and
60.02 Hz. The grid frequency is compared with
the time standard provided by the Bureau of
Standards radio station WWV at Fort Collins,
Colorado. As a result, the 60-Hz power-line
frequency is maintained accurate to -+- 0.033
percent. This accuracy makes the power- line
voltage a good secondary standard to check
frequencies based on 60 Hz.

Practice Problems 17-1

(answers on page 34 7)
Answer true or false.
(a) The frequency of the ac power-line voltage FIGURE 17-1
is 60 Hz -+- 0 .033 percent. Main parts of a de motor.
 Chapter 17
The 60-Hz AC Power Line 339

Armature. In a generator, the armature con- The commutator converts the ac machine
nects to the external circuit to provide the gen- to de operation. In a generator, the commutator
erator output voltage. Or, in a motor, the segments reverse the loop connections to the
armature connects to the electrical source that brushes every half-cycle to maintain constant
drives the motor. The armature is often con- polarity of output voltage. For a de motor, the
structed in the form of a drum, using many commutator segments allow the de source to
conductor loops for increased output. In Fig. produce torque in one direction.
17 -1 the rotating armature is the rotor part of Brushes are necessary with a commutator
the assembly. ring. The two stationary brushes contact oppo-
site segments on the rotating commutator.
Field Winding. This electromagnet provides Graphite brushes are used for very low resist-
the flux cut by the rotor. In a motor, current for ance.
the field is produced by the same source that
supplies the armature. In a generator, the field AC Induction Motor. This type, for alternating
current may be obtained from a separate exciter current only, does not have any brushes. The
source, or from its own armature output. Re- stator is connected directly to the ac source.
sidual magnetism in the iron yoke of the field Then alternating current in the stator winding
allows this self-excited generator to start. induces current in the rotor without any physi-
The field coil may be connected in series cal connection between them. The magnetic
with the armature, in parallel, or in a series- field of the current induced in the rotor reacts
parallel compound winding. When the field with the stator field to produce rotation. Ac
winding is stationary, it is the stator part of the induction motors are economical and rugged,
assembly. without any troublesome brush arcing.
With a single-phase source, however, a
starting torque must be provided for an ac in-
Slip Rings. In an ac machine, two slip rings or
duction motor. One method uses a starting
collector rings enable the rotating loop to be
capacitor in series with a separate starting coil.
connected to the stationary wire leads for the
The capacitor supplies an out-of-phase current
external circuit.
just for starting, and then is switched out. An-
other method of starting uses shaded poles. A
Brushes. These graphite connectors are solid copper ring on the main field pole makes
spring-mounted to brush against the spinning the magnetic field unsymmetrical to allow start-
rings on the rotor. The stationary external leads ing.
are connected to the brushes for connection to The rotor of an ac induction motor may be
the rotating loop. Constant rubbing slowly wirewound or the squirrel-cage type. This rotor
wears down the brushes, and they must be is constructed with a frame of metal bars.
replaced after they are worn.
Universal Motor. This type operates on either
Commutator. A de machine has a commuta- alternating or direct current because the field
tor ring instead of the slip rings. As shown in and armature are in series. Its construction is
Fig. 17 -1, the commutator ring has segments, like a de motor with the rotating armature con-
with one pair for each loop in the armature. nected to a commutator and brushes. The uni-
Each of the commutator segments is insulated versal motor is commonly used for small ma-
from the other by mica. chines such as portable drills and food mixers.
 Chapter 17
340 I he 60-Hz AC Power Line

Alternators. Ac generators are alternators. wall, which reradiates light in the visible spec-
For large power requirements the alternator trum.
usually has a rotor field, while the armature is Droplets of mercury in the glass tube pro-
the stator. This method eliminates slip-ring vide the mercury vapor. During lamp operation,
connections with its arcing problems in the the mercury vaporizes. Sufficient voltage ap-
high-voltage output. plied across the two cathode terminals ionizes
the mercury vapor.
Practice Problems 17-2 The cathodes at both ends are preheated
(answers on page 34 7) to emit electrons. This thermionic emission
provides free electrons to excite the mercury
Answer true or false.
atoms to produce ultraviolet radiation. The pre-
(a) In Fig. 1 7 -1 the commutator segments are
heating of the cathodes is used for easier start-
on the armature.
ing of the lamp discharge.
(b) Motor brushes are made of graphite for
The phosphor coating on the inside wall of
very low resistance.
the tube is a powdered chemical, such as mag-
(c) A starting capacitor is used with de motors
nesium tungstate, which emits a bluish-white
that have small brushes.
light. Different phosphors can be used for dif-
ferent colors and shades of white. The wave-
17-3 length for ultraviolet light is 254 X 10- 9 m,
FLUORESCENT LIGHTING while bluish-white is at 360 to 720 X 10-9 m.
Fluorescent lamps produce light with more ef- The phosphor atoms are energized by the
ficiency and less heat than incandescent bulbs. ultraviolet radiation from the mercury vapor,
The operation is illustrated by the basic con- resulting in visible light. The fluorescent charac-
struction of a fluorescent lamp in Fig. 17-2. teristic means the phosphor can glow in a dif-
Only one end is shown, but the other end is the ferent wavelength of light without a rise in tem-
same. perature for the phosphor coating.
Two electrical effects result in the visible
light output. First, electric discharge or ioniza- Lamp Circuit. See Fig. 1 7 -3. First the starter
tion of mercury vapor produces ultraviolet light, switch sl is closed to heat the cathodes for 1 to
which is not visible. However, this radiation 2 s. With S 1 closed, the circuit, which is in series
energizes the phosphor coating on the inside with the 120-V ac power line, includes the two

Visible light
from phosphor
Ultraviolet radiation
from mercury

FIGURE 17-2
How light is produced from a fluorescent lamp
with preheated cathodes. (GTE Sylvania)
 Chapter 17
The 60-Hz AC Power Line 341

Lamp

r--------,
I
I I
I S1 I Starter
L ________ ..J switch

120 v
Ac line
r--------, Ballast
I I
I I
On-off L--------.J
switch
FIGURE 17-3
Basic circuit for lighting fluorescent lamp after
switch sl has been closed to preheat the cath-
odes.

cathodes at opposite ends of the lamp and a A later type is the instant-start lamp which
ballast coil or resistor to limit the current. The does not require any cathode heating circuit.
preheating produces thermionic emission of This type usually has a slimline base with only
electrons to help in ionizing the mercury vapor. one pin at each end.
Then the starter switch is opened. The Most common now for home use, though,
heating circuit is open, but now voltage is ap- is the rapid-start lamp. This type uses cathode
plied across the bulb to produce ionization. The heating, but there is no starter. The ballast for a
ballast is still in the circuit to limit the ionization rapid-start system includes a separate winding
current. When the ballast is a coil, which is the to heat the cathodes continuously.
usual case, it produces a higher induced voltage
at the instant the starter switch is opened to help Practice Problems 17-3
in producing ionization. (answers on page 34 7)
After the bulb is ignited, it stays on with the (a) In a fluorescent lamp, what chemical pro-
mercury vapor ionized and the ballast limiting duces the ionization?
the ionization current. The bulb is turned off (b) Which part of the lamp produces thermi-
with the main oN/oFF switch 5 2 . Approximate onic emission of electrons?
values for a 20-W fluorescent lamp connected (c) In Fig. 1 7 -3 is 5 1 open or closed when the
to the 120-V ac power line are 0.35 A through lamp is producing light output?
the bulb and ballast, with about 65 V across the
bulb and 55 V across the ballast. 17-4
The starter is generally a separate switch in RESIDENTIAL WIRING
a small metal can that is plugged into the light Most homes have at the service entrance the
fixture. The switch has bimetallic contacts that three-wire single-phase power lines illustrated
open after 1 to 2 s of heating. in Fig. 1 7 -4. The three wires including the
grounded neutral can be used for either 240 or
Types of Lamps. The circuit in Fig. 1 7 -3 is for 120 v.
the older preheat lamps. This type needs a Note the color coding. The grounded neu-
separate starter switch for the preheat circuit. tral is white, or bare wire is used. Each high side
 Chapter 17
342 The 60-Hz AC Power Line

AO
Red into the earth. All 120-V branches must have

I one side connected to the grounded neutral.

White wire is used for these connections. In

1
N
120 v

White r
240V
addition, all the metal boxes for outlets,
switches, and lights must have a continuous
ground to each other and to the neutral. The
- wire cable usually has a bare wire for this

j 120 v
grounding of the boxes.

FIGURE 17-4
Bo l Black 1 Cables commonly used are armored
sheath with the trade name BX and flexible
cable with the trade name Romex. Each has two
wires for the neutral and high-side connections.
Three-wire single-phase power lines for 240 or In addition, the metal sheath is used for contin-
120 V. Alternator output illustrated at left. uous grounding between boxes. The flexible
cable usually has an extra bare wire for ground-
can use any color except white and green but ing.
usually is black 1 or red. White and green are The purpose of grounding is safety against
reserved for grounding. electric shock. Switches and fuses are never in
From either the red or black high side to the ground side of the line, in order to maintain
the neutral, 120 V is available for separate the ground connections.
branch circuits to the lights and outlets. Across Rules for grounding and wiring are speci-
the red and black wires, 240 V is available for fied by local electrical codes. The National
high-power appliances. This three-wire service Electrical Code standards are available from the
with a grounded neutral is called the Edison National Board of Fire Underwriters. One gen-
system. eral requirement is that all wire connections
The electrical service is commonly rated must be in a metal box with a cover.
for 100 A At 240 V, then, the power available is
Outlet Boxes. Figure 17-5 illustrates how out-
10 X 240 = 24,000 W, or 24 kW.
The main wires to the service entrance, Outlet box
where the power enters the house, are generally
gage No. 4 to 8. Sizes 6 and heavier are always
stranded wire. The branch circuits at 120 V,
usually rated at 15 A, use gage No. 8to14 wire.
Each branch has its own fuse or circuit breaker.
A main switch should be included to cut off all
power from the service entrance.
The neutral wire is grounded at the service
entrance to a water pipe or a metal rod driven
White neutral (grounded)
1
It should be noted that in electronic equipment,
black is the color-coded wiring for chassis-ground FIGURE 17-5
returns. However, in electrical power work, black Wiring of duplex outlet. Extra terminals can be
wire is for high-side connections. used for the next outlet.
 Chapter 17
The 60-Hz AC Power Line 343

lets are wired in parallel to the 120-V line. One

side has the white neutral wire. The other side 120 v
Lamp
connects to the red or black high side. Only one
pair of connections is needed for the two sock-
ets in the duplex outlet. However, extra screws
are on the side if needed for wires to the next
Up Down
outlet in parallel.
Most outlets now have a third U-shaped or
round opening in addition to the pair of blade
receptacles. This third connection goes to a
green screw on the inside frame of the outlet FIGURE 17-7
which is connected to the grounding wire. In the
Wiring of three-way (single-pole double-throw)
three-prong plug for appliances, the ground pin switches.
is connected to the metal case of the appliance
with a green wire. open, the 120 V across the open terminals
In addition, most receptacles now have lights the display. When the switch is ON or
one slot wider to fit this type of plug only one closed, there is no voltage across the switch
way. The wider blade is the side that should be itself. The switch light is off when the main light
connected to the white neutral. This safety fea- is turned on.
ture means that the chassis ground of radio and
television equipment will automatically be con- Three-way Switches. Two switches are used
nected to the grounded side of the power line. to turn on a light from two separate locations, as
shown in Fig. 1 7 -7. Each switch has three ter-
Single-Pole Switch. Figure 1 7 -6 shows how minals. One is the common terminal A This
the two terminals of the switch are wired in screw is usually copper, while the other two are
series, just in one side of the line. This must brass. With the switch up, as shown for SI, the
always be the high side. Note that black is into common A is connected to terminal C. How-
and red is out of the switch. ever, with the switch down, the common A is
A lighted switch uses a small bulb across connected to terminal B, as shown for S2 . The
the switch terminals. When the switch is oFF or B terminal of one switch is wired to the C termi-
nal of the other switch.
____
""'
Switch box
,,,,. The main terminal A on one switch is
I
,-...&.- o ',
_.... wired to one side of the lamp to be controlled,
I
I
while the other side of the lamp returns to the
I
I
120-V ac line. The opposite side of the 120-V
I Red line is connected to the main terminal A on the
Black I To lamp
I other switch. In order to light the bulb, the
120 v I
I switches must connect terminal A on one to A
I
White I on the other. Then the lamp is across the 120-V
> ;:.
neutral L.,-C,D-r~
\.._ __c:_ __ ,,
line.
The lamp lights when one switch is up
FIGURE 17-6 while the other is down, as shown in Fig. 1 7 -7.
Wiring of single-pole single-throw switch. Then A on SI from the power line connects to C
 Chapter 17
344 The 60- Hz AC Power Line

Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 3

(a) (b)
FIGURE 17-8
Three-phase alternating voltage or current with
120° between each phase. (a) Sine waves. (b)
Phasor diagram.

on 5 1 , to B on 5 2 , and to A on 5 2 to the lamp. will generate output voltages 120° out of phase
When both switches are up or down, one switch with each other. The three-phase output is il-
or the other is open and the bulb does not light. lustrated by the sine-wave voltages in Fig. 17-Sa
and the corresponding phasors in (b). The ad-
vantage of three-phase ac voltage is more effi-
Practice Problems 174
cient distribution of power. Also, ac induction
(answers on page 34 7)
motors are self-starting with three-phase alter-
Answer true or false.
nating current. Finally, the ac ripple is easier to
(a) Figure 1 7 -4 shows a three-wire, three-
filter in de power supplies.
phase power line.
(b) Duplex outlets are in parallel with each
Y Connections. In Fig. 1 7 -9, the three wind-
other and the 120-V ac line.
ings are in the form of a Y, also called \.t\..Ye or
( c) A light switch is in series with the lamp and
star connections. All three coils are joined at
the high side of the ac line.
one end, with the opposite ends for the output
terminals A, B, and C. Any pair of terminals is
17-5 across two coils in series. By trigonometry, the
THREE-PHASE POWER voltage output across any two output terminals
In an alternator with a rotor field, if the stator is 1.73 X 120 = 208 V.
armature has three windings equally spaced
around the circle, the three armature windings Delta Connections. In Fig. 17-10, the three

FIGURE 17-9 FIGURE 17-10

Y or wye connections for three-phase ac Delta or ~ connections for three-phase ac
power. power.
 Chapter 17
The 60-Hz AC Power Line 345

windings are in the form of a ~- Any pair of B

terminals is across one generator coil. How-
ever, the other coils are in a parallel leg. There-
fore, the current capacity is increased by the
factor 1. 73.

Four-wire Power Line. In Fig. 1 7 -11 the cen-

ter point of the Y is used for a fourth line, which .__ _...,...,._ _.........,...,__....,....,...,_ioNeutral
is the neutral wire. This way, power is available
at 208 V three-phase or at 120 V single-phase.
120 v 120 v 120 v
From terminal A, B, or C to the neutral line, the phase 2 phase 1 phase 3
output is the 120 V across one coil. The 120-V FIGURE 17-11
single-phase power is for lighting circuits. Y connections to four-wire line with neutral.
Across any pair of terminals without the neutral,
however, the output is 208 V for three-phase Practice Problems 17-5
induction motors. Although illustrated here for (answers on page 34 7)
the 120-V 60-Hz power line, it should be noted (a) What is the angle between three-phase
that three-phase connections can be used for voltages?
other voltages and frequencies. (b) In Fig. 17-9, how much is ~c or ~B?

Summary
1. The ac power line has a nominal voltage of 115 to 125 V and the
exact frequency of 60 Hz.
2. For residential wiring, the three-wire single-phase Edison system is
used to provide either 120 or 240 V
3. In a motor, the rotating armature connects to the power line. The
stator field coils provide the magnetic flux cut by the rotor. A de
motor has commutator segments contacted by graphite brushes for
the external connections. An ac induction motor does not have
brushes.
4. A fluorescent lamp has a phosphor coating on the inside wall that
radiates light when the phosphor is excited by ultraviolet radiation
from ionized mercury vapor.
5. In residential wiring, the 120-V duplex outlet boxes are wired in
parallel. Light switches are in series with the lamp in the high side of
the ac line. This side generally is red or black wire, while the
grounded neutral is white.
6. In three-phase power, each phase is 120° out of phase. For the Y
connections in Fig. 1 7 -9, any pair of output terminals has
1.73 x 120 = 208 v
 Chapter 17
346 The 60-Hz AC Power Line

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

1. An ac waveform that produces four cycles in the time it takes to

produce one cycle of ac voltage from the power line has what
frequency?
2. In Fig. 17-3, is the fluorescent bulb on or off when the starter switch
S 1 is closed?
3. In Fig. 17-4, how much is the voltage from either A or B to the
grounded neutral?
4. In Fig. 17 -4, how much is the voltage between A and B?
5. Thermionic emission is produced by what electrodes in a fluorescent
lamp?
6. Is a ballast inductance in series or parallel with a fluorescent lamp?
7. Are commutator segments used in a de or ac motor?
8. What color is used for the grounded neutral in residential wiring?
9. In Fig. 1 7 -11, how much is the voltage across two of the windings in
series?
10. In Fig. 17-7, is the lamp on or off for the switch positions shown for
S 1 and S 2 ?

Essay Questions
1. Define the following parts in the assembly of motors: (a) armature
rotor; (b) field stator; (c) collector rings; (d) brushes; (e) commutator
segments.
2. What is the function of a starting capacitor with an ac induction
motor?
3. For fluorescent lighting give the function of (a) cathodes; (b) mercury
vapor; (c) phosphor coating; (d) ballast.
4. What is the difference between instant-start and rapid-start fluores-
cent lamps?
5. Show a diagram of the three-wire single-phase ac power line to the
service entrance in residential wiring.
6. Show a diagram of Y connections for three-phase ac power.
7. Show a diagram of ~ connections for three-phase ac power.
8. Show a schematic diagram for six duplex outlets wired to the ac
power line.
9. Show a diagram of a single-pole switch wired to a duplex outlet.
10. Show a schematic diagram of three-way switches to light a bulb from
two different locations.
 Chapter 17
The 60-Hz AC Power Line 347

Answers to Practice Problems

17-1 (a) T 17-3 (b) Cathode
(b) T (c) Open
(c) T 17-4 (a) F
(d) T (b) T
17-2 (a) T (c) T
(b) T 17-5 (a) 120°
(c) F (b) 208 v
1 7 -3 (a) Mercury vapor
 Review of
Chapters
18t017
Summary
1. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are magnetic materials. Magnets have a north
pole and south pole at opposite ends. Opposite poles attract; like
poles repel.
2. A magnet has an invisible, external magnetic field. This magnetic flux
is indicated by field lines. The direction of field lines outside the
magnet is from north pole to south pole.
3. A permanent magnet is made of a hard magnetic material, such as
alnico, to retain its magnetism indefinitely. Iron is a soft magnetic
material which can be magnetized temporarily.
4. An electromagnet has an iron core that becomes magnetized when
current flows in the coil winding.
5. Magnetic units are defined in Tables 13-1 and 14-2.
6; Continuous magnetization and demagnetization of an iron core by
means of alternating current causes hysteresis losses, which increase
with higher frequencies.
7. Ferrites are ceramic magnetic materials that are insulators.
8. Current in a conductor has an associated magnetic field with circular
lines of force in a p1ane perpendicular to the wire. Their direction is
counterclockwise when you look along the conductor in the direction
of electron flow.
9. Motor action results from the net force of two fields that can aid or
cancel. The direction. of the resultant force is from the stronger field
to the weaker.
10. The motion of magnetic flux cutting across a perpendicular conduc-
tor generates an induced emf. The amount of induced voltage
increases with higher frequencies, more flux, and more turns of
conductor.
11. Faraday's law of induced voltage is v = N dq,!dt, where N is the
turns and dq,!dt is the change in flux in webers per second.
 Review of Chapters 13 to 17 349

12. Lenz' law states that an induced voltage must have the polarity that
opposes the change causing the induction.
13. Alternating voltage varies in magnitude and reverses in direction. An
ac voltage source produces alternating current.
14. One cycle includes the values between points having the same value
and varying in the same direction. The cycle includes 360 °, or
27T rad.
15. Frequency f equals the cycles per second (cps). One cps = 1 Hz.
16. Period Tis time for one cycle. It equals l! f. When f is in cycles per
second, T is in seconds.
17. Wavelength A. is the distance a wave travels in one cycle. A. = vi f.
18. The rms, or effective, value of a sine wave equals 0.707 X peak
value. Or the peak value equals 1.414 X rms value. The average
value equals 0.637 X peak value.
19. Phase angle 8 is the angular difference in time between correspond-
ing values in the cycles for two sine waves of the same frequency.
20. Phasors, similar to vectors, indicate the amplitude and phase angle of
alternating voltage or current. The length of the phasor is the ampli-
tude while the angle is the phase.
21. The square wave and sawtooth wave are common examples of
nonsinusoidal waveforms.
22. Harmonic frequencies are exact multiples of the fundamental fre-
quency.
23. De motors generally use commutator segments with graphite
brushes. Ac motors are usually the induction type without brushes.
24. Residential wiring generally uses three-wire single-phase power with
the exact frequency of 60 Hz. Voltages available are 120 V to the
grounded neutral or 240 V across the two high sides.
25. Three-phase ac power has three legs 120° out of phase. With Y
connections, 208 V is available across any two legs.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Which of the following statements is true? (a) Alnico is commonly

used for electromagnets. (b) Paper cannot affect magnetic flux
because it is not a magnetic material. (c) Iron is generally used for
permanent magnets. (d) Ferrites have lower permeability than air or
vacuum.
2. Hysteresis losses (a) are caused by high-frequency alternating current
350 Review of Chapters 13 to 17

in a coil with an iron core; (b} generally increase with direct current in
a coil; (c} are especially important with permanent magnets that have
a steady magnetic field; (d} cannot be produced in an iron core,
because it is a conductor.
3. A magnetic flux of 25,000 lines through an area of 5 cm 2 results in
(a} 5 lines of flux; (b} 5000 Mx of flux; (c} flux density of 5000 G;
(d} flux density corresponding to 25,000 A
4. If 10 V is applied across a relay coil with 100 turns having 2 n of
resistance, the total force producing magnetic flux in the circuit is
(a} 10 Mx; (b} 50 G; (c} 100 Oe; (d} 500 ampere-turns.
5. The ac power-line voltage of 120 V rms has a peak value of
(a} 100 V; (b} 170 V; (c} 240 V; (d} 338 V.
6. Which of the following can produce the most induced voltage?
(a} 1-A direct current; (b} 50-A direct current; (c} 1-A 60-Hz alter-
nating current; (d} 1-A 400-Hz alternating current.
7. Which of the following has the highest frequency? (a} T = 1/i 000 s;
(b} T = %o s; (c} T = 1 s; (d} T = 2 s.
8. Two waves of the same frequency have opposite phase when the
phase angle between them is (a} 0°; (b} 90°; (c} 360°; (d} 'TT rad.
9. The 120-V 60-Hz power-line voltage is applied across a 120-n
resistor. The current equals (a} 1 A, peak value; (b} 120 A, peak
value; (c} 1 A, rms value; (d} 5 A, rms value.
10. When an alternating voltage reverses in polarity, the current it
produces (a} reverses in direction; (b} has a steady de value; (c} has a
phase angle of 180°; (d} alternates at 1.4 times the frequency of the
applied voltage.
11. In Fig. 1 7 -4, the voltage from either A or B to the grounded neutral is
(a} 240; (b} 208; (c} 170; (d} 120.
12. In Fig. 17-11, the voltage across any one coil is (a} 120 V, single-
phase; (b} 120 V, three-phase; (c} 208 V, single-phase; (d} 208 V,
three-phase.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Books

Croft, T.: "Practical Electricity," 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York.
Morecock, E. M.: ''Alternating-current Circuits,'' McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
 Review of Chapters 13 to 17 351

Oppenheimer and Borchers: "Direct and Alternating Currents,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Siskind, C. S.: "Electrical Circuits," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
Timbie, W. H.: "Elements of Electricity," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York.

Pamphlets and Handbooks

Magnetic Materials, Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corp.

National Electrical Code, National Board of Fire Underwriters.
Permanent Magnet Handbook, Crucible Steel Company of America.
Permanent-Magnet Materials and Their Selection, Indiana Steel Products.
 Inductance
Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when
the current varies. A long wire has more inductance than a short wire Chapter
since more conductor length cut by magnetic flux produces more induced
voltage. Similarly, a coil has more inductance than the equivalent length
of straight wire because the coil concentrates magnetic flux. Components
manufactured to have a definite value of inductance are just coils of wire,
therefore, called inductors. Figure 18-1 shows typical inductors with their
schematic symbols. In (a), the air-core rf choke is used to reduce the
18
current for radio frequencies. The iron-core choke in {b) is for audio
frequencies. Construction, operation, and uses of inductors are explained
in the following topics:

18-1 Induction by Alternating Current

18-2 Self-inductance
18-3 Self-induced Voltage vL
18-4 How vL Opposes a Change in Current
18-5 Mutual Inductance
18-6 Transformers
18-7 Core Losses
18-8 Types of Cores
18-9 Variable Inductance
18-10 Inductances in Series or Parallel
18-11 Stray Inductance
18-12 Energy in Magnetic Field of Inductance
18-13 Troubles in Coils

18-1 conductor. As the field expands and collapses

INDUCTION BY with changes of current, the flux is effectively in
ALTERNATING CURRENT motion. Therefore, a varying current can pro-
Induced voltage is the result of flux cutting duce induced voltage without the need for mo-
across a conductor. This action can be pro- tion of the conductor.
duced by physical motion of either the magnetic Figure 18-2 illustrates the changes in mag-
field or the conductor. When the current in a netic field associated with a sine wave of
conductor varies in amplitude, however, the alternating current. Since the alternating cur-
variations of current and its associated magnetic rent varies in amplitude and reverses in direc-
field are equivalent to motion of the flux. As the tion, its associated magnetic field has the same
current increases in value, the magnetic field variations. At point A, the current is zero and
expands outward from the conductor. When the there is no flux. At B, the positive direction of
current decreases, the field collapses into the current provides some field lines taken here in
 Chapter 18
Inductance 353

field to expand and collapse again, but the di-

rections are reversed. When the flux expands at
points F and G, the field lines are clockwise,
corresponding to current in the negative direc-
tion. From G to H and /, this clockwise field
collapses into the wire.
The result of an expanding and collapsing
field, then, is the same as a field in motion. This
moving flux cuts across the conductor that is
providing the current, producing induced volt-
(a) (b)
FIGURE 18-1 age in the wire itself. Furthermore, any other
conductor in the field, whether carrying current
Typical inductors with their schematic symbols.
or not, also is cut by the varying flux and has
(a) Air-core coil used as rf choke. Length is 2
in. (b) Iron-core coil used for 60 Hz. Height is induced voltage.
2 in. It is important to note that induction by a
varying current results from the change in cur-
rent, not the current value itself. The current
the counterclockwise direction. Point C has must change to provide motion of the flux. A
maximum current and maximum counterclock- steady direct current of 1000 A, as an example
wise flux. of a large current, cannot produce any induced
At D there is less flux than at C. Now the voltage as long as the current value is constant.
field is collapsing because of the reduced cur- A current of 1 µA changing to 2 µA, however,
rent. At E, with zero current, there is no mag- does induce voltage. Also, the faster the current
netic flux. The field can be considered as having changes, the higher the induced voltage be-
collapsed into the wire. cause, when the flux moves at a higher speed, it
The next half-cycle of current allows the can induce more voltage.
+
c

Varying 1, =.L\.
magnetic field \~;r
\ ,,
,;:....,
:::./
'
Counterclockwise Clockwise
FIGURE 18-2
Magnetic field of an alternating current is effec-
tively in motion as it expands and contracts
with the current variations.
 Chapter 18
354 Inductance

Since inductance is a measure of induced Definition of the Henry Unit. As illustrated in

voltage, the amount of inductance has an im- Fig. 18-3, one henry is the amount of induct-
portant effect in any circuit where the current ance that allows one volt to be induced when
changes. The inductance is an additional char- the current changes at the rate of one ampere
acteristic of the circuit besides its resistance. per second. The formula is
The characteristics of inductance are impor-
tant in:
L=~ (18-1)
di!dt
1. Ac circuits. Here the current is continu-
ously changing and producing induced where vL is in volts and di/ dt is the current
voltage. Lower frequencies of alternating change in amperes per second.
current require more inductance to pro- Again the symbol d is used for delta (Li) to
duce the same amount of induced voltage indicate a small change. The factor di! dt for the
as a higher-frequency current. current variation with respect to time really
2. De circuits where the current changes in specifies how fast the current's associated mag-
value. It is not necessary for the current to netic flux is cutting the conductor to produce vL.
reverse in direction. One example is a de
circuit being turned on or off. When the Example 1. The current in an inductor changes
direct current is changing between zero from 12 to 16 A in 1 s. How much is the di! dt rate of
and its steady value, the inductance affects current change in amperes per second?
the circuit at the time of switching. This
effect with a sudden change is called the Answer. The di is the difference between 16 and
12, or 4 A/s.
transient response. A steady direct current
that does not change in value is not af-
Example 2. The current in an inductor changes by
fected by inductance, however, because 50 mA in 2 µs. How much is the di! dt rate of current
there can be no induced voltage without a change in amperes per second?
change in current.
di 50 x 10- 3
Answer.
Practice Problems 18-1 dt 2 x 10- 6
(answers on page 378) = 25 x 10 3
(a) In Fig. 18-1, which has more inductance,
coil (a) or coil (b)? = 25,ooo A
s
(b) In Fig. 18-2, are the changes of current
faster at time B or C? !::i.i = 1 A/s

18-2
SELF-INDUCTANCE Vind L=
=1V 1H
The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in
itself when the current changes is its self-
inductance or simply inductance. The symbol
for inductance is L, for linkages of the magnetic FIGURE 18-3
flux, and its unit is the henry (H). This unit is When a change of 1 A/s induces 1 Vacross L,
named after Joseph Henry (1797-1878). its inductance equals 1 H.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 355

Example 3. How much is the inductance of a coil core. For an air core µr is 1. With a mag-
that induces 40 V when its current changes at the netic core, L is increased by the µr factor as
rate of 4 Als? the magnetic flux is concentrated in the
coil. ·
Answer. L=~= 40=lOH 4. L decreases with more length for the same
di!dt 4
turns, as the magnetic field then is less
concentrated.
Example 4. How much is the inductance of a coil
that induces 1000 V when its current changes at the
rate of 50 mA in 2 µs? These physical characteristics of a coil are
illustrated in Fig. 18-4. For a long coil, where
L =~=UL x dt
the length is at least ten times the diameter, the
Answer. inductance can be calculated from the formula
di!dt di
1 x 10 3 x 2 x 10-6
~
2
50 x 10-3 L = µr X N A X 1.26 X 10-5 H (18-2)
2 x 10-3 2
= 50 x 10-3 = 50
L = 0.04 H
where I is in meters and A is in square meters.
The constant factor 1.26 x 10-5 is the absolute
Notice in Example 4 that the smaller inductance permeability of air or vacuum, in SI units, to
produces much more vL than in Example 3. The calculate L in henrys.
very fast current change in Example 4 is equiv- For the air-core coil in Fig. 18-4,
alent to 25,000 Als.
L = 1 x 104
X g_ x lQ-4 x 1.26 x 10-5
Inductance of Coils. In terms of physical con- 2
struction, the inductance depends on how a coil = 12.6 x 10-5 H
is wound. 1 Note the following factors. L = 12.6µH

1. A greater number N of turns increases L This value means that the coil can produce a
because more voltage can be induced. Ac- self-induced voltage of 12.6 µV when its current
tually L increases in proportion to N 2 . changes at the rate of 1 A/s, as vL = L (di! dt).
Double the number of turns in the same Furthermore, if the coil has an iron core with
area and length increases the inductance µr = 100, then L will be 100 times greater.
four times.
2. More area A for each turn increases L. N = 100 turns
This means a coil with larger turns has
more inductance. The L increases in direct
proportion to A and as the square of the
diameter of each turn.
A= 2 xl])))]]ID]J)
3. L increases with the permeability of the
I.. I= 0.2 m • I
1
Methods of winding coils for a specific L are de- FIGURE 18-4
scribed in the A.R.R.L. Handbook and in Bulletin 74 Physical factors for inductance of a coil. See
of the National Bureau of Standards. text for calculating L.
 Cha ter 18
356 Inductance

Typical Coil Inductance Values. Air-core the conductor, so that there is also an induced
coils for rf applications have L values in milli- current.
henrys (mH) and microhenrys (µH). Note that
Example 5. How much is the self-induced voltage
1 mH = 1 x 10-3 H across a 4-H inductance produced by a current
change of 12 A/s?
1 µH = 1 x 10-6 H
di
For example, an rf coil for the radio broadcast Answer. UL =L dt = 4 x 12
band of 540 to 1605 kHz has an inductance L
UL= 48 V
of 250 µHor 0.250 mH. Iron-core inductors for
the 60-Hz power line and for audio frequencies Example 6. The current through a 200-mH L
have inductance values of about 1 to 25 H. changes from 0to100 mA in 2 µs. How much is uL?

Practice Problems 18-2 di

Answer. UL= L dt
(answers on page 378)
(a) A coil induces 2 V with di! dt of 1 A/s.
How much is L?
= 200 x 10-3 x lOO x 10 - 3
2 x 10-6
(b) A coil has L of 8 mH with 125 turns. If the
UL= 10,000 V
number of turns is doubled, how much will
L be? Note the high voltage induced in the 200-mH
inductance because of the fast change in cur-
18-3 rent.
SELF-INDUCED VOLTAGE VL The induced voltage is an actual voltage
The self-induced voltage across an inductance that can be measured, although vL is produced
L produced by a change in current di! dt can be only while the current is changing. When di! dt
stated as is present for only a short time, vL is in the form
of a voltage pulse. With a sine-wave current,
di (18-3) which is always changing, vL is a sinusoidal
VL = L-
dt voltage 90 ° out of phase with iL.

where vL is in volts, L in henrys, and di/ dt in Practice Problems 18-3

amperes per second. This formula is just an (answers on page 378)
inverted version of L = vL/ (di! dt), giving the (a) L is 2 H and di!dt is 1 A/s. How much
definition of inductance. is vL?
Actually both versions are based on For- (b) For the same coil, di! dt is 100 A/s. How
mula (15-1 ): v = N(dcp!dt) for magnetism. This much is vL?
gives the voltage in terms of how much mag-
netic flux is cut per second. When the magnetic 18-4
flux associated with the current varies the same HOW vL OPPOSES A CHANGE
as i, then Formula (18-3) gives the same results IN CURRENT
for calculating induced voltage. Remember also By Lenz' law, the induced voltage must oppose
that the induced voltage across the coil is actu- the change of current that induces vL. The po-
ally the result of inducing electrons to move in larity of vL, therefore, depends on the direction
 Chapter 18
Inductance 357

of the current variation di. When di increases, increase. The induced voltage shown with the
vL has the polarity that opposes the increase of top side negative opposes the increase in cur-
current; when di decreases, vL has the opposite rent. The reason is that this polarity of vL can
polarity to oppose the decrease of current. produce current in the opposite direction, from
In both cases, the change of current is minus to plus in the external circuit. Note that
opposed by the induced voltage. Otherwise, vL for this opposing current, vL is the generator.
could increase to an unlimited amount without This action tends to keep the current from in -
the need for adding any work. Inductance, creasing.
therefore, is the characteristic that opposes any In (b), the source is still producing electron
change in current. This is the reason why an flow into the top of the coil but i is decreasing,
induced voltage is often called a counter emf or because the source voltage is decreasing. By
back emf. Lenz' law, vL must have the polarity needed to
More details of applying Lenz' law to de- oppose the decrease in current. The induced
termine the polarity of vL in a circuit are illus- voltage shown with the top side positive now
trated in Fig. 18-5. Note the directions carefully. opposes the decrease. The reason is that this
In (a), the electron flow is into the top of the polarity of vL can produce current in the same
coil. This current is increasing. By Lenz' law vL direction, tending to keep the current from de-
must have the polarity needed to oppose the creasing.

i increas7n~'+
,-
I
...
i decreasing
Voltage
source

(a) (b)

I i decreasing
' .......
(c) (d)
FIGURE 18-5
Determining the polarity of uL that opposes the
change in i. (a) Amount of i is increasing, and
uL produces an opposing current. ( b) Amount
of i is decreasing, and uL produces an aiding
current. ( c) The i is increasing but in the oppo-
site direction. (d) Same direction of i as in ( c)
but decreasing values.
 Cha ter 18
358 Inductance

In (c), the voltage source reverses polarity nearby, producing induced voltage in both in-
to produce current in the opposite direction, ductors. In Fig. 18-6, the coil Li is connected to
with electron flow into the bottom of the coil. a generator that produces varying current in the
This reversed direction of current is now in- turns. The winding L 2 is not connected to Li,
creasing. The polarity of vL must oppose the but the turns are linked by the magnetic field. A
increase. As shown, now the bottom of the coil varying current in Li, therefore, induces voltage
is made negative by vL to produce current op- across Li and across L 2 • If all the flux of the
posing the source current. Finally, in (d) the current in Li links all the turns of the coil L 2 ,
reversed current is decreasing. This decrease is each turn in L 2 will have the same amount of
opposed by the polarity shown for vL to keep induced voltage as each turn in Li. Further-
the current flowing in the same direction as the more, the induced voltage vL 2 can produce cur-
source current. rent in a load resistance connected across L 2 .
Notice that the polarity of vL reverses for When the induced voltage produces cur-
either a reversal of direction for i, or a reversal rent in L 2 , its varying magnetic field induces
of change in di between increasing or decreas- voltage in Li. The two coils Li and L 2 have
ing values. When both the direction of the cur- mutual inductance, therefore, because current
rent and the direction of change are reversed, in one can induce voltage in the other.
as in a comparison of (a) and (d), the polarity of The unit of mutual inductance is the henry,
vL is the same. and the symbol is LM. Two coils have LM of one
Sometimes the formulas for induced volt- henry when a current change of one ampere
age are written with a minus sign, in order to per second in one coil induces one volt in the
indicate the fact that vL opposes the change, as other coil.
specified by Lenz' law. However, the negative The schematic symbol for two coils with
sign is omitted here so that the actual polarity of mutual inductance is shown in Fig. 18-7 a for an
the self-induced voltage can be determined in air core, with an iron core in (b). Iron increases
typical circuits. the mutual inductance, since it concentrates
In summary, Lenz' law states that the reac- magnetic flux. Any magnetic lines that do not
tion vL opposes its cause, which is the change in link the two coils result in leakage flux.
i. When i is increasing, vL produces an opposing
current. When i is decreasing, vL produces an
aiding current.
--+
D.i
Practice Problems 18-4
( answers on page 378)
Answer true or false. Refer to Fig. 18-5.
(a) In (a) and (b) the polarity of vL is opposite.
(b) In (b) and (c; the polarity of vL is the same.

18-5
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE FIGURE 18-6
When the current in an inductor changes, the Mutual inductance LM between L1 and L2 linked
varying flux can cut across any other inductor by magnetic flux.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 359

The coefficient of coupling is increased by

placing the coils close together, possibly with
one wound on top of the other, by placing them
in parallel rather than perpendicular to each
other, or by winding the coils on a common iron
core. Several examples are shown in Fig. 18-8.
A high value of k, called tight coupling,
(a) (b) allows the current in one coil to induce more
FIGURE 18-7 voltage in the other coil. Loose coupling, with a
Schematic symbols for two coils with mutual low value of k, has the opposite effect. In the
inductance. (a) Air core. (b) Iron core. extreme case of zero coefficient of coupling,
there is no mutual inductance. Two coils may be
Coefficient of Coupling. The fraction of total placed perpendicular to each other and far
flux from one coil linking another coil is the apart for essentially zero coupling when it is
coefficient of coupling k between the two coils. desired to minimize interaction between the
As examples, if all the flux of LI in Fig. 18-6 coils.
links L2 , then k equals 1, or unity coupling; if Air-core coils wound on one form have
half the flux of one coil links the other, k equals values of k equal to 0.05 to 0.3, approximately,
0.5. Specifically, the coefficient of coupling is corresponding to 5 to 30 percent linkage. Coils
on a common iron core can be considered to
k = flux linkages between LI and L 2 have practically unity coupling, with k equal to
flux produced by LI 1. As shown in Fig. 18-8c, for both windings LI
and L 2 practically all the magnetic flux is in the
There are no units for k, as it is just a ratio of common iron core.
two values of magnetic flux. The value of k is Example 7. A coil L1 produces 80 µWb of magnetic
generally stated as a decimal fraction, like 0.5, flux. Of this total flux, 60 µWb are linked with L 2 .
rather than percent. How much is k between L1 and L2 ?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 18-8
Examples of coupling between two coils linked
by LM. (a) L1 and L 2 on paper or plastic form
with air core; k is 0.1. (b) L1 wound over L2 for
tighter coupling; k is 0.3. (c) L1 and L2 on the
same iron core; k is 1. ( d) Zero coupling be-
tween perpendicular air-core coils.
 Chapter 18
360 Inductance

Answer. k = 60 µWb Example 10. If the above two coils had a mutual
80µWb inductance LM of 40 mH, how much would k be?
(Note: Invert Formula (18-4) to find k.)
k = 0.75
Example 8. A 10-H inductance L 1 on an iron core Answer.
produces 4 Wb of magnetic flux. Another coil L 2 is
on the same core. How much is k between L 1
and L 2 ? y400 x 10-3 x 400 x 10-3
40 x 10- 3
Answer. Unity or 1. All coils on a common iron = 400 x 10-3
core have practically perfect coupling.
k = 0.1

Calculating LM. The mutual inductance in- Notice that the same two coils have one-half the
creases with higher values for the primary and mutual inductance LM, because the coefficient
secondary inductances and tighter coupling: of coupling k is 0.1 instead of 0.2.

H (18-4) Practice Problems 18-5

(answers on page 378)
where Li and L2 are the self-inductance values (a) All the flux from the current in Li links L2 .
of the two coils, k is the coefficient of coupling, How much is the coefficient of coupling k?
and LM is the mutual inductance linking Li and (b) LM is 9 mH with k of 0.2. If k is doubled to
L2 , in the same units as Li and L2 . 0.4, how much will LM be?
As an example, suppose that Li = 2 H
and L2 = 8 H, with both coils on an iron core 18-6
for unity coupling. Then the mutual induct- TRANSFORMERS
ance is The transformer is an important application of
mutual inductance. As shown in Fig. 18-9, a
transformer has the primary winding LP con-
nected to a voltage source that produces alter-
nating current, while the secondary winding Ls
The value of 4 H for LM in this example means is connected across the load resistance RL. The
that when the current changes at the rate of purpose of the transformer is to transfer power
1 A/s in either coil, it will induce 4 V in the from the primary, where the generator is con-
other coil. nected, to the secondary, where the induced
secondary voltage can produce current in the
Example 9. Two 400-mH coils L 1 and L 2 have a
coefficient of coupling k equal to 0.2. Calculate LM.
load resistance connected to Ls.
Although the primary and secondary are
not connected to each other, power in the pri-
Answer. LM = k -V L 1~_x___;L2~~-~-,,--------,---,~
= 0.2 y400 x 10-3 x 400 x 10-3 mary is coupled into the secondary by the mag-
= 0.2 x 400 x 10-3 netic field linking the two windings. The trans-
= 80 x 10-3 former is used to provide power for the load
LM = 80 mH resistance RL, instead of connecting RL directly
 Chapter 18
Inductance 361

I
... -+
+Ip= Lp
10 A 10 turns

FIGURE 18-9
Iron-core transformer with 10:1 turns ratio.
Primary current IP induces secondary volt-
age \1s that produces current in the secondary
load RL.

across the generator, whenever the load re-

(18-6)
quires an ac voltage higher or lower than the
generator voltage. By having more or fewer
turns in Ls, compared with Lp, the transformer When the secondary has more turns, the sec-
can step up or step down the generator voltage ondary voltage is higher and the primary volt-
to provide the required amount of secondary ?ge is stepped up. This principle is illustrated in
voltage. Typical transformers are shown in Figs. Fig. 18-9 with a step-up ratio of 100/i. 0 , or 10: 1.
18-10 and 18-11. It should be noted that a When the secondary has fewer turns, the volt-
steady de voltage cannot be stepped up or down age is stepped down. In either case, the ratio is
by a transformer, because a steady current can- in terms of the primary voltage, which may be
not produce induced voltage. stepped up or down in the same proportion as
the turns ratio.
Turns Ratio. The ratio of the number of turns These calculations apply only to iron-core
in the secondary to the number in the primary is transformers with unity coupling. Air-core
the turns ratio of the transformer:

N
Turns ratio = Ns (18-5) k = 0.2
p Blue ,-A-... Green

For example, 500 turns in the secondary and 50

turns in the primary provide a turns ratio of Rp= Rs=
so°/so, or 10: 1. 40.Q 4.Q

Voltage Ratio. With unity coupling between Red Black or

primary and secondary, the voltage induced in white

each turn of the secondary is the same as the (a) (b)

self-induced voltage of each turn in the primary. FIGURE 18-10
Therefore, the voltage ratio is in the same pro- (a) Air-core rf transformer. Height is 2 in.
portion as the turns ratio: ( b) Color code and de resistance of windings.
 Chapter 18
362 Inductance

k=1
,,-A-. Red

200 n

Red-yellow Ls,
750 v
Black

200 n
120 v Lp= Red
60 Hz 5.Q

Black

(a) (b)
FIGURE 18-11
(a} Iron-core power transformer. Height is 5 in.
(b) Color code and de resistance of windings.

transformers for rf circuits are generally tuned secondary circuit. In Fig. 18-9, with a value of
to resonance. In this case, the resonance factor 100 Q for RL and negligible coil resistance as-
is considered instead of the turns ratio. sumed,

Example 11. A power transformer has 100 turns for

Lp and 600 turns for Ls- What is the turns ratio? How
much is the secondary voltage Vs. with a primary
voltage VP of 120 V?
The power dissipated in RL is ls 2 RL or \'sis,
Answer. The turns ratio is 600/i. 00 , or 6: 1. There-
fore, VP is stepped up by the factor 6, making Vs
which equals 100 W in this example.
equal to 6 X 120, or 720 V. The power used by the secondary load
resistance is supplied by the generator in the
Example 12. A power transformer has 100 turns for primary. With current in the secondary winding,
LP and 5 turns for Ls. What is the turns ratio? How its magnetic field opposes the varying flux of the
much is the secondary voltage Vs with a primary primary current. The generator must then pro-
voltage of 120 V? duce more primary current to maintain the
self-induced voltage across LP and the second-
Answer. The turns ratio is 5/ 100 , or 1 :20. VP is ary voltage developed in Ls by mutual induc-
stepped down by the factor 1/z 0 , therefore making \1s tion. If the secondary current doubles, for in-
equal to 120/ 20 , or 6 V.
stance, because the load resistance is reduced
one-half, the primary current will also double in
Secondary Current. By Ohm's law, the value to provide the required power for the
amount of secondary current equals the sec- secondary. Therefore, the effect of the second-
ondary voltage divided by the resistance in the ary-load power on the generator is the same as
 Chapter 18
Inductance 363

though RL were in the primary, except that in Example 14. A transformer with a 1 :20 voltage
the secondary the voltage for RL is stepped up step-down ratio has 6 V across 0.6 Q in the second-
or down by the turns ratio. ary. (a) How much is ls? (b) How much is Ip?

Current Ratio. With zero losses assumed for Answer.

the transformer, the power in the secondary
equals the power in the primary: (a)
\1s 6V
ls= RL = 0.6 Q

(18-7) ls= 10 A
(b) Ip = 1/zo X ls
or = 1/zo X 10
Ip= 0.5 A

(18-8) As an aid in these calculations, remember

that the side with more voltage has less current.
Both V and I are in the same proportion as the
The current ratio is the inverse of the volt-
number of turns.
age ratio; that is, voltage step-up in the second-
ary means current step-down, and vice versa.
The secondary does not generate power but Total Secondary Power Equals Primary
only takes it from the primary. Therefore, the :Power. Figure 18-12 illustrates a power trans-
current step-up or step-down is in terms of the former with two secondary windings Li and L 2 •
secondary current ls, which is determined by There can be one, two, or more secondary
the load resistance across the secondary volt- windings with unity coupling to the primary as
age. These points are illustrated by the following long as all the windings are on the same iron
two examples. core. Each secondary winding has induced
voltage in proportion to its turns ratio with the·
Example 13. A transformer with a 6: 1 voltage primary winding, which is connected across the
step-up ratio has 720 V across 7200 Q in the sec- 120-V source.
ondary. (a) How much is ls? (b) How much is Ip? The secondary winding Li has a turns ratio
of 6: 1, providing 720 V. The 7200-Q load re-
Answer. sistance Ri, across Li, allows the 720 V to pro-
duce 0 .1 A for Ii in this secondary circuit. The
(a) 1s =
\1s 720 v power here is 720 V X 0 .1 A, therefore, which
RL = 1200 g
equals 72 W.
ls= 0.1 A The other secondary winding L 2 provides
(b) With a turns and voltage ratio of 6: 1, the cur- voltage step-down, with the ratio 1 : 20, resulting
rent ratio is 1 : 6. Therefore, in 6 V for R2 . The 0.6-Q load resistance in this
circuit allows 10 A for 12 • Therefore, the power
here is 6 V X 10 A, or 60 W. Since the wind-
or ings have separate connections, each can have
its individual values of voltage and current.
Ip =6 X ls =6 X 0.1 All the power used in the secondary cir-
IP= 0.6 A cuits is supplied by the primary, however. In this
 Chapter 18
364 Inductance

P 1 =72 W

R,
7200 S1
Vp =
120 v

Pp= 132 W

FIGURE 18-12
Total power used by the two secondary loads
equals the power supplied by the source in the
primary.

example, the total secondary power is 132 W, Autotransformers. As illustrated in Fig.

equal to 72 W for R1 and 60 W for R2 . The 18-13, an autotransformer consists of one con-
power supplied by the 120-V source in the tinuous coil with a tapped connection such as
primary then is 72 + 60 = 132 W. terminal 2 between the ends at terminals 1 and
The primary current IP equals the primary 3. In (a) the autotransformer steps up the gen-
power PP divided by the primary voltage 'Ip. erator voltage. VP between 1 and 2 is connected
This is 132 W divided by 120 V, which equals across part of the total turns, while Vs is induced
1.1 A for the primary current. The same value across all the turns. With six times the turns for
can be calculated as the sum of 0 .6 A of pri- the secondary voltage, Vs is six times VP.
mary current providing power for L1 , plus 0.5 A In (b) the autotransformer steps down the
of primary current for L2 , resulting in the total primary voltage connected across the entire
of 1.1 A as the value of Ip. coil. Then the secondary voltage is taken across
This example shows how to analyze a less than the total turns.
loaded power transformer. The main idea is The winding that connects to the voltage
that the primary current depends on the sec- source to supply power is the primary, while the
ondary load. The calculations can be summa- secondary is across the load resistance RL. The
rized as follows: turns ratio and voltage ratio apply the same way
as in a conventional transformer having an iso-
1. Calculate Vs from the turns ratio and 'Ip. lated secondary winding.
2. Use Vs to calculate Is = Vg! RL. Autotransformers are used often because
3. Use Is to calculate Ps = Vs X Is· they are compact, efficient, and usually cost less
4. Use Ps to find Pp= Ps. with only one winding. However, the same wire
5. Finally, Ip can be calculated as Pp/VP. size must be suitable for both the primary and
secondary. Note that the autotransformer in
With more than one secondary, calculate each Fig. 18-13 has only three leads, compared with
Is and Ps. Then add for the total secondary four leads for the transformer in Fig. 18-9 with
power, which equals the primary power. an isolated secondary.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 365

3 3

Vs= Vp =
720 v rv 120 v
across Ls across Lp

(a) (b)
FIGURE 18-13
Autotransformer with tap at terminal 2 for 10
turns of 60-turn winding. (a) Vp between 1 and
2 stepped up across 1 and 3. (b) Vp between 1
and 3 stepped down across 1 and 2.

Isolation of the Secondary. In a transformer 100 percent. Power transformers actually,

with a separate winding for L 8 , as in Fig. 18-9, however, have an efficiency slightly less than
the secondary load is not connected directly to 100 percent. The efficiency is approximately 80
the ac power line in the primary. This isolation to 90 percent for power transformers in receiv-
is an advantage in reducing the chance of elec- ers, with a power rating of 50 to 300 W. Trans-
tric shock. With an autotransformer, as in Fig. formers for higher power are more efficient
18-13, the secondary is not isolated. Another because they require heavier wire, which has
advantage of an isolated secondary is the fact less resistance. In a transformer less than 100
that any direct current in the primary is blocked percent efficient, the primary supplies more
from the secondary. Sometimes a transformer than the secondary power. The primary power .
with a 1 : 1 turns ratio is used just for isolation missing from the output is dissipated as heat in
from the ac power line. the transformer.

Transformer Efficiency. Efficiency is defined Transformer Color Codes. The colors of the
as the ratio of power out to power in. Stated as leads show the required connections in elec-
a formula, tronic circuits. For the rf transformer in Fig.
18-10, the leads are:
p
Efficiency = ~ X 100% (18-9) Blue-Output electrode of tube or transistor
fin amplifier
Red-De supply voltage for this electrode
For example, when the power out in watts Green-Input electrode of next amplifier
equals one-half the power in, the efficiency is Black or white-Return line of secondary
one-half, which equals 0.5 X 100 percent, or winding
50 percent. In a transformer, power out is sec-
ondary power, while power in is primary power. This system applies to all coupling transformers
Assuming zero losses in the transformer, between amplifier stages, including iron-core
power out equals power in and the efficiency is transformers for audio circuits.
 Chapter 18
366 Inductance

For the power transformer in Fig. 18-11,

the primary is connected to the ac power line.
The leads are:
Eddy current
flux
Black-Primary leads without tap
Black with yellow-Tap on primary
Red-High voltage secondary to rectifier in
power supply
Red with yellow-Tap on high-voltage sec-
ondary
Green with yellow-Low-voltage secondary for
tube heaters +
FIGURE 18-14
Practice Problems 18-6 Cross-sectional view of iron core showing eddy
(answers on page 378) currents.
(a) A power transformer connected to the
Eddy currents can be induced in any con-
120-V ac line has a turns ratio of 2: 1.
ductor near a coil with alternating current, not
Calculate \.'s.
only in its core. For instance, a coil has eddy-
(b) \.1s is connected across a 2400-Q RL.
current losses in a metal cover. In fact, the
Calculate 18 .
technique of induction heating is an application
18-7 of heat resulting from induced eddy currents.
CORE LOSSES
The fact that the magnetic core can become Rf Shielding. The reason why a coil may have
warm, or even hot, shows that some of the a metal cover, usually copper or aluminum, is
energy supplied to the coil is used up in heat. to provide a shield against the varying flux of rf
The two main effects are eddy-current losses current. In this case, the shielding effect de-
and hysteresis losses. pends on using a good conductor for the eddy
currents produced by. the varying flux, rather
Eddy Currents. In any inductance with an iron than the magnetic materials used for shielding
core, alternating current induces voltage in the against static magnetic flux.
core itself. Since it is a conductor, the iron core The shield cover not only isolates the coil
has current produced by the induced voltage. from external varying magnetic fields, but also
This current is called an eddy current because it minimizes the effect of the coil's rf current for
flows in a circular path through the cross sec- external circuits. The reason why the shield
tion of the core, as illustrated in Fig. 18-14. helps both ways is the same, as the induced
The eddy currents represent wasted power eddy currents have a field that opposes the field
dissipated as heat in the core, equal to 12 R, that is inducing the current. It should be noted
where R is the resistance of the core. Note in that the clearance between the sides of the coil
Fig. 18-14 that the eddy-current flux opposes and the metal should be equal to or greater
the coil flux, requiring more current in the coil than the coil radius, to minimize the effect of the
to maintain its magnetic field. The higher the shield in reducing the inductance.
frequency of the alternating current in the in-
ductance, the greater the eddy-current loss. Hysteresis Losses. Another factor with a mag-
 Chapter 18
Inductance 367

II (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 18-15
Laminated iron core. (a) Shell-type construc-
tion. (b) E- and I-shaped laminations. (c) Sym-
bol for iron core.

netic core for rf coils is hysteresis losses, al- Laminated Core. Figure 18-lSa shows a
though these are not so great as eddy-current shell-type core formed with a group of individ-
losses. The hysteresis losses result from the ual laminations. Each laminated section is insu-
additional power needed to reverse the mag- lated by a very thin coating of iron oxide and
netic field in magnetic materials with rf alternat- varnish. The insulating borders increase the
ing current. resistance in the cross section of the core to
reduce the eddy currents but allow a low-reluc-
Air-Core Coils. It should be noted that air has tance path for high flux density around the core.
practically no losses from eddy currents or hys- Transformers for audio frequencies and 60-Hz
teresis. However, the inductance for small coils
with an air core is limited to low values in the
µH or mH range.

Practice Problems 18-7

(answers on page 378)
(a) Which has greater eddy-current losses, an
iron core or an air core?
I
(b) Which produces more hysteresis losses,
60 Hz or 60 MHz?

18-8
TYPES OF CORES
In order to minimize losses while maintaining
high flux density, the core can be made of lami-
nated sheets insulated from each other, or in-
sulated powdered-iron granules and ferrite ma- FIGURE 18-16
terials can be used. These core types are Rf coils with ferrite core. Width of coil is % in.
illustrated in Figs. 18-15 and 18-16. The pur- (a) Variable L from 1 to 3 mH. (b) Tuning coil
pose is to reduce the amount of eddy currents. for 40 MHz.
 Chapter 18
368 Inductance

power are generally made with a laminated iron (c) The ferrites have less eddy-current losses
core. than iron.

Powdered-Iron Core. To reduce eddy currents

in the iron core of an inductance for radio 18-9
frequencies, powdered iron is generally used. It VARIABLE INDUCTANCE
consists of individual insulated granules pressed The inductance of a coil can be varied by one of
into one solid form called a slug. the methods illustrated in Fig. 18-17. In (a),
more or fewer turns can be used by connection
Ferrite Core. The ferrites are synthetic ce- to one of the taps on the coil. In (b), a slider
ramic materials that are ferromagnetic. They contacts the coil to vary the number of turns
provide high values of flux density, like iron, but used. These methods are for large coils. Note
with the advantage of being insulators. There- that the unused turns are short-circuited to pre-
fore, a ferrite core can be used for high fre- vent the tapped coil from acting as an auto-
quencies with minimum eddy-current losses. transformer. The reason is that stepped-up
This core is usually a slug that can move in voltage could cause arcing across the turns.
or out of the coil to vary L. In Fig. 18-16a, the Figure 18-17 c shows the schematic symbol
screw at the top moves the core; in (b) the core for a coil with a slug of powdered iron or ferrite.
has a hole to fit a plastic alignment tool for The dotted lines indicate the core is not solid
tuning the coil. Maximum L results with the slug iron. The arrow shows the slug is variable. Usu-
in the coil. ally, an arrow at the top means the adjustment
is at the top of the coil. An arrow at the bottom,
Practice Problems 18-8 pointing down, shows the adjustment is at the
(answers on page 378) bottom.
Answer true or false. The symbol in (d) is a variometer, which is
(a) An iron core provides a coefficient of cou- an arrangement for varying the position of one
pling k of 1. coil within the other. The total inductance of the
(b) A laminated iron core reduces eddy-cur- series-aiding coils is minimum when they are
rent losses. perpendicular.

A\
II
II
II
II

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 18-17
Methods of varying inductance. (a) Tapped
coil. ( b) Slider contact. ( c) Adjustable slug.
(d) \kriometer. ( e) Symbol for variable L.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 369

For any method of varying L, the coil with 18-10

an arrow in (e) can -be used. However, an ad- INDUCTANCES IN SERIES
justable slug is usually shown as in (c). OR PARALLEL
A practical application of variable induct- As shown in Fig. 18-19, the total inductance of
ance is the Variac in Fig. 18-18. This unit is an coils connected in series is the sum of the indi-
autotransformer with a variable tap to change vidual L values, as for series R. Since the series
the turns ratio. The output voltage in the sec- coils have the same current, the total induced
ondary can be varied from 0 to 140 V, with voltage is a result of the total number of turns.
input from the 120-V 60-Hz power line. One Therefore, in series,
use is to test equipment with voltage above or
below the normal line voltage. (18-10)
The Variac is plugged into the power line,
and the equipment to be tested is plugged into
where LT is in the same units of inductance as
the Variac. Note that the power rating of the
L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 . This formula assumes no mutual
Variac should be equal to or more than the
induction between the coils.
power used by the equipment being tested.
Example 15. L1 in Fig. 18-19 is 5 mH and L2 is
Practice Problems 18-9 10 mH. How much is LT?
(answers on page 378)
Answer true or false. Answer. LT = 5 mH + 10 mH
(a) The Variac is an autotransformer with a LT= 15 mH
variable tap for the primary.
(b) Figure 18-17 c shows a ferrite core. With coils connected in parallel, the total
inductance is calculated from the reciprocal
formula

(18-11)

Again, no mutual induction is assumed, as illus-

trated in Fig. 18-20.

L,

FIGURE 18-18 Lr=L 1 +L 2

Variac rated at 300 W. Length is 5 in. (General FIGURE 18-19

Radio Corp.) Inductances in series without mutual coupling.
 Chapter 18
370 Inductance

opposing. Series-aiding means that the com-

mon current produces the same direction of
magnetic field for the two coils. The series-
opposing connection results in opposite fields.
The coupling depends on the coil connec-
tions and direction of winding. Reversing either
1 1 1
-=-+- one reverses the field. In Fig. 18-21, Li and L 2
Lr L 1 L 2
FIGURE 18-20 with the same direction of winding are con -
Inductances in parallel without mutual cou-
nected series-aiding in (a). However, they are
pling. series-opposing in (b) because Li is connected
to the opposite end of L 2 .
To calculate the total inductance of two
Example 16. L1 and L2 in Fig. 18-20 are each
coils that are series-connected and have mutual
8 mH. How much is LT?
inductance,
Answer.
(18-12)

The mutual inductance LM is plus, increasing

the total inductance, when the coils are series-
All the shortcuts for calculating parallel R can aiding, or minus when they are series-opposing
be used with parallel L, since both are based on to reduce the total inductance.
the reciprocal formula. In this example LT is Note the large dots just above the coils in
1/:z x 8 =4mH. Fig. 18-21. This method is generally used to
indicate the sense of the windings without the
Series Coils with LM. This case depends on need for showing the actual physical construc-
the amount of mutual coupling and on whether tion. Coils with dots at the same end have the
the coils are connected series-aiding or series- same direction of winding. When current enters

Series-aiding Series-opposing
LM LM
•__......................-..,,...,,.._.
____._.._..__... • ,-A-..
_ _. _ ..................._ _ .......""""""
--~f"¥">t

L,

(a) (b)
FIGURE 18-21
L1 and L2 in series but with mutual coupling LM.
(a) Aiding magnetic fields. (b) Opposing mag-
netic fields.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 371

the dotted ends for two coils, their fields are Practice Problems 18-10
aiding and LM has the same sense as L. (answers on page 378)
(a) A 500-µH coil and a 1-mH coil are in
series without LM. Calculate LT.
How to Measure LM. Formula (18-12) pro-
(b) The same coils are in parallel without LM.
vides a method of determining the mutual in-
Calculate LT.
ductance between two coils L1 and L 2 of known
inductance. First, the total inductance is meas-
18-11
ured for the series-aiding connection. Let this
STRAY INDUCTANCE
be LT . Then the connections to one coil are
Although practical inductors are generally
reversaed to measure the total inductance for the
made as coils, all conductors have inductance.
series-opposing coils. Let this be LT Then •
0 The amount of L is vL/ (di! dt), as with any in-
ductance producing induced voltage when the
current changes. The inductance of any wiring
(18-13)
not included in the conventional inductors can
be considered stray inductance. In most cases,
the stray inductance is very small, typical values
When the mutual inductance is known, the co- being less than 1 µH. For high radio frequen-
efficient of coupling k can be calculated from cies, though, even a small L can have an appre-
the fact that LM = k YL;L;. ciable inductive effect.
One source of stray inductance is the con-
Example 17. Two series coils, each with an L of
250 µ.H, have a total inductance of 550 µ.H con- necting leads. A wire of 0.04 in diameter and
nected series-aiding and 450 µ.H series-opposing. 4 in long has an L of approximately 0.1 µH. At
(a) How much is the mutual inductance LM between low frequencies, this inductance is negligible.
the two coils? (b) How much is the coupling co- However, consider the case of rf current where
efficient k? i varies from a 0- to 20-mA peak value in the
short time of 0.025 µs for a quarter-cycle of a
Answer. 10-MHz sine wave. Then vL equals 80 mV,
100 which is an appreciable inductive effect. This is
LT - LT 550 - 450
(a) LM = a 4 o = 4 one reason why the connecting leads must be
4 very short in rf circuits.
LM = 25 µ.H As another example, wirewound resistors
(b) LM = kvr;L; can have appreciable inductance when wound
or as a straight coil. This is why carbon resistors
k = __!:.M_ = 25 = 25 = 1 are preferred for minimum stray inductance in
vr;r; v/250 x 250 250 10 rf circuits. However, noninductive wirewound
k = 0.1 resistors can also be used. These are wound in
such a way that adjacent turns have current in
Coils may also be in parallel with mutual opposite directions, so that the magnetic fields
coupling. However, the inverse relations with oppose each other to cancel the inductance.
parallel connections and the question of aiding Another application of this technique is twisting
or opposing fields make this case complicated. a pair of connecting leads to reduce the induc-
Actually, it would hardly ever be used. tive effect.
 Chapter 18
372 Inductance

Practice Problems 18-11 Practice Problems 18-12

(answers on page 378) (answers on page 378)
Answer true or false. (a) What is the unit of energy?
(a) A straight wire 1 ft long can have L less (b) Does a 4-H coil store double or one-half
than 1 µH. the energy of a 2- H coil?
(b) Carbon resistors have less L than wire-
wound resistors. 18-13
TROUBLES IN COILS
18-12 The most common trouble in coils is an open
ENERGY IN MAGNETIC FIELD winding. As illustrated in Fig. 18-22, an ohm-
OF INDUCTANCE meter connected across the coil reads infinite
Magnetic flux associated with current in an in- resistance for the open circuit. It does not mat-
ductance has electrical energy supplied by the ter whether the coil has an air core or an iron
voltage source producing the current. The en- core. Since the coil is open, it cannot conduct
ergy is stored in the field, since it can do the current and therefore has no inductance, be-
work of producing induced voltage when the cause it cannot produce induced voltage. When
flux moves. The amount of electrical energy the resistance is checked, the coil should be
stored is disconnected from the external circuit to elimi-
nate any parallel paths that could affect the
Energy = e = YzLF J (18-14) resistance readings.

The factor of Yz gives the average result of I in

DC Resistance of a Coil. A coil has de resist-
producing energy. With L in henrys and I in
ance equal to the resistance of the wire used in
amperes, the energy is in watt-seconds, or
the winding. The amount of resistance is less
joules. For a 10-H L with a 3-A I, the electrical
with heavier wire and fewer turns. For rf coils
energy stored in the magnetic field equals
with inductance values up to several milli-
henrys, requiring 10 to 100 turns of fine wire,
Energy = YzLF = 10 x9 = 45 J the de resistance is 1 to 20 Q, approximately.
2
Inductors for 60 Hz and audio frequencies with
several hundred turns may have resistance val-
This 45 J of energy is supplied by the volt-
ues of 10 to 500 Q, depending on the wire size.
age source that produces 3 A in the inductance.
When the circuit is opened, the magnetic field
Ohmmeter
collapses. The energy in the collapsing mag-
netic field is returned to the circuit in the form /Open
of induced voltage, which tends to keep the )(

current flowing. L
The entire 45 J is available for the work of
inducing voltage, since no energy is dissipated
by the magnetic field. With resistance in the
circuit, however, the J2 R loss with induced cur- FIGURE 18-22
rent dissipates all the energy after a period of An open coil reads infinite ohms when its con-
time. tinuity is checked with an ohmmeter.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 373

Open Primary Winding. When the primary of

a transformer is open, no primary current can
flow and there is no voltage induced in any of
the secondary windings.
Open Secondary Winding. When the sec-
ondary of a transformer is open, it cannot sup-
ply power to any load resistance across the
FIGURE 18-23 open winding. Furthermore, with no current in
the secondary, the primary current is also prac-
The internal de resistance ri is in series with the
inductance of the coil. tically zero, as though the primary winding were
open. The only primary current needed is the
As shown in Fig. 18-23, the de resistance small magnetizing current to sustain the field
and inductance of a coil are in series, since the producing induced voltage across the second-
same current that induces voltage in the turns ary without any load. If the transformer has
must overcome the resistance of the wire. Al- several secondary windings, however, an open
though resistance has no function in producing winding in one secondary does not affect trans-
induced voltage, it is useful to know the de coil former operation for the secondary circuits that
resistance because if it is normal, usually the are normal.
inductance can also be assumed to have its Short across Secondary Winding. In this
normal value. case excessive primary current flows, as though
it were short-circuited, often burning out the
Open Coil. An open winding has infinite re- primary winding. The reason is that the large
sistance, as indicated by an ohmmeter reading. secondary current has a strong field that
With a transformer having four leads or more, opposes the flux of the self-induced voltage
check the resistance across the two leads for the across the primary, making it draw more cur-
primary, across the two leads for the secondary, rent from the generator.
and across any other pairs of leads for addi-
tional secondary windings. For an autotrans- Practice Problems 18-13
former with three leads, check the resistance (answers on page 378)
from one lead to each of the other two. {a) The normal R of a coil is 18 Q. How much
When the open circuit is inside the wind- will an ohmmeter read if the coil is open?
ing, it is usually not practical to repair the coil {b) The primary of a 3: 1 step-up autotrans-
and the entire unit is replaced. In some cases, former is connected to the 120-Vac power
an open connection at the terminals can be line. How much will the secondary voltage
resoldered. be if the primary is open?

Summary
1. Varying current induces voltage in a conductor, since the expanding
and collapsing field of the current is equivalent to flux in motion.
 Chapter 18
374 Inductance

2. Lenz' law states that the induced voltage opposes the change in
current causing the induction. Inductance, therefore, tends to keep
the current from changing.
3. The ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage across itself
when the current varies is its self-inductance, or inductance. The
symbol is L, and the unit of inductance is the henry. One henry
of inductance allows 1 V to be induced when the current changes
- at the rate of 1 A/s. For smaller units 1 mH = 1 X 10-3 H;
1 µH = 1 x 10-6 H.
4. To calculate the self-induced voltage, vL = L (di! dt), with v in volts, L
in henrys, and di/ dt in amperes per second.
5. Mutual inductance is the ability of varying current in one conductor to
induce voltage in another conductor nearby. Its symbol is LM, meas-
ured in henrys. LM = k yr;L;, where k is the coefficient of coupling.
6. A transformer consists of two or more windings with mutual induct-
ance. The primary winding connects to the source voltage; the load
resistance is connected across the secondary winding. A separate
winding is an isolated secondary.
7. An autotransformer is a tapped coil, used to step up or step down the
primary voltage. There are three leads with one connection common
to both the primary and secondary.
8. A transformer with an iron core has essentially unit coupling.
Therefore, the voltage ratio is the same as the turns ratio:
\1sl\'1, = N 8 !NP.
9. Assuming 100 percent efficiency for an iron-core power transformer,
the power supplied to the primary equals the power used in the
secondary.
10. Eddy currents are induced in the iron core of an inductance causing
wasted power that heats the core. Eddy-current losses increase with
higher frequencies of alternating current. To reduce eddy currents,
the iron core is laminated with insulated sections. Powdered-iron and
ferrite cores have minimum eddy-current losses for radio frequen-
cies. Hysteresis losses also cause wasted power.
11. Assuming no mutual coupling, series inductances are added like
series resistances. For parallel inductances, the total inductance is
calculated by the reciprocal formula, as for parallel resistances.
12. The magnetic field of an inductance has stored energy LJZ 12. With I
in amperes and L in henrys, the energy is in joules.
13. In addition to its inductance, a coil has de resistance equal to the
resistance of the wire in the coil. An open coil has infinitely high
resistance.
14. An open primary in a transformer results in no induced voltage in
any of the secondary windings.
 Chapter 18
Inductance 375

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (g)

FIGURE 18-24
Summary of types of inductors. (a) Air-core
coil. (b) Iron-core coil. (c) Adjustable ferrite
core. (d) Air-core transformer. (e) Variable LP
and L 8 . ( f) Iron-core transformer. (g) Auto-
transformer.

15. Figure 18-24 summarizes the main types of inductors, or coils, with
their schematic symbols.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Alternating current can induce voltage because alternating current

has a (a) high peak value; (b) varying magnetic field; (c) stronger
magnetic field than direct current; (d) constant magnetic field.
2. When current in a conductor increases, Lenz' law says that the
self-induced voltage will (a) tend to increase the amount of current;
(b) aid the applied voltage; (c) produce current opposite to the
increasing current; (d) aid the increasing current.
3. A 5: 1 voltage step-up transformer has 120 Vacross the primary and
a 600-Q resistance across the secondary. Assuming 100 percent
efficiency, the primary current equals (a) 1/s A; (b) 600 mA; (c) 5 A;
(d) 10 A.
4. An iron-core transformer with an 8: 1 step-up ratio has 120 Vapplied
across the pnmary. The voltage across the secondary equals
(a) 15 V; (b) 120 V; (c) 180 V; (d) 960 V.
5. With double the number of turns but the same length and area, the
inductance is (a) the same; (b) double; (c) quadruple; (d) one-
quarter.
6. Current changing from 4 to 6 A in 1 s induces 40 V in a coil. Its
inductance equals (a) 40 mH; (b) 4 H; (c) 6 H; (d) 20 H.
7. A laminated iron core has reduced eddy-current losses because
 Chapter 18
376 Inductance

(a) the laminations are stacked vertically; (b) the laminations are
insulated from each other; (c) the magnetic flux is concentrated in the
air gap of the core; (d) more wire can be used with less de resistance
in the coil.
8. Two 250-µH coils in series without mutual coupling have a total
inductance of (a) 125 µH; (b) 250 µH; (c) 400 µH; (d) 500 µH.
9. The de resistance of a coil made with 100 ft of No. 30 gage copper
wire is approximately (a) less than 1 n; (b) 10.5 n; (c) 104 n;
(d) more than 1 Mn.
10. An open coil has (a) infinite resistance and zero inductance; (b) zero
resistance and high inductance; (c) infinite resistance and normal
inductance; (d) zero resistance and inductance.

Essay Questions
1. Define 1 H of self-inductance and 1 H of mutual inductance.
2. State Lenz' law in terms of induced voltage produced by varying
current.
3. Refer to Fig. 18-5. Explain why the polarity of vL is the same in (a)
and (d).
4. Make a schematic diagram showing primary and secondary for an
iron-core transformer with a 6: 1 voltage step-up ratio: (a) using an
autotransformer; (b) using a transformer with isolated secondary
winding. Then (c) with 100 turns in the primary, how many turns are
in the secondary for both cases?
5. Define the following: coefficient of coupling, transformer efficiency,
stray inductance, and eddy-current losses.
6. Why are eddy-current losses reduced with the following cores:
(a) laminated; (b) powdered iron; (c) ferrite?
7. Why is a good conductor used for an rf shield?
8. Show two methods of providing a variable inductance.
9. Derive the formula LM = (LT - LT )/4 from the fact that
LT = Li + L2 + 2LM while LT ~ Li -/'.. L2 - 2LM.
0

10. (a) Why will the primary of a power transformer have excessive
current ifthe secondary is short-circuited? (b) Why is there no voltage
across the secondary if the primary is open?
11. (a) Describe briefly how to check a coil for an open winding with an
ohmmeter. What ohmmeter range should be used? (b) What leads
will be checked on an autotransformer with one secondary and a
transformer with two isolated secondary windings?
12. What is a Variac, and how is it used?
 Chapter 18
Inductance 377

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Convert the following current changes to amperes per second:

(a) zero to 4 A in 2 s; (b) zero to 50 mA in 5 µs; (c) 100to150 mA in
5 µs; (d) 150 to 100 mA in 5 µs.
2. Convert into henrys using powers of 10: (a) 250 µH; (b) 40 µH;
(c) 40 mH; (d) 5 mH; (e) 0.005 H.
3. Calculate the values of uL across a 5-mH inductance for each of the
current variations in Prob. 1.
4. A coil produces a self-induced voltage of 50 mV when i varies at the
rate of 25 mA/ms. How much is L?
5. A power transformer with an 8: 1 turns ratio has 60 Hz 120 Vacross
the primary. (a) What is the frequency of the secondary voltage?
(b) How much is the secondary voltage? (c) With a load resistance of
10,000 Q across the secondary, how much is the secondary current?
Draw the schematic diagram showing primary and secondary cir-
cuits. (d) How much is the primary current? Assume 100 percent
efficiency. (Note: 8: 1 is the ratio of L8 to Lp.)
6. How much would the primary current be in a power transformer
having a primary resistance of 5 Q if it were connected by mistake to
a 120-V de line instead of the 120-V ac line?
7. For a 100-µH inductance L1 and a 200-µH inductance L 2 , calculate
the following: (a) the total inductance LT of L1 and L2 in series
without mutual coupling; (b) the combined inductance of L1 and L 2 in
parallel without mutual coupling; (c) the LT of L1 and L2 series-
aiding, and series-opposing, with 10-µH mutual inductance; (d) the
value of the coupling factor k.
8. Calculate the inductance L for the following long coils: (a) Air core,
20 turns, area 3.14 cm 2 , length 25 cm; (b) same coil as (a) with
ferrite core having aµ of 5000; (c) air core, 200 turns, area 3.14 cm 2 ,
length 25 cm; (d) air core, 20 turns, area 3.14 cm 2 , length 50 cm;
(e) air core, 20 turns, diameter 4 cm, length 50 cm. (Note:
1 cm = 10-2 m, and 1 cm 2 = 10-4 m 2 .)
9. Calculate the resistance of the following coils, using Table 10-1:
(a) 400 turns, each using 3 in of No. 30 gage wire; (b) 40 turns, each
using 3 in of No. 10 gage wire.
10. (a) Calculate the period T for one cycle of a 10-MHz sine wave. (b)
How much is the time for one quarter-cycle? (c) If i increases from 0
to 20 mA in this time, how much is uL across a 0.1-µH inductance?
11. Calculate the energy in joules stored in the magnetic field of a
300-mH L with a 90-mA I.
 Chapter 18
378 Inductance

12. (a) A transformer delivers 400 W out with 500 W in. Calculate the
efficiency in percent. (b) A transformer with 80 percent efficiency
delivers 400 W total secondary power. Calculate the primary power.
13. A 20-mH L and a 40-mH L are connected series-aiding, with
k = 0.4. Calculate LT.
14. Calculate the inductance of the coil in Fig. 18-4 with an iron core
having a µr of 100.

Answers to Practice Problems

18-1 (a) Coil (b) 18-8 (a) T
(b) Time B (b) T
18-2 (a) L =2 H (c) T
(b) L = 32 mH 18-9 (a) T
18-3 (a) VL = 2 V (b) T
(b) VL = 200 V 18-10 (a) LT= 1.5 mH
18-4 (a) T (b) LT= 0.33 mH
(b) T 18-11 (a) T
18-5 (a) k =1 (b) T
(b) LM = 18mH 18-12 (a) Joule
18-6 (a) Vs= 240V (b) Double
(b) Is= 0.1 A 18-13 (d) Infinite ohms
18-7 (a) Iron core (b) ov
(b) 60 MHz
 Inductive
Reactance
When alternating current flows in an inductance L, the amount of current
is much less than the resistance alone would allow. The reason is that the
current variations induce a voltage across L that opposes the applied
Chap
voltage. This additional opposition of an inductance to sine-wave alter-
nating current is specified by the amount of its inductive reactance XL. The
X indicates reactance. It is an opposition to current, measured in ohms.
The XL is the ohms of opposition, therefore, that an inductance L has for
sine-wave current.
The amount of XL equals 277 fL ohms, with fin hertz and Lin henrys.
18
Note that the opposition in ohms of XL increases for higher frequencies
and more inductance.
The requirements for having XL correspond to what is needed for
producing induced voltage. There must be variations in current and its
associated magnetic flux. For a steady direct current without any changes
in current, the XL is zero. However, with sine-wave alternating current, the
XL is the best way to analyze the effect of L. The topics explaining this
important factor of XL in sine-wave ac circuits are:

19-1 How XL Reduces the Amount of I

19-2 XL= 27TfL
19-3 Series or Parallel Inductive Reactances
19-4 Ohm's Law Applied to XL
19-5 Applications of XL for Different Frequencies.
19-6 Waveshape of vL Induced by Sine-Wave Current.

19-1 the bulb with full brilliance. This 2.4-A I results

HOW XL REDUCES THE from 120 V applied across the 50-n R of the
AMOUNT OF I bulb's filament.
Figure 19•1 illustrates the effect of XL in reduc- In {b), however, a coil is connected in se-
ing the alternating current for a light bulb. The ries with the bulb. The coil has a de resistance of
more ohms of XL, the Jess current flows. When only 1 n, which is negligible, but the reactance
XL reduces I to a very small value, the bulb of the inductance is 1000 n. This XL is a meas-
cannot Jight. ure of the coil's reaction to sine-wave current in
In (a), there is no inductance, and the ac producing a self-induced voltage that opposes
voltage source produces a 2.4-A current to light the applied voltage and reduces the current.
 Chapter 19
380 Inductive Reactance

XL= 1,000 Q

120 v
.... = 120V
/11 , ,
/II'' R=
I= 2.4 A R= 50.Q I= 2.4 A R=
50.Q 50 n
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 19-1
Illustrating the effect of XL in reducing the
amount of alternating current. (a) Bulb lights
with 2.4 A. (b) Inserting an XL of 1000 Q re-
duces I to 0.12 A, and the bulb cannot light.
( c) With direct current, the coil has no inductive
reactance, and the bulb lights.

Now I is 120 V/1000 Q, approximately, which rent. Furthermore, the higher the fre-
equals 0.12 A. This I is not enough to light the quency of the alternating current, and the
bulb. greater the inductance, the higher is the XL
Although the de resistance is only 1 Q, the opposition.
XL of 1000 Q for the coil limits the amount of 2. There is no XL for steady direct current. In
alternating current to such a low value that the this case, the coil is just a resistance equal
bulb cannot light. This XL of 1000 Q for a 60-Hz to the resistance of the wire.
current can be obtained with an inductance L of
These effects have almost unlimited appli-
approximately 2 .65 H.
cations in practical circuits. Consider how use-
In (c), the coil is also in series with the bulb,
ful ohms of XL can be for different kinds of
but the applied battery voltage produces a
current, compared with resistance, which al-
steady value of direct current. Without any cur-
ways has the same ohms of opposition. One
rent variations, the coil cannot induce any volt-
example is to use XL where it is desired to have
age and, therefore, it has no reactance. The
high ohms of opposition to alternating current
amount of direct current, then, is practically the
but little opposition to direct current. Another
same as though the de voltage source were
example is to use XL for more opposition to a
connected directly across the bulb, and it lights
high-frequency alternating current, compared
with full brilliance. In this case, the coil is only a
with lower frequencies.
length of wire, as there is no induced voltage
without current variations. The de resistance is XL Is an Inductive Effect. The reason why an
the resistance of the wire in the coil. inductance can have XL to reduce the amount
In summary, we can make the following of alternating current is the fact that self-
conclusions: induced voltage is produced to oppose the ap-
plied voltage. In Fig. 19-2, \.{ is the voltage
1. An inductance can have appreciable XL in across L, induced by the variations in sine-wave
ac circuits, to reduce the amount of cur- current produced by the applied voltage ~.
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 381

Practice Problems 19-1

(answers on page 393)
VA = 120 (a) For the de circuit in Fig. 19-lc, how much
120 v = 120 V XL = 0.12
60 Hz
VL
II 1000 n is XL?
(b) For the ac circuit in Fig. 19-lb, how much
is the VI I ratio for the ohms of XL?
FIGURE 19-2
The inductive reactance XL equals the \{/IL 19-2
ratio in ohms. XL= 2wfL
This formula includes the effects of frequency
The two voltages ~ and \{ are the same and inductance for calculating the reactance.
because they are in parallel. However, the cur- The frequency is in hertz and L is in henrys for
rent IL is the amount that allows the self- an XL in ohms. As an example, we can calculate
induced voltage \{ to be equal to ~· In this XL for a 2.65-Hz L at the frequency of 60 Hz:
example, I is 0.12 A This value of a 60-Hz
current in the inductance produces a VL of XL= 27TfL (19-1)
120 v. = 6.28 x 60 x 2.65
XL= 1000 Q
The Reactance Is a VI I Ratio. When we
Note the following factors in the formula
consider the VI I ratio for the ohms of opposi-
XL= 27TfL
tion to the sine-wave current, this value is
12010.12, which equals 1000 Q. This 1000 Q is
1. The constant factor 27T is always
what we call XL, to indicate how much current
2 x 3.14 = 6.28. It indicates the circular
can be produced by sine-wave voltage across an
motion from which a sine wave is derived.
inductance. The ohms of XL can be almost any
Therefore, this formula applies only to
amount, but the 1000 Q here is a typical exam -
sine-wave ac circuits. The 27T is actually 27T
pie.
rad or 360 ° for a complete circle or cycle.
Furthermore, 27T X f is the angular veloc-
The Effect of L and J on XL. The XL value ity, in radls, for a rotating phasor corre-
depends on the amount of inductance and the sponding to the sine-wave V or I of that
frequency of the alternating current. If L in Fig. particular frequency.
19-2 were increased, it could induce the same 2. The frequency f is a time element. Higher
120 V for \{ with less current. Then the ratio of frequency means the current varies at a
\{I IL would be greater, meaning more XL for faster rate. A faster current change can
more inductance. produce more self-induced voltage across
Also, if the frequency were increased in a given amount of inductance.
Fig. 19-2, the current variations would be faster 3. The inductance L indicates the physical
with a higher frequency. Then the same L could factors of the coil that determine how
produce the 120 V for \{with less current. For much voltage it can induce for a given
this condition also, the \{I IL ratio would be current change.
greater because of the smaller current, indicat- 4. XL is in ohms, corresponding to a \{I IL
ing more XL for a higher frequency. ratio for sine-wave ac circuits, to determine
 Chapter 19
382 Inductive Reactance

how much current L allows for a given Example 2. Calculate the XL of (a) a 10-H L at
applied voltage. 60 Hz and (b) a 5-H L at 60 Hz.

Stating XL either as \{!IL or as 2'7T JL are Answer.

two ways of specifying the same value of ohms.
The 2'7T f L formula gives the effect of L and f on (a) For a 10-H L,
the XL. The VL/ IL ratio gives the result of 2'7T f L XL = 277/L = 6.28 x 60 x 10
in reducing the amount of I. XL= 3768 Q
The formula 2'7T f L shows that XL is pro- (b) For a 5-H L,
portional to frequency. When f is doubled, for XL=% x 3768
instance, XL is doubled. This linear increase of XL= 1884 Q
inductive reactance with frequency is illustrated
in Fig. 19-3.
The reactance formula also shows that XL Example 3. Calculate the XL of a 250-µH coil at (a)
1 MHz and (b) 10 MHz.
is proportional to the inductance. When the
value of henrys for L is doubled, the ohms of XL
Answer.
is also doubled. This linear increase of inductive
reactance with frequency is illustrated in Fig. (a) At 1 MHz,
19-4. XL = 277/L = 6.28 x 1 x 10 6 x 250 x 10-6
Example 1. How much is XL of a 6-mH L at = 6.28 x 250
41.67 kHz? XL= 1570 Q

Answer. XL = 277/L (b) At 10 MHz,

= 6.28 x 41.67 x 10 x 6 x 10-
3 3
XL= 10 x 1570
XL= 1570 Q XL= 15,700 Q

XL increases with higher f

700
Frequency, XL= 2rrfL,
Hz n
0 0
100 200
200 400 ~
300 600 400
~~
400 800
300

100 200 300 400

Frequency (f), Hz
FIGURE 19-3
Linear increase of XL with higher frequencies.
L is constant at 0.32 H.
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 383

800
f = 100 Hz
XL increases with higher L 700

Inductance, XL= 27f fl,

600
H n
0 0 500
0.32 200 ~
0.64 400 400
0.96 600 ~...;i
1.28 800
300

200

0.32 0.64 0.96 1.28

L,H
FIGURE 19-4
Linear increase of XL with higher values of
inductance. Frequency is constant at 100 Hz.

The last two examples illustrate the fact x - \{ - 62.8 v

Answer.
that XL is proportional to frequency and induct- L - IL - 0.01 A
ance. In Example 2b, XL is one-half the value in XL= 6280 Q
(a) because the inductance is one-half. In Ex-
ample 3b, XL is ten times more than in (a) Example 5. Calculate the L of the coil in Example 4
because the frequency is ten times higher. when the frequency is 1000 Hz.

XL 6280 6280
Finding L from XL" Not only can XL be calcu- Answer.
L = 2'lTf = 6.28 x 1000 = 6280
lated from f and L, but if any two factors are
known, the third can be found. Very often XL L=lH
can be determined from voltage and current
Example 6. Calculate the inductance of a coil that
measurements. With the frequency known, L
has a 15, 700-Q XL at 10 MHz.
can be calculated as

Answer. L = XL = 15,700
2'lTf 6.28 x 10 x 10 6
{19-2)
= 15,700 10-6
62.8 x
This formula just has the factors inverted from L = 250 x 10-6
XL = 2'7T f L. Use the basic units with ohms for L = 250 µH
XL and hertz for f to calculate L in henrys.

Example 4. A coil with negligible resistance has Findf from XL" For the third and final version
62.8 V across it with 0.01 A How much is XL? of the inductive reactance formula, j
 Chapter 19
3-84--1-nductive Reactance

f= XL of the individual values, as shown in Fig. 19-Sa.

(19-3)
2'7TL For example, the series reactances of 100 and
200 n add to equal 300 n of XL across both
Use the basic units of ohms for XL and henrys inductances. Therefore, in series,
for L to calculate the frequency in hertz.

Example 7. At what frequency will an inductance of

1 H have the reactance of 1000 Q? For the case of parallel reactances, the
combined reactance is calculated by the recip-
rocal formula. As shown in Fig. 19-Sb, in par-
Answer. f =XL = 1000 = 0.159 x 103
27TL 6.28 x 1 allel
f = 159 Hz

Practice Problems 19-2

(answers on page 393) The combined parallel reactance will be less
(a) Lis 1 Hand /is 100 Hz. How much is XL? than the lowest branch reactance. Any short
(b) L is 0.5 H and f is 100 Hz. How much cuts for calculating parallel resistances also
is XL? apply to the parallel reactances. For instance,
(c) L is 1 H and f is 1000 Hz. How much the combined reactance of two equal re-
is XL? actances in parallel is one-half either reactance.

19-3
SERIES OR PARALLEL Practice Problems 19-3
INDUCTIVE REACT ANCES (answers on page 393)
Since reactance is an opposition in ohms, in- (a) XL of 200 n is in series with a 300-n XL.
ductive reactances in series or parallel are com- How much is the total XL/
bined the same way as ohms of resistance. With (b) XL of 200 n is in parallel with a 300-n XL.
series reactances the total reactance is the sum How much is the combined XL/

1 1 1
-=-+-
XLT = 100 + 200 XLT 100 200
=300.Q
xL2 = xLr = ssj n
200!1

(a) (b)
FIGURE 19-5
Combining inductive reactances. {a) XL 1 and
XL 2 in series. {b) XL I and XL 2 in parallel.
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 385

19-4 lated values of currents and voltage drops in

OHM'S LAW APPLIED TO XL Fig. 19-6 are also rms values.
The amount of current in an ac circuit with just
Practice Problems 19-4
inductive reactance is equal to the applied volt-
(answers on page 393)
age divided by XL. Three examples are illus-
(a) In Fig. 19-6b, how much is the I through
trated in Fig. 19-6. No de resistance is indi-
both XL 1 and XL 2 ?
cated, since it is assumed to be practically zero
(b) In Fig. 19-6c, how much is the V across
for the coils shown. In (a), there is just one
both XL 1 and XL 2 ?
reactance of 100 Q Then I equals VI XL, or
100 V/100 Q, which is 1 A. 19-5
In (b), the total reactance is the sum of the APPLICATIONS OF XL FOR
two individual series reactances of 100 Q each DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES
for a total of 200 Q. The current, calculated as The general use of inductance is to provide
V!XLT' then equals 100 V/200 Q, which is minimum reactance for relatively low frequen-
0 .5 A. This current is the same in both series cies but more for higher frequencies. In this
reactances. Therefore, the voltage across each way, the current in an ac circuit can be reduced
reactance equals its IXL product. This is for higher frequencies because of more XL.
0.5 A X 100 Q, or 50 V across each XL. There are many circuits where voltages of dif-
In (c) each parallel reactance has its indi- ferent frequencies are applied to produce cur-
vidual branch current equal to the applied volt- rent with different frequencies. Then, the gen-
age divided by the branch reactance. Then each eral effect of XL is to allow the most current for
branch current equals 100 V/100 Q, which is direct current and low frequencies, with less
1 A. The voltage is the same across both re- current for higher frequencies, as XL increases.
actances, equal to the generator voltage, since Compare this frequency factor for ohms of
they are all in parallel. XL with ohms of resistance. The XL increases
The total line current of 2 A is the sum of with frequency, but R has the same effect in
the two individual 1-A branch currents. With limiting direct current or alternating current of
rms value for the applied voltage, all the calcu- any frequency.

I= 1 A

XL=
rv 100 v 100 n

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 19~
Circuit calculations with V, I, and ohms of XL.
(a) One reactance. (b) Two series reactances.
( c) Two parallel reactances.
 Chapter 19
386 Inductive Reactance

If 1000 Q is taken as a suitable value of XL 19-6

for many applications, typical inductances can WAVESHAPE OF vL INDUCED
be calculated for different frequencies. These BY SINE-WAVE CURRENT
are listed in Table 19-1. At 60 Hz, for example, More details of inductive circuits can be ana-
the inductance is 2.7 H for 1000 Q of XL. For lyzed by means of the waveshapes in Fig. 19-7,
this case, the inductance has practically no re- plotted for the calculated values in Table 19-2.
actance for direct current or for very low fre- The top curve shows a sine wave of current iL
quencies below 60 Hz. Above 60 Hz, the in- flowing through a 6-mH inductance L. Since
ductive reactance is more than 1000 Q. induced voltage depends on rate of change of
Note that the smaller inductances at the current rather than the absolute value of i, the
bottom of the first column still have the same XL curve in (b) shows how much the current
of 1000 Q as the frequency is increased. Typical changes. In this curve the di! dt values are plot-
rf coils, for instance, have an inductance value ted for the current changes every 30 ° of the
of the order of 100 to 300 µH. For the very high cycle. The bottom curve shows the actual in-
radio-frequency (VHF) range, only several duced voltage vL. This vL curve is similar to the
microhenrys of inductance are needed for an di! dt curve because vL equals the constant fac-
XL of 1000 Q. tor L multiplied by di! dt.
It is necessary to use smaller inductance
values as the frequency is increased because a 90° Phase Angle. The vL curve at the bottom
coil that is too large can have excessive losses at of Fig. 19-7 has its zero values when the iL
high frequencies. With iron-core coils, particu- curve at the top is at maximum. This compari-
larly, the hysteresis and eddy-current losses son shows that the curves are 90 ° out of phase.
increase with frequency. The vL is a cosine wave of voltage for the sine
wave of current iL.
Practice Problems 19-5 The 90 ° phase difference results from the
(answers on page 393) fact that vL depends on the di! dt rate of change,
Refer to Table 19-1. rather than i itself. More details of this 90 °
(a) Which frequency uses the smallest L for phase angle between vL and iL for inductance
1000 Q of XL? are explained in the next chapter.
(b} How much would XL be for the 1.6-µH Lat
200 MHz? Frequency. For each of the curves, the period

TABLE 19-1. Values of Inductance L for XL of 1000.Q

L•, (APPROX.) FREQUENCY REMARKS

2.7 H 60 Hz Power-line frequency and low

audio frequency
160 mH 1000 Hz Medium audio frequency
16 mH 10,000 Hz High audio frequency
160 µH 1000 kHz (rf) In radio broadcast band
16 µH 10 MHz (HF) In short-wave radio band
1.6 µH 100 MHz (VHF) In FM broadcast band
*Calculated as L = 100012'TI'f.
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 387

100
80
60
+
40
<( 20 60° 90° 120° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
E 0
·- 20 2
µs
4
µs
6
µs
8
µs
10
µs
16
µs
18
µs
20
µs
40
60
80
100
(a)
30
+
20
<(, ...
10
E ::t
0
~1{;
10
20
30
(b)
160
140
120
100 vL = cosine wave
80
+
60
40
>
:s1{; 20
.....;i 0
II
20
~
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
(c)

FIGURE 19-7.
Waveshapes of sine-wave current i and induced
voltage Vv plotted for values in Table 19-2.
 Chapter 19
388 Inductive Reactance

TABLE 19-2. Values for vL = L(di! dt) Curves in Fig. 19-7

TIME dt VL =
di!dt, L (dildt),
() µs () µs di,mA mAlµs L,mH v
30° 2 30° 2 50 25 6 150
60° 4 30° 2 36.6 18.3 6 109.8
90° 6 30° 2 13.4 6.7 6 40.2
120° 8 30° 2 -13.4 -6.7 6 -40.2
150° 10 30° 2 -36.6 -18.3 6 -109.8
180° 12 30° 2 -50 -25 6 -150
210° 14 30° 2 -50 -25 6 -150
240° 16 30° 2 -36.6 -18.3 6 -109.8
270° 18 30° 2 -13.4 -6.7 6 -40.2
300° 20 30° 2 13.4 6.7 6 40.2
330° 22 30° 2 36.6 18.3 6 109.8
360° 24 30° 2 50 25 6 150

Tis 24 µs. Therefore, the frequency is 1 IT or 0 .866 of the peak in 60 °, and the peak value is
1/z 4 µs, which equals 41.67 kHz. Each curve has at 90°.
the same frequency. In the di! dt curve the changes in i are
plotted. For the first 30° the di is 50 mA; the dt
Ohms of XL. The ratio of vLI iL actually speci- change is 2 µs. Then di! dt is 25 mA/ µs. This
fies the inductive reactance in ohms. For this point is plotted between 0 and 30 ° to indicate
comparison, we use the actual value of iL, which that 25 mA/ µs is the rate of change of current
has a peak value of 100 mA. The rate-of- for the 2-µs interval between 0 and 30°. If
change factor is included in the induced voltage smaller intervals were used, the di! dt values
vL. Although the peak of vL at 150 V is 90° could be determined more accurately.
before the peak of iL at 100 mA, we can com - During the next 2-µs interval from 30 to
pare these two peak values. Then vLI iL is 60°, the current increases from 50 to 86.6 mA.
150/0.1, which equals 1500 Q. The change of current during this time is
This XL is only an approximate value be- 86.6 - 50, which equals 36.6 mA. The time is
cause vL cannot be determined exactly for the the same 2 µs for all the intervals. Then di! dt
large dt changes every 30 °. If we used smaller for the next plotted point is 36.6/2, or 18.3.
intervals of time, the peak vL would be 157 V. For the final 2-µs change before i reaches
Then XL would be 1570 Q, the same as 2'7TfL Q its peak at 100 mA, the di value is 100 - 86.6,
with a 6-mH L and a frequency of 41.67 kHz. or 13.4 mA, and the di!dtvalue is 6.7. All these
This is the same XL problem as Example 1 on values are listed in Table 19-2.
page 382. Notice that the di! dt curve in Fig. 19-7 b
has its peaks at the zero value of the i curve,
The Tabulated Values from 0 to 90°. The while the peak i values correspond to zero on
numerical values in Table 19-2 are calculated as the di! dt curves. These conditions result be-
follows: The i curve is a sine wave. This means cause the sine wave of i has its sharpest slope at
it rises to one-half its peak value in 30°, to the zero values. The rate of change is greatest
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 389

when the i curve is going through the zero axis. are considered negative from 180 to 270°, as in
The i curve flattens near the peaks and has zero the second quarter-cycle, compared with the
rate of change exactly at the peak. The curve positive di values from 0 to 90°. Actually, in-
must stop going up before it can come down. In creasing negative values and decreasing posi-
summary, then, the di! dt curve and the i curve tive values are changing in the same direction.
are 90 ° out of phase with each other. This is why vL is negative for both the second
The vL curve follows the di! dt curve ex- and third quarter-cycles.
actly as vL = L(di!dt). The phase of the vL
curve is exactly the same as the di! dt curve, 90 ° 270 to 360°. In the last quarter-cycle, the
out of phase with the i curve. For the first plot- negative i values are decreasing. Now the effect
ted point, on polarity is like two negatives making a posi-
tive. The current and its magnetic flux have the
3
v = L di = 6 x 10-3 x 5 o X l 0-6 = 150 V negative direction. But the flux is collapsing,
L dt 2 X lQ- which induces opposite voltage from increasing
flux. Therefore, the di values from 270 to 360°
The other vL values are calculated the same are positive, as are the di! dt values and the
way, multiplying the constant factor of 6 mH by induced voltages vL. Actually, the slope of the
the di! dt value for each 2-µs interval. sine wave of current in the last 90 ° has the
same positive upward direction as in the first
90 to 180°. In this quarter-cycle, the sine wave 90°.
of i decreases from its peak of 100 mA at 90 ° to The same action is repeated for each cycle
zero at 180°. This decrease is considered a of sine-wave current. Then the current iL and
negative value for di, as the slope is negative the induced voltage vL are 90 ° out of phase.
going downward. Physically, the decrease in The reason is that vL depends on di! dt, not on i
current means its associated magnetic flux is alone.
collapsing, compared with the expanding flux as The phase angle of 90 ° between VL and I
the current increases. The opposite motion of will always apply for any L with sine-wave cur-
the collapsing flux must make vL of opposite rent. Remember, though, that the specific com-
polarity, compared with the induced voltage
polarity for increasing flux. This is why the di
values are negative from 90 to 180°. The di!dt
values are also negative, and the vL values are
L,
negative.

180 to 270°. In this quarter-cycle, the current

increases in the reverse direction. If the mag- R,
netic flux is considered counterclockwise
around the conductor with + i values, the flux is
in the reversed clockwise direction with - i val-
ues. Any induced voltage produced by expand- FIGURE 19-8
ing flux in one direction will have opposite po- How 90 ° phase angle for a \{ applies in a
larity from voltage induced by expanding flux in circuit. /1 lags VL 1 by 90 °; 12 lags VL 2 by 90 °;
the opposite direction. This is why the di values 13 lags VL 3 by 90°.
 Chapter 19
390 Inductive Reactance

parison is only between the voltage across any Practice Problems 19-6
one coil and the current flowing in its turns. To (answers on page 393)
emphasize this important principle, Fig. 19-8 Refer to Fig. 19- 7.
shows an ac circuit with a few coils and resis- (a) At what angle does i have its maximum
tors. The phase angles in the circuit here are positive value?
not to be figured now. However, for each L, the (b) At what angle does vL have its maximum
VL is 90 ° out of phase with its I. The I lags VL by· positive value?
90°, or VL leads I, because the peak of VL is% (c) What is the phase angle difference between
cycle earlier in time than the peak of I. For the the waveforms for i and vL?
examples in Fig. 19-8, /1 lags VL by 90 °. Also,
12 lags VL 2 by 90°. Finally, 13 , which is also IT,
lags VL 3 by 90 ° .

Summary
1. Inductive reactance, indicated Xv is the opposition of an inductance
to the flow of sine-wave alternating current.
2. XL is measured in ohms because it limits the current to the value
I = VI XL. With Vin volts and XL in ohms, I is in amperes.
3. XL = 2'7T f L. With f in hertz and L in henrys, XL is in ohms.
4. With one constant L, its XL increases proportionately with higher
frequencies.
5. At one frequency, XL increases proportionately with higher in-
ductances.
6. With XL and f known, the inductance L = XL12'7T f.
7. With XL and L known, the frequency f = XL12'7T L.
8. The total XL of reactances in series is the sum of the individual
values, as for series resistances. Series reactances have the same
current. The voltage across each inductive reactance is I XL.
9. With parallel reactances, the total reactance is calculated by the
reciprocal formula, as for parallel resistances. Each branch [Link] is
V!XL. The total line current is the sum of the individual branch
currents.

TABLE 19-3. Comparison of Inductance and Inductive Reactance

INDUCTANCE INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Symbol is L Symbol is XL
Measured in henry units Measured in ohm units
Depends on construction of coil Depends on frequency
L = vL!(dil dt), in H units XL = vL/iL or 27TfL, in Q units
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 391

10. Table 19-3 summarizes the differences between L and XL.

11. Table 19-4 compares XL and R.

TABLE 19-4. Comparison of XL and R

R
Ohm unit Ohm unit
Increases for higher Same for all frequencies
frequencies
Phase angle is 90 ° Phase angle is 0 °

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Inductive reactance is measured in ohms because it (a) reduces the

amplitude of alternating current; (b) increases the amplitude of
alternating current; (c) increases the amplitude of direct current;
(d) has a back emf opposing a steady direct current.
2. Inductive reactance applies only to sine waves because it
(a) increases with lower frequencies; (b) increases with lower in-
ductance; (c) depends on the factor 2'lT; (d) decreases with higher
frequencies.
3. An inductance has a reactance of 10,000 Q at 10,000 Hz. At
20,000 Hz, its inductive reactance equals (a) 500 Q; (b) 2000 Q;
(c) 20,000 Q; (d) 32,000 Q.
4. A 16-mH inductance has a reactance of 1000 Q. If two of these are
connected in series without any mutual coupling, their total reactance
equals (a) 500 Q; (b) 1000 Q; (c) 1600 Q; (d) 2000 Q.
5. Two 5000-Q inductive reactances in parallel have an equivalent
reactance of (a) 2500 Q; (b) 5000 Q; (c) 10,000 Q; (d) 50,000 Q.
6. With 10 V applied across an inductive reactance of 100 Q, the
current equals (a) 10 µA; (b) 10 mA; (c) 100 mA; (d) 10 A.
7. A current of 100 mA through an inductive reactance of 100 Q
produces a voltage drop equal to (a) 1 V; (b) 6.28 V; (c) 10 V;
(d) 100 v.
8. The inductance required for a 2000-Q reactance at 20 MHz equals
(a) 10 µH; (b) 15.9 µH; (c) 159 µH; (d) 320 µH.
9. A 160-µH inductance will have a 5000-Q reactance at the frequency
of (a) 5 kHz; (b) 200 kHz; (c) 1 MHz; (d) 5 MHz.
10. A coil has an inductive reactance of 1000 Q. If its inductance is
doubled and the frequency is doubled, then the inductive reactance
will be (a) 1000 Q; (b) 2000 Q; (c) 4000 Q; (d) 16,000 Q.
 Chapter 19
392 Inductive Reactance

Essay Questions
1. Explain briefly why XL limits the amount of alternating current.
2. Give two differences and one similarity in comparing XL and R.
3. Explain briefly why XL increases with higher frequencies and more
inductance.
4. Give two differences between inductance L of a coil and its inductive
reactance XL.
5. Referring to Fig. 19-7, why are waves a and b considered to be 90°
out of phase, while waves b and c have the same phase?
6. Referring to Fig. 19-3, how does this graph show a linear proportion
between XL and frequency?
7. Referring to Fig. 19-4, how does this graph show a linear proportion
between XL and L?
8. Referring to Fig. 19-7, draw three similar curves, but for a sine wave
of current with a period T = 12 µs for the full cycle. Use the same L
of 6 mH. Compare the values of XL obtained as 2'7TfL and vL/iL.
9. Referring to Fig. 19-3, tabulate the values of L that would be needed
for each frequency listed but for an XL of 2000 Q. (Do not include
0 Hz.)
10. Calculate the inductance L needed for an XL of 1000 Q at the
following five power frequencies: 50, 60, 120, 400, and 800 Hz. For
100 V applied, make a table comparing the amount of current, XL'
and L at the five different frequencies.
11. (a) Draw the circuit for a 40-Q R across a 120-V 60-Hz source.
(b) Draw the circuit for a 40-Q XL across a 120-V 60-Hz source.
(c) Why is I equal to 3 A for both circuits? (d) Give two differences
between the circuits.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Calculate the XL of a 0.5-H inductance at 100, 200, and 1000 Hz.

2. How much is the inductance for 628 Q reactance at 100 Hz? 200 Hz?
1000 Hz? 500 kHz?
3. A coil with an XL of 2000 Q is connected across a 10-Vac generator.
(a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate the current. (c) How
much is the voltage across the coil?
4. A 20-H coil has 10 V applied, with a frequency of 60 Hz. (a) Draw
the schematic diagram. (b) How much is the inductive reactance of
the coil? (c) Calculate the current. (d) What is the frequency of the
current?
 Chapter 19
Inductive Reactance 393

5. How much is the inductance of a coil with negligible resistance if the

current is 0.1 A when connected across the 60-Hz 120-V power line?
6. Referring to Fig. 19-6, how much is the inductance of LT, LI, and L 2
if the frequency of the source voltage is 400 Hz?
7. How much is the inductance of a coil that has a reactance of 1000 Q
at 1000 Hz? How much will the reactance be for the same coil at
10 kHz?
8. How much is the reactance of a 10-µH inductance at 100 MHz?
9. A 1000-Q XL 1 and a 4000-Q XL 2 are in series across a 10-V 60-Hz
source. Draw the schematic diagram and calculate the following:
(a) total XL; (b) current in XL 1 and in XL 2 ; (c) voltage across XL 1 and
across XL 2 ; (d) inductance of LI and L 2 .
10. The same 1000-Q XL 1 and XL 2 are in parallel across the 10-V 60-Hz
source. Draw the schematic diagram and calculate the following:
branch currents in XL and in XL 2 , total current in the generator,
voltage across XL 1 and across XL 2 , inductance of L1 and L 2 .
11. At what frequencies will XL be 2000 Q for the following inductors:
(a) 2 H; (b) 250 mH; (c) 800 µH; (d) 200 µH; (e) 20 µH?
12. A 6-mH L1 is in series with an 8-mH L 2 • The frequency is 40 kHz.
(a) How much is LT? (b) Calculate XLr· (c) Calc;ulate XL 1 and XL 2 to
see if their sum equals XLr·
13. Calculate XL of a 1.2-mH coil at 216 kHz.
14. Calculate XL of a 200-µH coil at 3.2 MHz.
15. Calculate XL of a 2-H coil at 60 Hz.
16. How much is I when the XL of Prob. 15 is connected to the 120-V ·
60-Hz power line? ·
17. A 250-mH inductor with negligible resistance is connected across a
10-V source. Tabulate the values of XL and current in the circuit for
alternating current at (a) 20 Hz; (b) 60 Hz; (c) 100 Hz; (d) 500 Hz;
(e) 5000 Hz; (f) 15,000 Hz.
18. Do the same as in Prob. 17 for an 8-H inductor.

Answers to Practice Problems

19-1 (a) 0Q 19-4 (a) 0.5 A
(b) 1000 Q (b) 100 v
19-2 (a) XL= 628 Q 19-5 (a) 100 MHz
(b) XL= 314 Q (b) 2000 Q
(c) XL = 6280 Q 19-6 (a) 90°
19-3 (a) XLr=500Q (b) 0 or 360°
XLT = 120 Q (c) 90°
Inductive
Circuits
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 395

.... VL
5
...
Q)
"'C
VL L .Q.
.e ~

E Time
<( 90°

h
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 20-1
(a) Circuit with inductance L. (b) Sine wave of
iL lags vL by 90 °. ( c) Phasor diagram.

Inductive Current Is the Same in a Series The Frequency Is the Same for iL and vL.
Circuit. The time delay and resultant phase Although iL lags vL by 90 °, both waves have the
angle for the current in an inductance apply same frequency. The iL wave reaches its peak
only with respect to the voltage across the in - values 90 ° later than the vL wave, but the com-
ductance. This condition does not change the plete cycles of variations are repeated at the
fact that the current is the same in all parts of a ~ame rate. As an example, if the frequency of
series circuit. In Fig. 20-1 a, the current in the the sine wave vL in Fig. 20-lb is 100 Hz, this is
generator, the connecting wires, and L must be also the frequency for iL.
the same because they are in series. At any
instant, whatever the current value is at that Practice Problems 20-1
time, it is the same in all the series components. (answers on page 414)
The time lag is between current and voltage. Refer to Fig. 20-1.
(a) What is the phase between vA and vL?
(b) What is the phase between vL and iL?
Inductive Voltage the Same across Parallel (c) Does iL lead or lag vL?
Branches. In Fig. 20-1 a, the voltage across the
generator and the voltage across L are the same 20-2
because they are in parallel. There cannot be XL AND R IN SERIES
any lag or lead in time between these two paral- When a coil has series resistance, the current is
lel voltages. At any instant, whatever the voltage limited by both XL and R. This current I is the
value is across the generator at that time, the same in XL and R since they are in series. Each
voltage across L is the same. Considering the has its own series voltage drop, equal to IR for
parallel voltage vA or Vv it is 90 ° out of phase the resistance and IXL for the reactance.
with the current. Note the following points about a circuit
In this circuit the voltage across Lis deter- that combines series XL and R, as in Fig. 20-2:
mined by the applied voltage, since they must
be the same. The inductive effect here is to 1. Th~ current is labeled I, rather than Iv
make the current have the values that produce because /flows through all the series com-
L(di!dt) equal to the parallel voltage. ponents.
 Chapter 20
396 Inductive Circuits

R = 100 n
-100
100
XL=
100 n VL

-100
141 90°
100

VT
45°
-100
-141

{a) (bl (c)

FIGURE 20-2
XL and R in series. (a) Circuit. (b) Waveforms
of current and voltages. ( c) Phasor diagram.

2. The voltage across XL, labeled \{, can be Phase Comparisons. Note the following:
considered an IXL voltage drop, just as we
use VR for an IR voltage drop. 1. \{ is 90 ° out of phase with I.
3. The current I through XL must lag \{ by 2. However, VR has the same phase as I.
90°, as this is the angle between current 3. Therefore, \{ is. also 90° out of phase
through an inductance and its self-induced with \'a.
voltage.
4. The current I through Rand its IR voltage Specifically, VR lags \{by 90°, just as the
drop have the same phase. There is no current I lags \{. These phase relations are
reactance to sine-wave current in any re- shown by the waveforms in Fig. 20-2b and the
sistance. Therefore, I and IR have the phasors in Fig. 20-3.
same phase, or this phase angle is 0 °.
Combining VR and\.{. As shown in Fig. 20-2b,
An example of such a circuit is shown in when the VR voltage wave is combined with the
Fig. 20-2. R can be either the internal resistance \{ voltage wave, the result is the voltage wave
of the coil or an external series resistance. The I for the applied generator voltage VT. The volt-
and V values may be rms, peak, or instantane- age drops must add to equal the applied volt-
ous, as long as the same measure is applied to age. The 100-V peak values for VR and for \{
all. Peak values are used here for convenience total 141 V, however, instead of 200 V, because
in comparing the waveforms. of the 90 ° phase difference.
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 397

90°

VR =IR= 100 V VR =IR= 100 V

(a) (b)
FIGURE 20-3
Addition of two voltages 90 ° out of phase.
(a) Phasors at 90°. (b) Resultant of the two
phasors is the hypotenuse of the right triangle.

Consider some instantaneous values to see From the geometry of a right triangle, the
why the 100-V peak VR and 100-V peak \{ pythagorean theorem states that the hypote-
cannot be added arithmetically. When VR is at its nuse is equal to the square root of the sum of
maximum of 100 V, for instance, \{ is at zero. the squares of the sides. For the voltage triangle
The total for VT then is 100 V. Similarly, with \{ in Fig. 20-3b, therefore, the resultant is
at its maximum of 100 V, then VR is zero and the
total VT is also 100 V. (20-1)
Actually, VT has its maximum value of
141 V at the time when \{ and VR are each where VT is the phasor sum of the two voltages
70 .7 V. When series voltage drops out of phase VR and \{ 90° out of phase.
are combined, therefore, they cannot be added This formula is for VR and \{when they are
without taking the phase difference into ac- in series, since then they are 90 ° out of phase.
count. All the voltages must be in the same units. ·
When ~ is an rms value, VR and \{ are also rms
values.
Phasor-Voltage Triangle. Instead of combin- In calculating the value of VT, note that the
ing waveforms that are out of phase, we can terms VR and \{ must each be squared before
add them more quickly by using their equivalent they are added to find the square root. For the
phasors, as shown in Fig. 20-3. The phasors in example in Fig. 20-3,
(a) just show the 90° angle without any addi-
tion. The method in (b) is to add the tail of one VT= yl00 2 + 100 2 = yl0,000 + 10,000
phasor to the arrowhead of the other, using the = y20,000
angle required to show their relative phase. VR VT= 141 v
and VL are at right angles because they are 90 °
out of phase. The sum of the phasors is a re- Practice Problems 20-2
sultant phasor from the start of one to the end (answers on page 414)
of the other. Since the VR and \{ phasors form a (a) In a series circuit with XL and R, what is the
right angle, the resultant phasor is the hypote- phase angle between I and VR?
nuse of a right triangle. The hypotenuse is the (b) What is the phase angle between VR and
side opposite the 90 ° angle. \{?
 Chapter 20
398 Inductive Circuits

20-3 equals the applied voltage of 141 V. Finally, the

IMPEDANCE (Z) applied voltage equals IZ, or 1 X 141, which is
A phasor triangle of R and XL in series corre- 141 v.
sponds to the voltage triangle, as shown in Fig. To summarize the similar phasor triangles
20-4. It is similar to the voltage triangle in Fig. for volts and ohms in a series circuit:
20-3, but the common factor I cancels because
the current is the same in XL and R. The result- 1. The phasor for R, IR, or VR is at 0 °.
ant of the phasor addition of R and XL is their 2. The phasor for Xv IXL, or \{ is at 90 °.
total opposition in ohms, called impedance, 3. The phasor for Z, IZ, or VT has the phase
with the symbol Z. The Z takes into account the angle B of the complete circuit.
90 ° phase relation between R and XL.
For the impedance triangle of a series cir-
Phase Angle with Series Xu The angle be-
cuit with reactance and resistance
tween the generator voltage and its current is
the phase angle of the circuit. Its symbol is B
(20-2)
(theta). In Fig. 20-3, the phase angle between VT
and IR is 45 °. Since IR and I have the same
With Rand XL in ohms, Z is also in ohms. For
phase, the angle is also 45 ° between VT and I.
the example in Fig. 20-4
In the corresponding impedance triangle in
Fig. 20-4, the angle between Z and R is also
z= y100 2 + 1002 = yl0,000 + 10,000 equal to the phase angle. Therefore, the phase
= y20,000
angle can be calculated from the impedance
z = 141 Q triangle of a series circuit by the formula
Note that the total impedance of 141 Q
XL
divided into the applied voltage of 141 V results tan Bz =R (20-3)
in 1 A of current in the series circuit. The IR
voltage is 1 X 100, or 100 V; the IXL voltage is
also 1 X 100, or 100 V. The total of the series The tangent (tan)_is a trigonometric func-
IR drops of 100 V each added by phasers tion1 of any angle, equal to the ratio of the
opposite side to the adjacent side of a triangle.
In this impedance triangle, XL is the opposite
side and R is the adjacent side of the angle. We
use the subscript z for B to show Bz is found
~ ',•
from the impedance triangle for a series circuit.
XL= 100 r2
To calculate this phase angle

XL 100
tan Bz = R =
100
= 1

R = 100 n 1 Numerical trigonometry using the sine, cosine, or

FIGURE 20-4 tang~nt functions for any angle is explained in
Phaser addition of R and XL 90 ° out of phase B. Grob, "Mathematics Outline and Review Prob-
in series circuit, to find the resultant imped- lems for Basic Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
ance Z. Company, New York.
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 399

From the trigonometric table of sines, applied generator voltage. With all XL and no R,
cosines, and tangents in Appendix E, the angle the entire applied voltage is across XL and 8z
that has the tangent equal to 1 is 45 °. There- equals 90°.
fore, the phase angle is 45 ° in this example. Several combinations of XL and R in series
The numerical values of the trigonometric func- are listed in Table 20-1 with their resultant im-
tions can be found from a table, slide rule, or pedance and phase angle. Note that a ratio of
scientific calculator. 10: 1 or more for XL! R means that the circuit is
Note ·that the phase angle of 45 ° is half- practically all inductive. The phase angle of
way to 90° because Rand XL are equal. 84.3° is only slightly less than 90° for the ratio
of 10: 1, and the total impedance Z is approxi-
Example 1. If a 30-0 Rand a 40-0 XL are in series mately equal to XL. The voltage drop across XL
with 100 V applied, find the following: Z, I, VR, \{, in the series circuit will be practically equal to
and () z· What is the phase of \{ and VR with respect the applied voltage, with almost none across R.
to the phase of I? Prove that the sum of the series
At the opposite extreme, when R is ten
voltage drops equals the applied voltage VT.
times as large as Xv the series circuit is mainly
Answer. z = yR2 + XL = y900 2
+ 1600 resistive. The phase angle of 5.7°, then, means
the current has almost the same phase as the
= y2500
applied voltage, the total impedance Z is ap-
z = 50 Q proximately equal to R, and the voltage drop
I = VT = 100 =2 A across R is practically equal to the applied volt-
z 50 ~ge, with almost none across XL.
VR= IR = 2 x 30 = 60 v For the case when XL and R equal each
\{=IXL= 2 x 40 = 80 v other, their resultant impedance Z is 1.41 times
XL 40 the value of either one. The phase angle then is
tan () z = R =
30
= 34 = 1.33 45 °, halfway between 0 ° for resistance alone
and 90 ° for inductive reactance alone.
Oz= 53°

Therefore, I lags VT by 53 °. Furthermore, I and VR Practice Problems 20-3

have the same phase, and I lags \{by 90°. Finally, (answers on page 414)
(a) How much is Zr for a 20-Q R in [Link]
vT = -vvR2 + vL2 = v602 + 802 a 20-Q XL?
= y3600 + 6400 = yl0,000 (b) How much is Vr for 20 V across R and
VT= 100 v 20 V across XL in series?
(c) What is the phase angle of this circuit?
Therefore, the sum of the voltage drops equals the
applied voltage. TABLE 20-1. Series Rand XL Combinations
Z, Q PHASE
Series Combinations of XL and R. In a series R, Q Xu Q (APPROX.) ANGLE Oz
circuit, the higher the value of XL compared 1 10 yTIIT = 10 84.3°
with R, the more inductive the circuit is. This 10 10 V200 = 14 45°
means there is more voltage drop across the 10 1 yTIIT = 10 5.7°
inductive reactance and the phase angle in- Note: ez is the angle of Zr with respect to the refer-
creases toward 90 °. The series current lags the ence I in a series circuit.
 Chapter 20
400 Inductive Circuits

20-4 The total line current, therefore, consists of

XL AND R IN PARALLEL IR and IL, which are 90 ° out of phase with each
For parallel circuits with XL and R, the 90 ° other. The vector sum of IR and IL equals the
phase angle must be considered for each of the total line current IT.
branch currents, instead of voltage drops in a In Fig. 20-Sb, the phasor sum of 10 A for
series circuit. Remember that any series circuit IR and 10 A for IL is equal to 14 A. The branch
has different voltage drops but with one com- currents are added by phasors here because·
mon current. A parallel circuit has different they are the factors that are 90 ° out of phase in
branch currents but with one common voltage. a parallel circuit. This method is similar to com -
In the parallel circuit in Fig. 20-5, the ap- bining voltage drops 90 ° out of phase in a series
plied voltage ~ is the same across XL, R, and circuit.
the generator, since they are all in parallel.
There cannot be any phase difference between Phasor Current Triangle. Note that the pha-
these voltages. Each branch, however, has its sor diagram in Fig. 20-Sc has the applied volt-
individual current. For the resistive branch, age ~ of the generator as the reference phase.
IR = ~IR; in the inductive branch, IL = ~I XL. The reason is that ~ is the same throughout the
The resistive branch current IR has the parallel circuit.
same phase as the generator voltage ~. The The phasor for IL is down, as compared
inductive branch current IL lags ~. however, with up for an XL phasor. Here the parallel
because the current in an inductance lags the branch current IL lags the parallel voltage refer-
voltage across it by 90 ° . ence ~. In a series circuit the XL voltage leads

VA

Ir= IR= h=
14A 10 A 10 A iR
-90°

VA= R= XL=
100V 1on 10 n iL

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 20-5
XL and R in parallel. (a) Circuit. ( b) Waveforms
of applied voltage and branch currents.
(c) Phasor diagram.
 Cha ter 20
Inductive Circuits 401

the series current reference I. For this reason For example, in Fig. 20-5, ~is 100 V and the
the IL phasor is shown with a negative 90 ° resultant IT, obtained as the vector sum of the
angle. The -90 ° means the current IL lags the resistive and reactive branch currents, is equal
reference phasor ~. to 14 .14 A Therefore,
The phasor addition of the branch currents
in a parallel circuit can be calculated by the
Zr=~= lOOV
phasor triangle for currents shown in Fig. 20-6. IT 14.14 A
Peak values are used for convenience in this
Zr=7.07Q
example, but when the applied voltage is an rms
value, the calculated currents are also in rms This impedance is the combined opposition in
values. To calculate the total line current, we
ohms across the generator, equal to the resist-
have
ance of 10 Q in parallel with the reactance of
10 Q.
(20-4) Note that the impedance for equal values
of Rand XL in parallel is not one-half but equals
For the values in Fig. 20-6, 70.7 percent of either one. Still, the combined
value of ohms must be less than the lowest
IT = yl0 2 + 10 2 = ylOO + 100 ohms value in the parallel branches.
= v'200 For the general case of calculating the
IT= 14.14 A impedance of XL and R in parallel, any number
can be assumed for the applied voltage because
Impedance of XL and R in Parallel. A practi- in the calculations for Z in terms of the branch
cal approach to the problem of calculating the currents the value of ~ cancels. A good value
total impedance of XL and R in parallel is to to assume for ~ is the value of either R or Xv
calculate the total line current IT and divide this whichever is the higher number. This way there
into the applied voltage: are no fractions smaller than one in calculation
of the branch currents.

(20-5)
Example 2. What is the total Z of a 600-Q R in
parallel with a 300-Q XL? Assume 600 V for the
applied voltage. Then

600V
Answer. JR= 600 Q =1A
600V
IL= 30CfQ =2A
Ir= 14.14 A
IT= y/R 2 + IL 2 = vr+4 = vs
IT= 2.24 A
FIGURE 20-6
Phasor triangle of branch currents 90 ° out of Then, dividing the total line current into the assumed
phase in parallel circuit to find IT. value of 600 V for the applied voltage gives
 Chapter 20
402 Inductive Circuits

ZT = ~ = 600 v currents gives 81 as the angle of IT with respect

IT 2.24 A to the generator voltage ~. This phase angle
ZT = 268 Q for IT is with respect to the applied voltage as
the reference at 0 ° . For the phasor triangle of
voltages in a series circuit the phase angle 8z for
The combined impedance of a 600-Q R in par- ZT and VT is with respect to the series current as
allel with a 300-Q XL is equal to 268 Q, no the reference at 0 °.
matter how much the applied voltage is.
Parallel Combinations of XL and R. Several
Phase Angle with Parallel XL and R. In a combinations of XL and R in parallel are listed
parallel circuit, the phase angle is between the in Table 20-2. When XL is ten times R, the
line current IT and the common voltage ~ ap- parallel circuit is practically resistive because
plied across all the branches. However, the there is little inductive current in the line. The
resistive branch current IR has the same phase small value of IL results from the high XL. The
as ~-Therefore, the phase of IR can be substi- total impedance of the parallel circuit is ap-
tuted for the phase of ~. This is shown in Fig. proximately equal to the resistance, then, since
20-5c. The triangle of currents is in Fig. 20-6. the high value of XL in a parallel branch has
To find 81 from the branch currents, use the little effect. The phase angle of -5. 7 ° is practi-
tangent formula cally 0 ° because almost all the line current is
resistive.
As XL becomes smaller, it provides more
(20-6) inductive current in the main line. When XL is
1/i. 0 R, practically all the line current is the IL
component. Then the parallel circuit is practi-
We use the subscript 1 for 8 to show that 81 cally all inductive, with a total impedance prac-
is found from the triangle of branch currents in tically equal to XL. The phase angle of -84.3°
a parallel circuit. In Fig. 20-6, 81 is -45 ° be- is almost -90° because the line current is
cause IL and IR are equal. Then tan 81 = -1. mostly inductive. Note that these conditions are
The negative sign is used for this current opposite from the case of XL and R in series.
ratio because IL is lagging at -90°, compared When XL and R are equal, their branch
with IR. The phase angle of -45 ° here means currents are equal and the phase angle is
that IT lags IR and~ by 45°. -45 °. All these phase angles are negative for
Note that the phasor triangle of branch parallel IL and IR.

TABLE 20-2. Parallel Resistance and Inductance Combinations•

IT, A
R,n Xu n JR, A lu A (APPROX.) Zr= VA!IT, n PHASE ANGLE () 1
1 10 10 1 Vffil = 10 1 -5.7°
10 10 1 1 V2 = 1.4 7.07 -45°
10 1 1 10 vTIIT = 10 1 -84.3°
•VA = 10 V. Note that () 1 is the angle of Ir with re-
spect to the reference ~ in parallel circuits.
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 403

As additional comparisons between series

and parallel circuits, remember that r-- --,

1. The series voltage drops \'1t and \{ have

individual values that are 90 ° out of phase.
XL
Therefore, \'1t and \{ are added by phasers Q=-
r;
to equal the applied voltage VT. The phase
angle () z is between VT and the common
series current I. More series XL allows
L.-- _ _ __.
more \{ to make the circuit more inductive
with a larger positive phase angle for VT
with respect to I. FIGURE 20-7
2. The parallel branch currents IR and IL have Q of a coil.
individual values that are 90 ° out of phase.
Therefore, IR and IL are added by phasers
to equal IT, which is the main-line current. As shown in Fig. 20-7, the internal ri is in
The negative phase angle -01 is between series with XL.
the line current IT and the common parallel As an example, a coil with XL of 500 Q and
voltage ~. Less parallel XL allows more IL ri of 5 Q has a Q of 50% = 100. The Q is a
to make the circuit more inductive with a numerical ·value without any units since the
larger negative phase angle for IT with re- ohms cancel in the ratio of reactance to resist-
spect to ~- ance. This Q of 100 means that the XL of the
coil is 100 times more than its ri.
Practice Problems 20-4 The Q of coils may range in value from less
(answers on page 414) than 10 for a low-Q coil up to 1000 for a very
(a) How much is IT for a branch current IR of high Q. Rf coils generally have a Q of about 30
2 A and IL of 2 A? to 300.
(b) Find the phase angle 01 . At low frequencies, ri is just the de resist-
ance of the wire in the coil. However, for rf coils
20-5 the losses increase with higher frequencies and
Q OF A COIL the effective ri increases. The increased resist-
The ability of a coil to produce self-induced ance results from eddy currents and other
voltage is indicated by Xv since it includes the losses.
factors of frequency and inductance. However, Because of these losses, the Q of a coil
a coil has internal resistance equal to the resist- does not increase without limit as XL increases
ance of the wire in the coil. This internal ri of for higher frequencies. Generally, the Q can
the coil reduces the current, which means less increase by a factor of about 2 for higher fre-
ability to produce induced voltage. Combining quencies, within the range for which the coil is
these two factors of XL and ri, the quality or designed. The highest Q for rf coils generally
merit of a coil is indicated by results with an inductance value that provides
an XL of about 1000 Q at the operating fre-
quency.
(20-7)
More fundamentally, Q can be defined as
 Chapter 20
404 Inductive Circuits

the ratio of reactive power in the inductance to

the real power dissipated in the resistance.
Then

PL = J2 XL - XL - 27T f L
Q = p J2 - -
~ ~ ~ ~ FIGURE 20-8
which is the same as Formula (20-7). Ferrite coil antenna for radio receiver. Length
is 4 in; inductance is 700 µH. (J. W Miller Co.)
Skin effect. Rf current tends to flow at the
losses as they are insulators, although magnetic.
surface of a conductor, at very high frequen-
A ferrite core is easily saturated. Therefore, its
cies, with little current in the solid core at the
use must be limited to coils with low values of
center. This skin effect results from the fact that
current. A common application is the ferrite-
current in the center of the wire encounters
core antenna coil in Fig. 20-8.
slightly more inductance because of the mag-
To reduce the Re for small rf coils,
netic flux concentrated in the metal, compared
stranded wire can be made with separate
with the edges where part of the flux is in air.
strands insulated from each other and braided
For this reason, conductors for VHF currents
so that each strand is as much on the outer
are often made of hollow tubing. The skin effect
surface as all the other strands. This is called
increases the effective resistance, as a smaller
litzendraht or litz wire.
cross-sectional area is used for the current path
As an example of the total effect of ac
in the conductor.
losses, assume that an air-core rf coil of 50-µH
AC Effective Resistance. When the power inductance has a resistance of 1 Q with the de
and current supplied to a coil are measured for measurement of the battery in an ohmmeter.
rf applied voltage, the 12 R loss corresponds to a However, in an ac circuit with a 2-MHz current
much higher resistance than the de resistance the effective coil resistance Re can increase t~
measured with an ohmmeter. This higher re- 12 Q. The increased resistance reduces the Q of
sistance is the ac effective resistance Re. Al- the coil.
though a result of high-frequency alternating Actually, the Q can be used to determine
current, Re is not a reactance. Re is a resistive the effective ac resistance. Since Q is XL / Re•
component because it draws in-phase current then Re equals XL!Q. For this 50-µH L at
from the ac voltage source. 2 MHz its Xv equal to 27TfL, is 628 Q. The Q of
The factors that make the R of a coil more the coil can be measured on a Q-meter, which
than its de resistance include skin effect, eddy operates on the principle of resonance. Let the
currents, and hysteresis losses. Air-core coils measured Q be 50. Then Re = 62 %, 0 , equal to
have low losses but are limited to small values of 12.6 Q.
inductance. Example 3. An air-core coil has an XL of 700 Q and
For a magnetic core in rf coils, a pow- an Re of 2 Q. Calculate Q.
dered-iron or ferrite slug is generally used. In a
powdered-iron slug, the granules of iron are Answer. Q =XL= 700
insulated from each other to reduce eddy cur- Re 2
rents. Ferrite materials have small eddy-current Q = 350
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 405

Example 4. A 200-µH coil has a Q of 40 at characteristics are applied to the circuit in Fig.
0.5 MHz. Find Re. 20-9, where XL is much greater than R for the
frequency of the ac source VT. The result is that
Answer. R =XL= 27TfL L has practically all the voltage drop in this
e Q Q series circuit with very little of the applied volt-
27T x 0.5 x 10 6 x 200 x 10-6 age across R.
40 The inductance L is used here as a choke.
628 Therefore, a choke is an inductance in series
40 with an external R to prevent the ac signal
Re= 15.7 Q voltage from developing any appreciable output
across R, at the frequency of the source.
In general, the less the internal resistance The dividing line in calculations for a
for a coil, the higher is its Q. choke can be taken as XL ten or more times the
series R. Then the circuit is primarily inductive.
Practice Problems 20-5 Practically all the ac voltage drop is across L,
(answers on page 414) with little across R. This case also results in 8 of
(a) A 200-µH coil with an 8-Q internal Re has practically 90 °, but the phase angle is not re-
an XL of 600 Q. Calculate the Q. lated to the action of XL as a choke.
(b) A coil with a Q of 50 has a 500-Q XL at Figure 20-9b illustrates how a choke is
4 MHz. Calculate its internal Re. used to prevent ac voltage in the input from
developing voltage in the output for the next
20-6 circuit. Note that the output here is ~ from
AF AND RF CHOKES point A to chassis ground. Practically all the ac
Inductance has the useful characteristic of pro- input voltage is across XL between points Band
viding more ohms of reactance at higher fre- C. However, this voltage is not coupled out
quencies. Resistance has the same opposition because neither B nor C is grounded.
at all frequencies and for direct current. These The desired output across R could be di-

IXL= 99.5 V

c A ....- .... out

VR =9.99 V

(a) (b)
FIGURE 20-9
Coil used as a choke with XL at least 10 X R.
The \{ is practically all the applied voltage with
almost none for ~· (a) Equivalent circuit.
(b) Actual circuit for input and output voltages.
 Chapter 20
406 Inductive Circuits

TABLE 20-3. Typical Chokes for a Reactance of Some typical chokes are shown in Fig.
1000 Q'" 20-10. The iron-core choke in (a) is for audio
F L REMARKS frequencies. The air-core choke in (b) is for
radio frequencies. The rf choke in (c) has color
100 Hz 1.6 H Low audio frequency coding, which is often used for small coils. The
1000 Hz 0.16 H Medium audio frequency
color values are the same as for resistors, but
10 kHz 16 mH High audio frequency
with L in microhenrys. As an example, a coil
1000 kHz 0.16 mH Radio frequency
100 MHz 1.6 µH Very high radio frequency with yellow, red, and black stripes or dots is
42 µH.
*For an XL ten times a series R of 100 Q.

rect current from the input side. Then XL has no Choosing a Choke for a Circuit. As an exam-
effect. A much lower frequency of ac voltage ple of using these calculations, suppose that we
also could produce output voltage across R, as have the problem of determining what kind of a
the same L would have too little XL for a choke coil to use as a choke for the following applica-
at the lower frequency. tion. L is to be an rf choke in series with an
external R of 300 Q, with a current of 90 mA
Calculations for a Choke. Typical values for and a frequency of 0.2 MHz. Then XL must be
audio or radio frequencies can be calculated if at least 10 X 300 = 3000 Q. At f of 0.2 MHz,
we assume a series resistance of 100 Q, as an
example. Then XL must be at least 1000 Q. As 3
L - XL - 30,000 = 30 x 10
listed in Table 20-3, at 100 Hz the relatively
- 27Tf - 27T x 2 x 10 6 12.56 x 10 6
large inductance of 1.6 H provides 1000 Q of
XL. Higher frequencies allow a smaller value of = _lQ_ x 10-3
L for a choke with the same reactance. At 12.56
100 MHz, in the VHF range, the choke is only L = 2.4mH
1.6µH.
A typical commercial size easily available is
2.5 mH, with a current rating of 115 mA and an
internal resistance of 20 Q, similar to the rf
choke in Fig. 20-lOb. Note that the higher cur-
rent rating is suitable. Also, the internal resist-
ance is negligible compared with the external R.
An inductance a little higher than the calculated
value will provide more Xv which is better for a
choke.
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 20-10
Typical chokes. (a) Choke for 60 Hz with 8-H
Pract!ce Problems 20-6
inductance and ri of 350 Q. Width is 4 in. (b) Rf (answers on page 414)
choke with 5-mH inductance and ri of 50 Q. (a) How much is the minimum XL for a choke
Height is 1 in. (c) Small rf choke in plastic with in series with R of 80 Q?
leads for printed-circuit board. L is 42 µH. (b) If XL is 800 Q at 3 MHz, how much will XL
Width is % in. be at 6 MHz for the same coil?
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 407

20-7 An example is illustrated in Fig. 20-11 a for

THE GENERAL CASE OF sawtooth current. This waveform is often used
INDUCTIVE VOLTAGE in the deflection circuits for the picture tube in
The voltage across any inductance in any circuit television receivers. The sawtooth rise is a uni-
is always equal to L(di! dt). This formula gives form or linear increase of current from zero to
the instantaneous values of vL based on the 90 mA in this example. The sharp drop in cur-
self-induced voltage which is produced by a rent is from 90 mA to zero. Note that the rise is
change in magnetic flux associated with a relatively slow; it takes 90 µs. This is nine times
change in current. longer than the fast drop in 10 µs.
A sine waveform of current i produces a The complete period of one cycle of this
cosine waveform for the induced voltage Vv sawtooth wave is 100 µs. A cycle includes the
equal to L(di/dt). This means vL has the same rise of i to the peak value and its drop back to
waveform as i, but they are 90 ° out of phase for the starting value.
sine-wave variations.
The inductive voltage can be calculated as
IXL in sine-wave ac circuits. Since XL is 277/L, The Slope of i. The slope of any curve is a
the factors that determine the induced voltage measure of how much it changes vertically for
are included in the frequency and inductance. each horizontal unit. In Fig. 20-11 a the increase
Usually, it is more convenient to work with IXL of current has a constant slope. Here i increases
for the inductive voltage in sine-wave ac cir- 90 mA in 90 µs, or 10 mA for every 10 µs of
cuits, instead of L(dil dt). time. Then di! dt is constant at 10 mA/l 0 µs for
However, with a nonsinusoidal current the entire rise time of the sawtooth waveform.
waveform, the concept of reactance cannot be Actually di! dt is the slope of the i curve. This is
used. XL applies only to sine waves. Then vL why the vL waveform has a constant value of
must be calculated as L(di!dt), which applies voltage during the linear rise of i.
for any inductive voltage. The drop in i is also linear but much faster.

+ VL = 2700 V -
--+
i 90mA

O
I~ 100 µs

0 I I I I I I I I

-VL = 300 V

(a) (b)
FIGURE 20-11
Rectangular waveshape of vL produced by saw-
tooth current. (a) Waveform of i. (b) Induced
voltage equal to L(di!dt).
 Chapter 20
408 Inductive Circuits

During this time, the slope is 90 mA/10 µs for waveshapes instead of the phase angle in sine-
di! dt. wave circuits. Common examples of non-
sinusoidal waveshapes for either v or i are the
The Polarity of vL. In Fig. 20-11, apply Lenz' sawtooth waveform, square wave, and rectan-
law to indicate that vL opposes the change in gular pulses.
current. With electron flow into the top of L, the
vL is negative to oppose an increase of current. Practice Problems 20-7
This polarity opposes the direction of electron (answers on page 414)
flow shown for the current i produced by the Refer to Fig. 20-11.
source. For the rise time, then, the induced (a) How much is di/ dt in A/s for the sawtooth
voltage here is labeled - vL. rise of i?
(b) How much is di! dt in A/s for the drop in i?
During the drop of current, the induced
voltage has opposite polarity, which is labeled
20-8
+ vL. These voltage polarities are for the top of CALCULATING THE
L with respect to chassis ground.
L!R TIME CONSTANT
With nonsinusoidal waveforms of i, the reaction
Calculations for Vu The values of induced of L to di! dt is the transient response, meaning
voltage across the 300-mH Lare calculated as a temporary result of a sudden change in i. The
follows: transient response of an inductive circuit is
For the sawtooth rise: measured in terms of the ratio LI R, which is the
time constant. In Fig. 20-12, LI R is the time for
3
- v = L di = 300 x 10-3 x 10 X l0- I to increase 63.2 percent when de voltage is
L dt lQ X lQ- 6 suddenly applied by the switch S.
-VL = 300V To calculate the time constant

For the sawtooth drop: s (20-8)

+v = L di = 300 x 10-3 x 90 x 10-3 where Tis the time constant and L the induct-
L dt lQ X lQ-6
ance in henry units, and R is in series with L.
+vL = 2700 V The R may be the internal coil resistance, an
external resistance, or both in series. In Fig.
The decrease in current produces nine 20-12
times more voltage because the sharp drop in i
is nine times faster than the relatively slow rise.
Remember that the di! dt factor can be very
large, even with small currents, when the time is
short. For instance, a current change of 1 mA in Remember that if L were not present, the
1 µs is equivalent to the very high di! dt value of current in Fig. 20-12 would rise to 1o/i 0 = 1 A
1000 A/s. instantly. Eventually, I will rise to 1 A, which is
In conclusion, it is important to note that vL the steady-state value determined by VI R, and
and iL have different waveshapes with non- stay there. At the first instant when S is closed,
sinusoidal current. In this case, we compare the though, the transient response of L opposes the
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 409

Steady-state value of 1 A

One time constant

. L
T 1me constant= R = 0.1 s

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Time (s)

(a) (b)
FIGURE 20-12
Transient response of inductive circuit.
(a) Circuit. (b) Time for a 63 percent change in
i is equal to LI R.

increase in I from zero. The time constant of On the rise, the curve goes from zero to
0 .1 s here specifies that I will rise 63 percent the steady-state value at the top in five time
or to 0.63 A in 0.1 s. I is the same in Rand L, constants. For a decrease in i, the values drop
because they are in series. from the steady-state value to zero in five time
The current will rise practically all the way constants. More details of the LI R time con-
to its steady-state value of 1 A in approximately stant and a comparison with the RC time con-
0.5 s, which is equal to five time constants. In stant for capacitive circuits are explained in
other words, five time constants is the time for Chap. 24.
the inductance to complete its transient re-
sponse and allow the steady-state value deter-
mined by R.
In general, the time constant always meas- Practice Problems 20-8
ures a 63 percent change. When i is increasing, (answers on page 414)
it rises by 63 percent in one time constant. (a) Calculate the time constant for L of
When i is decreasing, it drops by 63 percent in 240 mH in series with 20 Q.
one time constant. For any part of the transient (b) If the time constant in Fig. 20-12 were
response curve, during one time constant, the 12 ms, how long would it take for I to rise
value changes by 63 percent. to 0.63 A?

Summary
1. In a sine-wave ac circuit, the current through an inductance lags 90°
behind the voltage across the inductance because vL = L(di! dt). This
fundamental fact is the basis of all the following relations.
 Chapter 20
410 Inductive Circuits

TABLE 20-4. Comparison of R, Xu and Z

R Z= yR2 + XL2
Ohms unit Ohms unit Ohms unit
IR voltage same phase as I IXL voltage leads I by 90 ° IZ is applied voltage
Same for all frequencies Increases at higher frequencies Increases with XL at higher frequencies

2. Therefore, inductive reactance XL is a phasor quantity 90° out of

phase with R. The phasor combination of XL and R is their im-
pedance Z.
3. These three types of opposition to current are compared in Table
20-4.
4. The phase angle 8 is the angle between the applied voltage and its
current.
5. The opposite characteristics for series and parallel circuits with XL
and Rare summarized in Table 20-5.
6. The Q of a coil is XL! ri, where ri is its internal resistance.
7. A choke is an inductance with XL greater than the series R by a factor
of 10 or more, for the purpose of providing practically all the ac
applied voltage across L with little voltage across R.
8. In sine-wave circuits calculate \{ as IXL. Then \{ has a phase angle
90 ° different from the current.
9. When the current is not a sine wave, figure\{ = L(di! dt). Then the
waveshape of \{ is different from the waveshape of current.
10. The time constant, equal to LI R, is the time in seconds for I to
change by 63.2 percent, with Lin henrys and R in ohms in series.

TABLE 20-5. Series and Parallel RL Circuits

XL AND R IN SERIES XL AND R IN PARALLEL

I the same in XL and R ~ the same across XL and R

VT = yVR2+ \{2 IT= yIR2 + Il
z = yR2 + XL2 Z= ~
IT
\{ leads ~ by 90° IL lags IR by 90°

= x~ ; () .increases t;
I
tan () z as more tan 01 = - -0 decreases
R
XL makes circuit inductive as more XL means less IL
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 411

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In a sine-wave ac circuit with inductive reactance, the (a) phase angle

of the circuit is always 45 °; (b) voltage across the inductance must be
90° out of phase with the applied voltage; (c) current through the
inductance lags its induced voltage by 90 °; (d) current through the
inductance and voltage across it are 180 ° out of phase.
2. In a sine-wave ac circuit with XL and R in series, the (a) voltages
across Rand XL are in phase; (b) voltages across Rand XL are 180°
out of phase; (c) voltage across R lags the voltage across XL by 90°;
( d) voltage across R leads the voltage across XL by 90 °.
3. In a sine-wave ac circuit with a 40-Q R in series with a 30-Q XL, the
total impedance Z equals (a) 30 Q; (b) 40 Q; (c) 50 Q; (d) 70 Q.
4. In a sine-wave ac circuit with a 90-Q R in series with a 90-Q XL, phase
angle() equals (a) 0°; (b) 30°; (c) 45°; (d) 90°.
5. A 250-µH inductance is used as a choke at 10 MHz. At 12 MHz the
choke (a) does not have enough inductance; (b) has more reactance;
(c) has less reactance; (d) needs more turns.
6. The combined impedance of a 1000-Q R in parallel with a 1000-Q XL
equals (a) 500 Q; (b) 707 Q; (c) 1000 Q; (d) 2000 Q.
7. A coil with a 1000-Q XL at 3 MHz and 10-Q internal resistance has a
Q of (a) 3; (b) 10; (c) 100; (d) 1000.
8. In a sine-wave ac circuit with a resistive branch and inductive branch
in parallel, the (a) voltage across the inductance leads the voltage
across the resistance by 90 °; (b) resistive branch current is 90 ° out of
phase with the inductive branch current; (c) resistive and inductive
branch currents have the same phase; (d) resistive and inductive
branch currents are 180 ° out of phase.
9. With a 2-A IR and a 2-A IL in parallel branches, Ir is (a) 1 A; (b) 2 A;
(c) 2.8 A; (d) 4 A.
10. In Fig. 20-11 di!dt for the drop in sawtooth current is (a) 90 mA/s;
(b) 100 mA/s; (c) 100 A/s; (d) 9000 Als.

Essay Questions
1. What characteristic of the current in an inductance determines the
amount of induced voltage? State briefly why.
2. Draw a schematic diagram showing an inductance connected across
 Chapter 20
412 Inductive Circuits

a sine-wave voltage source and indicate the current and voltage that
0
are go out of phase.
3. Why does the voltage across a resistance have the same phase as the
current through the resistance?
4. 0
(a) Draw the sine waveforms for two voltages go out of phase, each
with a peak value of 100 V. (b) Explain why their vector sum equals
141 V and not 200 V. (c) When will the sum of two 100-V drops in
series equal 200 V?
5. (a) Define the phase angle of a sine-wave ac circuit. (b) State the
formula for the phase angle in a circuit with XL and R in series.
6. Define the following: (a) Q of a coil; (b) ac effective resistance; (c) rf
choke; (d) sawtooth current.
7. Referring to Fig. 20-2, why do the waveshapes shown in (b) all have
the same frequency?
8. Describe how to check the trouble of an open choke with an ohm-
meter.
g_ Redraw the circuit and graph in Fig. 20-11 for a sawtooth current
with a peak of 30 mA.
10. Why is the Re of a coil considered resistance rather than reactance?
11. Define the time constant of an inductive circuit.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Draw the schematic diagram of a circuit with XL and R in series

across a 100-V source. Calculate Z, I, IR, IXL' and(}, approximately,
for the following values: (a) 100-Q R, 1-Q XL; (b) 1-Q R, 100-Q XL;
(c) 50-Q R, 50-Q XL.
2. Draw the schematic diagram of a circuit with XL and R in parallel
across a 100-V source. Calculate IR, IL, IT, and Z for the following
values: (a) 100-Q R, 1-Q XL; (b) 1-Q R, 100-Q XL; (c) 50-Q R,
50-Q XL.
3. A coil has an inductance of 1 H and a 100-Q internal resistance.
(a) Draw the equivalent circuit of the coil showing its internal resist-
ance in series with its inductance. (b) How much is the coil's induc-
tive reactance at 60 Hz? (c) How much is the total impedance of the
coil at 60 Hz? (d) How much current will flow when the coil is
connected across a 100-V source with a frequency of 60 Hz? (e) How
much is I with an f of 400 Hz?
4. Calculate the minimum inductance required for a choke in series
with a resistance of 100 Q when the frequency of the current is
 Chapter 20
Inductive Circuits 413

5 kHz, 5 MHz, and 50 MHz. Do the same for the case where the
series resistance is 10 S1.
5. How much is the impedance Z of a coil that allows 0.3-A current
when connected across a 120-V 60-Hz source? How much is the XL
of the coil if its resistance is 5 Q? (Hint: Xl = Z2 - R2.)
6. A 200-Q R is in series with Lacross a 141-V 60-Hz generator VT.
The VR is 100 V. Find L. (Hint: \{ 2 = V/ - VR2.)
7. A 350-µH L has a Q of 35 at 1.5 MHz. Calculate the effective ac
resistance Re.
8. How much Lis required to produce VL equal to 6 kV when iL drops
from 300 mA to zero in 8 µs?
9. A 400-Q Rand 400-Q XL are in series with a 100-V 400-Hz source.
Find Z, I, VL, VR, and () z·
10. The same Rand XL of Prob. 9 are in parallel. Find IR, Iv IT, Z, and 81 .
11. The frequency is raised to 800 Hz for the parallel circuit in Prob. 10.
Compare the values of IR, IL, and 81 for the two frequencies of 400
and 800 Hz.
12. A0.4-H Land a 180-Q Rare in series across a 120-V60-Hz source.
Find the current I and () z·
13. An inductance L has 20 V across it, at 40 mA. The frequency is
5 kHz. Calculate XL in ohms and Lin henrys.
14. A 500-Q R is in series with 300-Q XL. Find ZT, I, and 8z. VT = 120 V
15. A 300-Q R is in series with a 500-Q XL. Find ZT, I, and ()z· Compare
8z here with Prob. 14, with the same 120 V applied.
16. A 500-Q R is in parallel with 300-Q XL. Find IT, ZT, and 81 . Compare
81 here with 8z in Prob. 14, with the same 120 V applied.
17. The current shown in Fig. 20-13 flows through a 20-mH inductance.
Show the corresponding waveform of induced voltage with values.

m:~
i ..

•
~
Time

-50 5 µs I :I "'
I .• I
I
I
I
VL, v I I
I I
I I
I I
I I

FIGURE 20-13
For Prob. 1 7.
 Chapter 20
414 Inductive Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

20-1 (a) 0° 20-4 (b) ()[ = -45 °
(b) 90° 20-5 (a) Q = 75
(c) lag (b) Re= 10 Q
20-2 (a) 0° 20-6 (a) XL= 800 Q
(b) 90° (b) XL = 1600 Q
20-3 (a) 28.28 Q 20-7 (a) di!dt = 1000 A/s
(b) 28.28 v (b) di! dt = 9000 A/s
(c) Oz= 45° 20-8 (a) 12 ms
20-4 (a) IT= 2.824 A (b) 12 ms
 18tol0

.......... Wllnd•
dlmllLRwlJC'a . . lddalbJ·......
416 Review of Chapters 18 to 20

because their voltage drops are 90 ° out of phase; in parallel circuits,

the resistive and inductive branch currents are 90 ° out of phase.
11. Impedance Z, in ohms, is the total opposition of an ac circuit with
resistance and reactance. For series circuits, Z = v'R2 + XL 2 and
I = VT! Z. For parallel circuits, IT = v'IR 2 + IL 2 and Z = ~!IT.
12. The Q of a coil is XL!ri.
13. Energy stored by an inductance is Yz LJ2. With I in amperes, and L
in henrys, the energy is in joules.
14. LI R is the time constant in seconds for I to change by 63.2 percent.
The L is in henrys and R in ohms.
15. The voltage across Lis always equal to L( di! dt) for any waveshape of
current.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. A coil induces 200 mV when the current changes at the rate of 1 A/ s.

The inductance Lis: (a) 1 mH; (b) 2 mH; (c) 200 mH; (d) 1000 mH.
2. Alternating current in an inductance produces maximum induced
voltage when the current has its (a) maximum value; (b) maximum
change in magnetic flux; (c) minimum change in magnetic flux;
(d) rms value of 0. 707 x peak.
3. An iron-core transformer connected to the 120-V 60-Hz power line
has a turns ratio of 20: 1. The voltage across the secondary equals
(a) 20 V; (b) 60 V; (c) 120 V; (d) 2400 V.
4. Two 250-mH chokes in series have a total inductance of (a) 60 mH;
(b) 125 mH; (c) 250 mH; (d) 500 mH.
5. Which of the following will have minimum eddy-current losses?
(a) iron core; (b) laminated iron core; (c) powdered-iron core; (d) air
core.
6. Which of the following will have maximum inductive reactance?
(a) 2-H inductance at 60 Hz; (b) 2-mH inductance at 60 kHz;
(c) 5-mH inductance at 60 kHz; (d) 5-mH inductance at 100 kHz.
7. A 100-Q R is in series with 100 Q of XL. The total impedance Z
equals (a) 70.7 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 141 Q; (d) 200 n.
8. A 100-Q R is in parallel with 100 Q of XL. The total impedance Z
equals (a) 70.7 Q; (b) 100 Q; (c) 141 Q; (d) 200 Q.
9. If two waves have the frequency of 1000 Hz and one is at the
maximum value when the other is at zero, the phase angle between
them is (a) 0°; (b) 90°; (c) 180°; (d) 360°.
 Review of Chapters 18 to 20 417

10. If an ohmmeter check on a 50-µH choke reads 3 Q, the coil is

probably (a) open; (b) defective; (c) normal; (d) partially open.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Gillie, A C.: "Electrical Principles of Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Oppenheimer, S. L., F. R. Hess and J. P. Borchers: "Direct and Alter-
nating Currents," 2d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Slurzberg, M. and W. Osterheld: "Essentials of Electricity and Electron-
ics," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
It
I&
I t
ii
fl•r
lt
!lfll1lll;iJll~
I•
.,la.t'
I.
f,.,.j t!if 1:1~,,,11,
If •rl rt ..l .r
 I I 1 f'j'l,.,.,~!~

Chapter 21
Capacitance 419

B
Metal
plates t c

T
Fixed Variable

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 21-1
Capacitance stores charge in the dielectric be-
tween two conductors. (a) Structure. (b) Air-
dielectric variable capacitor. Length is 2 in. ( c)
Schematic symbols for fixed and variable ca-
pacitances.

series resistance, the charging is instantaneous. and ceramics, but the schematic symbols shown
Practically, however, there is always some se- in (c) apply to all capacitors.
ries resistance. This charging current is tran-
sient, or temporary, as it flows only until the Electric Field in the Dielectric. Any voltage
capacitor is charged to the applied voltage. has a field of electric lines of force between the
Then there is no current in the circuit. opposite electric charges. The electric field cor-
The result is a device for storing charge in responds to the magnetic lines of force of the
the dielectric. Storage means that the charge magnetic field associated with electrical cur-
remains even after the voltage source is discon- rent. 2 What a capacitor does is concentrate the
nected. The measure of how much charge can electric field in the dielectric between the plates.
be stored is the capacitance 1 C. More charge This concentration corresponds to a magnetic
stored for a given amount of applied voltage field concentrated in the turns of a coil. The
means more capacitance. Components made to only function of the capacitor plates and wire
supply a specified amount of capacitance are conductors is to connect the voltage source V
called capacitors, or by their old name con- across the dielectric. Then the electric field is
densers. concentrated in the capacitor, instead of being
Electrically, then, capacitance is the ability spread out in all directions.
to store charge. Physically, a capacitance con-
Electrostatic Induction. The capacitor has
sists simply of two conductors separated by an
opposite charges because of electrostatic in-
insulator. For example, Fig. 21-lb shows a ca-
duction by the electric field. Electrons that ac-
pacitor using air for the dielectric between the
cumulate on the negative side of the capacitor
metal plates. There are many types with differ-
provide electric lines of force that repel elec-
ent dielectric materials, including paper, mica,
trons from the opposite side. When this side

1
The symbol F, for farad, has been recommended 2
Electric and magnetic fields are compared in Fig.
for capacitance, but C is used in this book. 14-6, Chap. 14.
 Chapter 21
420 Capacitance

loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. sary that the capacitor voltage be more than the
The opposite charges induced by an electric applied voltage. Then the capacitor can serve as
field correspond to the idea of opposite poles voltage source, temporarily, to produce dis-
induced in magnetic materials by a magnetic charge current in the discharge path. The ca-
field. pacitor discharge continues until the capacitor
voltage drops to zero or is equal to the applied
Practice Problems 21-1 voltage.
(answers on page 441 )
(a) In a capacitor, is the electric charge stored Applying the Charge. In Fig. 21-2a, the ca-
in the dielectric or in the metal plates? pacitor is neutral with no charge because it has
(b) What is the unit of capacitance? not been connected to any source of applied
voltage and there is no electrostatic field in the
21-2 dielectric. Closing the switch in Fig. 21-2b,
CHARGING AND however, allows the negative battery terminal to
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR repel free electrons in the conductor to plate A.
These are the two main effects with capacitors. At the same time, the positive terminal attracts
Applied voltage puts charge in the capacitor. free electrons from plate B. The side of the
The accumulation of charge results in a buildup dielectric at plate A accumulates electrons be-
of potential difference across the capacitor cause they cannot flow through the insulator,
plates. When the capacitor voltage equals the while plate B has an equal surplus of protons.
applied voltage, there is no more charging. The Remember that the opposite charges have
charge remains in the capacitor, with or without an associated potential difference, which is the
the applied voltage connected. voltage across the capacitor. The charging
The capacitor discharges when a conduct- process continues until the capacitor voltage
ing path is provided between the plates, without equals the battery voltage, which is 10 V in this
any applied voltage. Actually, it is only neces- example. Then no further charging is possible

,... -:-
+ 'n

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 21-2
Storing charge in a capacitance. (a) Capacitor
with no charge. (b) Battery charges capacitor to
the applied voltage. ( c) Stored charge remains
in capacitor providing 10 V without the battery.
( d) Discharging the capacitor.
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 421

because the applied voltage cannot make free positive plate through the wire, until the positive
electrons flow in the conductors. and negative charges are neutralized. Then
Note that the potential difference across there is no net charge, the capacitor is com-
the charged capacitor is 10 V between plates A pletely discharged, the voltage across it equals
and B. There is no potential difference from zero, and there is no discharge current. Now
each plate to its battery terminal, however, the capacitor is in the same uncharged condi-
which is the reason why the capacitor stops tion as in Fig. 21-2a. It can be charged again,
charging. however, by a source of applied voltage.

Storing the Charge. The negative and posi- Nature of the Capacitance. A capacitor has
tive charges on opposite plates have an associ- the ability to store the amount of charge neces-
ated electric field through the dielectric, as sary to provide a potential difference equal to
shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 21-2b and c. the charging voltage. If 100 V were applied in
The direction of these electric lines of force is Fig. 21-2, the capacitor would charge to 100 V.
shown repelling electrons from plate B, making The capacitor charges to the applied volt-
this side positive. It is the effect of electric lines age because, when the capacitor voltage is less,
of force through the dielectric that results in it takes on more charge. As soon as the capaci-
storage of the charge. The electric field distorts tor voltage equals the applied voltage, no more
the molecular structure so that the dielectric is charging current can flow. Note that any charge
no longer neutral. The dielectric is actually or discharge current flows through the con-
stressed by the invisible force of the electric ducting wires to the plates but not through the
field. As evidence, the dielectric can be rup- dielectric.
tured by a very intense field with high voltage
across the capacitor. Charge and Discharge Currents. In Fig.
The result of the electric field, then, is that 21-2b, i0 is in the opposite direction from in in
the dielectric has charge supplied by the voltage d. In both cases the current is electron flow.
source. Since the dielectric is an insulator that However, i0 is charging current to the capacitor
cannot conduct, the charge remains in the ca- and in is discharge current from the capacitor.
pacitor even after the voltage source is re- The charge and discharge currents must always
moved, as illustrated in Fig. 21-2c. You can now be in opposite directions. In b, the negative
take this charged capacitor by itself out of the plate of C accumulates electrons from the volt-
circuit, and it still has 10 V across the two ter- age source. In d, the charged capacitor serves
minals. as a voltage source to produce electron flow
around the discharge path.
Discharging. The action of neutralizing the
charge by connecting a conducting path across Practice Problems 21-2
the dielectric is discharging the capacitor. As (answers on page 441 )
shown in Fig. 21-2d, the wire between plates A Refer to Fig. 21-2.
and B is a low-resistance path for discharge (a) If the applied voltage were 458 V, how
current. With the stored charge in the dielectric much would the voltage be across C after it
providing the potential difference, 10 Vis avail- has charged?
able to produce discharge current. The negative (b) How much is the voltage across C after it is
plate repels electrons, which are attracted to the completely discharged?
 Chapter 21
422 Capacitance

21-3 Answer. Q = CV = 40 x 10-5 x 50

THE FARAD UNIT Q = 2000 X 10-5 coulomb
OF CAPACITANCE
With more charging voltage, the electric field is Note that the larger capacitor stores more
stronger and more charge is stored in the die- charge for the same voltage, in accordance with
lectric. The amount of charge Q stored in the the definition of capacitance as the ability to
capacitance is therefore proportional to the ap- store charge.
plied voltage. Also, a larger capacitance can The factors in Q = CV can be inverted to
store more charge. These relations are summa-
rized by the formula
(21-2)

coulombs (21-1)
or
where Q is the charge stored in the dielectric in
coulombs (C), and Vis the voltage across the (21-3)
plates of the capacitor.
C is a physical constant, indicating the
capacitance in terms of how much charge can For all three formulas, the basic units are volts
be stored for a given amount of charging volt- for V, coulombs for Q, and farads for C. The
age. When one coulomb is stored in the dielec- formula C = Q/Vactually defines one farad of
tric with a potential difference of one volt, the capacitance as one coulomb of charge stored
capacitance is one farad. for one volt of potential difference.
Practical capacitors have sizes in millionths
Example 3. A constant current of 2 µA charges a
of a farad, or smaller. The reason is that typical capacitor for 20 s. How much charge is stored?
capacitors store charge of microcoulombs or Remember I = Q!t or Q = I X t.
less. Therefore, the common units are
Answer. Q = I x t = 2 x 10-5 x 20
1 microfarad = 1 µF = 1 x 1o- F 6
Q = 40 microcoulombs (µC)
1 micromicrofarad = 1 µµF = 1 x 10-12 F
or 1 picofarad = 1 pF = 1 x 10- 12 F Example 4. The voltage across the charged capaci-
tor in Example 3 is 20 V. Calculate C.
The picofarad and micromicrofarad units
are the same but pF has become standard to Answer. c= Q = 40 ~ 10-6 =2 x 10-6
eliminate confusion with microfarads. v 0
C = 2µF
Example 1. How much charge is stored in a 2-µF
capacitor with 50 V across it? Example 5. A constant current of 5 mA charges a
10-µF capacitor for 1 s. How much is the voltage
Answer. Q = CV = 2 X 10- 5 X 50 across the capacitor?
Q = 100 X 10-5 coulomb
Answer. Find the stored charge first:
Example 2. How much charge is stored in a 40-µF
capacitor with 50 V across it? Q= I x t =5 x 10-3 x 1 =5 x 10-3 coulomb
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 423

1 J1
J 1 1µFr ~;FI J 1v l
10 v
C=
0 10 v 2Q 10
2µFT2Q
c 0

1j (a)
1j (b)
I+ Tj (c)
FIGURE 21-3
Increasing stored charge and capacitance by
increasing plate area and decreasing distance
between plates. (a) Capacitance of 1 µ,F. (b)
2-µ,F capacitance with twice the plate area and
the same distance. (c) 2-µ,F capacitance with
one-half the distance and the same plate area.

Q 5 x 10-3 5 can store more charge in the dielectric. With

v = c = 10 x 1o- 6 = 10 x 103
less distance between the plates, the stored
v = 500 v charge is greater for the same applied voltage,
which means the capacitance is larger.
Larger Plate Area Increases Capacitance. Dielectric Constant Kc This indicates the
As illustrated in Fig. 21-3, when the area of ability of an insulator to concentrate electric
each plate is doubled, the capacitance in (b) flux. Its numerical value is specified as the ratio
stores twice the charge of (a). The potential of flux in the insulator compared with the flux in
difference in both cases is still 10 V. This voltage air or vacuum. The dielectric constant of air or
produces a given strength of electric field. A vacuum is 1, since it is the reference.
larger plate area, however, means that more of Mica, for example, has an average dielec-
the dielectric surface can contact each plate, tric constant of 6, meaning it can provide a
allowing more lines of force through the dielec- density of electric flux six times as great as that
tric between the plates and less flux leakage of air or vacuum for the same applied voltage
outside the dielectric. Then the field can store
more charge in the dielectric. The result of
TABLE 21-1. Dielectric Materials*
larger plate area is more charge stored for the
same applied voltage, which means the capaci- DIELECTRIC
tance is larger. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH,
MATERIAL CONSTANT Kf V/mil

Air or vacuum 1 20
Thinner Dielectric Increases Capacitance. 600-1250
Ceramics 80-1200
As illustrated in Fig. 21-3c, when the distance Glass 8 335-2000
between plates is reduced one-half, the capaci- Mica 3-8 600-1500
tance stores twice the charge of Fig. 21-3a. The Oil 2-5 375
potential difference is still 10 V, but its electric Paper 2-6 1250
field has greater flux density in the thinner die- *Exact values depend on the specific composition of differ-
lectric. Then the field between opposite plates ent types.
 Chapter 21
424 Capacitance

and equal physical size. Insulators generally of air or vacuum, in SI, to calculate C in farads,
have a dielectric constant K( greater than 1, as which is an SI unit.
listed in Table 21-1. Higher values of K( allow
greater values of capacitance. Example 6. Calculate C for two plates each with an
The dielectric constant for an insulator is area 2 m 2, separated by 1 cm, or 10- 2 m, with a
actually its relative permittivity, with the symbol dielectric of air.
£r or K(, indicating the ability to concentrate
Answer. Substituting in Formula (21-4),
electric flux. This factor corresponds to relative
permeability, with the symbol µr or Km, for mag-
netic flux. Both £r and µr are pure numbers c= 1 x 15-2 x 8.85 x 10-12
without units, as they are just ratios. 1 = 200 x 8.85 x 10-12
= 1770 x 10- 12
Dielectric Strength. Table 21-1 also lists
breakdown-voltage ratings for typical dielec- C = 1770 pF
trics. Dielectric strength is the ability of a dielec-
tric to withstand a potential difference without This value means the. capacitor can store
arcing across the insulator. This voltage rating is 1770 x 10- 12 coulomb of charge with 1 V.
important because rupture of the insulator pro- Note the relatively small capacitance, in pico-
vides a conducting path through the dielectric. farad units, with the extremely large plates of
Then it cannot store charge, because the ca- 2 m 2 , which is really the size of a table or a
pacitor has been short-circuited. Since the desk top.
breakdown voltage increases with greater thick- If the dielectric used is paper with a dielec-
ness, capacitors for higher voltage ratings have tric constant of 6, then C will be six times
more distance between the plates. This in- greater. Also, if the spacing between plates is
creased distance reduces the capacitance, how- reduced by one-half to 0.5 cm, the capacitance
ever, all other factors remaining the same. will be doubled.
These physical factors for a parallel-plate
capacitor are summarized by the formula Practice Problems 21-3
(answers on page 441)
(a) A capacitor charged to 100 V has 1000
C = K( X ~ X 8.85 x 10-12 F (21-4) microcoulombs of charge. How much is
C?
A is the area in square meters of either plate, (b) A mica capacitor and ceramic capacitor
and d is the distance in meters between plates. have the same physical dimensions. Which
K( is the dielectric constant, or relative per- has more C?
mittivity, as listed in Table 21-1. The constant
factor 8.85 X 10-12 is the absolute permittivity 21-4
TYPICAL CAPACITORS
1
The absolute permittivity f. 0 is 8.854 x 10- 1 2 FIm, Commercial capacitors are generally classified
in SI units, for electric flux in air or vacuum. This according to the dielectric. Most common are
value corresponds to an absolute permeability µ 0 of air, mica, paper, and ceramic capacitors, plus
47T X 10- 7 Him in SI units, for magnetic flux in air the electrolytic type. Electrolytic capacitors use
or vacuum. a molecular-thin oxide film as the dielectric,
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 425

TABLE 21-2. Types of Capacitors

DIELECTRIC CONSTRUCTION CAPACITANCE BREAKDOWN, V
Air Meshed plates 10-400 pF 400 (0.02-in air gap)
Ceramic Tubular 0.5-1600 pF 500-20,000
Disk 0.002-0.1 µF
Electrolytic Aluminum 5-1000 µF 10-450
Tantalum 0.01-300 µF 6-50
Mica Stacked sheets 10-5000 pF 500-20,000
Paper Rolled foil 0.001-1 µF 200-1600

resulting in large capacitance values in little wax or encased in plastic. Paper capacitors are
space. These types are compared in Table 21-2 often used for medium capacitance values of
and shown in Figs. 21-4 to 21-8. 0.001 to 1.0 µF, approximately. The physical
There is no required polarity, since either size for 0.05 µFis typically 1 %in long with 1/z-in
side can be the more positive plate, except for diameter. Paper capacitors are shown in
electrolytic capacitors. These are marked to Fig. 21-5.
indicate which side must be positive to maintain A black band at one end of a paper capaci-
the internal electrolytic action that produces the tor indicates the lead connected to the outside
dielectric required to form the capacitance. It foil. This lead should be used for the ground or
should be noted that the polarity of the charging row-potential side of the circuit to take advan-
source determines the polarity of the capacitor tage of shielding by the outside foil. There is no
voltage. required polarity, however, since the capaci-
tance is the same no matter which side is
Mica Capacitors. Thin mica sheets are
stacked between tinfoil sections for the con -

---
ducting plates to provide the required capaci-
tance. Alternate strips of tinfoil are connected
together and brought out as one terminal for
one set of plates, while the opposite terminal
connects to the other set of plates. The entire (a)
unit is generally in a molded Bakelite case. Mica
capacitors are often used for small capacitance
values of 50 to 500 pF; their length is %in or
less with about 1/s-in thickness. Typical mica
capacitors are shown in Fig. 21-4.

Paper Capacitors. In this construction, two

rolls of tinfoil conductor separated by a tissue- (b)
paper insulator are rolled into a compact cylin- FIGURE 21-4
der. Each outside lead connects to its roll of Mica capacitors, about %in wide. (a) Fixed
tinfoil as a plate. The entire cylinder is generally value, color-coded in picofarads. (b) Variable
placed in a cardboard container coated with trimmer of 5 to 30 pF. (El Menco)
 Cha ter 21
426 Capacitance

plates. With a K" value of 1200, the disk ceram-

ics feature capacitance values up to 0.01 µFin
much less space than a paper capacitor.
For tubular ceramics, the hollow ceramic
(a)
tube has a silver coating on the inside and out-
side surfaces. With values of 1 to 500 pF, these
capacitors have the same applications as mica
capacitors but are smaller. Typical ceramic
capacitors are shown in Fig. 21-6.

Temperature Coefficient. Ceramic capacitors

are often used for temperature compensation,
to increase or decrease capacitance with a rise
in temperature. The temperature coefficient is
(b) given in parts per million (ppm) per degree
FIGURE 21-5 Celsius, with a reference of 25°C. As an exam-
Paper capacitors (a} Tubular type 1 in long. C ple, a negative 750 ppm unit is stated as N750.
is 0.068 µF. (b) Encapsulated type with leads A positive temperature coefficient of the same
for printed-circuit board; length %in; C is value would be stated as P750. Units that do not
430 pF. change in capacitance are labeled NPO.

grounded. It should also be noted that in the Variable Capacitors. Figure 21-1 b shows a
schematic symbol for C the curved line usually variable air capacitor. In this construction, the
indicates the low-potential side of the capacitor. fixed metal plates connected together form the
Many capacitors of foil construction use a stator. The movable plates connected together
plastic film instead of tissue paper. Two types on the shaft form the rotor. Capacitance is var-
are Teflon 1 and Mylar 1 plastic film. These fea- ied by rotating the shaft to make the rotor plates
ture very high insulation resistance, of over mesh with the stator plates. They do not touch,
1000 MQ, low losses, and longer service life however, since air is the dielectric. Full mesh is
without voltage breakdown, compared with maximum capacitance. Moving the rotor com-
paper capacitors. The plastic capacitors are pletely out of mesh provides minimum capaci-
available in sizes of 0.001 to 1.0 µF, like paper tance.
capacitors. A common application is the tuning ca-
pacitor in radio receivers. When you tune to
Ceramic Capacitors. The ceramic dielectric different stations, the capacitance varies as the
materials are made from earth fired under ex- rotor moves in or out of mesh. Combined with
treme heat. By use of titanium dioxide, or sev- an inductance, the variable capacitance then
eral types of silicates, very high values of dielec- tunes the receiver to a different resonant fre-
tric constant K" can be obtained. quency for each station. Usually two or three
In the disk form, silver is fired onto both capacitor sections are ganged on one common
sides of the ceramic, to form the conductor shaft.
1
Du Pont trademarks. Electrolytic Capacitors. These capacitors are
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 427

I I
FIGURE 21-6
Ceramic capacitors shown actual size. (a) Disk
type. ( b) Tubular type. ( Centralab Division,
Globe-Union Inc.)

commonly used for capacitance values of 5 to

1000 µF because electrolytics provide the most
capacitance in the smallest space with least cost.
Negative electrode
Figure 21-7 shows a typical electrolytic. The (electrolyte)
construction consists of two metal electrodes,
usually aluminum, in an electrolyte of borax,
phosphate, or carbonate. Between the two alu-
minum strips, absorbent gauze soaks up elec- Positive electrode
trolyte to provide the required electrolysis. (aluminum foil)
When de voltage is applied to form the
(a)
capacitance during manufacture, the electro-
lytic action accumulates a molecular-thin layer
of aluminum oxide at the junction between the
positive aluminum electrode and the electrolyte.
Since the oxide film is an insulator, there is (b) (c)
capacitance between the positive aluminum FIGURE 21-7
electrode and the electrolyte in the gauze sepa- Construction of dry electrolytic capacitor. (a)
rator. The negative aluminum electrode simply Internal electrodes. ( b) Foil rolled into car-
provides a connection to the electrolyte. tridge. ( c) Typical capacitor with multiple sec-
With the extremely thin dielectric film, very tions. Height is about 3 in. (Sprague Electric
large capacitance values can be obtained. The Co.)
 Chapter 21
428 Capacitance

area is increased by means of long strips of age current. Although the voltage ratings are
aluminum foil and gauze, which are rolled into lower than for aluminum electrolytics, tantalum
a compact cylinder having very high capaci- capacitors are commonly used for low-voltage
tance. For example, an electrolytic capacitor the applications in transistor circuits. Typical ca-
same size as a 0.1-µF paper capacitor, but rated pacitors are shown in Fig. 21-8.
at 10-V breakdown, may have 1000 µF capaci-
tance. Higher voltage ratings up to 450 V are Capacitance Tolerance. Ceramic disk capaci-
often used in typical capacitance values of 8 to tors for general applications usually have a tol-
80 µF. erance of +20 percent. Paper capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors must be connected usually have a tolerance of + 10 percent. For
so that the applied voltage maintains the posi- closer tolerances, mica or ceramic tubular ca-
tive electrode more positive than the negative pacitors are used. These have tolerance values
terminal. Otherwise, the insulating oxide film is of +2 to 20 percent. Silver-plated mica ca-
not formed and there is no capacitance. pacitors are available with a tolerance of + 1
Electrolytic capacitors are used in circuits percent.
that have a combination of de voltage and ac The tolerance may be less on the minus
voltage. The de voltage maintains the polarity. A side to make sure there is enough capacitance,
common application is for the electrolytic filter particularly with electrolytic capacitors, which
capacitors to eliminate the ac ripple in a de have a wide tolerance. For instance, a 20-µF
power supply. electrolytic with a tolerance of -10 percent,
If the electrolytic is connected in opposite +50 percent may have a capacitance of 18 to
polarity, the reversed electrolysis forms gas and 30 µF. However, the exact capacitance value is
the capacitor becomes hot and may explode. not critical in most applications of capacitors for
This possibility applies only to electrolytic ca- filtering, ac coupling, and bypassing.
pacitors.
The disadvantage of electrolytics, in addi- Voltage Rating of Capacitors. This rating
tion to the required polarization, is their rela- specifies the maximum potential difference that
tively high leakage current, since the oxide film
is not a perfect insulator. This leakage current
through the dielectric is about 0 .1 to 0 .5 mA/ µF
of capacitance.
Nonpolarized electrolytic capacitors are
also available for applications in ac circuits
without any de polarizing voltage. One use is for
ac motors. A nonpolar electrolytic actually con-
tains two capacitors, connected internally in
series-opposing polarity.

Tantalum Capacitors. These are a new type

of electrolytic, using tantalum instead of alumi- FIGURE 21-8
num. Niobium is also used. The electrolyte may Low-voltage miniature electrolytic capacitors
be wet or dry. They feature larger capacitance for transistor circuits. (Cornell-Dubilier Elec-
in a smaller size, longer shelf life, and less leak- tronics)
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 429

can be applied across the plates without punc- units. The colors used are the same as for resis-
turing the dielectric. Usually the voltage rating is tor coding, from black for 0 up to white for 9.
for temperatures up to about 60 ° C. Higher Mica capacitors generally use the six-dot
temperatures result in a lower voltage rating. system shown in Fig. 21-9. Read the top row
Voltage ratings for general-purpose paper, first from left to right, then the bottom row, in
mica, and ceramic capacitors are typically 200 reverse order right to left. White for the first dot
to 500 V. Ceramic capacitors with ratings of 1 to indicates the new EIA coding, but the capaci-
5 kV are also available. tance value is read from the next three dots. As
Electrolytic capacitors are commonly used an example, if the colors are red, green, and
in 25-, 150-, and 450-V ratings. In addition, 6- brown for dots 2, 3, and 4, the capacitance is
and 10-V electrolytic capacitors are often used 250 pF. If the first dot is silver, it indicates a
in transistor circuits. For applications where a paper capacitor, but the capacitance is still read
lower voltage rating is permissible, more capac- from dots 2, 3, and 4. Dot 5 specifies tolerance,
itance can be obtained in a smaller physical size. while dot 6 gives the EIA class. There are seven
The voltage ratings are for de voltage ap- classes from A to G specifying temperature
plied. The breakdown rating is lower for ac coefficient, leakage resistance, and additional
voltage because of the internal heat produced variable factors. Appendix G has more detailed
by continuous charge and discharge. information on the tolerance and class coding.
The potential difference across the capaci- Also listed are discontinued codes found on
tor depends upon the applied voltage and is not capacitors in old equipment.
necessarily equal to the voltage rating. A voltage · For tubular ceramic capacitors, the system
rating higher than the potential difference ap- shown in Fig. 21-10 is used with color dots or
plied across the capacitor provides a safety bands. The wide color band specifying temper-
factor for long life in service. With electrolytic ature coefficient indicates the left end, which is
capacitors, however, the actual capacitor volt- the side connected to the inner electrode. Ca-
age should be close to the rated voltage to pacitance is read from the next three colors, in.
produce the oxide film that provides the speci- either dots or stripes. For instance, brown,
fied capacitance. black, and brown for bands or dots 2, 3, and 4
means 100 pF.
Practice Problems 21-4 Digit
(answers on page 441 )
(a) Which is the only capacitor type that has White
Digit
polarity?
{b) Which is physically smaller, a paper or
ceramic capacitor, both with the same rat-
ings?

21-5
CAPACITOR COLOR CODING Class Multiplier
Mica and tubular ceramic capacitors are color-
coded to indicate their capacitance value. Since Tolerance
coding is necessary only for very small sizes, the FIGURE 21-9
color-coded capacitance value is always in pF Six-dot color code for mica capacitors.
 Chapter 21
430 Capacitance

Tolerance

Cr=C 1 +C2
= 2 µF

FIGURE 21-11
Capacitances in parallel.

FIGURE 21-10 total capacitance is the sum of the individual

Color code for ceramic tubular capacitors. capacitances. As illustrated in Fig. 21-11,

Gray and white are used as decimal multi- CT = cl + Cz + . . . + etc. (21-5)

pliers for very small values, with gray for 0.01
A 10-µF capacitor in parallel with a 5-µF
and white for 0.1. For instance, green, black,
capacitor, for example, provides a 15-µF ca-
and white in dots 2, 3, and 4 means 50 x 0.1,
pacitance for the parallel combination. The
or 5 pF. The color codes for tolerance and
voltage is the same across the parallel capaci-
temperature coefficient of ceramic capacitors
tors. Note that adding parallel capacitances is
are listed in Appendix G.
opposite to the case of inductances in parallel,
In reading the color-coded capacitance
and resistances in parallel.
value, keep in mind that mica capacitors gener-
ally range from 10 to 5000 pF. The small tubu-
Practice Problems 21-6
lar ceramic capacitors are usually O.5 to
(answers on page 441 )
1000 pF. With paper and ceramic disk capaci-
(a) How much is CT for 0.01 µF in parallel
tors, the capacitance and voltage rating is gen-
with 0.02 µF?
erally printed on the case. Where no voltage
(b) What C must be connected in parallel with
rating is specified, it is usually about 200 to
100 pF to make CT of 250 pF?
600 V. Electrolytic capacitors have the capaci-
tance, voltage rating, and polarity printed on the
21-7
case.
SERIES CAPACITANCES
Connecting capacitances in series is equivalent
Practice Problems 21-5
(answers on page 441 ) to increasing the thickness of the dielectric.
Therefore, the combined capacitance is less
(a) How much is C for red, green, and black
than the smallest individual value. As shown in
color stripes or dots?
Fig. 21-12, the combined equivalent capaci-
(b) What letters are used to indicate a negative
tance is calculated by the reciprocal formula:
temperature coefficient?
1 1 1
21-6 C = -C + - + · · · + etc. (21-6)
T 1 Cz
PARALLEL CAPACITANCES
Connecting capacitances in parallel is equiva- Any of the shortcut calculations for the
lent to adding the plate areas. Therefore, the reciprocal formula apply. For example, the
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 431

charging current be 600 µA flowing for 1 s. The

I
Cr
1
1000 V
charge Q equals IX t, then, or 600 µC. Both
C1 and C2 have Q equal to 600 µC, as they are
in the same series path for charging current.

l j
-1 = -1 + -
1
Although the charge is the same in C1 and
C2 , they have different voltages because of dif-
ferent capacitance values. For each capacitor
V = QIC. The voltage Vi across C1 then is
Cr C 1 C2
CT= 0.5 µF 600 µC/l µF, which equals 600 V. For C2 , the
FIGURE 21-12 voltage \'2 is 600 µC/2 µF, which equals 300 V.
Capacitances in series.
Charging Current for Series Capacitances.
The charging current is the same in all parts of
combined capacitance of two equal capaci-
the series path, including the junction between
tances of 10 µF in series is 5 µF.
C1 and C2 , even though this point is separated
Capacitors are used in series to provide a
from the source voltage by two insulators. At
higher voltage breakdown rating for the combi-
the junction, the current is the resultant of elec-
nation. For instance, each of three equal ca-
trons repelled by the negative plate of C2 and
pacitances in series has one-third the applied
attracted by the positive plate of C1 . The
voltage.
':'mount of current is how much would be pro-
duced by one capacitance of %µF, which is the
Voltage Division across Unequal Capaci-
equivalent capacitance of C1 and C2 in series.
tances. In series, the voltage across each C is
inversely proportional to its capacitance, as il-
Practice Problems 21-7
lustrated in Fig. 21-13. The smaller capacitance
(answers on page 441 )
has the larger proportion of the applied voltage.
(a) How much is CT for two 0.2-µF capacitors.
The reason is that the series capacitances all
in series?
have the same charge because they are in one
(b) With 500 Vapplied across both, how much
current path. With equal charge, a smaller ca-
is V0 across each capacitor?
pacitance has a greater potential difference.
(c) How much is CT for 100 pF in series with
We can consider the amount of charge in
50 pF?
the series capacitors in Fig. 21-13. Let the
21-8
STRAY CAPACITIVE AND
t v J_ c,"
L
Jr::
600
INDUCTIVE EFFECTS
These two important characteristics can be evi-
VT =900 V dent in all circuits with all types of components.
A capacitor has a small amount of inductance in

r-
FIGURE 21-13
f J2µF the conductors. A coil has some capacitance
between windings. A resistor has a small
amount of inductance and capacitance. After
With series capacitances the smaller capaci- all, a capacitance physically is simply an insula-
tance has more voltage for the same charge. tor between two points having a difference of
 Chapter 21
432 Capacitance

potential. An inductance is basically just a con-

ductor carrying current.
Actually, though, these stray effects are
usually quite small, compared with the concen-
trated or lumped values of capacitors or in- R1 =
ductors. Typical values of stray capacitance may 100M.Q
be 1 to 10 pF, while stray inductance is usually a
fraction of 1 µH. For very high radio frequen-
cies, however, when small values of L and C
must be used, the stray effects become impor-
tant. As another example, any wire cable has FIGURE 21-14
capacitance between the conductors. Equivalent circuit of a capacitor. R1 is leakage
resistance; Rd is absorption loss dissipated in
Stray Circuit Capacitance. The wiring and dielectric.
the components in a circuit have capacitance to
the metal chassis. This stray capacitance Cs is Absorption Losses in Capacitors. With ac
typically 5 to 10 pF. To reduce Cs, the wiring voltage applied to a capacitor, the continuous
should be short, with the leads and components charge, discharge, and reverse charging action
placed high off the chassis. Sometimes, for very cannot be followed instantaneously in the di-
high frequencies, the stray capacitance is in- electric. This corresponds to hysteresis in mag-
cluded as part of the circuit design. Then netic materials. With high-frequency charging
changing the placement of components or wir- voltage for a capacitor, there may be a differ-
ing affects the circuit operation. Such critical ence between the amount of ac voltage applied
lead dress is usually specified in the manufac- and the ac voltage stored in the dielectric. The
turer's service notes. difference can be considered absorption loss in
the dielectric. With higher frequencies, the
Leakage Resistance of a Capacitor. Consider losses increase. In Fig. 21-14, the small value of
a capacitor charged by a de voltage source. 0.5 Q for Rd indicates ·a typical value for paper
After the charging voltage is removed, a perfect capacitors. For ceramic and mica capacitors,
capacitor would keep its charge indefinitely. the dielectric losses are even smaller. These
After a long period of time, however, the charge losses need not be considered for electrolytic
will be neutralized by a small leakage current capacitors because they are generally not used
through the dielectric and across the insulated for radio frequencies.
case between terminals, because there is no
perfect insulator. For paper, ceramic, and mica Power Factor of a Capacitor. The quality of a
capacitors, though, the leakage current is very capacitor in terms of minimum loss is often
slight or, inversely, the leakage resistance is indicated by its power factor, which states the
very high. As shown in Fig. 21-14, the leakage fraction of input power dissipated as heat loss in
resistance R1 is indicated by a high resistance in the capacitor. The lower the numerical value of
parallel with the capacitance C. For paper, ce- the power factor, the better is the quality of the
ramic, or mica capacitors R1 is 100 MQ or capacitor. Since the losses are in the dielectric,
more. However, electrolytic capacitors may the power factor of the capacitor is essentially
have a leakage resistance of 0 .5 MQ or less. the power factor of the dielectric, independent
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 433

of capacitance value or voltage rating. At radio Distributed Capacitance of a Coil. As illus-

frequencies, approximate values of power fac- trated in Fig. 21-15, a coil has distributed ca-
tor are 0.000 for air or vacuum, 0.0004 for pacitance Cd between turns. Note that each turn
mica, about 0.01 for paper, and 0.0001 to 0.03 is a conductor separated from the next turn by
for ceramics. an insulator, which is the definition of capaci-
The reciprocal of the power factor can be tance. Furthermore, the potential of each turn is
considered the Q of the capacitor, similar to the different from the next, providing part of the
idea of Q of a coil. For instance, a power factor total voltage as a potential difference to charge
of 0.001 corresponds to a Q of 1000. A higher Cd. The result then is the equivalent circuit
Q therefore means better quality for the capaci- shown for an rf coil. L is the inductance and Re
tor. its internal effective ac resistance in series with
L, while the total distributed capacitance Cd for
Inductance of a Capacitor. Capacitors with a all the turns is across the entire coil.
coiled construction, particularly paper and Special methods for minimum Cd include
electrolytic capacitors, have some internal in- space-wound coils, where the turns are spaced
ductance. The larger the capacitor, the greater far apart; the honeycomb or universal winding,
is its series inductance. Mica and ceramic ca- with the turns crossing each other at right
pacitors have very little inductance, however, angles; and the bank winding, with separate
which is why they are generally used for radio sections called pies. These windings are for rf
frequencies. coils. In audio and power transformers, a
For use above audio frequencies, the grounded conductor shield, called a Faraday
rolled-foil type of capacitor must have a non- screen, is often placed between windings to
inductive construction. This means the start and reduce capacitive coupling.
finish of the foil winding must not be the termi-
nals of the capacitor. Instead, the foil windings Reactive Effects in Resistors. As illustrated by
are offset. Then one terminal can contact all the high-frequency equivalent circuit in Fig.
layers of one foil at one edge, while the opposite 21-16, a resistor can include a small amount of
edge of the other foil contacts the second ter- inductance and capacitance. For carbon-com-
minal. Most rolled-foil capacitors, including the position resistors, the inductance is usually
paper and Mylar types, are constructed this negligible. However, approximately 0.5 pF of
way. capacitance across the ends may have an effect,
particularly with large resistances used for high
radio frequencies. Wirewound resistors defi-
nitely have enough inductance to be evident at
radio frequencies. However, special resistors

(a) • (b)
FIGURE 21-15
Equivalent circuit of an rf coil. (a) Distributed
capacitance Cd between turns of wire. (b) FIGURE 21-16
Equivalent circuit. High-frequency equivalent circuit of a resistor.
 Chapter 21
434 Capacitance

are available with double windings in a non- voltage across the capacitor. For example, a
inductive method based on cancellation of op- 1-µF capacitor charged to 400 V has stored
posing magnetic fields. energy equal to

Capacitance of an Open Circuit. An open - 11 cv2 - 1 x 10-6 x (4 x 102)2

switch or a break in a conducting wire has e- i2 - 2
capacitance C0 across the open. The reason is
1 x 10-6 x (16 x 10 4 )
that the open consists of an insulator between
two conductors. With a voltage source in the 2
circuit, C0 charges to the applied voltage. Be- = 8 x 10- 2

cause of the small C0 , in the order of pico- e = 0.08 J

farads, the capacitance charges to the source
voltage in a short time. This charging of C0 is This 0.08 J of energy is supplied by the
the reason why an open series circuit has the voltage source that charges the capacitor to
applied voltage across the open terminals. After 400 V. When the charging circuit is opened, the
a momentary flow of charging current, C0 stored energy remains as charge in the dielec-
charges to the applied voltage and stores the tric. With a closed path provided for discharge,
charge needed to maintain this voltage as long the entire 0.08 J is available to produce dis-
as the circuit is open. charge current. As the capacitor discharges, the
energy is used in producing discharge current.
Practice Problems 21-8 When the capacitor is completely discharged,
(answers on page 441 ) the stored energy is zero.
Answer true or false. The stored energy is the reason why a
(a) A two-wire cable has distributed Cbetween charged capacitor can produce an electric
the conductors. shock, even when not connected into a circuit.
(b) A coil has distributed C between the turns. When you touch the two leads of the charged
(c) The leakage resistance of ceramic capaci- capacitor, its voltage produces discharge cur-
tors is very high. rent through your body. Stored energy greater
than 1 J can be dangerous with a capacitor
21-9 charged to a voltage high enough to produce an
ENERGY IN ELECTROSTATIC electric shock.
FIELD OF CAPACITANCE
The electrostatic field of the charge stored in the Practice Problems 21-9
dielectric has electrical energy supplied by the (answers on page 441)
voltage source that charges C. This energy is Answer true or false.
stored in the dielectric. The proof is the fact that (a) The stored energy in C increases with
the capacitance can produce discharge current more V.
when the voltage source is removed. The elec- (b) The stored energy decreases with less C.
trical energy stored is
21-10
Energy = & = 1lz CV2 joules (21-7) TROUBLES IN CAPACITORS
Capacitors can become open or short-circuited.
where C is the capacitance in farads and Vis the In either case, the capacitor is useless because it
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 435

cannot store charge. A leaky capacitor is equiv- the insulation resistance of the capacitor, which
alent to a partial short-circuit where the dielec- is normally very high. For paper, mica, and
tric gradually loses its insulating properties ceramic capacitors, the resistance can be 500 to
under the stress of applied voltage, lowering its 1000 Mn, or more, which is practically infinite
resistance. A good capacitor has very high re- resistance. Electrolytic capacitors, however,
sistance of the order of megohms; a short-cir- have a lower normal resistance of about
cuited capacitor has zero ohms resistance, or 0.5 Mn. In all cases, discharge the capacitor
continuity; the resistance of a leaky capacitor is before checking with the ohmmeter.
lower than normal. When the ohmmeter is initially connected,
its battery charges the capacitor. This charging
Checking Capacitors with an Ohmmeter. A current is the reason the meter pointer moves
capacitor usually can be checked with an ohm- away from infinity, since more current through
meter. The highest ohms range, such as the ohmmeter means less resistance. Maximum
R X 1 Mn, is preferable. Also, disconnect one current flows at the first instant of charge. Then
side of the capacitor from the circuit to elimi- the charging current decreases as the capacitor
nate any parallel resistance paths that can lower voltage increases toward the applied voltage;
the resistance. Keep your fingers off the con- therefore, the needle pointer slowly moves to-
nections, since the body resistance lowers the ward infinite resistance. Finally, the capacitor is
reading. completely charged to the ohmmeter battery
As illustrated in Fig. 21-1 7, the ohmmeter voltage, the charging current is zero, and the
leads are connected across the capacitor. For a ohmmeter reads just the small leakage current
good capacitor, the meter pointer moves through the dielectric. This charging effect,
quickly toward the low-resistance side of the called capacitor action, shows that the capacitor
scale and then slowly recedes toward infinity. can store charge, indicating a normal capacitor.
The reading when the pointer stops moving is It should be noted that both the rise and fall of
the meter readings are caused by charging. The
capacitor discharges when the meter leads are
reversed.
0 0
RX 1 Mn RX 1 Mn Ohmmeter Readings. Troubles in a capacitor

' '
are indicated as follows:

1. If an ohmmeter reading immediately goes

practically to zero and stays there, the ca-
0.05 µF 0.05 µF pacitor is short-circuited.
2. If the capacitor shows charging, but the
(a) (b) final resistance reading is appreciably less
FIGURE 21-17 than normal, the capacitor is leaky. Such
Checking a capacitor with an ohmmeter. R
capacitors are particularly troublesome in
scale shown left to right, as on a VfVM. (a) high-resistance circuits. When checking
Capacitor action as needle is moved by charg- electrolytics, reverse the ohmmeter leads
ing current. (b) Leakage-resistance reading and take the higher of the two readings.
after capacitor has charged. 3. If the capacitor shows no charging action
 Chapter 21
436 Capacitance

but just reads very high resistance, it may Open Capacitors. In addition to the possibility
be open. Some precautions must be re- of an open connection in any type of capacitor,
membered, however, since very high re- electrolytics develop high resistance in the elec- I
sistance is a normal condition for capaci- trolyte with age, particularly at high tempera-
tors. Reverse the ohmmeter leads to tures. After service of a year or two, when the
discharge the capacitor, and check it again. electrolyte dries up, the capacitor is partially
In addition, remember that capacitance open. Much of the capacitor action is gone, and
values of 100 pF, or less, normally have the capacitor should be replaced.
very little charging current for the low bat-
tery voltage of the ohmmeter. Shelf Life. Except for electrolytics, capacitors
do not deteriorate with age while stored, since
there is no applied voltage. Electrolytic capaci-
Short-circuited Capacitors. In normal serv- tors, however, like dry cells, should be used
ice, capacitors can become short-circuited be- fresh from manufacture. The reason is the wet
cause the dielectric deteriorates with age, electrolyte.
usually over a period of years under the stress
of charging voltage, especially with higher tem- Practice Problems 21-10
peratures. This effect is more common with (answers on page 441)
paper and electrolytic capacitors. The capacitor (a) What is the ohmmeter reading for a
may become leaky gradually, indicating a partial shorted capacitor?
short circuit, or the dielectric may be punctured, (b) Does capacitor action with an ohmmeter
causing a short circuit. show the capacitor is good or bad?

Summary
1. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a dielectric
insulator. Its ability to store charge is the capacitance C. Applying
voltage to store charge is charging the capacitor; short-circuiting the
two conductors of the capacitor to neutralize the charge is discharg-
ing the capacitor. Schematic symbols for C are summarized in Fig.
21-18.
2. The unit of capacitance is the farad. One farad of capacitance stores
one coulomb of charge with one volt applied. Practical capacitors
have much smaller capacitance values, from 1 pF to 1000 µF. One
pf is 1 x 10-12 F; one µFis 1 x 10-6 F.
3. Q = CV, where Q is the charge in coulombs, C the capacitance in
farads, and V the potential difference across the capacitor in volts.
4. Capacitance increases with larger plate area, and less distance
between the plates.
5. The ratio of charge stored in different insulators to the charge stored
in air is the dielectric constant K{ of the material. Air or vacuum has
a dielectric constant of 1.
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 437

l l J l
T TT 0,
or

T "--
I
I
'!_a~~!~/
tuning

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 21-18
Schemetic symbols for types of C. (a) Fixed-air,
paper, mica, or ceramic. (b) Electrolytic, with
polarity. (c) Variable. (d) Ganged on one shaft.

6. The most common types of commercial capacitors are air, paper,

mica, ceramic, and electrolytic. Electrolytics are the only capacitors
with polarity. The different types are compared in Table 21-2.
7. Mica and tubular ceramic capacitors are color-coded as shown in
Figs. 21-9 and 21-10.
8. For parallel capacitors, CT= cl + Cz + C3 + ... +etc.
9. For series capacitors, 1 I CT = 1 I C1 + l! C2 + 1 I C3 + · · · + etc.
10. The electric field of a capacitance has stored energy CV212. With V
in volts and C in farads, the energy is in joules.
11. When checked with an ohmmeter, a good capacitor shows charging
current, and then the ohmmeter reading steadies at the insulation
resistance. All types except electrolytics normally have a very high
insulation resistance of 500 to 1000 Mn. Electrolytics have more
leakage current, with a typical resistance of 0.5 Mn.
12. The main comparisons between the opposite characteristics of
capacitance and inductance are summarized in Table 21-3.

TABLE 21-3. Comparison of Capacitance and Inductance

CAPACITANCE INDUCTANCE

Symbol is C Symbol is L
Farad unit Henry unit
Stores charge Q Conducts current I
Needs dielectric as insulator Needs wire conductor
More plate area allows more C More turns allow more L
Dielectric with higher K{ or E:r Core with higher Km or P.r
concentrates electric field for concentrates magnetic field
more C for more L
1 1 1 . . + L2
- = - + - m senes LT = L1 in series
cT c1 C2
CT = cl + C2 in parallel l_ = _l_ + LI in parallel
LT LI 2
 Chapter 21
438 Capacitance

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

1. A capacitor consists of two (a) conductors separated by an insulator;

(b) insulators separated by a conductor; (c) conductors alone;
(d) insulators alone.
2. A capacitance of 0.02 µf equals (a) 0.02 x 10- 12 f;
{b) 0.02 x 10-6 f; (c) 0.02 x 10 6 f; (d) 200 x 10-12 F.
3. A 10-µf capacitance charged to 10 V has a stored charge equal to
(a) 10 µC; (b) 100 µC; (c) 200 µC; (d) 1 C.
4. Capacitance increases with (a) larger plate area and greater distance
between plates; (b) smaller plate area and less distance between
plates; (c) larger plate area and less distance between plates;
(d) higher values of applied voltage.
5. Which of the following statements is correct? (a) Air capacitors have
a black band to indicate the outside foil. (b) Mica capacitors are
available in capacitance values of 1 to 10 µF. (c) Electrolytic ca-
pacitors must be connected in the correct polarity. (d) Ceramic
capacitors must be connected in the correct polarity.
6. Voltage applied across a ceramic dielectric produces an electrostatic
field 100 times greater than in air. The dielectric constant K( of the
ceramic equals (a) 331;j; (b) 50; (c) 100; (d) 10,000.
7. A six-dot mica capacitor color-coded white, red, green, brown, red,
and yellow has the capacitance value of (a) 25 pf; (b) 124 pf;
(c) 250 pf; (d) 925 pf.
8. The combination of two 0.02-µf 500-V capacitors in series has a
capacitance and breakdown rating of (a) 0.01 µf, 500 V; (b) 0.01 µf,
1000 V; (c) 0.02 µf, 500 V; (d) 0.04 µf, 500 V.
9. The combination of two 0.02-µf 500-V capacitors in parallel has a
capacitance and breakdown rating of {a) 0.01 µf, 1000 V;
(b) 0.02 µf, 500 V; (c) 0.04 µf, 500 V; (d) 0.04 µf, 1000 V.
10. For a good 0.05-µf paper capacitor, the ohmmeter reading should
(a) go quickly to 100 Q, approximately, and remain there; (b) show
low resistance momentarily and back off to a very high resistance;
(c) show high resistance momentarily and then a very low resistance;
(d) not move at all.

Essay Questions
1. Define capacitance with respect to physical structure and electrical
function. Explain how a two-wire conductor has capacitance.
2. (a) What is meant by a dielectric material? (b) Name five common
dielectric materials. (c) Define dielectric flux.
 Chapter 21
Capacitance 439

3. Explain briefly how to charge a capacitor. How is a charged capacitor

discharged?
4. Define 1 F of capacitance. Convert the following into farads using
powers of 10: (a) 50 pF; (b) 0.001 µF; (c) 0.047 µF; (d) 0.01 µF;
(e) 10 µF.
5. State the effect on capacitance of (a) larger plate area; (b) thinner
dielectric; (c) higher value of dielectric constant.
6. Give one reason for your choice of the type of capacitor to be used in
the following applications: (a) 80-µF capacitance for a circuit where
one side is positive and the applied voltage never exceeds 150 V;
(b) 1.5-pF capacitance for an rf circuit where the required voltage
rating is less than 500 V; (c) 0.05-µF capacitance for an audio circuit
where the required voltage rating is less than 500 V.
7. (a) Give the capacitance value of six-dot mica capacitors color-coded
as follows: (1) Black, red, green, brown, black, black. (2) White,
green, black, black, green, brown. (3) White, gray, red, brown, silver,
black. (b) Give the capacitance value of the tubular ceramic ca-
pacitors color-coded as follows: (4) Black, brown, black, black,
brown. (5) Brown, gray, black, gray, black.
8. Draw a diagram showing the least number of 400-V 2-µF capacitors
needed for a combination rated at 800 V with 2-µF total capacitance.
9. Given two identical uncharged capacitors. One is charged to 500 V
and connected across the uncharged capacitor. Why will the voltage
across both capacitors then be 250 V?
10. Describe briefly how you would check a 0.05-µF capacitor with an
ohmmeter. State the ohmmeter indications for the case of the
capacitor being good, short-circuited, or open.
11. Define the following: (a) stray circuit capacitance; (b) distributed
capacitance of a coil; (c) leakage resistance of a capacitor; (d) power
factor and Q of a capacitor.
12. Give two comparisons between the electric field in a capacitor and
the magnetic field in a coil.
13. Give three types of troubles in capacitors.
14. When a capacitor discharges, why is its discharge current in the
opposite direction from the charging current?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. How much charge in coulombs is in a 4-µF capacitor charged to

lOOV?
2. A 4-µF capacitor has 400 µC of charge. (a) How much voltage is
 Chapter 21
440 Capacitance

across the capacitor? (b) How much is the voltage across an 8-µF
capacitor with the same 400-µC charge?
3. A 2-µF capacitor is charged by a constant 3-µA charging current for
4 s. (a) How much charge is stored in the capacitor? (b) How much is
the voltage across the capacitor?
4. A 1-µF capacitor C1 and a 10-µF capacitor C2 are in series with a
constant 2-mA charging current. (a) After 5 s, how much charge is in
C1 and in C2? (b) How much is the voltage across C1 and across C2?
5. Calculate C for a mica capacitor, with Kf = 8, a thickness of
0.02 cm, plates of 6 cm 2 , and five sections in parallel. (Hint:
1 cm = 10-2 m and 1 cm 2 = 10-4 m 2)
6. How much capacitance stores 6000 µC of charge with 150 V ap-
plied? The charge of how many electrons is stored? What type of
capacitor is this most likely to be?
7. With 100 V across a capacitor, it stores 100 µC of charge. Then the
applied voltage is doubled to 200 V. (a) How much is the voltage
across the capacitor? (b) How much charge is stored? (c) How much
is its capacitance?
8. Referring to the parallel capacitors in Fig. 21-11, calculate the charge
Ql in cl and Q2 in C2 with 500 v. How much is the total charge QT
in both capacitors? Calculate the total capacitance CT as QT! V
9. Calculate the energy in joules stored in (a) a 500-pF C charged to
10 kV; (b) a 1-µF C charged to 5 kV; (c) a 40-µF C charged to 400 V.
10. Three capacitors are in series. C1 is 100 pF, C2 is 100 pF, and C3 is
50 pF. Calculate CT.
11. Calculate CT for the series-parallel combination of capacitors in Fig.
21-19a and b.

0.02 µF 0.04 µF 47 pF

H
0.047 µF
~pF
100 pF

(a) (b)
FIGURE 21-19
For Prob. 11.
 Cha ter 21
Capacitance 441

Answers to Practice Problems

21-1 (a) Dielectric 21-6 (b) 150 pf
(b) Farad 21-7 (a) 0.1 µf
21-2 (a) 458 V (b) 250 v
(b) ov (c) 33.3 pf
21-3 (a) 10 µf 21-8 (a) T
(b) Ceramic (b) T
21-4 (a) Electrolytic (c) T
(b) Ceramic 21-9 (a) T
21-5 (a) 250 pf (b) f
(b) NPO 21-10 (a) 0 Q
21-6 (a) 0.03 µf (b) Good
 Capacitive
Reactance
When a capacitor charges and discharges with varying voltage applied,
alternating current can flow. Although there cannot be any current apter

aa
through the dielectric of the capacitor, its charge and discharge produces
current in the circuit connected to the capacitor plates. How much
alternating current flows with sine-wave voltage applied depends on the
capacitive reactance Xe.
The amount of Xe is 1/(2'!1'/C), with fin hertz and Cin farads for Xe
in ohms. The reactance of X0 is in ohm units, like XL, but their effects are
opposite in terms of frequency. While XL is directly proportional to f, the
Xe is inversely proportional to f. Because of the reciprocal relation in
Xe= 11(2'!1'/C), the ohms of Xe decrease for higher frequencies and
more capacitance. The topics explaining these effects of Xe in sine-wave
ac circuits are:

22-1 Alternating Current in a Capacitive Circuit

22-2 =
Xe 11(2'!1'/C)
22-3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Reactances
22-4 Ohm's Law Applied to X0
22-5 Applications of Capacitive Reactance
22-6 Sine-Wave Charge and Discharge Current

22·1 plied, the capacitor alternately charges and

ALTERNATING CURRENT IN A discharges.
CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT First the capacitor is charged in one polar-
The fact that current flows with ac voltage ap- ity, and then it discharges; next the capacitor is
plied is demonstrated in Fig. 22-1, where the charged in the opposite polarity, and then it
bulb lights in (a) and (b} because of the capaci · discharges again. The cycles of charge and dis-
tor charge and discharge current. There is no charge current provide alternating current in
current through the dielectric, which is an insu- the circuit, at the same frequency as the applied
lator. While the capacitor is being charged by voltage. This is the current that lights the bulb.
increasing applied voltage, however, the charg· In Ag. 22·la, the 4-µ,F capacitor provides
ing current flows in one direction in the con- enough alternating current to light the bulb
ductors to ·the plates. While the capacitor is brightly. In Ag. 22-1 b, the 1-µ,F capacitor has
discharging, when the applied voltage de- less charge and discharge current because of
creases, the discharge current flows in the re- the smaller capacitance, and the light is not so
verse direction. With alternating voltage ap· bright. Therefore, the smaller capacitor has
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 443

C= C= C=
4 µF 1 µF 4 µf

.---,~·
, \
Dim
/ l 1~:!oJ No
light
120 v 120 v
60 Hz 60 Hz - de

I+•
--' I
+-"'
I+•
+-"'
--" I
' I=O

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 22-1
Current in a capacitive circuit. (a) The 4-µ.F
capacitor allows enough 60-Hz current to light
the bulb brightly. (b) Less current with smaller
capacitor causes dim light. (c) Bulb cannot light
with de voltage applied.

more opposition to alternating current as less 1. Alternating current flows in a capacitive

current flows with the same applied voltage; circuit with ac voltage applied.
that is, it has more reactance for less capaci- 2. A smaller capacitance allows less current,
tance. which means more Xe with more ohms of
In Fig. 22-1 c, the steady de voltage will opposition.
charge the capacitor to 120 V. Because the 3. Lower frequencies for the applied voltage
applied voltage does not change, though, the result in less current and more Xe. With a
capacitor will just stay charged. Since the po- steady de voltage source, which corre-
tential difference of 120 V across the charged sponds to a frequency of zero, the opposi-
capacitor is a voltage drop opposing the applied tion of the capacitor is infinite and there is
voltage, no current can flow. Therefore, the no current. In this case the capacitor is
bulb cannot light. The bulb may flicker on for an effectively an open circuit.
instant as charging current flows when voltage is
applied, but this current is only temporary until These effects have almost unlimited appli-
the capacitor is charged. Then the capacitor has cations in practical circuits because Xe depends
the applied voltage of 120 V, but there is zero on frequency. A very common use of a capaci-
voltage across the bulb. tor is to provide little opposition for ac voltage
As a result, the capacitor is said to block but to block any de voltage. Another example is
direct current or voltage. In other words, after to use Xe for less opposition to a high-fre-
the capacitor has been charged by a steady de quency alternating current, compared with
voltage, there is no current in the de circuit. All lower frequencies.
the applied de voltage is across the charged
capacitor, with zero voltage across any series Capacitive Current. The reason why a capac-
resistance. itor allows current to flow in an ac circuit is the
In summary, then, this demonstration alternate charge and discharge. If we insert an
shows the following points: ammeter in the circuit, as shown in Fig. 22-2,
 Chapter 22
444 Capacitive Reactance

(b) Which allows more charge and discharge

current, a 0.1- or a 0.5-µF capacitor?

120 v Xe= ~~1°2 22-2

60 Hz
1000 n =
Xe 1 !(2'1TfC)
This formula includes the effects of frequency
and capacitance for calculating the ohms of
FIGURE 22-2 reactance. The frequency is in hertz and C is in
farads for Xe in ohms. As an example, we can
calculate Xe for 2.65 µF and 60 Hz.
the ac meter will read the amount of charge and
discharge current. In this example le is 0.12 A (22-1)
This current is the same in the voltage source,
the connecting leads, and the plates of the ca- 1
pacitor. However, there is no current in the = 2'7T x 60 x 2.65 x 10-6
dielectric between the plates of the capacitor.
- 0.159 x 10 6 - 159,000
Values for Xe· When we consider the ratio of - 60 x 2.65 - 159
Ve! le for the ohms of opposition to the sine- Xe= 1000 Q
wave current, this value is 120/cu 2 , which equals
1000 Q. This 1000 Q is what we call Xe, to The constant factor 2'7T, equal to 6.28, in-
indicate how much current can be produced by dicates the circular motion from which a sine
sine-wave voltage applied to a capacitor. In wave is derived. Therefore, the formula applies
terms of current, Xe = Veile. In terms of fre- only to sine-wave circuits. To simplify calcula-
quency and capacitance, Xe= l!(27TfC). tions of Xe, the constant reciprocal %. 28 can be
The Xe value depends on the amount of taken as 0.159, approximately. Then
capacitance and the frequency of the applied
voltage. If C in Fig. 22-2 were increased, it x - 0.159 (22-2)
could take on more charge for more charging e - JC
current and then produce more discharge cur-
rent. Then Xe is less for more capacitance. Remember that C must be in farads for Xe in
Also, if the frequency were increased in Fig. ohms. Although C values are usually micro-
22-2, the capacitor could charge and discharge farads (l0- 6 ) or picofarads (l0- 12 ), substitute
faster to produce more current. This action also the value of C in farads with the required nega-
means Ve! le would be less, with more current tive power of 10.
for the same applied voltage. Therefore, Xe is
less for higher frequencies. Xe can actually have Example 1. How much is Xe for (a) a 0.1-µF Cat
almost any value, from practically zero to al- 1000 Hz? (b) a 1-µF Cat the same frequency?
most infinite ohms.
Answer.
Practice Problems 22-1
(answers on page 456) (a) X _ 0.159 _ 0.159 X 10 6 = 0.159 x 10 3
(a) Which has more reactance, a 0.1- or a e - f c - 0 .1 x 1000 0 .1
0.5-µF capacitor, at one frequency? Xe= 1590 Q
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 445

(b) At the same frequency, with ten times more C, Xe Is Inversely Proportional to Capacitance.
Xe is 1590110, which equals 159 Q. This statement means that Xe increases as the
capacitance is reduced. In Fig. 22-3, when C is
Note that Xe in (b) is one-tenth the Xe in reduced by the factor of 1/i. 0 , from 1.0 to 0.1 µF,
(a) because C is ten times larger. then Xe increases ten times, from 1000 to
10,000 Q. Also, decreasing C one-half, from
Example 2. How much is the Xe of a 100-pF C at
(a) 1 MHz? (b) 10 MHz? 0 .2 to 0 .1 µF, doubles Xe, from 5000 to
10,000 Q.
Answer. This inverse relation between C and Xe is
illustrated by the graph in Fig. 22-3. Note that
x - 0.159 - 0.159 values of Xe increase downward on the graph,
(a) e - JC - 1 x 10 6 x 100 x 10-12
indicating negative reactance that is opposite
0.159 x 10 6 from inductive reactance. With C increasing to
100
the right, the decreasing values of Xe approach
Xe= 1590 Q
the zero axis of the graph.
(b) At ten times the frequency, Xe is 1590/10,
which equals 159 Q.
Xe Is Inversely Proportional to Frequency.
Figure 22-4 illustrates the inverse relation be-
Note that Xe in (b) is one-tenth the Xe in tween Xe and /. With f increasing to the right in
(a) because f is ten times larger. the graph from 0.1to1 MHz, the negative value
of Xe for the 159-pF capacitor decreases from
Example 3. How much is the Xe of a 240-pF C at
10,000 to 1000 Q as the Xe curve comes closer
41.67 kHz?
to the zero axis.
Answer. x - 0.159 The graphs are nonlinear because of the
e - JC
inverse relation between Xe and for C. At one
- 0.159 end, the curves approach infinitely high react-
- 41.67 x 103 x 240 x 10- 12 ance for zero capacitance or zero frequency. At
0.159 x 109 the other end, the curves approach zero react-
41.67 x 240 ance for infinitely high capacitance or fre-
Xe= 15,900 Q quency.

C,µF
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

--
Xe Increases with Smaller C

Xe= 1/(27T/C), n C,µF 2000

..--
i...--...-
1000 1.0 ~ 4000
I
2000 0.5 \..)
,...._ ,...... ' f = 159 Hz _,...._ ,...._
5000 0.2 ~ 6000 j

10,000 0.1 I
8000 I
For f = 159 Hz I
I
10,000
FIGURE 22-3
Capacitive reactance Xe decreases with higher
values of C.
 Chapter 22
446 Capacitive Reactance

[,MHz
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Xe Increases with Lower Frequencies

Xe*= 1/(27rfC). n [,MHz 2000 ,....,...,,.

.-1-+- -
1000 1.0 ~ 4000 ...._ .._
7C = 159 pF - -- T T

2000 0.5 '-I j

5000 0.2 ~ 6000
10,000 0.1
I
8000
I
*For C = 159 pF
'
10,000
FIGURE 22-4
Capacitive reactance Xe decreases with higher
frequencies.

In some applications, it is necessary to find - 0.159

the value of capacitance required for a desired - 0.1 x 10-6 x 10 3
value of Xe, at a specific frequency. For this = 0.159 x 10 4
case the reactance formula can be inverted: f = 1590 Hz

(22-3) In summary, Formula (22-2) gives Xe in

terms off and C; with Formula (22-3) we can
calculate C when Xe and fare known; Formula
Example 4. What capacitance is needed to have a
100-Q Xe at 1 MHz? (22-4) is used to find f with the values of C and
Xe. The value of Xe can be measured as Ve! le.

Answer. c = 0.159 = 0.159

f Xe 1 X 10 6 X 100 Practice Problems 22-2
0.159 x 10-- 6 (answers on page 456)
1 x 100 The Xe is 400 Q for a capacitor at 8 MHz.
= 0.001 59 x 10-6 F (a) How much is Xe at 16 MHz?
C = 0.001 59 µF (b) How much is Xe at 4 MHz?

Or, to find the frequency at which a given

22-3
capacitance has a specified X 0 , the reactance
SERIES OR PARALLEL
formula can be inverted to the form
CAPACITIVE REACTANCES
Because capacitive reactance is an opposition
(22-4) in ohms, series or parallel reactances are com-
bined in the same way as resistances. As shown
Example 5. At what frequency will a 0.1-µ.F capaci- in Fig. 22-Sa, series reactances of 100 and
tor have an Xe equal to 1000 Q? 200 Q add to equal 300 Q of X 0 r. The formula is

0.159 0.159 in series

Answer.
f = CXe = 0.1 X 10- 6 X 1000 (22-5)
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 447

(a) (b)
FIGURE 22-5
Reactances combine like resistances. (a) Addi-
tion of series reactances. ( b) Two reactances in
parallel equal their product over their sum.

For parallel reactances, the combined re- 22-4

actance is calculated by the reciprocal formula, OHM'S LAW APPLIED TO Xe
as shown in Fig. 22-Sb. The current in an ac circuit with Xe alone is
equal to the applied voltage divided by the
_1_ = _1_ + _1_ + +etc. in parallel ohms of Xe. Three examples with Xe are illus-
Xe T Xe I Xe 2 trated in Fig. 22-6. In (a), there is just one
(22-6) reactance of 100 Q. The current I then is equal
to V!Xe, or 100 V/100 Q, which is 1 A.
In Fig. 22-Sb the parallel combination of 100 For the series circuit in (b), the total react-
and 200 Q is 66% Q for Xer· The combined ance, equal to the sum of the series reactances,
parallel reactance is smaller than the lowest is 300 Q. Then the current is 100 V/300 Q,
branch reactance. Any short cuts for combining which equals 1h A. Furthermore, the voltage
parallel resistances also apply to parallel re- across each reactance is equal to its !Xe prod-
actances. uct. The sum of these series voltage drops
Combining reactances is opposite to the equals the applied voltage.
way capacitances are combined. The two pro- For the parallel circuit in (c), each parallel
cedures are equivalent, however, because ca- reactance has its individual branch current,
pacitive reactance is inversely proportional to equal to the applied voltage divided by the
capacitance. The general case is that ohms of branch reactance. The applied voltage is the
opposition add in series but combine by the same across both reactances, since they are all
reciprocal formula in parallel. This rule applies in parallel. In addition, the total line current of
to resistances, to a combination of inductive 11/z A is equal to the sum of the individual
reactances alone, or to capacitive reactances branch currents of 1 and 1/z A each. With the
alone. applied voltage an rms value, all the calculated
currents and voltage drops in Fig. 22-6 are also
Practice Problems 22-3
rms values.
(answers on page 456)
(a) How much is Xer for a 200-Q Xe 1 in series Practice Problems 22-4
with a 300-Q Xe 2 ? ( answers on page 456)
(b) How much is XLr for a 200-Q XL 1 in series (a) In Fig. 22-6b, how much is Xe/
with a 300-Q XL 2 ? (b) In Fig. 22-6c, how much is Xe/
 Cha ter 22
448 Capacitive Reactance

I= 1 A Ir= 1 ~A

Xe=
100 n 100 v rv rv 100 v
100 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 22-6
Circuit calculations with X 0 . (a) I= V!X0 . (b)
Sum of series voltage drops equals the applied
voltage VT. (c) Sum of parallel branch currents
equals total line current IT.

22-5 frequencies, as listed in Table 22-1. The C val-

APPLICATIONS OF ues indicate typical capacitor sizes for different
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE frequency applications.
The general use of Xe is to block direct current
but provide low reactance for alternating cur- Practice Problems 22-5
rent. In this way, a varying ac component can be (answers on page 456)
separated from a steady direct current. Fur- A 20-µF Chas 100 Q of Xe at 60 Hz.
thermore, a capacitor can have less reactance (a) How much is X 0 at 120 Hz?
for alternating current of high frequencies, (b) How much is Xe at 6 Hz?
compared with lower frequencies.
Note the following differences in ohms of 22-6
R, Xv and Xe. Ohms of R remain the same for SINE-WAVE CHARGE
de circuits or ac circuits. Ohms of reactance, AND DISCHARGE CURRENT
however, either XL or Xe, depend on the fre- In Fig. 22-7 sine-wave voltage applied across a
quency. The effects of XL and Xe are opposite, capacitor produces alternating charge and dis-
since XL increases with frequency and Xe de- charge current. The action is considered for
creases with frequency. each quarter-cycle. Note that the voltage Ve
If 100 Q is taken as a desired value of Xe, across the capacitor is the same as the applied
capacitor values can be calculated for different voltage vA at all times because they are in paral-

TABLE 22-1. Capacitance Values for a Reactance of 100 g

C (APPROX.) FREQUENCY REMARKS
27 µF 60 Hz Power-line and low audio frequency
1.6 µF 1000 Hz Medium audio frequency
0.16 µF 10,000 Hz High audio frequency
1600 pF 1000 kHz (rf) In AM radio broadcast band
160 pF 10 MHz (HF) In short-wave radio band
16 pF 100 MHz (VHF) In FM radio broadcast band
 Cha ter 22
Capacitive Reactance 449

...... '
l I
I
+ +
c c c
+ +
. I
l I

+-'
(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 22-7
Capacitive charge and discharge current. (a) vA
increases positive to charge C. (b) C discharges
as vA decreases. (c) vA increases negative to
charge C in opposite polarity. (d) C discharges
as reversed vA decreases.

lei. The values of current i, however, depend on (d). As a result, C discharges. This discharge
the charge and discharge of C. When vA is current is opposite to the charge current in ( c)
increasing, it charges C to keep Ve at the same but in the same direction as the charge current
voltage as vA; when vA is decreasing, C dis- in (a).
charges to maintain Ve at the same voltage as For the sine wave of applied voltage,
vA. When vA is not changing, there is no charge therefore, the capacitor provides a cycle of al-
or discharge current. ternating charge and discharge current. Notice
During the first quarter-cycle in Fig. 22- 7 a, that capacitive current flows, for either charge
vA is positive and increasing, charging C in the or discharge, whenever the voltage changes, for
polarity shown. The electron flow is from the either an increase or decrease. Also, i and v
negative terminal of the source voltage, pro- have the same frequency.
ducing charging current in the direction indi-
cated by the arrow for i. Next, when the applied Calculating the Values of ie. The greater the
voltage decreases during the second quarter- voltage change, the greater is the amount of
cycle, Ve also decreases by discharging. The capacitive current. Furthermore, a larger ca-
discharge current is from the negative plate of pacitor can allow more charge current when the
C, through the source, and back to the positive applied voltage increases and produce more
plate. Note that the discharge current in (b) has discharge current. Because of these factors the
the opposite direction from the charge current amount of capacitive current can be calculated
in (a). as
For the third quarter-cycle in (c), the ap-
plied voltage vA increases again but in the nega-
tive direction. Now C charges again but in re- . _ C dv (22-7)
le- -
versed polarity. Here the charging current is in dt
the opposite direction from the charge current
in (a) but in the same direction as the discharge where i is in amperes, with C in farads and
current in (b). Finally, the negative applied volt- dv! dt in volts per second. As an example, sup-
age decreases during the final quarter-cycle in pose that the voltage across a 240-pF capacitor
 Chapter 22
450 Capacitive Reactance

changes by 25 V in 1 µs. The amount of ca- Answer. . - c du - 6 x 1o- 6 x 50

le - dt - 1
pacitive current then is
ie = 300 µA

'e. = C dv
dt = 240
X
10-12 25
X 1 X 10-6
Example 7. Calculate ie for the same C as in Exam-
ple 6 where its potential difference is decreased by
= 240 x 25 x 10- 6 = 6000 x 10-6 50 Vin 1 s.
= 6 x 10-3 A
Answer. For the same C( du! dt), ie is the same
ie=6mA 300 µA. However, this 300 µA is discharge current,
which flows in the opposite direction from ie on
charge. If desired, the ie for discharge current can be
Notice how Formula (22-7) is similar to the
considered negative, or -300 µA
capacitor charge formula Q = CV. When the
voltage changes, this dv! dt factor produces a Example 8. Calculate ie produced by a 250-pF
change in the charge Q. When the charge capacitor for a change of 50 V in 1 µs.
moves, this dq! dt change is the current ie.
Therefore, dq! dt or ie is proportional to dv! dt. · - C du - 250 X 10- 12 X 5o
Answer. le - dt - 1 X 10- 6
With the constant factor C, then, ie becomes \
equal to C(dv! dt). = 12,500 x 10-6
The formula for capacitive current ie = ie = 12,500 µA
C(dv!dt) corresponds to the formula for in-
duced voltage vL = L(dil dt). In both cases Notice that more ie is produced here, although
there must be a change to have an effect. For C is smaller than in Example 6, because dvl dt is
inductance, vL is induced when the current a much faster voltage change.
changes. For capacitance, ie results when the
voltage changes.
These formulas give the fundamental def- Waveshapes of Ve and ie. More details of
initions for the amount of reactive effect for capacitive circuits can be analyzed by means of
inductance or capacitance. Just as one henry is the waveshapes in Fig. 22-8, plotted for the
defined as the amount of inductance that pro- calculated values in Table 22-2. The top curve
duces one volt of vL when the current changes shows a sine wave of voltage Ve across a 240-pF
at the rate of one ampere per second, one farad capacitance C. Since the capacitive current ie
can also be defined as the amount of capaci- depends on the rate of change of voltage, rather
tance that produces one ampere of ie when the than the absolute value of v, the curve in (b)
voltage changes at the rate of one volt per sec- shows how much the voltage changes. In this
ond. curve, the dv! dt values are plotted for every
By means of Formula (22-7), then, ie can 30 ° of the cycle.
be calculated to find the instantaneous value of The bottom curve shows the actual ca-
charge or discharge current when the voltage pacitive current ie. This ie curve is similar to the
changes across a capacitor. dv! dt curve because ie equals the constant fac-
tor C multiplied by dv! dt.
Example 6. Calculate the instantaneous value of All three curves are similar to the three
charging current ie produced by a 6-µF C when its curves shown in Fig. 19-7 for inductive circuits,
potential difference is increased by 50 V in 1 s. but with the voltage and current curves inter-
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 451

100
80
+
60
40
20
180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
Volts 0
2 4 6 8 10
20 µs µs µs µs µs
40
60
80
100
(a)
30
+
20
10
dv V
0
dt' µs
10
20
30
(b)

6
+ . cdv .
4 'c = dt = cosine wave
2
ic,mA 0
2
4
6

(c)
FIGURE 22-8
Waveshapes of sine-wave voltage with charge
and discharge current i0 , plotted for values in
Table 22-2.

changed. Both examples illustrate the effects of results from the fact that ie depends on the
the rate of change in a sine wave. dv! dt rate of change, rather than on v itself.
More details of this 90 ° phase angle for capaci-
90° Phase Angle. The ie curve at the bottom tance are explained in the next chapter.
in Fig. 22-8 has its zero values when the Ve For each of the curves, the period T is
curve at the top is at maximum. This compari- 24 µs. Therefore, the frequency is 1 /Tor Yz 4 µs,
son shows that the curves are 90 ° out of phase, which equals 41.67 kHz. Each curve has the
as ie is a cosine wave of current for the sine same frequency, although there is a 90° phase
wave of voltage Ve· The 90 ° phase difference difference between i and v.
 Chapter 22
452 Capacitive Reactance

TABLE 22-2. Values for i0 = C(dv! dt) Curves in Fig. 22-8

TIME dt ic = C X
dv, dv!dt, C, (dvl dt),
(J µS (J µS v VlµS pF mA

30° 2 30° 2 50 25 240 6

60° 4 30° 2 36.6 18.3 240 4.4
90° 6 30° 2 13.4 6.7 240 1.6
120° 8 30° 2 -13.4 -6.7 240 -1.6
150° 10 30° 2 -36.6 -18.3 240 -4.4
180° 12 30° 2 -50 -25 240 -6
210° 14 30° 2 -50 -25 240 -6
240° 16 30° 2 -36.6 -18.3 240 -4.4
270° 18 30° 2 -13.4 -6.7 240 -1.6
300° 20 30° 2 13.4 6.7 240 1.6
330° 22 30° 2 36.6 18.3 240 4.4
360° 24 30° 2 50 25 240 6

Ohms of Xe· The ratio of v0 1i0 actually speci- with a 240-pF C and a frequency of 41.67 kHz.
fies the capacitive reactance, in ohms. For this This is the same X 0 problem as Example 3 on
comparison, we use the actual value of v0 , page 445.
which has the peak of 100 V. The rate-of-
change factor is included in i0 . Although the
peak of i0 at 6 mA is 90 ° ahead of the peak of Practice Problems 22-6
v0 at 100 V, we can compare these two peak (answers on page 456)
values. Then v0 1 i0 is 10 %. 006 , which equals Refer to the curves in Fig. 22-8.
16,667 Q. (a) At what angle does v have its maximum
This X 0 is only an approximate value be- positive value?
cause i0 cannot be determined exactly for the (b) At what angle does dvl dt have its maxi-
large dt changes every 30 °. If we used smaller mum positive value?
intervals of time, the peak i0 would be 6.28 mA (c) What is the phase angle difference between
with X 0 then 15,900 Q, the same as l! (2'7TfC) v0 and i0 ?

Summary
1. Capacitive reactance, indicated by X 0 , is the opposition of a capaci-
tance to the flow of sine-wave alternating current.
2. X 0 is measured in ohms because it limits the current to the value
VI X 0 . With V in volts and X 0 in ohms, I is in amperes.
3. X0 = 11(2'7T JC). With fin hertz and C in farads, X 0 is in ohms.
4. For one value of capacitance, X 0 decreases with higher frequencies.
5. At one frequency, X 0 decreases with higher values of capacitance.
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 453

TABLE 22-3. Comparison of Capacitance and Capacitive Reactance

CAPACITANCE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Symbol is C Symbol is Xe
Measured in farad units Measured in ohm units
Depends on construction of capacitor Depends on frequency of sine-wave voltage
C = icf(dv!dt) or Q!V Xe = Velie or 1 !(27TfC)

TABLE 22-4. Comparison of Inductive and Capacitive Reactances

Increases with more inductance Decreases with more capacitance

Increases for higher frequencies Decreases for higher frequencies
Allows more current for lower frequencies; passes Allows less current for lower frequencies; blocks
direct current direct current

6. With Xe and f known, the capacitance C = 11(27TfXe).

7. With Xe and C known, the frequency f = 11(27TCXe).
8. The total Xe of capacitive reactances in series equals the sum of the
individual values, as for series resistances. The series reactances
have the same current. The voltage across each reactance is !Xe.
9. With parallel capacitive reactances, the combined reactance is cal-
culated by the reciprocal formula, as for parallel resistances. Each
branch current is VI Xe. The total line current is the sum of the
individual branch currents.
10. Table 22-3, above, summarizes the differences between C and Xe.
11. Table 22-4, above, compares the opposite reactances XL and Xe.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. Alternating current can flow in a capacitive circuit with ac voltage

applied because (a) of the high peak value; (b) varying voltage
produces charge and discharge current; (c) charging current flows
when the voltage decreases; (d) discharge current flows when the
voltage increases.
2. With higher frequencies, the amount of capacitive reactance
(a) increases; (b) stays the same; (c) decreases; (d) increases only
when the voltage increases.
3. At one frequency, larger capacitance results in (a) more reactance;
 Chapter 22
454 Capacitive Reactance

(b) the same reactance; (c) less reactance; (d) less reactance if the
voltage amplitude decreases.
4. The capacitive reactance of a 0.1-µF capacitor at 1000 Hz equals
(a) 1000 Q; (b) 1600 Q; (c) 2000 Q; (d) 3200 Q.
5. Two 1000-Q Xe values in series have a total reactance of (a) 500 Q;
(b) 1000 Q; (c) 1414 Q; (d) 2000 Q.
6. Two 1000-Q Xe values in parallel have a combined reactance of
(a) 500 Q; (b) 707 Q; (c) 1000 Q; (d) 2000 Q.
7. With 50-V rms applied across a 100-Q Xe, the rms current in the
circuit equals (a) 0.5 A; (b) 0.637 A; (c) 0.707 A; (d) 1.414 A.
8. With steady de voltage from a battery applied to a capacitance, after
it charges to the battery voltage, the current in the circuit (a) depends
on the current rating of the battery; (b) is greater for larger values of
capacitance; (c) is smaller for larger values of capacitance; (d) is zero
for any capacitance value.
9. The capacitance needed for a 1000-Q reactance at 2 MHz is (a) 2 pF;
(b) 80 pF; (c) 1000 pF; (d) 2000 pF.
10. A 0.2-µF capacitance will have a reactance of 1000 Q at the fre-
quency of (a) 800 Hz; (b) 1 kHz; (c) 1 MHz; (d) 8 MHz.

Essay Questions
1. Why is capacitive reactance measured in ohms? State two differences
between capacitance and capacitive reactance.
2. Referring to Fig. 22-1, explain briefly why the bulb lights in (a) but not
in (c).
3. Explain briefly what is meant by two factors being inversely propor-
tional. How does this apply to Xe and C? Xe and f?
4. In comparing XL with Xe, give two differences and one similarity.
5. In comparing Xe and R, give two differences and one similarity.
6. Referring to Fig. 22-8, why are waves a and b considered to be 90°
out of phase, while waves b and c have the same phase?
7. Referring to Fig. 22-3, how does this graph show an inverse relation
between Xe and C?
8. Referring to Fig. 22-4, how does this graph show an inverse relation
between Xe and f?
9. Referring to Fig. 22-8, draw three similar curves but for a sine wave
of voltage with a period T = 12 µs for the full cycle. Use the same C
of 240 pF. Compare the value of Xe obtained as 1 I (27TfC)' and vel ie·
10. (a) What is the relation between charge q and current i? (b) How is
this comparison similar to the relation between the two formulas
Q = CV and i = C(dv! dt)?
 Chapter 22
Capacitive Reactance 455

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)
1. Referring to Fig. 22-4, give the values of C needed for 2000 Q of Xe
at the four frequencies listed.
2. What size capacitance is needed for 100-Q reactance at 100 kHz?
3. A capacitor with an Xe of 2000 Q is connected across a 10-V 1000-
Hz source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) How much is the
current in the circuit? (c) What is the frequency of the current?
4. How much is the capacitance of a capacitor that draws 0.1 A from
the 60-Hz 120-V power line?
5. A 1000-Q Xe 1 and a 4000-Q Xe2 are in series across a 10-V source.
(a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate the current in the
series circuit. (c) How much is the voltage across Xe 1? (d) How much
is the voltage across Xe 2 ?
6. The 1000-Q Xe1 and4000-Q Xe 2 in Prob. 5 are in parallel across the
10-V source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate the
branch current in Xe 1 • (c) Calculate the branch current in Xe2 •
(d) Calculate the total line current. (e) How much is the voltage
across both reactances?
7. At what frequency will a 0.01-µF capacitor have a reactance of
10,000 Q?
8. Four capacitive reactances of 100, 200, 300, and 400 Q each are
connected in series across a 40-V source. (a) Draw the schematic
diagram. (b) How much is the total Xe/ (c) Calculate I. (d) Calculate
the voltages across each capacitance. (e) If the frequency of the
applied voltage is 1600 kHz, calculate the required value of each
capacitance.
9. Three equal capacitive reactances of 600 Q each are in parallel.
(a) How much is the equivalent combined reactance? (b) If the
frequency of the applied voltage is 800 kHz, how much is the
capacitance of each capacitor and how much is the equivalent
combined capacitance of the three in parallel?
10. A 2-µF C is in series with a 4-µF C. The frequency is 5 kHz. (a) How
much is CT? (b) Calculate Xer· (c) Calculate Xe 1 and Xe 2 to see if their
sum equals Xer·
11. A capacitor across the 120-V 60-Hz ac power line allows a 0.4-A
current. (a) Calculate Xe and C. (b) What size C is needed to double
the current?
12. A 0.01-µF capacitor is connected across a 10-V source. Tabulate the
values of Xe and current in the circuit at 0 Hz (for steady de voltage)
and at 20 Hz. 60 Hz, 100 Hz, 500 Hz, 5 kHz, 10 kHz, and 455 kHz.
13. Calculate Xe for 470 pF at 2 MHz.
 Chapter 22
456 Capacitive Reactance

14. What C is needed for the same Xe in Prob. 13 but at 500 Hz?
15. How much is /with 162 mVapplied for the Xe in Probs. 13 and 14?
16. At what frequencies will Xe be 20,000 Q for the following capacitors:
(a) 2 µF; {b) 0.1 µF; {c) 0.05 µF; (d) 0.002 µF; (e) 250 pF; (/) 100 pF;
{g) 47 pF?
1 7. What size C is needed to have Xe the same as the XL of a 6-mH L
at 100 kHz?
18. Refer to Fig. 22-9. (a) Which curve shows a direct proportion?
(b) Which curve shows an inverse or reciprocal relation? (c) Which
curve is for XL? (d) Which curve is for Xe? (e) Determine the ohms
values of reactance in both graphs for L = 239 µHand C = 106 pF.

f, MHz
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

6E t - - - + - - - + - - - , - + - - - + - - - 1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

f, MHz
(a) (b)
FIGURE 22-9
For Prob. 18.

Answers to Practice Problems

22-1 (a) 0.1 µF 22-4 (b) 66.7 Q
(b) 0.5 µF 22-5 (a) 50 Q
22-2 (a) 200 Q (b} 1000 Q
(b) 800 Q 22-6 (a} 90°
22-3 (a) 500 Q (b} 0 or 360°
(b) 500 Q (c) 90°
22-4 (a) 300 Q
 Capacitive
Circuits
This chapter analyzes circuits that combine capacitive reactance X0 and
resistance R. The main questions are: How do we combine the [Link]
opposition, how much current flows, and what is the phase angle? The
method is similar to the procedures using impedance for inductive cir-
cuits, but remember that some important characteristics of X0 are oppo-
site from XL. In addition, methods of using series capacitances for a
voltage divider are explained. Also, the practical application of a coupling
capacitor shows how it is used to pass ac. variations while blocking the
steady de value.
Finally, the general case of capacitive charge and discharge current is
shown with nonsinusoidal voltage variations. With nonsinusoidal wave-
forms, the circuit can be analyzed in terms of its time constant, which is
the product of R X C. Remember that X 0 and its 90 ° phase angle apply
only to sine waves. The topics are: ·

23-1 Sine-Wave v0 Lags i0 by 90 °

23-2 X0 and R in Series
23-3 X0 and R in Parallel
23-4 RF and AF Coupling Capacitors
23 -5 Capacitive Voltage Dividers
23-6 The General Case of Capacitive Current i0
23-7 Calculating the RC Time Constant

23-1 charging or discharging. The result is zero cur-

SINE-WAVE v0 LAGS i 0 BY 90° rent at this time.
For a sine wave of applied voltage, the capacitor Also note that i0 is maximum when u0 is
provides a cycle of alternating charge and dis- zero. When v0 crosses the zero axis, i0 has its
charge current, as shown in Rg. 23-la. In (b), maximum value because then the voltage is
the waveshape of this charge and discharge changing most rapidly.
current i0 is compared with the voltage u0 . Therefore, i0 and v0 are 90 ° out of phase,
Note that the instantaneous value of i0 is since the maximum value of one corresponds to
zero when u0 is at its maximum value. At either the zero value of the other; i0 leads u0 because
its positive or negative peak, u0 is not changing. i0 has its maximum value a quarter-cycle before
For one instant at both peaks, therefore, the the time that v0 reaches its peak. The phasors in
voltage must have a static value before changing Rg. 23-1 c show i0 leading u0 by the counter-
its direction. Then vis not changing and C is not clockwise angle of 90 °. Here u0 is the horizontal
 Chapter 23
458 Capacitive Circuits

. -:.:~
~
Q)
f c - goo ic

~
ic "'C
:::J
:t:
VA Ve C ~ -0....--~-~- . . . . .~-----__..--
ic L.;:. <( Time
..:.-_-!
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 23-1
Capacitive current ie leads Ve by 90°. (a) Cir-
cuit with sine-wave vA across C. (b) Wave-
shapes of ie 90 ° ahead of Ve in phase.
(c) Phasor diagram of ie leading Ve by counter-
clockwise angle of 90 °. ( d) Phasor diagram
with ie as reference to show Ve lagging ie by
clockwise angle of -90°.

phasor for the reference angle of 0°. In Fig. Capacitive Voltage the Same across Parallel
23-1 d, however, the current ie is the horizontal Branches. In Fig. 23-1 a, the voltage is the
phasor for reference. Since ie must be go 0
same across the generator and C because they
leading, Ve is shown lagging by the clockwise are in parallel. There cannot be any lag or lead
angle of _go In series circuits, the current ie
0
• in time between these two parallel voltages. At
is the reference and then the voltage Ve can be any instant, whatever the voltage value is across
considered to lag ie by go 0
• the generator at that time, the voltage across C
The go phase angle results because ie
0
is the same. With respect to the series current,
depends on the rate of change of Ve. As shown however, both vA and Ve are goo out of phase
previously in Fig. 22-8 for a sine wave of Ve, with ie.
the capacitive charge and discharge current is
a cosine wave. This go phase between Ve and
0 The Frequency Is th.e Same for Ve and ie.
0

ie is true in any sine-wave ac circuit, whether C Although Ve lags ie by go both waves have the
,

is in series or parallel and whether C is alone or same frequency. For example, if the frequency
combined with other components. We can al- of the sinewave Ve in Fig. 23-lb is 100 Hz, this
ways say that for any Xe its current and voltage is also the frequency of ie.
are go out of phase.
0

Practice Problems 23-1

(answers on page 4 71 )
Capacitive Current the Same in Series Cir-
Refer to Fig. 23-1.
cuit. The leading phase angle of capacitive (a) What is the phase between vA and ve?
current is only with respect to the voltage across
(b) What is the phase between Ve and ie?
the capacitor, which does not change the fact (c) Does Ve lead or lag ie?
that the current is the same in all parts of a
series circuit. In Fig. 23-1 a, for instance, the 23-2
current in the generator, the connecting wires, Xe AND R IN SERIES
and both plates of the capacitor must be the When resistance is in series with capacitive re-
same because they are all in the same path. actance (Fig. 23-2 ), both determine the current.
 Cha ter 23
Capacitive Circuits 459

R = 100 .Q
R = 100 .Q

8 = - 45°
90°
Ve =!Xe Xe=
Ve= xe = = 100V 100 n
100 v 100.Q
~

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 23-2
Xe and R in series. (a) Circuit. (b) Phasor
triangle of voltages showing Ve lagging ~ by
-90°. (c) Similar impedance triangle showing
X 0 lagging R by - 90 °.

I is the same in Xe and R since they are in cause then Ve is 90 ° out of phase with VR. All
series. Each has its own series voltage drop, the voltages must be in the same units. When VR
equal to IR for the resistance and IXe for the and Ve are rms values, then VT is an rms value.
reactance. In calculating the value of VT, first square
If the capacitive reactance alone is cons id - VR and Ve, then add and take the square root.
ered, its voltage drop lags the series current I by For the example in Fig. 23-2,
90 °. The IR voltage has the same phase as /,
however, because resistance provides no phase VT = yl00 2 + 1002 = yl0,000 + 10,000
shift. Therefore, R and Xe combined in series = y20,000
must be added by phasors because they are 90 °
out of phase with each other. · VT= 141 v

Phasor Addition of Ve and Vw In Fig. 23-2 b, The two phasor voltages total 141 V in-
the current phasor is shown horizontal, as the stead of 200 V because the 90 ° phase means
reference phase, because I is the same the peak value of one occurs when the [Link] is
throughout the series circuit. The resistive volt- at zero.
age drop IR has the same phase as I. The ca-
pacitor voltage !Xe must be 90 ° clockwise from Phasor Addition of Xe and R. The voltage
I and IR, as the capacitive voltage lags. triangle in Fig. 23-2b corresponds to the im-
Note that the !Xe phasor is downward, pedance triangle in Fig. 23-2c because the
exactly opposite from an IXL phasor, because of common factor I can be canceled with the same
the opposite phase angle. The phasor voltages current in Xe and R. Their phasor sum is the
VR and V0 , being 90 ° out of phase, still form a combined impedance
right triangle. Therefore
(23-2)
(23-1)
With R and Xe in ohms, Z is also in ohms. For
This formula applies just to series circuits be- the example in Fig. 23-2c,
 Cha ter 23
460 Capacitive Circuits

z = y100 + 100
2 2
Series Combinations of Xe and R. In series,
= yl0,000 + 10,000 the higher the Xe compared with R, the more
capacitive is the circuit. There is more voltage
= y20,000
drop across the capacitive reactance, and the
z= 141 Q phase angle increases toward -90 °. The series
Xe always makes the current lead the applied
Note that the total impedance of 141 Q voltage. With all Xe and no R, the entire applied
divided into the applied voltage of 141 V allows voltage is across Xe, and () equals -90°.
the current of 1 A in the series circuit. The IR Several combinations of Xe and R in series
voltage drop is 1 X 100, or 100 V; the IXe are listed in Table 23-1, with their resultant
voltage drop is also 1 X 100, or 100 V. impedance values and phase angle. Note that a
The phasor sum of the two series voltage ratio of 10: 1, or more, for Xe! R means the
drops of 100 Veach equals the applied voltage circuit is practically all capacitive. The phase
of 141 V. Also, the applied voltage is equal to angle of -84.3° is almost -90°, and the total
Ix Z, or 1 X 141, which is 141 V for VT. impedance Z is approximately equal to Xe. The
voltage drop across Xe in the series circuit is
then practically equal to the applied voltage,
Phase Angle with Series Xe· As with inductive
with almost none across R.
reactance, () is the phase angle between the
At the opposite extreme, when R is ten
generator voltage and its series current. As
times more than Xe, the series circuit is mainly
shown in Fig. 23-2b and c, the() can be calcu-
resistive. The phase angle of -5.7° then means
lated from the voltage or impedance triangle.
the current has almost the same phase as the
With series Xe, the phase angle is negative,
applied voltage; Z is approximately equal to R,
clockwise from the zero reference angle of I,
and the voltage drop across R is practically
because the Xe voltage lags its current. To indi-
equal to the applied voltage with almost none
cate the negative phase angle, therefore, this
across Xe.
90° phasor points downward from the horizon-
For the case when Xe and R equal each
tal reference, instead of upward as with series
other, the resultant impedance Z is 1.41 times
inductive reactance. To calculate the phase
either one. The phase angle then is -45 °,
angle with series Xe and R,
halfway between 0 ° for resistance alone and
-90° for capacitive reactance alone.
Xe
tan()= -R (23-3)

Using this formula for the circuit in Fig. 23-2c,

TABLE 23-1. Series Rand Xe Combinations
Xe 100 Z, ~1 PHASE
tan () = - R = - 100 = -1 R, ~1 Xe,~ (APPROX.) ANGLE Bz

() = -45° 1 10 VIOI = 10 -84.3°

10 10 000 = 14 -45°
The negative sign means the angle is clockwise 10 1 VIOI = 10 -5.7°
from zero, to indicate that VT lags behind the Note: Bz is angle of Zr or Vr with respect to the
leading /. reference I in series circuits.
 Chapter 23
Capacitive Circuits 461

Practice Problems 23-2 branch current le leads the reference ~. This le

(answers on page 4 71) phasor for a parallel branch current is opposite
(a) How much is ZT for a 20-Q R in series with from an Xe phasor.
a 20-Q Xe? The total line current IT then consists of IR
(b) How much is VT for 20 V across R and and le 90 ° out of phase with each other. The
20 V across R in series? phasor sum of IR and le equals IT. As a result,
(c) What is the phase angle of this circuit? the formula is
23-3
(23-4)
.Xe AND R IN PARALLEL
Now the 90° phase angle for Xe must be with
respect to branch currents instead of voltage In Fig. 23-2c, the phasor sum of 10 A for IR
drops in a series circuit. In the parallel circuit in and 10 A for le equals 14.14 A. The branch
Fig. 23-3a, the voltage is the same across Xe, R, currents are added by phasors since they are
and the generator, since they are all in parallel. the factors 90 ° out of phase in a parallel circuit,
There cannot be any phase difference betWeen corresponding to the voltage drops 90 ° out of
the parallel voltages. phase in a series circuit.
Each branch, however, has its individual
current. For the resistive branch, IR is VA! R; in Impedance of Xe and R in Parallel. As usual,
the capacitive branch, le = VA I Xe. These cur- the impedance of a parallel circuit equals the
rent phasors are shown in Fig. 23-3b. applied voltage divided by the total line current:
Note that the phasor diagram has the gen- Z = VA! IT. In Fig. 23-3, for example,
erator voltage ~ as the reference phase be-
cause it is the same throughout the circuit. The VA 100
resistive branch current IR has the same phase z = J; = 14.14 A = 7.07 Q
as ~,but the capacitive branch current le leads
~by 90°. Which is the opposition in ohms across the
The phasor for le is up, compared with generator. This Z of 7 .07 Q is equal to the re-
down for an Xe phasor, because the parallel sistance of 10 Q in parallel with the reactance of

le=
10A

R= Xe= le=
10 n 10.Q 10A

90°

~) (b) (c)
FIGURE 23-3
Xe and R in parallel. (a) Circuit. (b) Current
phasors showing le leading ~ by 90 °.
(c) Phasor triangle of branch currents le and IR
to calculate total line current Ir.
 Chapter 23
462 Capacitive Circuits

10 n. Notice that the impedance of equal values is practically resistive because there is little
of R and Xe is not one-half but equals 70.7 leading capacitive current in the main line. The
percent of either one. small value of le results from the high reactance
of shunt Xe. Then the total impedance of the
Phase Angle in Parallel Circuits. In Fig. parallel circuit is approximately equal to the
23-3c, the phase angle 0 is 45° because Rand resistance, since the high value of Xe in a paral-
Xe are equal, resulting in equal branch currents. lel branch has little effect. The phase angle of
The phase angle is between the total current IT 5. 7 ° is practically 0 ° because almost all the line
and the generator voltage VA. However, the current is resistive.
phase of VA is the same as the phase of IR. As Xe becomes smaller, it provides more
Therefore 0 is also between IT and IR. leading capacitive current in the main line.
Using the tangent formula to find 0 from When Xe is \'io R, practically all the line current
the current triangle in Fig. 23-3c gives is the le component. Then, the parallel circuit is
practically all capacitive, with a total impedance
practically equal to Xe. The phase angle of
(23-5)
84.3 ° is almost 90° because the line current is
mostly capacitive. Note that these conditions
The phase angle is positive because the le pha- are opposite to the case of Xe and R in series.
sor is upward, leading VA by 90°. This direction With Xe and R equal, their branch currents are
is opposite from the lagging phasor of series Xe. equal and the phase angle is 45 °.
The effect of Xe is no different, however. Only As additional comparisons between series
the reference is changed for the phase angle. and parallel circuits, remember that
Note that the phasor triangle of branch
currents for parallel circuits gives 01 as the angle 1. The series voltage drops VR and Ve have
of IT with respect to the generator voltage VA. individual values that are 90 ° out of phase.
This phase angle for IT is labeled 01 with respect Therefore, VR and Ve are added by pha-
to the applied voltage. For the phasor triangle of sors to equal the applied voltage VT. The
voltages in a series circuit the phase angle for ZT negative phase angle -Oz is between VT
and VT is labeled Oz with respect to the series and the common series current I. More
current. series Xe allows more Ve to make the cir-
cuit more capacitive, with a larger negative
Parallel Combinations of Xe and R. In Table phase angle for VT with respect to I.
23-2, when Xe is ten times R, the parallel circuit 2. The parallel branch currents IR and le have

TABLE 23-2. Parallel Resistance and Capacitance Combinations•

IT, A ZT, ~ PHASE ANGLE
R, ~ Xo. ~ IR, A 10 , A (APPROX.) (APPROX.) (}I

1 10 10 1 v'TIIT = 10 1 5.7°
10 10 1 1 v'2 = 1.4 7.07 45°
10 1 1 10 VTIIT = 10 1 84.3°
*VA = 10 V. Note that 81 is angle of IT with respect to
the reference VA in parallel circuits.
 Cha ter 23
Capacitive Circuits 463

individual values that are 90 ° out of phase. rent. As a result, the output signal voltage
Therefore, IR and 10 are added by phasors across R includes the desired higher frequen-
to equal IT, which is the main-line current. cies but not direct current or very low frequen-
The positive phase angle 81 is between the cies. This application of C0 , therefore, is called
line current IT and the common parallel ac coupling.
voltage ~. Less parallel X 0 allows more 10 The dividing line for C0 to be a coupling
to make the circuit more capacitive, with a capacitor at a specific frequency can be taken as
larger positive phase angle for IT with re- X 0 one-tenth or less of the series R. Then the
spect to ~· series RC circuit 4s primarily resistive. Practi-
cally all the voltage drop of the ac generator is
Practice Problems 23-3 across R, with little across C. In addition, this
(answers on page 4 71) case results in a phase angle of practically 0 °.
(a) How much is IT for branch currents IR of Typical values of a coupling capacitor for
2 A and 10 of 2 A? audio or radio frequencies can be calculated if
(b) Find the phase angle 81 . we assume a series resistance of 16,000 Q.
Then X 0 must be 1600 Q or less. Typical values
23-4 for C0 are listed in Table 23-3. At 100 Hz, a
RF AND AF COUPLING coupling capacitor must be 1 µF to provide
CAPACITORS 1600 Q of reactance. Higher frequencies allow
In Fig. 23-4, C0 is used in the application of a a smaller value of C0 for a coupling capacitor
coupling capacitor. Its low reactance allows having the same reactance. At 100 MHz in the
practically all the ac signal voltage of the gener- VHF range the required capacitance is only
ator to be developed across R. Very little of the 1 pF.
ac voltage is across C0 . It should be noted that the C0 values are
The coupling capacitor is used for this calculated for each frequency as a lower limit.
application because at lower frequencies it pro- At higher frequencies, the same size C0 will ·
vides more reactance, resulting in less ac volt- have less reactance than one-tenth of R, which
age coupled across R and more across C0 . For improves the coupling.
de voltage, all the voltage is across C with none
across R, since the capacitor blocks direct cur- Choosing a Coupling Capacitor for a .Cir-
cuit. As an example of using these calcula-
tions, suppose that we have the problem of
Xe= 10 krl

TABLE 23-3. Coupling Capacitors with a

Reactance of 1600 Q*
Vr = IR= R= Output
11 v 10 v 100 krl signal f REMARKS
= 10 v
100 Hz 1 µF Low audio frequencies
1000 Hz 0.1 µF Medium audio frequencies
FIGURE 23-4 10 kHz [Link] µF High audio frequencies
Series circuit for RC coupling. Small X 0 com- 1000 kHz 100 pF Radio frequencies
pared with R allows practically all the applied 100 MHz 1 pF Very high frequencies
voltage across R with little across C. *For an Xe one-tenth of a series R of 16,000 Q.
 Chapter 23
464 Capacitive Circuits

determining C0 for a transistorized audio am- 23-5

plifier. This application also illustrates the rela- CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE
tively large capacitance needed with low series DIVIDERS
resistance. C is to be a coupling capacitor for When capacitors are connected in series across
audio frequencies of 50 Hz and up, with a se- a voltage source, the series capacitors serve as a
ries R of 4000 Q. Then the required X0 is voltage divider. Each capacitor has part of the
4000/10, or 400 Q. To find C at 50 Hz applied voltage, and the sum of all the series
voltage drops equals the source voltage.
c = 0.159 = 0.159 = 159,000 x 10- 6
The amount of voltage across each is in-
f x X0 50 x 400 20 x 10 3 verse1y proportional to its capacitance. For in-
stance, with 2 µF in series with 1 µF, the smaller
= 7.95 x 10-6 capacitor has double the voltage of the larger
C = 7.95 µF capacitor. Assuming 120 V applied, one-third
of this, or 40 V, is across the 2 µF capacitor,
A typical commercial size of low-voltage elec-
with two-thirds, or 80 V, across the 1-µF capac-
trolytic readily available is 10 µF. The slightly
itor.
higher capacitance value is better for coupling.
The two series voltage drops of 40 and
The voltage rating can be 3 to 10 V, depending
80 V each add to equal the applied voltage of
on the circuit, with a typical transistor supply
120 V. The addition is just the arithmetic sum of
voltage of 9 V. Although electrolytic capacitors
the two voltages. It is only when voltages are out
have relatively high leakage current, they can be
of phase with each other that the phaser addi-
used for coupling capacitors in this application
tion becomes necessary.
because of the low series resistance.
AC Divider. With sine-wave alternating cur-
Practice Problems 23-4 rent, the voltage division between series ca-
(answers on page 471) pacitors can be calculated on the basis of
(a) X 0 of a coupling capacitor is 70 Q at reactance. In Fig. 23-5a, the total reactance is
200 Hz. How much is its X0 at 400 Hz? 120 Q across the 120-V source. The current in
(b) From Table 23-3, what Cwould be needed the series circuit then is 1 A. This current is the
for 1600 Q of X0 at 50 MHz? same for X01 and X02 in series. Therefore, the

,-+
I,..
I+ I= 1 A C1
VT=120V Xe =40!1]
'\J f=2kHz
1
= 2 µF
~
~
~
V1 = 40 V
r· : I

:::=:vT = 120 V
c, =2µF_b]~µ
c,=1µFJ~v,,=SOV
V, '=40V

C2 = 1 µF V - 80 V
Xc 2 =80!1 ~-
r_!_
(a) (b)
FIGURE 23-5
Series capacitors divide VT inversely propor-
tional to each C. (a) Ac divider. (b) De divider.
 Chapter 23
Capacitive Circuits 465

!Xe voltage across C1 is 40 V, with 80 V across respect to the opposite plate for each capacitor.
C2. This junction is positive compared with the op-
The voltage division is proportional to the posite plate of cl with a surplus of electrons.
series reactances, as it is to series resistances. However, the same point is negative compared
However, reactance is inversely proportional to with the opposite plate of C2 , which has a defi-
capacitance. As a result, the smaller capaci- ciency of electrons.
tance has more reactance and a greater part of In general, the following formula can be
the applied voltage. used for capacitances in series as a voltage
divider:
DC Divider. In Fig. 23-Sb, both C1 and C2 will
be charged by the battery. The voltage across
(23-6)
the series combination of C1 and C2 must equal
VT. When charging current flows, electrons re-
pelled from the negative battery terminal accu- Note that CT is in the numerator, since it must
mulate on the negative plate of cl' repelling be less than the smallest individual Cwith series
electrons from its positive plate. These electrons capacitances. For the divider examples in Fig.
flow through the conductor to the negative plate 23-Sa and b
of C2 . With the positive battery terminal attract-
ing electrons, the charging current from the
positive plate of C2 returns to the positive side \1i = ~T X 120 = ~ X 120 = 40 V
1
of the de source. Then C1 and C2 become
charged in the polarity shown. \1:z = ~T X 120 = i3 X 120 = 80 V
C1 and C2 are in the same series path for 2
charging current. Therefore, both have the
same amount of charge. However, the potential This method applies to series capacitances as a
difference provided by the equal charges is divider for either de or ac voltage, as long as
inversely proportional to capacitance. The rea- there is no series resistance.
son is that Q = CV, or V = QIC. Therefore,
the l -µF capacitor has double the voltage of the Practice Problems 23-5
2-µF capacitor, with the same charge in both. (answers on page 4 71)
If you measure with a de voltmeter across (a) C1 of 10 pF and C2 of 90 pF are across
C1 , the meter reads 40 V. Across C2 the de 20 kV. Calculate V1 and V2 .
voltage is 80 V. The measurement from the
(b) In Fig. 23-Sa, how much is Xe T ?
negative side of C1 to the positive side of C2 is
the same as the applied battery voltage of
120 v. 23-6
If the meter is connected from the positive THE GENERAL CASE
side of C1 to the negative plate of C2 , however, OF CAPACITIVE CURRENT ie
the voltage is zero. These plates have the same The capacitive charge and discharge current ie
potential because they are joined by a conduc- is always equal to C(dv!dt). A sine wave of
tor of zero resistance. voltage variations for Ve produces a cosine wave
The polarity marks at the junction between of current i. This means Ve and ie have the same
C1 and C2 indicate the voltage at this point with waveform, but they are 90° out of phase.
 Chapter 23
466 Capacitive Circuits

It is usually convenient to use Xe for calcu- shapes interchanged. This comparison follows
lations in sine-wave circuits. Since Xe is from the fact that both ie and vL depend on rate
1 I (2'1TfC), the factors that determine the of change.
amount of charge and discharge current are
included in /and C. Then le equals Ve!Xe. Or, if Practice Problems 23-6
le is known, Ve can be calculated as le X Ve. (answers on page 471)
With a nonsinusoidal waveform of voltage (a) In Fig. 23-6a, how much is dv! dt in V/s for
Ve, the concept of reactance cannot be used. Xe the sawtooth rise from 0 to 90 V in 90 µs?
applies only to sine waves. Then ie must be (b) How much is the charge current ie, as
determined as C(dv/dt). An example is illus- C(dvl dt) for this dv! dt?
trated in Fig. 23-6 to show the change of
waveform here, instead of the change of phase 23-7
angle in sine-wave circuits. CALCULATING THE RC
Note that the sawtooth waveform of volt- TIME CONSTANT
age Ve corresponds to a rectangular waveform With nonsinusoidal waveforms, the transient
of current. The linear rise of the sawtooth wave response of C is measured by its RC time con-
produces a constant amount of charging cur- stant. As a formula
rent ie because the rate of change is constant for
the charging voltage. When the capacitor dis- s (23-7)
charges, Ve drops sharply. Then discharge cur-
rent is in the opposite direction from charge where Tis the time constant, C the capacitance
current. Also, the discharge current has a much in farads, and R the resistance in series with C
larger value because of the faster rate of for charge or discharge. As an example, for
change in Ve. 1000 Q of R in series with 4 µF of C
An interesting feature of these capacitive
waveshapes is the fact that they are the same as T = 1000 x 4 x 10-6
the inductive waveshapes shown before in Fig. = 4000 x 10-6 = 4 x 10-3
20-11, but with the current and voltage wave- T=4ms

90V
0

I~
0 100 µs
i
c
=C~
dt

l (a)
C=JOOpFT

ic discharge = 2700 µA

(b)
FIGURE 23-6
Waveshape of ic equal to C(dv!dt). (a) Saw-
tooth waveform of Ve. ( b) Rectangular current
waveform of ic.
 Chapter 23
Capacitive Circuits 467

Tis the time for the voltage across C to change resistors are small and economical to provide
by 63.2 percent. For instance, if the applied almost any value of RC time constant, without
voltage is 100 V, then C will charge to 63 .2 Vin any coil problems. The applications of the RC
4 ms for this example. The capacitor is com- time constant are explained in more detail in
pletely charged in five time constants. the next chapter, along with a comparison to
The RC time constant for capacitor voltage the LI R time constant.
is similar to the LI R time constant for inductive
current. In each case, the change is 63.2 per-
cent in one time constant. This value is a prop- Practice Problems 23-7
erty of the natural curve for a change in either (answers on page 4 71)
Ve or iL. (a) How much is the RC time constant for
Actually, the RC time constant is much 2 Mg in series with 2 µF for charge?
more important in its applications than the LI R (b) How much is the RC time constant for
time constant. The reason is that capacitors and 100 g in series with 2 µF for discharge?

Summary
1. In a sine-wave ac circuit, the voltage across a capacitance lags its
charge and discharge current by 90 °.
2. Therefore, capacitive reactance Xe is a phasor quantity out of phase
with its series resistance by -90° because ie = C(dv!dt). This
fundamental fact is the basis of all the following relations.
3. The vector combination of Xe and R in series is their impedance Z.
These three types of ohms of opposition to current are compared in
Table 23-4 below.
4. The opposite characteristics for series and parallel circuits with Xe
and Rare summarized in Table 23-5 on the next page.
5. In a comparison of capacitive and inductive circuits, IL always lags VL,
but le leads Ve. .
6. Two or more capacitors in series across a voltage source serve as a
voltage divider. The smallest Chas the largest part of the applied
voltage.
7. A coupling capacitor has Xe less than its series resistance by the
factor of 1/i 0 or less, for the purpose of providing practically all the ac
applied voltage across R with little across C.

TABLE 23-4. Comparison of R, Xe. and Z

R Xe = 11(2'TTfC) z = yR2 + Xc2
Ohms unit Ohms unit Ohms unit
IR voltage same !Xe voltage lags lZ is the applied
phase as I le by 90° voltage
Same for all f Decreases for higher f Decreases with Xe
 Chapter 23
468 Capacitive Circuits

TABLE 23-5. Series and Parallel RC Circuits

Xe AND R IN SERIES Xe AND R IN PARALLEL
I the same in Xe and R V the same across Xe and R
VT = vvRz + vez IT = yJRZ + Iez
z = yRz + Xez Z=~
IT
Ve lags VR by 90 ° le leads IR by 90 °
Xe ez increases
. I
tan (} z = - R; as tan (} 1 = f; (} 1 decreases as
R
more Xe means more Ve more Xe means less le

8. In sine-wave circuits, le = Ve!Xe. Then le has a phase angle of 90°

compared with Ve.
9. When the voltage is not a sine wave, ie = C(dv! dt). Then the
waveshape of ie is different from the voltage.
10. The RC time constant Tin seconds is the product of Cin farads and
the series R in ohms. Tis the time for a 63.2 percent change in Ve on
charge or discharge.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In a capacitive circuit (a) a decrease in applied voltage makes a

capacitor charge; (b) a steady value of applied voltage causes dis-
charge; (c) an increase in applied voltage makes a capacitor dis-
charge; (d) an increase in applied voltage makes a capacitor charge.
2. In a sine-wave ac circuit with Xe and R in series, the (a) phase angle
of the circuit is 180 ° with high series resistance; (b) voltage across the
capacitance must be 90 ° out of phase with its charge and discharge
current; (c) voltage across the capacitance has the same phase as its
charge and discharge current; (d) charge and discharge current of
the capacitor must be 90 ° out of phase with the applied voltage.
3. When Ve across a 1-µF C drops from 43 to 42 Vin 1 s, the discharge
current ie equals (a) 1 µA; (b) 42 µA; (c) 43 µA; (d) 43 A
4. In a sine-wave ac circuit with R and C in parallel, (a) the voltage
across C lags the voltage across R by 90 °; ( b) resistive IR is 90 ° out of
phase with le; (c) IR and le have the same phase; (d) IR and le are
180 ° out of phase.
 Chapter 23
Capacitive Circuits 469

5. In a sine-wave ac circuit with a 90-Q R in series with a 90-Q X 0 , the

phase angle equals (a) -90°; (b) -45°; (c) 0°; (d) 90°.
6. The combined impedance of a 1000-Q R in parallel with a 1000-Q X 0
equals (a) 500 Q; (b) 707 Q; (c) 1000 Q; (d) 2000 Q.
7. With 100 V applied across two series capacitors of 5 µF each, the
voltage across each capacitor will be (a) 5 V; (b) 331;j V; (c) 50 V;
(d) 66% v
8. In a sine-wave ac circuit with X 0 and R in series, the (a) voltages
across Rand X 0 are in phase; (b) voltages across Rand X 0 are 180°
out of phase; (c) voltage across R leads the voltage across X 0 by 90 °;
(d) voltage across R lags the voltage across X 0 by 90°.
9. A0.01-µF capacitance in series with R is used as a coupling capacitor
C0 for 1000 Hz. At 10,000 Hz: (a) C0 has too much reactance to be
good for coupling; (b) C0 has less reactance, which improves the
coupling; (c) C0 has the same reactance and coupling; (d) the voltage
across R is reduced by one-tenth.
10. In an RC coupling circuit the phase angle is (a) 90°; (b) close to 0°;
( c) - 90 ° ; (d) 180 ° .

Essay Questions
1. (a) Why does a capacitor charge when the applied voltage increases?
(b) Why does the capacitor discharge when the applied voltage
decreases?
2. A sine wave of voltage Vis applied across a capacitor C. (a) Draw the
schematic diagram. (b) Draw the sine waves of voltage and current
out of phase by 90 °. ( c) Draw a vector diagram showing the phase
angle of - 90 ° between V and /.
3. Why will a circuit with R and X 0 in series be less capacitive as the
frequency of the applied voltage is increased?
4. Define the following: coupling capacitor, sawtooth voltage, capacitive
voltage divider.
5. Give two comparisons between RC circuits with sine-wave voltage
applied and nonsinusoidal voltage applied.
6. Give three differences between RC circuits and RL circuits.
7. Compare the functions of a coupling capacitor with a choke coil, with
two differences in their operation.
8. State two troubles possible in coupling capacitors and describe briefly
how you would check with an ohmmeter.
9. Define the time constant of a capacitive circuit.
 Chapter 23
470 Capacitive Circuits

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of book.)

1. A 40-Q R is in series with a 30-Q Xe across a 100-V sine-wave ac

source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate Z. (c) Calcu-
late/. (d) Calculate the voltages across Rand C. (e) What is the phase
angle of the circuit?
2. A 40-Q Rand a 30-Q Xe are in parallel across a 100-V sine-wave ac
source. (a) Draw the schematic diagram. (b) Calculate each branch
current. (c) How much is IT? (d) Calculate Z. (e) What is the phase
angle of the circuit? ( f) Compare the phase of the voltage across R
and X 0 .
3. Draw the schematic diagram of a capacitor in series with a 1-MQ
resistance across a 10-Vac source. What size C is needed for equal
voltages across Rand Xe at frequencies of 100 Hz and 100 kHz?
4. Draw the schematic diagram of two capacitors C1 and C2 in series
across 10,000 V. The C1 is 900 pf and has 9000 Vacross it. (a) How
much is the voltage across C 2 ? (b) How much is the capacitance
of C2 ?
5. In Fig. 23-2a, how much is C for the Xe value of 100 Q at frequencies
of 60 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 1 MHz?
6. A 1500-Q R is in series with a 0.01-µF C across a 30-V source with a
frequency of 8 kHz. Calculate Xe, ZT, Oz, I, VR, and Ve.
7. The same Rand C as in Prob. 6 are in parallel. Calculate le, IR, IT, () 1,
Z, VR, and Ve.
8. A 0.05-µF capacitor is in series with a 50,000-Q Rand a 10-V source.
Tabulate the values of Xe, I, VR, and Ve at the frequencies of 0 (for
steady de voltage), 20, 60, 100, 500, 5000, and 15,000 Hz.
9. A capacitive voltage divider has C1 of 1 µF, C2 of 2 µF, and C3 of 4 µF
in series across a 700-V source VT. (a) Calculate V1 , V2 , and V3 for a
steady de source. (b) Calculate V1 , V2 , and V3 for an ac source with a
frequency of 400 Hz.
10. (a) A 40-Q Xe and a 30-Q R are in series across a 120-V source.
Calculate ZT, I, and Bz. (b) The same Xe and R are in parallel.
Calculate IT, Z, and 81 . (c) A 40-Q XL and a 30-Q R are in series
across a 120-V source. Calculate ZT, I, and Oz. (d) The same XL and
R are in parallel. Calculate IT, Z, and () 1. [Note that capacitive
reactance Xe is used in (a) and (b) compared with inductive react-
ance XL in (c) and (d).]
11. Calculate the values for L and C in Prob. 10, with a frequency of
60 Hz for the source voltage.
12. A 500-Q R is in series with 300-Q Xe. Find ZT, I, and Oz. VT= 120 V.
13. A 300-Q R is in series with a 500-Q Xe. Find ZT, I, and Oz· Compare
Oz here with Prob. 12, with the same 120 V applied.
 Chapter 23
Capacitive Circuits 471

14. A 500-Q R is parallel with a 300-Q Xe. Find IT, ZT, and (JI· Compare
(JI here with 8z in Prob. 12, with the same 120 V applied.
15. For the waveshape of capacitor voltage Ve in Fig. 23-7, show the
corresponding charge and discharge current ie, with values for a
200-pF capacitance. Compare these waveshapes with Prob. 17 in
Chap. 20.

+ 50

Time
-50
j. 5 µs

ic, mA

FIGURE 23-7
For Prob. 15.

Answers to Practice Problems

23-1 (a) 0° 23-4 (b) 2 pF
(b) 90° 23-5 (a) V1= 18 kV
(c) Lag ~ =2kV
23-2 (a) 28.28 n (b) XeT = 120 n
(b) 28.28 v 23-6 (a) dv!dt = 1 X 10 6 Vis
(c) 8z = -45° (b) ie = 300 µA
23-3 (a) 2.828 A 23-7 (a) 2 s
(b) (JI= 45° (b) 200 µs
23-4 (a) 35 n
 RC and
L/RTlme
Constants
Many applications of inductance are for sine·wave ac circuits, but any time
the current changes, L has the effect of producing induced voltage.
Examples of nonsinusoidal waveshapes include de voltages that are
switched on or off, square waves, sawtooth waves, and rectangular pulses.
For capacitance, also, many applications are for sine waves, but any time
the voltage changes, C produces charge or discharge current.
With nonsinusoidal voltage and current, the effect of L or C is to
produce a change in waveshape. This effect can be analyzed by means of
the time constant for RC and RL circuits. The time constant is the time for
a change of 63 .2 percent in the current through L or the voltage across C.
More details are explained in the following topics:

24-1 Response of Resistance Alone

24-2 LI R Time Constant
24-3 High Voltage Produced by Opening RL Circuit
24-4 RC Time Constant
24-5 RC Charge and Discharge Curves
24-6 High Current Produced by Short-circuiting RC Circuit
24-7 RC Waveshapes
24-8 Long and Short Time Constants
24-9 Charge and Discharge with Short RC Time Constant
24-10 Long Time Constant for RC Coupling Circuit
24-11 Universal Time Constant Graph
24-12 Comparison of Reactance and Time Constant

24*1 10-Q Rand the resultant I is 1 A The graph in

RESPONSE OF RESISTANCE (b} shows that I changes from 0 to 1 A instantly
ALONE when the switch is closed. If the applied voltage
In order to emphasize the special features of L is changed to 5 V, the current will change in -
or C, the circuit in Fig. 24-1 illustrates how stantly to 0 .5 A. If the switch is opened, I will
ordinary a resistive circuit is. When the switch is immediately drop to zero.
dosed, the battery supplies 10 V across the Resistance has only opposition to current;
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 473

decay of current toward the steady-state value

l'
I= 1 A
of zero.
The transient response is measured in
I terms of the ratio LI R, which is the time con-
~10V
stant of an inductive circuit. To calculate the
time constant

Time (24-1)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 24-1 where T is the time constant in seconds and L
Response of circuit with R alone. When switch the inductance in henrys. R is the ohms of
is closed, I = 1 A. (a) Circuit. (b) Graph of resistance in series with L, being either the coil
steady I. resistance, an external resistance, or both in
series. In Fig. 24-2
there is no reaction to a change. The reason is
that R has no concentrated magnetic field to
oppose a change in I, like inductance, and no T = RL = 10
1
= 0.1 s
electric field to store charge that opposes a
change in V, like capacitance. Specifically, the time constant is a measure
of how long it takes the current to change by
Practice Problems 24-1 63.2 percent, or approximately 63 percent. In
(answers on page 493) Fig. 24-2, the current increases from 0 to
Answer true or false. 0 .63 A, which is 63 percent of the steady-state
(a) R does not produce induced voltage for a value, in the period of 0.1 s, which is the time
change in I. constant. In the period of five time constants,
(b) R does not produce charge or discharge the current is practically equal to its steady-state
current for a change in V. value of 1 A.
If the switch is opened now so that the
24-2 current can decay to zero, I will decrease to
LI R TIME CONSTANT 36.8 percent, or approximately 37 percent, of
Consider the circuit in Fig. 24-2 where L is in the steady-state value in one time constant. For
series with R. When S is closed, the current the example in Fig. 24-2, I will decay from 1 to
changes as I increases from zero. Eventually, I 0.37 A in one time constant. Note that the de-
will have the steady value of 1 A, equal to the crease to 0.37 A from 1 A is a change of 63
battery voltage of 10 V divided by the circuit percent. The current decays practically to zero
resistance of 10 Q. While the current is building in five time constants.
up from 0 to 1 A, however, I is changing and The reason why LI R equals time can be
the inductance opposes the change. The action illustrated as follows: Since induced voltage
of the RL circuit during this time is its transient V = L (di! dt), by transposing terms, L has the
response, meaning a temporary condition ex- dimensions of V X Tl I. Dividing L by R results
isting only until the steady-state current of 1 A is in V X Tl IR. As the IR and V factors cancel, T
reached. Similarly, when S is opened, the tran- remains to indicate the dimension of time for
sient response of the RL circuit opposes the the ratio LI R.
 Chapter 24
474 RC and LI R Time Constants

Steady-state value of 1 A
-----------------

I
-=- 10 v L=
1H

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Time, s
(a) (b)
FIGURE 24-2
Transient response of circuit with R and L.
When switch is closed, I rises from zero to the
steady-state 1 A. (a) Circuit with time constant
of 0.1 s. (b) Graph of I during five time con-
stants.

Example 1. What is the time constant of a 20-H coil The LI R time constant becomes longer
having 100 n of series resistance? with larger values of L. More series R, however,
makes the time constant shorter. Then the cir-
L 20 H
Answer. T = R = 100 n cuit is less inductive, with more series resist-
ance.
T = 0.2 s
Example 2. An applied de voltage of 10 V will Practice Problems 24-2
produce a steady-state current of 100 mA in the (answers on page 493)
100-n coil of Example 1. How much is the current
(a) Calculate the time constant for 2 H in se-
after 0.2 s? After 1 s?
ries with 100 Q.
Answer. Since 0.2 s is one time constant, I then is (b) Calculate the time constant for 2 H in
63 percent of 100 mA, which equals 63 mA. After series with 4000 Q.
five time constants, or 1 s, the current will reach its
steady-state value of 100 mA and remain at this
value as long as the applied voltage stays at 10 V.
24-3
HIGH VOLTAGE PRODUCED
Example 3. If a 1-Mn R is added in series with the BY OPENING RL CIRCUIT
coil of Example 1, how much will the time constant When an inductive circuit is opened, the time
be for the higher-resistance RL circuit? constant for current decay becomes very short
because LI R becomes smaller with the high
Answer. L 20 H resistance of the open circuit. Then the current
T =R = 1,000,000
drops toward zero much faster than the rise of
= 20 x 10- 6 s current when the switch is closed. The result is a
T = 20 µs approximately high value of self-induced voltage VL across a
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 475

coil whenever an RL circuit is opened. This high much more than R1 , the LI R time constant is
voltage can be much greater than the applied much shorter with the switch open.
voltage.
There is no gain in energy, though, be- Closing the Circuit. In Fig. 24-3a, the switch is
cause the high voltage peak exists only for the closed to allow current in L and to store energy
short time the current is decreasing at a very in the magnetic field. Since R 2 is short-circuited
fast rate at the start of the decay. Then, as I by the switch, the 100-Q R 1 is the only resist-
decays with a slower rate of change, the value of ance. The steady-state I is VI R1 = 8/i 00 =
VL is reduced. After the current has dropped to 0.08 A. This value of I is reached after five time
zero, there is no voltage across L. constants.
This effect can be demonstrated by a neon One time constant is LI R = 2/i 00 = 0.02 s.
bulb connected across the coil, as shown in Fig. Five time constants equal 5 X 0.02 = 0.1 s.
24-3. The neon bulb requires 90 V for ioniza- Therefore, I is 0.08 A after 0.1 s, or 100 ms.
tion, at which time it glows. The source here is The energy stored in the magnetic field is
only 8 V, but when the switch is opened, the 64 X 10- 4 J, equal to 11zLI2.
self-induced voltage is high enough to light the
bulb for an instant. The sharp voltage pulse or Opening the Circuit. When the switch is
spike is more than 90 V just after the switch is opened in Fig. 24-3b, R 2 is in series with L,
opened, when I drops very fast at the start of the making the total resistance 4100 Q, or approxi-
decay in current. mately 4 kQ. The result is a much shorter time
Note that the 100-Q R 1 is the internal re- constant for current decay. Then LI R is %000 ,
sistance of the 2- H coil. This resistance is in or 0.5 ms. The current decays practically to
series with L whether S is closed or open. The zero in five time constants, or 2.5 ms.
4-kQ R2 across the switch is in the circuit only This rapid drop in current results in a
when S is opened, in order to have a specific magnetic field collapsing at a fast rate, inducing
resistance across the open switch. Since R2 is a high voltage across L. The peak vL in this

s s

+
R 2 =4k.s1 L= R2 =4 k.Q L=
II II
.\'
2H 2H

-=-av
'\
....
I/
-
-=-av • .... ....
/1 R1 =
R,=

•
: I= [Link] A
100 n 100.Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 24-3
Demonstration of high voltage produced by
opening inductive circuit. (a) With switch
closed, 8 V applied cannot light the 90-V neon
bulb. (b) Short time constant when Sis opened
results in a high vL that lights bulb.
 Chapter 24
476 RC and LI R Time Constants

example is 320 V. Then vL serves as the voltage duced. Another important application is the
source for the bulb connected across the coil. high voltage of 10 to 24 kV for the anode of the
As a result, the neon bulb becomes ionized, and picture tube in television receivers. One prob-
it lights for an instant. lem is that the high vL produced when an in-
ductive circuit is opened can cause arcing.
Calculating the Peak of vL. The value of
320 V for the peak induced voltage when S is Practice Problems 24-3
opened in Fig. 24-3 can be determined as fol- (answers on page 493)
lows: With the switch closed, I is 0.08 A in all (a) Is the LI R time constant longer or shorter
parts of the series circuit. The instant S is in Fig. 24-3 when S is opened?
opened, R2 is added in series with L and R1 . (b) Which produces more vL, a faster di/ dt or
The energy stored in the magnetic field main- a slower di/ dt?
tains I at 0.08 A for an instant before the current
decays. With 0.08 A in the 4-kQ R2 its potential 24-4
difference is 0.08 X 4000 = 320 V. The col- RC TIME CONSTANT
lapsing magnetic field induces this 320-V pulse For capacitive circuits, the transient response is
to allow an I of 0.08 A at the instant the switch is measured in terms of the product R X C. To
opened. calculate the time constant

The di! dt for Vu The required rate of change (24-2)

in current is 160 A/s for the vL of 320 V in-
duced by the L of 2 H. Since vL = L (di! dt), with R in ohms and C in farads, Tis in seconds.
this formula can be transposed to specify di! dt In Fig. 24-4, for example, with an R of 3 MQ and
as equal to vLI L. Then di/ dt corresponds to a C of 1 µF
320 V/2 H, or 160 A/s. This value is the actual
di! dt at the start of the decay in current when T = 3 X 10 6 X 1 X 10-6
the switch is opened in Fig. 24-3b, as a result of T = 3s
the short time constant. 1 ·

Note that the 10 6 for megohms and the 1o- 6 for

Applications of Inductive Voltage Pulses. microfarads cancel. Therefore, multiplying the
There are many uses of the high voltage gener- units of MQ X µF gives the RC product in sec-
ated by opening an inductive circuit. One ex- onds.
ample is the high voltage produced for the igni- The reason why the RC product corre-
tion system in an automobile. Here the circuit of sponds to time can be illustrated as follows:
the battery in series with a high-inductance C = QI V. The charge Q is the product of I X T
spark coil is opened by the breaker points of the The factor Vis IR. Therefore, RC is equivalent
distributor to produce the high voltage needed to (R X Q)/V, or (R X JT)/IR. Since I and R
for each spark plug. By opening an inductive cancel, T remains to indicate the dimension of
circuit very rapidly, 10,000 V can easily be pro- time.

1
The di! dt value can be calculated from the slope at The Time Constant Indicates the Rate of
the start of decay, shown by the dashed line for curve Charge or Discharge. On charge, RC speci-
bin Fig. 24-9. fies the time it takes C to charge to 63 percent
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 477

- - - - -
s, R=3M.Q
80
60
Ve
40
20

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

r:
(a) Time, (s)

100
R=3M.Q
80

C= 60
82
- 100 V 1 µF + Ve Ve
40
20

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Time, (s)
(b)
FIGURE 24-4
RC charge and discharge. (a) With 5 1 closed, C
charges through R to 63 percent of VT in one
time constant of 3 s. (b) With 5 1 open and 5 2
closed, C discharges through R to 37 percent
of its initial voltage in one time constant of 3 s.

of the charging voltage. Similarly, on discharge, product in Fig. 24-4 is 1 s, then C will charge to
RC specifies the time it takes C to discharge 63 63 Vin 1 s instead of 3 s. Also, Ve will reach the
percent of the way down, to the value equal to full applied voltage of 100 V in 5 s instead of
37 percent of the initial voltage across C at the 15 s. Charging to the same voltage in less time
start of discharge. means a faster charge.
In Fig. 24-4a, for example, the time con- On discharge also, the shorter time con-
stant on charge is 3 s. Therefore, in 3 s, C stant will allow C to discharge from 100 to 37 V
charges to 63 percent of the 100 V applied, in 1 s instead of 3 s. Also, Ve will be down to
reaching 63 Vin RC time. After five time con- zero in 5 s instead of 15 s.
stants, which is 15 s here, C is almost com- For the opposite case, a longer time con-
pletely charged to the full 100 V applied. If C stant means slower charge or discharge of the
discharges after being charged to 100 V, then C capacitor. More R or C results in a longer time
will discharge down to 36.8 V or approximately constant.
37 V in 3 s. After five time constants, C dis-
charges down to zero. RC Applications. Several examples are given
A shorter time constant allows the capaci- here to illustrate how the time constant can be
tor to charge or discharge faster. If the RC applied to RC circuits.
 Chapter 24
478 RC and LI R Time Constants

Example 4. What is the time constant of a 0.01-µF Example 8. If a 1-MQ resistance is added in series
capacitor in series with a 1-MQ resistance? with the capacitor in Example 4, how much will the
time constant be?
Answer. T=RxC
= 1 x 10 6 x 0.01 x 10-6 Answer. Now the series resistance is 2 MQ.
T = 0.01 s Therefore, RC is 2 X 0.01, or 0.02 s.

This is the time constant for charging or The RC time constant becomes longer with
discharging, assuming the series resistance is larger values of R and C. More capacitance
the same for charge or discharge. means that the capacitor can store more
charge. Therefore, it takes longer to store the
Example 5. With a de voltage of 300 V applied, how charge needed to provide a potential difference
much is the voltage across C in Example 4 after equal to 63 percent of the applied voltage. More
0.01 s of charging? After 0.05 s? After 2 hours? After resistance reduces the charging current, requir-
2 days? ing more time for charging the capacitor.
It should be noted that the RC time con-
Answer. Since 0.01 s is one time constant, the stant specifies just a rate. The actual amount of
voltage across C then is 63 percent of 300 V, which voltage across C depends upon the applied
equals 189 V. After five time constants, or 0.05 s, C voltage as well as upon the RC time constant.
will be charged practically to the applied voltage of The capacitor takes on charge whenever
300 V. After 2 hours or 2 days C will still be charged
its voltage is less than the applied voltage. The
to 300 V if the applied voltage is still connected.
charging continues at the RC rate until either
Example 6. If the capacitor in Example 5 is allowed
the capacitor is completely charged or the ap-
to charge to 300 V and then discharged, how much plied voltage decreases.
is the capacitor voltage 0.01 s after the start of dis- The capacitor discharges whenever its
charge? The series resistance is the same on dis- voltage is more than the applied voltage. The
charge as on charge. discharge continues at the RC rate until either
the capacitor is completely discharged or the
Answer. In one time constant C discharges to 37 applied voltage increases.
percent of its initial voltage, or 0.37 x 300 V, which To summarize these two important princi-
equals 111 V. ples:

Example 7. If the capacitor in Example 5 is made to 1. C charges when the net charging voltage is
discharge after being charged to 200 V, how much more than Ve.
will the voltage across C be 0.01 s later? The series 2. C discharges when Ve is more than the net
resistance is the same on discharge as on charge. charging voltage.

Answer. In one time constant C discharges to 37 The net charging voltage equals the differ-
percent of its initial voltage, or 0.37 X 200, which ence between Ve and the applied voltage.
equals 74 V
This example shows that the capacitor can Practice Problems 244
charge or discharge from any voltage value, not just (answers on page 493)
after one RC time constant or five RC time con- (a) How much is the RC time constant for
stants. 470 pF in series with 2 Mn on charge?
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 479

(b) How much is the RC time constant for applied voltage increases, the voltage across the
4 70 pf in series with 1 kn on discharge? capacitance cannot increase until the charging
current has stored enough charge in C. The
24-5 increase in applied voltage is present across the
RC CHARGE AND DISCHARGE resistance in series with C until the capacitor
CURVES has charged to the higher applied voltage.
In Fig. 24-4, the RC charge curve has the rise When the applied voltage decreases, the voltage
shown because the charging is fastest at the across the capacitor cannot go down immedi-
start, then tapers off as C takes on additional ately because the series resistance limits the
charge at a slower rate. As C charges, its poten- discharge current.
tial difference increases. Then the difference in The voltage across the capacitance in an
voltage between VT and v0 is reduced. Less RC circuit, therefore, cannot follow instantane-
potential difference reduces the current that ously the changes in applied voltage. As a re-
puts the charge in C. The more C charges, the sult, the capacitance is able to oppose changes
more slowly it takes on additional charge. in voltage across itself. The instantaneous vari-
Similarly, on discharge, C loses its charge ations in VT are present across the series resist-
at a slower rate. At first, v0 has its highest value ance, however, since the series voltage drops
and can produce maximum discharge current. must add to equal the applied voltage at all
With the discharge continuing, v0 goes down times.
and there is less discharge current. The more C
discharges, the more slowly it can lose the re- Practice Problems 24-5
mainder of its charge. (answers on page 493)
(a) From the curve in Fig. 24-4a, how much is
Charge and Discharge Current. There is v0 after 3 s of charge?
often the question of how current can flow in a (b) From the curve in Fig. 24-4b, how much is
capacitive circuit with a battery as the de source. v0 after 3 s of discharge?
The answer is that current flows anytime there
is a change in voltage. When VT is connected, 24-6
the applied voltage changes from zero. Then HIGH CURRENT PRODUCED
charging current flows to charge C to the ap- BY SHORT-CIRCUITING
plied voltage. After v0 equals VT, there is no net RC CIRCUIT
charging voltage and I is zero. Specifically, a capacitor can be charged slowly
Similarly, C can produce discharge current with a small charging current through a high
anytime v0 is greater than V. When VT is discon- resistance and then discharged fast through a
nected, v0 can discharge down to zero, produc- low resistance to obtain a momentary surge, or
ing discharge current in the opposite direction pulse, of discharge current. This idea corre-
from the charging current. After v0 equals zero, sponds to the pulse of high voltage obtained by
there is no current. opening an inductive circuit.
The circuit in Fig. 24-5 illustrates the ap-
Capacitance Opposes Voltage Changes plication of a battery-capacitor (BC) unit to fire
Across Itself. This ability corresponds to the a flash bulb for cameras. The flash bulb needs
ability of inductance to oppose a change of 5 A to ignite, but this is too much load current
current. In terms of the RC circuit, when the for the small 15-V battery that has a rating of
 Chapter 24
480 RC and LI R Time Constants

R =3kr2

Ve= Bulb
15 v r =Jn
I= 5 Al
+
(a) (b)
FIGURE 24-5
High current produced by discharging a
charged capacitor through a low resistance.
(a) When S 1 is closed, C charges to 15 V
through 3 kQ. (b) When S2 is closed, v0 pro-
duces the peak discharge current of 5 A
through 3 Q.

30 mA for normal load current. Instead of using Energy Stored in C. When the 100-µF C is
the bulb as a load for the battery, though, the charged to 15 V by the battery, the energy
100-µF capacitor is charged by the battery stored in the electric field is CV2 12, which
through the 3-kQ R in (a), and then the capaci- equals 0.01 J, approximately. This energy is
tor is discharged through the bulb in (b). available to maintain Ve at 15 V for an instant
when the switch is opened. The result is the
Charging the Capacitor. In Fig. 24-5a, S 1 is 5-A I through the 3-Q Rat the start of the decay.
closed to charge C through the 3-kQ R1 without Then Ve and ie drop to zero in five time con-
the bulb. The time constant of the RC charging stants.
circuit is 0.3 s. The dvl dt for ie. The required rate of change
After five time constants, or 1.5 s, C is in voltage is 0.05 x 10 6 Vis for the discharge
charged to the 15 V of the battery. The peak current ie of 5 A produced by the C of 100 µF.
charging current, at the first instant of charge, is Since ie = C (dvl dt), this formula can be trans-
VI R or 15V13 kQ, which equals 5 mA. This posed to specify dvl dt as equal to iel C.
value is an easy load current for the battery. Then dvl dt corresponds to 5 AllOO µF, or
0.05 X 10 6 Vis. This value is the actual dvl dt
Discharging the Capacitor. In Fig. 24-5b, Ve at the start of discharge when the switch is
is 15 V without the battery. Now S2 is closed, closed in Fig. 24-5b, as a result of the short time
and C discharges through the 3-Q resistance of constant. 1
the bulb. The time constant for discharge with
the lower R is 3 X 100 x 10-6 , which equals Practice Problems 24-6
300 µs. At the first instant of discharge, when Ve (answers on page 493)
is 15 V, the peak discharge current is 1513, (a) ls the RC time constant longer or shorter in
which equals 5 A. This current is enough to fire Fig. 24-5b compared with (a)?
the bulb. 1 See footnote on p. 476.
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 481

(b) Which produces more ie, a faster du! dt or Charge and Discharge Current. As shown in
a slower du! dt? Fig. 24-6c, the current i has its positive peak at
the start of charge and its negative peak at the
24-7 start of discharge. On charge, i is calculated as
RC WAVESHAPES the net charging voltage, which is (VT - Ve)! R.
The voltage and current waveshapes in an RC On discharge, i always equals Vel R.
circuit are shown in Fig. 24-6 for the case where At the start of charge, i is maximum be-
a capacitor is allowed to charge through a re- cause the net charging voltage is maximum
sistance for RC time and then discharge before C charges. Similarly, the peak i for dis-
through the same resistance for the same charge occurs at the start when Ve is maximum
amount of time. It should be noted that this before C discharges.
particular case is not typical of practical RC Note that i is actually an ac waveform
circuits, but the waveshapes show some useful around the zero axis, since the charge and dis-
details about the voltage and current. The RC charge currents are in opposite directions. We
time constant here equals 0.1 s. are arbitrarily taking the charging current as
positive values for i.

Square Wave of Applied Voltage. The idea of Resistor Voltage Vw This waveshape in
closing SI to apply 100 V and then opening it to Fig. 24-6d follows the waveshape of current, as
disconnect VT at a regular rate corresponds to a vR is i X R. Because of the opposite directions
square wave of applied voltage, as shown by the of charge and discharge current, the iR wave-
waveform a in Fig. 24-6. When SI is closed for shape is an ac voltage.
charge, S 2 is open; when SI is open, S2 is Note that on charge vR must always be
closed for discharge. Here the voltage is on for equal to VT - Ve because of the series circuit.
the RC time of 0.1 s and off for 0.1 s. The On discharge vR has the same values as Ve
period of the square wave is 0.2 s, and f is because they are parallel, without VT. Then s2 is
110.2 s or 5 Hz. closed to connect R across C.

Capacitor Voltage Ve· As shown in Fig. 24-6b, Why the ie Waveshape Is Important. The Ve
the capacitor charges to 63 V, equal to 63 per- waveshape of capacitor voltage in Fig. 24-6
cent of the charging voltage, in the RC time of shows the charge and discharge directly, but the
0.1 s. Then the capacitor discharges because ie waveshape is very interesting. First, the volt-
the applied VT drops to zero. As a result, Ve age waveshape across R is the same as the ie
drops to 37 percent of 63 V, or 23.3 Vin RC waveshape. Also, whether C is charging or dis-
time. charging, the ie waveshape is really the same
The next charge cycle begins with Ve at except for the reversed polarity. We can see the
23.3 V The net charging voltage now is ie waveshape as the voltage across R. It gener-
100 - 23.3 = 76. 7 V. The capacitor voltage ally is better to connect an oscilloscope for
increases by 63 percent of 76.7 V, or 48.3 V voltage waveshapes across R, especially with
Adding 48.3 Vto 23.3 V, then Ve rises to 71.6 V one side grounded.
On discharge, after 0.3 s, Ve drops to 37 per- Finally, we can tell what Ve is from the vR
cent of 71.6 V, or to 26.5 V. waveshape. The reason is that at any instant of
 Chapter 24
482 RC and LI R Time Constants

ON
..
(a)
::r -Rc-0.1
I. OFF
.I
0.2
Time,s
0.3 0.4

100 v

(b) Ve

+ 1 mA
i,
on charge

0.284 mA
(c) 0
- 0.233 mA
i, I
on discharge I
I
I I -0.716 mA
1
-1 mA I I I
I I I
I I I
+ 100 v I I I
76.7 v I
I I
I I
I I I
1
I I
37 v 28.4 v
VR = I
(d)
iR 0

-63 v
-100 v
FIGURE 24-6
Charge and discharge of an RC circuit in RC
time.
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 483

time VT must equal the sum of vR and Ve. discharges completely in five time constants and
Therefore Ve is equal to VT - vR, when VT is remains at zero while there is no applied volt-
charging C. For the case when C is discharging, age. On the next cycle, C charges and dis-
there is no VT. Then vR is the same as Ve. charges completely again.

Practice Problems 24-7 Differentiation. The voltage across R in an RC

(answers on page 493) circuit is called differentiated output because vR
Refer to Fig. 24-6. can change instantaneously. A short time con-
(a) When Ve is 63 V, how much is vR? stant is generally used for differentiating circuits
(b) When vR is 76. 7 V, how much is ve? to provide sharp pulses of vR.

Integration. The voltage across C is called

24-8
integrated output because it must accumulate
LONG AND SHORT
over a period of time. A medium or long time
TIME CONSTANTS
constant is generally used for integrating cir-
Useful waveshapes can be obtained by using RC
cuits.
circuits with the required time constant. In
practical applications, RC circuits are used
Practice Problems 24-8
more than RL circuits because almost any value
(answers on page 493)
of an RC time constant can be obtained easily.
(a) VT is on for 0.4 s and off for 0.4 s. RC is
With coils, the internal series resistance cannot
6 ms for charge and discharge. Is this a
be short-circuited and the distributed capaci-
long or short RC time constant?
tance often causes resonance effects.
(b) VT is on for 2 µs and off for 2 µs. RC is
6 ms for charge and discharge. Is this a
Long RC Time. Whether an RC time constant long or short RC time constant?
is long or short depends on the pulse width of
the applied voltage. We can arbitrarily define a 24-9
long time constant as at least five times longer CHARGE AND DISCHARGE WITH
than the time for applied voltage. As a result, C SHORT RC TIME CONSTANT
takes on very little charge. The time constant is Usually, the time constant is made much shorter
too long for Ve to rise appreciably before the or longer than the factor of 5, to obtain better
applied voltage drops to zero and C must dis- waveshapes. In Fig. 24-7, RC is 0.1 ms. The
charge. On discharge also, with a long time frequency for the square wave is 25 Hz, with a
constant, C discharges very little before the period of 0.04 s, or 40 ms. One-half this period
applied voltage rises to make C charge again. is the time VT is applied. Therefore, the applied
voltage is on for 20 ms and off for 20 ms. The
Short RC Time. A short time constant can be RC time constant of 0.1 ms is shorter than the
defined as no more than one-fifth the time for pulse width of 20 ms by a factor of 1/z 00 .
applied voltage VT. Then VT is applied for a
period of at least five time constants, allowing C Square Wave of VT Is Across C. The wave-
to become completely charged. After C is shape of Ve in Fig. 24- 7 b is essentially the same
charged, Ve remains at the value of VT, while the as the square wave of applied voltage. The
voltage is applied. When VT drops to zero, C reason is that the short time constant allows C
 Chapter 24
484 RC and LI R Time Constants

to charge or discharge completely very soon c

after VT is applied or removed. The charge or
discharge time of five time constants is much 0.001 µF
less than the pulse width. VT=
100 v
f = 25 Hz
RC=0.1 ms
Sharp Pulses of i. The waveshape of i shows
sharp peaks for the charge or discharge cur-
rent. Each current peak is VT! R = 1 mA, de-
caying to zero in five RC time constants. These
pulses coincide with the leading and trailing
edges of the square wave of VT. 100V~ (a)
Actually, the pulses are much sharper than VT
0.02 o.o4D.o6 [Link]
shown. They are not to scale horizontally in I I
order to indicate the charge and discharge I I
100 v
action. Also, Ve is actually a square wave like the (b)
applied voltage but with slightly rounded cor-
ners for the charge and discharge.
Note that the time axis of all the wave-
shapes is calibrated in seconds for the period of + 1 mA
VT, not in RC time constants.
(c)
Sharp Pulses of vR. The waveshape of voltage
across the resistor follows the current wave- -1 mA
shape, as vR = iR. Each current pulse of 1 mA
across the 100-kQ R results in a voltage pulse of
100 v.
More fundamentally, the peaks of vR equal
(d)
the applied voltage VT before C charges. Then
vR drops to zero as Ve rises to the value of VT.
On discharge, vR = Ve, which is 100 V at
the start of discharge. Then the pulse drops to FIGURE 24-7
zero in five time constants. The pulses of vR in Charge and discharge of an RC circuit with a
Fig. 24-7 are useful as timing pulses that match short time constant. Note that the waveshape of
the edges of the square-wave applied voltage vR in (d) has sharp voltage peaks for the lead-
VT. Either the positive or the negative pulses ing and trailing edges of the square wave of
can be used. applied voltage.

Practice Problems 24-9 24-10

(answers on page 493) LONG TIME CONSTANT
Refer to Fig. 24- 7. FOR RC COUPLING CIRCUIT
(a) Is the time constant here short or long? The RC circuit in Fig. 24-8 is the same as in
(b) Is the square wave of applied voltage Fig. 24-7, but now the RC time constant is long
across C or R? because of the higher frequency of the applied
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 485

VT= 0.001 µF
100 v
f= 1 MHz

RC= 0.1 ms

0.5 1.5 2
Time, µs
100 v I
I
I
I I
I I
(b) I
I
1o.5 v I
I
I
I
+ 1 mA I
1
0.995 mA

(c)

I
I
I
I
-1 mA I
I
I
+ 100 v I
1
99.5V

(d) VR

-100 v
FIGURE 24-8
Charge and discharge of an RC circuit with a
long time constant. Note that the waveshape of
uR in (d) has essentially the same waveform as
the applied voltage.
 Chapter 24
486 RC and LI R Time Constants

voltage. Specifically, the RC time of 0.1 ms is 24-11

200 times longer than the 0.5-µs pulse width of UNIVERSAL TIME CONSTANT
VT with a frequency of 1 MHz. Note that the GRAPH
time axis is calibrated in microseconds for the We can determine transient voltage and current
period of VT, not in RC time constants. values for any amount of time, with the curves
in Fig. 24-9. The rising curve a shows how Ve
Very Little of VT is Across C. The waveshape builds up as C charges in an RC circuit; the
of Ve in Fig. 24-8b shows very little voltage rise same curve applies to iL, increasing in the in-
because of the long time constant. During the ductance for an RL circuit. The decreasing
0 .5 µs that VT is applied, C charges to only 1/zoo curve b shows how Ve drops as C discharges or
of the charging voltage. On discharge, also, Ve the decay of iL in an inductance.
drops very little. Note that the horizontal axis is in units of
time constants rather than absolute time. Sup-
pose that the time constant of an RC circuit is
Square Wave of i. The waveshape of i stays
5 µs. Therefore, one RC time unit = 5 µs, two
close to the 1-mA peak at the start of charge.
RC units = 10 µs, three RC units = 15 µs, four
The reason is that Ve does not increase much,
RC units = 20 µs, and five RC units = 25 µs.
allowing VT to maintain the charging current.
As an example, to find Ve after 10 µs of
On discharge, the reverse i for discharge cur-
charging, we can take the value of curve a in
rent is very small because Ve is low.
Fig. 24-9 at two RC. This point is at 86 percent
amplitude. Therefore, we can say that in this RC
Square Wave of VT ls Across R. The wave- circuit with a time constant of 5 µs, Ve charges
shape of vR is the same square wave as i, as to 86 percent of the applied VT, after 10 µs.
vR = iR. Actually, the waveshapes of i and vR Similarly, some important values that can be
are essentially the same as the square-wave VT read from the curve are listed in Table 24-1.
applied. They are not shown to scale vertically If we consider curve a in Fig. 24-9 as an
in order to indicate the slight charge and dis- RC charge curve, Ve adds 63 percent of the net
charge action. charging voltage for each additional unit of one
Eventually, Ve will climb to the average de time constant, although it may not appear so.
value of 50 V, i will vary -+-0 .5 mA above and For instance, in the second interval of RC time,
below zero, while vR will vary -+-50 V above and Ve adds 63 percent of the net charging voltage,
below zero. This application is an RC coupling which is 0.37VT. Then 0.63 X 0.37 equals
circuit to block the average value of the varying 0.23, which is added to 0.63 to give 0.86, or 86
de voltage VT as the capacitive voltage v0 , while percent, as the total charge from the start.
vR provides an ac voltage output having the
same variations as VT. Slope at t = 0. The curves in Fig. 24-9 can
be considered linear for the first 20 percent of
Practice Problems 24-10 change. In 0.1 time constant, for instance, the
(answers on page 493) change in amplitude is 10 percent; in 0.2 time
Refer to Fig. 24-8. constant, the change is 20 percent. The dotted
(a) ls the RC time constant here short or long? lines in Fig. 24-9 show that if this constant
(b) Is the square wave of applied voltage slope continued, the result would be 100 per-
across R or C? cent change in one time constant. This does not
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 487

100

90
t >---
_Slope at start
of rise ,fl"""'
,__.- ........
-- - -
j
I

+-'
c:
80
' l /
/'

~:I 70 \ ! L
~ I / r---. {a) Ve on charge;
CJ
iL on rise
5 60 \ I
i'
0
&
~
>
50 '
v~
1\ I\
i/

/
/
l--- {b) Ve on discharge;
iL on decay
vR on charge or discharge
~
..... 40 j.,') \ ~
--~'\
0
+-'
c:
Q)
30
,, \
l: I \ "\
Q)
0.. r ,
20
" 'I'll..
~'-
~

10
Slope at start ""~ ...
of _decay ""'~...._
J
I I I I I~ I I I I I I I I I
-....-
I I

0 2 3 4 5
Time in RC or L/R time constants
FIGURE 24-9
Universal time constant chart for RC or RL
circuits. The rise or fall changes by 63 percent
in one time constant.

happen, though, because the change is op- ing because it describes the buildup of Ve or iL,
posed by the energy stored in L and C. How- but the decaying curve b is more useful. For RC
ever, at the first instant of rise or decay, at circuits, curve b can be applied to
t = 0, the change in Ve or iL can be calculated
from the dotted slope line. 1. Ve on discharge
2. i and vR on charge or discharge
Equation of the Decay Curve. The nsmg
curve a in Fig. 24-9 may seem more interest- If we use curve b for the voltage in RC
circuits, the equation of this decay curve can be
TABLE 24-1. Time Constant Factors
written as
FACTOR AMPLITUDE
0 .2 time constant 20% V = VX E-t/Re (24-3)
0.5 time constant 40%
0. 7 time constant 50% where Vis the voltage at the start of decay and v
I time constant 63% is the reduced voltage after the time t. Specifi-
2 time constants 86% cally, v can be vR on charge and discharge, or Ve
3 time constants 96% only on discharge.
4 time constants 98% The constant Eis the base 2.718 for natural
5 time constants 99%
logarithms. The negative exponent -ti RC in-
 Chapter 24
488 RC and LI R Time Constants

dicates a declining exponential or logarithmic will it take for vR to drop from 100 to 50 V? The
curve. The value of ti RC is the ratio of actual required time for this decay is
time of decline t to the RC time constant.
This equation can be converted to com-
t = 2.33 X 1 X log 100
mon logarithms for easier calculations. Since 50
the natural base e is 2.718, its logarithm to base = 2 .33 X 1 X log 2
10 equals 0.434. Therefore, the equation be- = 2 .33 x 1 x 0 .3
comes t = 0. 7 s approximately

v = antilog (1og V - 0.434 X ;c) (24-4)

This answer agrees with the fact that the time
for a drop of 50 percent takes 0. 7 time con-
stant. However, Formula (24-5) can be used to
calculate the time for any decay of Ve or vR.
Calculations for vR. As an example, let us
The formula cannot be used for a rise in
calculate vR dropping from 100 V, after RC
Ve. However, if you convert this rise to an
time. Then the factor ti RC is 1. Substituting
equivalent drop in vR, the calculated time is the
these values,
same for both cases.
vR = antilog (log 100 - 0 .434 X 1 )
Practice Problems 24-11
= antilog (2 - 0.434) = antilog 1.566
(answers on page 493)
VR = 37 V Answer true or false for the universal
curves in Fig. 24-9.
All these logs are to base 10. The antilog of
(a) Curve (a) applies to Ve on charge.
1.566 is 37.
(b) Curve (b) applies to Ve on discharge.
We can also use vR to find Ve, which is
(c) Curve (b) applies to vR when C charges or
VT - vR. Then 100 - 37 = 63 V for Ve· These
discharges.
answers agree with the fact that in one time
constant vR drops 63 percent while Ve rises 63
percent. However, the formula can be used to 24-12
calculate any decaying value on curve (b) in COMPARISON OF REACTANCE
Fig. 24-9. AND TIME CONSTANT
The formula for capacitive reactance includes
the factor of time in terms of frequency as
Calculations for t. Furthermore, Formula Xe = 1 /(27TfC). Therefore, Xe and the RC time
(24-4) can be transposed to find the time t for a constant are both measures of the reaction of C
specific voltage decay. Then to a change in voltage. The reactance Xe is a
special case but a very important one that ap-
t = 2.33RC log y_ (24-5)
plies only to sine waves. The RC time constant
v can be applied to any waveshape.

where Vis the higher voltage at the start and v Phase Angle of Reactance. The capacitive
is the lower voltage at the finish. The factor 2.33 charge and discharge current ie is always equal
is 1/0.434. to C (dv! dt). A sine wave of voltage variations
As an example, let RC be 1 s. How long for Ve produces a cosine wave of current ie. This
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 489

means Ve and ie are both sinusoids, but 90 ° out charge. Practically all the applied voltage is
of phase. developed as vR = iR across the series resist-
In this case, it is usually more convenient ance by the charge and discharge current.
to use Xe for calculations in sine-wave ac cir- These comparisons are summarized in
cuits to determine Z, I, and the phase angle 8. Table 24-2.
Then le= Ve!Xe. Moreover, if le is known,
Ve= le X Xe. The phase angle of the circuit Inductive Circuits. Similar comparisons can
depends on the amount of Xe compared with be made between XL = 27TfL for sine waves and
the resistance R. the LI R time constant. The voltage across any
inductance is vL = L (di! dt). Sine-wave varia-
Changes in Waveshape. With nonsinusoidal tions for iL produce a cosine wave of voltage vv
voltage applied, Xe cannot be used. Then ie 90 ° out of phase.
must be calculated as C (du! dt). In this compar- In this case XL can be used to determine Z,
ison of ie and Ve, their waveshapes can be dif- I, and the phase angle 8. Then IL = \{I XL.
ferent, instead of the change in phase angle for Furthermore, if IL is known, \.{ = IL X XL. The
sine waves. The waveshapes of Ve and ie de- phase angle of the circuit depends on the
pend on the RC time constant. amount of XL compared with R.
With nonsinusoidal voltage, however, XL
Coupling Capacitors. If we consider the ap- cannot be used. Then vL must be calculated as
plication of a coupling capacitor, Xe must be L (di! dt). In this comparison, iL and vL can have
one-tenth or less of its series R at the desired different waveshapes, depending on the LI R
frequency. This condition is equivalent to having time constant.
an RC time constant that is long compared with
the period of one cycle. In terms of Xe, the C Choke Coils. For this application, the idea is
has little !Xe voltage, with practically all the to have almost all the .applied ac voltage across
applied voltage across the series R. In terms ofa L. The condition of XL being at least ten times R .
long RC time constant, C cannot take on much corresponds to having a long time constant.

TABLE 24-2. Comparison of Reactance Xe and RC Time Constant

SINE-WAVE VOLTAGE NONSINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE

Examples are 60-Hz power line, Examples are de circuit turned

af signal voltage, rf signal on and off, square waves,
voltage sawtooth waves
I = RC
Reactance Xe = 2 7TfC Time constant T
Larger C results in smaller Larger C results in longer time
reactance Xe constant
Higher frequency results in Shorter pulse width corresponds
smaller Xe to longer time constant
Ve . du
Ie=x
e
'e = cdt
Xe makes le and Ve 90 ° out of Waveshape changes between
phase ie and Ve
 Chapter 24
490 RC and LI R Time Constants

The high value of XL means practically all the the magnitude of one is proportional to the rate
applied ac voltage is across XL as IXL, with little of change of the other.
IR voltage.
The long LI R time constant means iL can- When Do We Use Reactance? The XL and Xe
not rise appreciably, resulting in little vR voltage are generally used for sine-wave Vor I. We can
across the resistor. The waveform for iL and vR determine Z, I, voltage drops, and phase angles.
in an inductive circuit corresponds to Ve in a The phase angle of 90° is a natural characteris-
capacitive circuit. tic of a cosine wave where its magnitude is
proportional to the rate of change in a sine
wave:
When Do We Use the Time Constant? In
electronic circuits, the time constant is useful in Practice Problems 24-12
analyzing the effect of L or Con the waveshape (answers on page 493)
of nonsinusoidal voltages, particularly rectan- (a) Does an RC coupling circuit have a small
gular pulses. Another application is the tran- or large Xe compared with R?
sient response when a de voltage is turned on (b) Does an RC coupling circuit have a long or
or off. The 63 percent change in one time con- short time constant for the frequency of
stant is a natural characteristic of v or i, where applied voltage?

Summary
1. The transient response of an inductive circuit with nonsinusoidal
current is indicated by the time constant LI R. With L in henrys and R
in ohms, Tis the time in seconds for the current iL to change by 63
percent. In five time constants, iL reaches the steady value of VT! R.
2. At the instant an inductive circuit is opened, high voltage is generated
across L because of the fast current decay with a short time constant.
The induced voltage vL = L (di! dt). The di is the change in iL.
3. The transient response of a capacitive circuit with nonsinusoidal
voltage is indicated by the time constant RC. With C in farads and R
in ohms, Tis the time in seconds for the voltage across the capacitor
Ve to change by 63 percent. In five time constants, Ve reaches the
steady value of VT.
4. At the instant a charged capacitor is discharged through a low
resistance, a high value of discharge current can be produced. The
discharge current ie = C (dv! dt) can be large because of the fast
discharge with a short time constant. The dv is the change in Ve·
5. The waveshapes of veand iL correspond, as both rise relatively slowly
to the steady-state value. This is integrated output.
6. Also ie and vL correspond, as they are the waveforms that can change
instantaneously. This is differentiated output.
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 491

7. For both RC and RL circuits the resistor voltage vR = iR.

8. A short time constant is one-fifth or less of the time for applied
voltage.
9. A long time constant is greater than the time for applied voltage by a
factor of 5 or more.
10. An RC circuit with a short time constant produces sharp voltage
spikes for vR at the leading and trailing edges of a square-wave
applied voltage. The waveshape of applied voltage VT is across the
capacitor as Ve. See Fig. 24-7.
11. An RC circuit with a long time constant allows vR to be essentially the
same as the variations in applied voltage VT, while the average de
value of VT is blocked as Ve. See Fig. 24-8.
12. The universal rise and decay curves in Fig. 24-9 can be used for
current or voltage in RC and RL circuits for any time up to five time
constants.
13. The concept of reactance is useful for sine-wave ac circuits with L
and C.
14. The time constant method is used with L or C to analyze non-
sinusoidal waveforms.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. A 250-µH Lis in series with a 50-Q R. The time constant is (a) 5 µs;
(b) 25 µs; (c) 50 µs; (d) 250 µs.
2. If VT is 500 mV in the preceding circuit, after 5 µs I rises to the value
of (a) 3.7 mA; (b) 5 mA; (c) 6.3 mA; (d) 10 mA.
3. In the preceding circuit, I will have the steady-state value of 10 mA
after (a) 5 µs; (b) 6.3 µs; (c) 10 µs; (d) 25 µs.
4. The arc across a switch when it opens an RL circuit is a result of the
(a) long time constant; (b) large self-induced voltage across L; {c) low
resistance of the open switch; (d) surge of resistance.
5. A250-pF C is in series with a 1-MQ R. The time constant is (a) 63 µs;
(b) 100 µs; (c) 200 µs; (d) 250 µs.
6. If VT is 100 V in the preceding circuit, after 250 µs, Ve rises to the
value of (a) 37 V; (b) 50 V; (c) 63 V; (d) 100 V.
7. In the preceding circuit, Ve will have the steady-state value of 100 V
after (a) 250 µs; (b) 630 µs; (c) 1000 µs or 1 ms; (d) 1.25 ms.
8. In the preceding circuit, after 3 hours Ve will be (a) zero; (b) 63 V;
(c) 100 V; (d) 200 V.
 Chapter 24
492 RC and LI R Time Constants

9. For a square-wave applied voltage with the frequency of 500 Hz, a

long time constant is (a) 1 ms; (b) 2 ms; (c) 3.7 ms; (d) 5 ms.
10. An RC circuit has a 2-µF C in series with a 1-MQ R. The time of 6 s
equals how many time constants? (a) one; (b) two; (c) three; (d) six.

Essay Questions
1. Give the formula, with units, for calculating the tim!2 constant of an
RL circuit.
2. Give the formula, with units, for calculating the time constant of an
RC circuit.
3. Redraw the RL circuit and graph in Fig. 24-2 for a 2-H L and a
100-Q R.
4. Redraw the graphs in Fig. 24-4 to fit the circuit in Fig. 24-5 with a
100-µF C. Use a 3000-Q R for charge but a 3-Q R for discharge.
5. List two comparisons of RC and RL circuits for nonsinusoidal
voltage.
6. List two comparisons between RC circuits with nonsinusoidal voltage
and sine-wave voltage applied.
7. Define the following: (a) a long time constant; (b) a short time
constant; (c) an RC differentiating circuit.
8. Redraw the horizontal time axis of the universal curve in Fig. 24-9,
calibrated in absolute time units of milliseconds for an RC circuit with
a time constant of 2.3 ms.
9. Redraw the circuit and graphs in Fig. 24-7 with everything the same
except that R is 20 kQ, making the RC time constant shorter.
10. Redraw the circuit and graphs in Fig. 24-8 with everything the same
except that R is 500 kQ, making the RC time constant longer.
11. Invert the equation T = RC, in two forms, to find R or C from the
time constant.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Calculate the time constant of the following inductive circuits: (a) Lis
20 Hand R is 400 Q; (b) Lis 20 µHand R is 400 Q; (c) Lis 50 mH
and R is 50 Q; (d) Lis 40 µHand R is 2 Q.
2. Calculate the time constant of the following capacitive circuits: (a) C
is 0.001 µF and R is 1 MQ; (b) C is 1 µF and R is 1000 Q; (c) C is
0.05 µF and R is 250 kQ; (d) C is 100 pf and R is 10 kQ.
 Chapter 24
RC and LI R Time Constants 493

3. A 100-V source is in series with a 2-MQ R and a 2-µF C. (a) How

much time is required for Ve to be 63 V? (b) How much is Ve after
20 s?
4. The C in Prob. 3 is allowed to charge for 4 s and then made to
discharge for 8 s. How much is ve?
5. A 100-V source is applied in series with a 1-MQ Rand a 4-µF C that
has already been charged to 63 V. How much is Ve after 4 s?
6. What value of R is needed with a 0.02-µF C for an RC time constant
of 0.02 s? For 1 ms?
7. An RC circuit has a time constant of 1 ms. VT applied is 200 V. How
much is Ve on charge after 1.4 ms?
8. A 0.05-µF C charges through a 0.5-MQ R but discharges through a
2-kQ R. Calculate the time constants for charge and discharge. Why
will the capacitor discharge faster than charge?
9. A 0.05-µF C is charged to 264 V. It discharges through a 40-kQ R.
How much is the time for Ve to discharge down to 132 V?
10. Referring to Fig. 24-6b, calculate the value of Ve on the next charge,
starting from 26.5 V.
11. Use the slope line in Fig. 24-9b to calculate dv! dt at the start of the
decay in Ve for the circuit in Fig. 24-5b. .
12. Use the slope line in Fig. 24-9b to calculate di!dt at the start of the
decay in iL for the circuit in Fig. 24-3b. (Hint: You can ignore the
steady 8 V and 100-Q R1 because they do not change the di! dt
value.)

Answers to Practice Problems

24-1 (a) T 24-7 (b) Ve = 23.3 V
(b) T 24-8 (a) Short
24-2 (a) 0.02 s (b) Long
(b) 0.5 ms 24-9 (a) Short
24-3 (a) Shorter (b) Across C
(b) Faster 24-10 (a) Long
24-4 (a) 940 µs (b) Across R
(b) 470 ns 24-11 (a) T
24-5 (a) 63.2 V (b) T
(b) 36.8 v (c) T
24-6 (a) Shorter 24-12 (a) Small Xe
(b) Faster (b) Long time constant
24-7 (a) vR=37V
 Review of
Chapters
a1toa4
Summary
1. A capacitor, or condenser, consists of two conductors separated by
an insulator, which is a dielectric· material. With voltage applied to
the conductors, charge is stored in the dielectric. One [Link] of
charge stored with one volt •applied .corresponds to one farad of
capacitance C. The common units of capacitance are microfarads
(p.F = 10-6 F) or picofarads (pf =10-12 F).
2. Capacitance increases with plate area and larger values of dielectric
constant but ·decreases with the distance between plates.
3. The most common types of capacitors are air, paper, mica, ceramic,
and electrolytic. Electrolytics must be [Link] in the correct po-
larity. The color coding for· micaandceramic tubular capacitors is
illustrated in Figs. 21 ·9 and 21-10.
4. The total capacitance of parallel capacitors is the sum of the individ-
ual values; the combined capacitance of series capacitors is found by
[Link] formula. These rules are opposite fromthe formulas
for resistors and inductors in series or parallel.
5. In checking with an ohmmeter~. a goq(i capacitor shows charging
current and then the ohmmeter reads a very high value of ohms
equal to the insulation resistance. A short-circuited capacitor reads
zero ohms; an open capacitor does not show any charging. current.
6. X = l /(2'1T/G) 0, with fin hertz and C in farads. The higher the
frequency and the greater the capacitance} the smaller Xe. is.
7. A common application of ){0 ls in afor rf coupling c~pacitors, which
have low reactance for .one group of fr~qµen~Jes qutmore readance
for lower frequencies. This ls just the e>pposite of an inductance [Link]
ma~~- .
8. Xe .is a phasor [Link]~ the.·volt~!le a~~ossthe·c,apacik>rlags
90 ° behind its charge and ~jscharge/c~rr,nt.. rhis p~se angle of X 0
is exactly opposite from the prysi~e. angle for Xi·
 Review of Chapters 21 to 24 495

9. In series circuits, R and X 0 are added by phasors because their

voltage drops are 90° out of phase. Therefore, the total impedance
Z equals yR 2 + Xe2 ; the current I equals VT! Z.
10. For parallel circuits, the resistive and capacitive branch currents are
added by phasors: IT = v'IR2 + I0 2 ; the impedance Z = ~/IT.
11. The time constant of a capacitive circuit equals R X C. With R in
ohms and C in farads, the RC product is the time in seconds for the
voltage across C to change by 63 percent.
12. Capacitive charge or discharge current i0 is equal to C (dv! dt) for any
waveshape of Ve.
13. The time constant of an inductive circuit equals LI R. With L in
henrys and R in ohms, LI R is the time in seconds for the current
through L to change by 63 percent. ·
14. Induced voltage vL is equal to L (di!dt) for any waveshape of iL.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. A capacitor can store charge because it has a dielectric between two

conductors.
2. With 100 V applied, a 0.01-µF capacitor stores 1 µC of charge.
3. The smaller the capacitance, the higher the potential difference
across it for a given amount of charge s·tored in the capacitor.
4. A 250-pF capacitance equals 250 x 10-12 F.
5. The thinner the dielectric, the more the capacitance and the lower
the voltage breakdown rating for a capacitor.
6. Larger plate area increases the capacitance.
7. Capacitors in series provide less capacitance but a higher voltage
breakdown rating for the combination.
8. Capacitors in parallel increase the total capacitance with the same
voltage rating.
9. Two 0.01-µF capacitors in parallel have a total C of 0.005 µF.
10. A good 0.01-µF paper capacitor will show charging current and read
500 MQ or more on an ohmmeter.
11. If the capacitance is doubled, the reactance is one-half.
12. If the frequency is doubled, the reactance is one-half.
13. The reactance of a O.l-µF capacitor at 60 Hz is approximately 60 n.
14. In a series circuit, the voltage across Xe lags 90° behind the current.
15. The phase angle of a series circuit can be any angle between 0 and
90 °, depending on the ratio of Xe to R.
496 Review of Chapters 21 to 24

16. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across Xe lags 90° behind its capaci-
tive branch current.
1 7. In a parallel circuit of two resistances with 1 A in each branch, the
total line current equals 1.414 A
18. A 1000-Q Xe in parallel with 1000-Q R has a combined Z of 707 Q.
19. A 1000-Q Xe in series with 1000-Q R has a total Z of 1414 Q.
20. Neglecting its sign, the phase angle is 45 ° for both circuits in Probs.
18 and 19.
21. XL and Xe are opposite reactances.
22. The total impedance of a 1-MQ R in series with a 5-Q Xe is approxi-
mately 1 MQ with a phase angle of 0 °.
23. The combined impedance of a 5-Q R in shunt with a 1-MQ Xe is
approximately 5 Q with a phase angle of 0 °.
24. XL and Xe change with frequency, but Land C do not depend on the
frequency.
25. A long RC time constant corresponds to a large C and R.
26. When the RC time constant for discharge is calculated, R must be the
resistance in the path for discharge current.
27. Resistance and impedance are both measured in ohms.
28. XL and Xe are both measured in ohms.
29. Z can change with frequency because it includes reactance.
30. With 100 V applied, a 1-µF capacitor in series with a 1-MQ R will
have the transient value of Ve = 63 V in 1 s, while charging to the
steady-state value of 100 V in 5 s.
31. A 1-µF capacitor charged to 2000 V has stored energy equal to 1 J.
32. A 2-H Lis in series with a 1-kQ Rand a 100-V source. After 2 ms,
the transient value of iL is 63 mA, while rising to the steady-state
value of 100 mA in 10 ms.
33. When the applied voltage increases, charging current can flow as the
capacitor takes on additional charge.
34. When the applied voltage decreases, a charged capacitor can dis-
charge because it has a higher potential difference than the source.
35. Capacitors in series have the same charge and discharge current.
36. Capacitors in parallel have the same voltage.
37. The phasor combination of a 30-Q R in series with a 40-Q Xe equals
70-Q impedance.
38. A six-dot mica capacitor color-coded white, green, black, red, and
yellow has the capacitance value of 500 pF.
39. Capacitive current can be considered leading current in a series
circuit.
40. In a series circuit, the higher the value of Xe, the greater is its voltage
drop compared with the IR drop.
 Review of Chapters 21 to 24 497

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Boylestad, Robert: "Introductory Circuit Analysis," Charles E. Merrill,

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Gillie, A. C.: "Electrical Principles of Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Jackson, H. W.: "Introduction to Electric Circuits," Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Slurzberg, M. and W. Osterheld: ''Essentials of Electricity for Radio and
Television," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
..... llul11f •r [Link]
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 499

+
,-+
1
I= 1 A
R 1 =50Q
V 1 =JR 1
•+
; / 1 =2 A •+
; /2 =2A

} =50 v
R 1 =50 Q

(a) (b)
FIGURE 25-1
Ac circuits with resistance but no reactance. (a)
R1 and R2 in series. (b) R1 and R2 in parallel.

25-1 a, with two 50-Q resistances in series With a total current of 4 A in the main line from
across the 100-V source, the calculations are as the 100-V source, the combined parallel resist-
follows: ance is 25 n. This RT equals 100 V/4 A for the
two 50-Q branches.
RT = R1 + R2 = 50 + 50 = 1oo n Each branch current has the same phase
I = VT = 100 = 1 A as the applied voltage. ~ is the reference be-
RT 100 cause it is common to both branches.
\'i = IR1 = 1 X 50 = 50 V
Vz = IR2 = 1 X 50 = 50 V Practice Problems 25-1
(answers on page 518)
Note that the series resistances R1 and R2 serve Refer to Fig. 25-1.
as a voltage divider, as in de circuits. Each R (a) In (a), what is the phase angle between VT
has one-half the applied voltage for one-half the and I?
total series resistance. (b) In (b), what is the phase angle between IT
The voltage drops \'i and Vz are both in and~?
phase with the series current /, which is the
common reference. Also I is in phase with the 25-2
applied voltage VT because there is no reac- CIRCUITS WITH XL ALONE
tance. The circuits with XL in Figs. 25-2 and 25-3
Parallel Resistances. For the circuit in Fig. correspond to the series and parallel circuits in
25-1 b, with two 50-Q resistances in parallel Fig. 25-1, with ohms of XL equal to the R val-
across the 100-V source, the calculations are: ues. Since the applied voltage is the same, the
values of current correspond because ohms of
XL are just as effective as ohms of R in limiting
11 = ~ = 100 = 2 A the current or producing a voltage drop.
R1 50
Although XL is a phasor quantity with a
12 = ~ = 100 = 2 A 90 ° phase angle, all the ohms of opposition are
R2 50 the same kind of reactance in this example.
IT = /1 + 12 = 2 + 2 = 4 A Therefore, without any R or X 0 , the series ohms
 Chapter 25
500 Alternating-Current Circuits

Vr = 100 V always leads the current through it by 90 ° . In

V1 =IXL 1 Fig. 25-2b, I is the reference phasor because it
} = 50 v is common to all the series components. There-
I"\,, Vr = 100 V V1 or V2 fore, the voltage phasors for "1 or ~ across
=50 v either reactance, or VT across both reactances,
are shown leading I by 90 ° .
90° I= 1 A
IL Values in Parallel. For Fig. 25-3a the cal-
(a) (b)
culations are
FIGURE 25-2
Series circuit with XL alone. (a) Schematic
diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.

of XL can be combined directly. Similarly, the

parallel IL currents can be added.

XL Values in Series. For Fig. 25-2a, the calcu-

These two branch currents can be added be-
lations are
cause they both have the same phase. This
angle is 90 ° lagging the voltage reference pha-
XL T = XL + XL = 50 + 50
1 2
= 100 Q sor as shown in (b).
I = VT = 100 = 1 A Since the voltage ~ is common to the
XL T 100 branches, this voltage is across XL 1 and XL 2 •
"1 = IXL1 = 1 x 50 = 50 v Therefore ~ is the reference phasor for parallel
Vz = IXL2 = 1 x 50 = 50 v circuits.
Note that there is no fundamental change
Note that the two series voltage drops of 50 V between Fig. 25-2b, which shows each XL volt-
each add to equal the total applied voltage of age leading its current by 90 °, and Fig. 25-3 b,
100 v. showing each XL current lagging its voltage by
With regard to the phase angle for the -90°. The phase angle between the inductive
inductive reactance, the voltage across any XL current and voltage is still the same 90 °.

...-+ ...: I ...: I VA = 100 V

+ Ir= 4 A
I

+ 1 =2 A
+
2 =2A -90°

/1 or I 2
=2A

(a) (b)
FIGURE 25-3
Parallel circuit with XL alone. (a) Schematic
diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 501

I= 1 A These two series voltage drops of 50 V each

,-+ add to equal the total applied voltage.
+I I= 1 A
l"\.J VT= 100 V
X c,
50.Q I
= } V 1 =IXc,

=50V
-90°

V1 or V2
=50 v
With regard to the phase angle for the
capacitive reactance, the voltage across any Xe
always lags its capacitive charge and discharge
Xc2 = } V2 =!Xc2 current I by 90 °. For the series circuit in Fig.
50 n = 50v 25-4, I is the reference phasor. The capacitive
VT= 100 V current leads by 90 °. Or, we can say that each
(a) (b)
voltage lags I by - 90 ° .
FIGURE 25-4
Series circuit with Xe alone. (a) Schematic le Values in Parallel. For Fig. 25-5, ~ is the
diagram. (b) Phasor diagram. reference phasor. The calculations for /1 and 12
are the same as before. However, now each of
Practice Problems 25-2 the capacitive branch currents or the IT leads ~
(answers on page 518) by 90°.
(a} In Fig. 25-2, what is the phase angle of VT
with respect to I? Practice Problems 25-3
(b} In Fig. 25-3, what is the phase angle of IT (answers on page 518)
with respect to ~? (a} In Fig. 25-4, what is the phase angle of VT
with respect to I?
25-3 (b} In Fig. 25-5, what is the phase angle of IT
CIRCUITS WITH Xe ALONE with respect to ~?
Again, reactances are shown in Figs. 25-4 and
25-5 but with Xe values of 50 Q. Since there is 25-4
no R or Xv the series ohms of Xe can be com- OPPOSITE REACTANCES CANCEL
bined directly. Also the parallel le currents can In a circuit with both XL and Xe, the opposite
be added. phase angles enable one to cancel the effect of
the other. For XL and Xe in series, the net
Xe Values in Series. For Fig. 25-4a, the calcu- reactance is the difference between the two
lations for Vi and \'2 are the same as before. series reactances, resulting in less reactance

...
: / 1 =2 A
+
Xe,= or / 2
/ 1
50.Q =2A

90°

(a) (b)
FIGURE 25-5
Parallel circuit with Xe alone. (a) Schematic
diagram. (b) Phasor diagram.
 Chapter 25
502 Alternating-Current Circuits

than either one. In parallel circuits, the IL and le out of phase with each other, which means they
branch currents cancel. The net line current are of opposite polarity and cancel. Then the
then is the difference between the two branch total voltage across the two in series is 360 V
currents, resulting in less total line current than minus 240 V, which equals the applied voltage
either branch current. of 120 V.
If the values in Fig. 25-6 were reversed,
XL and Xe in Series. For the example in Fig. with an Xe of 60 Q and an XL of 40 Q, the net
25-6, the series combination of a 60-Q XL and a reactance would be a 20-Q Xe. The current
40-Q Xe in (a) and (b) is equivalent to the net would be 6 A again, but with a lagging phase
reactance of the 20-Q XL shown in (c). Then, angle of -90 ° for the capacitive voltage. The
with 20 Q as the net reactance across the 120-V !Xe voltage would then be larger at ~60 V, with
source, the current is 6 A This current lags the an IXL value of 240 V, but the difference still
applied voltage VT by 90 ° because the net re- equals the applied voltage of 120 V.
actance is inductive.
For the two series reactances in (a), the XL and Xe in Parallel. In Fig. 25-7, the 60-
current is the same through both XL and Xe. Q XL and 40-Q Xe are in parallel across the
Therefore, the IXL drop is 6 A X 60 Q, or 120-V source. Then the 60-Q XL branch current
360 V, and the IXe drop is 6 AX 40 Q, or IL is 2 A, and the 40-Q Xe branch current le is
240V. 3 A The Xe branch has more current because
Note that each individual reactive voltage its reactance is less than XL.
drop can be more than the applied voltage. The In terms of phase angle, IL lags the parallel
sum of the series voltage drops still is 120 V, voltage VA by 90 °, while le leads the same volt-
however, equal to the applied voltage. This age by 90 °. Therefore, the opposite reactive
results because the IXL and !Xe voltages are branch currents are 180 ° out of phase with
opposite. The IXL voltage leads the series cur- each other and cancel. The net line current then
rent by 90 °; the !Xe voltage lags the same cur- is the difference between 3 A for le and 2 A for
rent by 90 °. Therefore, IXL and IXe are 180 ° IL, which equals the net value of 1 A This re-

XL=
...-+ son ,-+
I I= 1 /=6A
+sA +
1
VT= XL= Net XL
'V 120 v 20 n 'V 120 v = 20 n
or

Xe=
40fl.

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 25-6
With XL and Xe in series, their ohms of re-
actance cancel. (a) Series circuit. (b) Phasers
for XL and Xe with net resultant. ( c) Equivalent
circuit with net reactance of 20-Q XL.
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 503

,-+ le=
tir = +le= JA ,-+
I
+1A
IT=
t2A t JA ' Net le=
+1A
XL=
'\.,, VA= 60 .n
Xe=
Net Xe
120 v 40 .n

IL=
2A

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 25-7
With XL and X 0 in parallel, their branch cur-
rents cancel. (a) Parallel circuit. (b) Phasors for
branch currents I0 and IL with net resultant.
(c) Equivalent circuit with net line current of
1-A I0 .

sultant current leads ~ by 90 ° because it is to find the total ohms of opposition for the
capacitive current. entire series circuit.
If the values in Fig. 25-7 were reversed,
with an Xe of 60 Q and an XL of 40 Q, IL would Magnitude of Z. After the total R and net
be larger. IL then equals 3 A, with an le of 2 A. reactance X are found, they can be combined
The net line current is 1 A again but inductive, by the formula
with a net XL.
Z = y'R2 + X2 (25-1)
Practice Problems 25-4 The circuit's total impedance Z is the phasor
(answers on page 518) sum of the series resistance and reactance.
(a) In Fig. 25-6, how much is the net XL?
Whether the net Xis at +90° for XL or -90°
(b) In Fig. 25-7, how much is the net le?
for Xe does not matter in calculating the magni-
tude of Z.
25-5 An example is illustrated in Fig. 25-8. Here
SERIES REACTANCE the net series reactance in (b) is a 30-Q Xe. This
AND RESISTANCE value is equal to a 60-Q XL subtracted from a
In this case, the resistive and reactive effects 90-Q Xe as shown in (a). The net 30-Q Xe in (b)
must be combined by phasors. For series cir- is in series with a 40-Q R. Therefore
cuits, the ohms of opposition are added to find
Z. First add all the series resistances for one z = v'R2 + x2 = y'(40)2 + (30)2
total R. Also combine all the series reactances, = v'l 600 + 900 = y2500
adding the same kind but subtracting opposites. z =50Q
The result is one net reactance, indicated X. It
may be either capacitive or inductive, depend- I = VIZ. The current is 100 V/50 Q in this
ing on which kind of reactance is larger. Then example, or 2 A. This value is the magnitude,
the total R and net X can be added by phasors without considering the phase angle.
 Cha ter 25
504 Alternating-Current Circuits

IR= 80 V
R=40S1 R =40S1

R =40 S1 .. +
+/-2A
1
- Xe= 30 n
Net !Xe= 60 V
Xe=
VT= 30 n
100 v

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 25-8
Impedance Z of series circuit. (a) R, XL, and X 0
in series. (b) Equivalent circuit with one net
reactance. ( c) Phasor diagram.

Series Voltage Drops. All the series compo- More Series Components. How to combine
nents have the same 2-A current. Therefore, any number of series resistances and reactances
the individual drops in Fig. 25-8a are is illustrated by Fig. 25-9. Here the total series R
of 40 Q is the sum of 30 Q for R1 and 10 Q for
R2 • Note that the order of connection does not
IR = 2 x 40 = 80 V
matter, since the current is the same in all series
IXe = 2 X 90 = 180 V
components.
IXL = 2 x 60 = 120 v
The total series Xe is 90 Q, equal to the
sum of 70 Q for Xe1 and 20 Q for Xe2 • Similarly,
Since IXe and IXL are voltages of opposite the total series XL is 60 Q, equal to the sum of
polarity, the net reactive voltage is 180 minus 30 Q for XL 1 and 30 Q for XL 2 •
120 V, which equals 60 V. The phasor sum of The net reactance X equals 30 Q, which is
IR at 80 V and the net reactive voltage IX of 90 Q of Xe minus 60 Q of XL. Since Xe is larger
60 V equals the applied voltage V of 100 V. than Xv the net reactance is capacitive. The
circuit in Fig. 25-9 is equivalent to Fig. 25-8,
Phase Angle of Z. The phase angle of the
series circuit is the angle whose tangent equals
XI R. The angle is negative for Xe but positive
R, = 30 n Xe,= 10 n
for XL.
In this example, X is the net reactance of
30 Q for Xe and Ris 40 Q. Then tan()= -0.75 '\_, Vr= Z=50 S1
100 v
and() is -37°, approximately.
The negative angle for Z indicates lagging
capacitive reactance for the series circuit. If the
values of XL and Xe were reversed, the phase
angle would be +37°, instead of -37°, be- FIGURE 25-9
cause of the net XL. However, the magnitude of Series ac circuit with more components than
Z would still be the same. Fig. 25-8, but the same values of Z, I, and ().
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 505

therefore, since a 40-0 R is in series with a net Calculating IT. As an example, Fig. 25-lOa
Xe of 30 0. shows a circuit with three branches. Since the
voltage across all the parallel branches is the
Practice Problems 25-5 applied 100 V, the individual branch currents
(answers on page 518) are
(a) In Fig. 25-8, how much is the net react-
ance? I = ~ = lOOV =4A
(b) In Fig. 25-9, how much is the net react- R R 250
ance?
I = ~ = lOOV =4A
L XL 25 0
25-6
PARALLEL REACTANCE l=~=lOOV=lA
AND RESISTANCE e Xe 100 0
With parallel circuits, the branch currents for
resistance and reactance are added by phasers. The net reactive branch current Ix is 3 A, then,
Then the total line current is found by the for- equal to the difference between the 4-A IL and
mula the 1-A le, as shown in (b).
The next step is to calculate IT as the pha-
(25-2) ser sum of IR and Ix. Then

le= 1 A

Xe=
100.n

(a)

R=
25.Q

(b) (c)
FIGURE 25-10
Total line current Ir of parallel circuit. (a) R, XL,
and X 0 in parallel. ( b) Equivalent circuit with
net reactive branch current. ( c) Phasor dia-
gram.
 Chapter 25
506 Alternating-Current Circuits

IT= yJR2 +Ii= y42 + 32 We can consider that ZT has the phase of the
voltage source with respect to IT.
= y16 + 9 = v'25
IT= 5 A More Parallel Branches. Figure 25-11 illus-
trates how any number of parallel resistances
The phasor diagram for IT is shown in (c). and reactances can be combined. The total
resistive branch current IR of 4 A is the sum of
· ZT = ~/IT. This gives the total impedance of 2 A each for the R1 branch and the R2 branch.
a parallel circuit. In this example, ZT is Note that the order of connection does not
100 V/5 A, which equals 20 Q. This value is the matter, since the parallel branch currents add in
equivalent impedance of all three branches in the main line. Effectively, two 50-Q resistances
parallel across the source. in parallel are equivalent to one 25-Q resist-
ance.
Similarly, the total inductive branch cur-
Phase Angle. The phase angle of the parallel rent IL is 4 A, equal to 3 A for IL 1 and 1 A for IL 2 •
circuit is found from the branch currents. Now 8 Also, the total capacitive branch current le is
is the angle whose tangent equals Ix! IR. 1 A, equal to %A each for Ie1 and Ie2 •
For this example, Ix is the net inductive The net reactive branch current Ix is 3 A,
current of the 3-A IL. Also, IR is 4 A. These then, equal to a 4-A IL minus a 1-A le. Since IL
phasors are shown in Fig. 25-10 c. Then () is a is larger, the net current is inductive.
negative angle with the tangent of -% or The circuit in Fig. 25-11 is equivalent to
-0.75. This phase angle is -37°, approxi- the circuit in Fig. 25-10, therefore. Both have a
mately. 4-A resistive current IR and a 3-A net inductive
The negative angle for IT indicates lagging current IL. These values added by phasors make
inductive current. The value of -37° is the
phase angle of IT with respect to the voltage
a total of 5 A for IT in the main line.
reference ~. Practice Problems 25-6
When ZT is calculated as ~/IT for a paral- (answers on page 518)
lel circuit, tre phase angle of ZT is the same (a) In Fig. 25-10, what is the net reactive
value as for IT but with opposite sign. In this branch current?
example, ZT is 20 Q with a phase angle of (b) In Fig. 25-11, what is the net reactive
+37°, for an IT of 5 A with an angle of '-.37°. branch current?

' 1
/T=J42 + 32 IR 1 = 2 A le, =2 A /£ 1 = 3 A IR 2 = 2 A IL 2 = 1 A Ie2 =~A
=SA

.re,= XL,=
R,= R2= XL2 = Xe2 =
son 200 n 33i n son ioon 200 n

FIGURE 25-11
Parallel ac circuit with more components than
Fig. 25-10, but with the same value of IT, Z,
and e.
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 507

25-7 the generator voltage V. Then the product VI is

SERIES-PARALLEL REACTANCE not the real power produced by the generator,
AND RESISTANCE since the voltage may have a high value while
Figure 25-12 shows how a series-parallel circuit the current is near zero, or vice versa. The real
can be reduced to a series circuit with just one power, however, can always be calculated as
reactance and one resistance. The method is 12 R, where R is the total resistive component of
straightforward as long as resistance and react- the circuit, because current and voltage have
ance are not combined in one parallel bank or the same phase in a resistance. To find the
series string. corresponding value of power as VI, this prod-
Working backward toward the generator uct must be multiplied by the cosine of the
from the outside branch in Fig. 25-12a, we have phase angle (). Then
an XL 1 and an XL2 of 100 Q each in series,
which total 200 Q. This string in (a) is equivalent Real power = 12 R (25-3)
to XL 5 in (b).
In the other branch, the net reactance of
or
XL 3 and Xe is equal to 600 Q minus 400 Q This
is equivalent to the 200 Q of XL 4 in (b). The XL 4
and XL 5 of 200 Q each in parallel are combined Real power = VI cos () (25-4)
for an XL of 100 Q.
In (c), the 100-Q Xe, is in series with the where Vand I are in rms values, to calculate the
100-Q R1_2 • This value is for R1 and R2 in real power, in watts. Multiplying VI by the cosine
parallel. of the phase angle provides the resistive com -
The phasor diagram for the equivalent ponent for real power equal to 12 R.
circuit in (d) shows the total impedance Z of For example, the ac circuit in Fig. 25-13
141 Q for a 100-~ R in series with a 100-Q XL. has 2 A through a 100-Q R in series with the XL
With a 141-Q impedance across the applied Vr of 173 Q. Therefore
of 100 V, the current in the generator is 0. 7 A
The phase angle () is 45 ° for this circuit. 1 Real power= I 2 R = 4 X 100
Real power = 400 W
Practice Problems 25-7
(answers on page 518) Furthermore, in this circuit the phase angle is
Refer to Fig. 25-12. 60° with a cosine of0.5. The applied voltage is
(a) How much is XL 1 + XL2 ? 400 V. Therefore
(b) How much is XL 3 - Xe?
(c) How much is XL 4 in parallel with XL 5 ? Real power = VI cos() = 400 X 2 X 0.5
25-8 Real power = 400 W
REAL POWER
In an ac circuit with reactance, the current I In both examples, the real power is the same
supplied by the generator either leads or lags 400 W, because this is the amount of power
supplied by the generator and dissipated in the ·
1More complicated ac circuits with series-parallel resistance. Either formula can be used for cal-
impedances are analyzed with complex numbers, as culating the real power, depending on which is
explained in Chap. 26. more convenient.
 Chapter 25
508 Alternating-Current Circuits

R 1 =200 n
R 1_2 = 100 n

R 2 = 200 n Xe=
400D
'\_., Vr =
100 v

(a) (b)

R 1 _ 2 = 100 n

VT=
100 v Z z j - 1 4 1 D XL= 100 rl.

(} = 45°
R = 100 n
(c) (d)
FIGURE 25-12
Reducing a series-parallel circuit with R, XL,
and X 0 to a series circuit with one Rand one X.
(a) Actual circuit. ( b) Simplified arrangement.
{c) Series equivalent circuit. (d) Phasor dia-
gram.

PR= 400W

Vr =
400V

VI cos (} = 400 W

R = 100 n
(a) (b)
FIGURE 25-13
Real power in series circuit. (a) Schematic
diagram. {b) Phasor diagram.
 Cha ter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 509

Real power can be considered as resistive Apparent Power. When V and I are out of
power, which is dissipated as heat. A reactance phase because of reactance, the product of
does not dissipate power but stores energy in V X I is called apparent power. The unit is
the electric or magnetic field. voltamperes (VA) instead of watts, since the watt
is reserved for real power.
For the example in Fig. 25-13, with 400 V
Power Factor. Because it indicates the resis-
and the 2-A I, 60° out of phase, the apparent
tive component, cos 8 is the power factor of the power is VI, or 400 X 2 = 800 VA Note that
circuit, converting the VI product to real power. apparent power is the VI product alone, without
For series circuits considering the power factor cos 8.
The power factor can be calculated as the
Power factor = cos B = ZR (25-5) ratio of real power to apparent power, as this
ratio equals cos 8. As an example, in Fig. 25-13,
the real power is 400 W, and the apparent
or for parallel circuits
power is 800 VA The ratio of 40 %00 then is 0.5
for the power factor, the same as cos 60 °.
Power factor = cos (J = t
I
T
(25-6)
The VAR. This is an abbreviation for volt-
ampere reactive. Specifically, VARs are volt-
In Fig. 25-13, as an example of a series circuit, amperes at the angle of 90 °.
we use Rand Z for the calculations: In general, for any phase angle 8 between
Vand I, multiplying VI by sin 8 gives the vertical
lOOQ
Power factor = cos 8 = ZR =
200
Q = 0 .5 component at 90 ° for the value of the VARs. In
Fig. 25-13, the VI sin 60° = 80 X 0.866
= 692.8 VAR.
For the parallel circuit in Fig. 25-10, we use the Note that the factor sin 8 for the VARs
resistive current IR and the IT: gives the vertical or reactive component of the
apparent power VI. However, multiplying VI by
IR 4A cos 8 as the power factor gives the horizontal or
Power factor= cos 8 = T =
5
A = 0.8
resistive component for the real power.
T

The power factor is not an angular measure but Correcting the Power Factor. In commercial
a numerical ratio, with a value between 0 and 1, use, the power factor should be close to unity
equal to the cosine of the phase angle. for efficient distribution. However, the inductive
With all resistance and zero reactance, R load of motors may result in a power factor of
and Z are the same for a series circuit, or IR and 0. 7, as an example, for the phase angle of 45 °.
IT are the same for a parallel circuit, and the To correct for this lagging inductive component
ratio is 1. Therefore, unity power factor means of the current in the main line, a capacitor can
a resistive circuit. At the opposite extreme, all be connected across the line to draw leading
reactance with zero resistance makes the power current from the source. The value of capaci-
factor zero, meaning that the circuit is all reac- tance is calculated to take the same amount of
tive. voltamperes as the VARs of the load.
 Chapter 25
510 Alternating-Current Circuits

Practice Problems 25-8 a wire to make it expand, and this motion is

(answers on page 518) converted into meter deflection. Both types are
(a) What is the unit for real power? used as ac meters for radio frequencies.
(b) What is the unit for reactive power? The iron-vane meter and dynamometer
have very low sensitivity, compared with a
25-9 D' Arsonval movement. They are used in power
AC METERS circuits, for either direct current or alternating
The D' Arsonval moving-coil type of meter current.
movement will not read if used in an ac circuit The rectifier type of ac voltmeter can use
because the average value of an alternating copper oxide, selenium, germanium, or a vac-
current is zero. Since the two opposite polarities uum tube for the rectifier. A separate scale for a
cancel, an alternating current cannot deflect the range of 10 V or less is generally necessary
meter movement either up-scale or down-scale. because of nonlinear rectification at low ampli-
An ac meter must produce deflection of the tudes. It should also be noted that the rectifier
meter pointer up-scale regardless of polarity. arrangement is not suitable for measuring cur-
This deflection is accomplished by one of the rent, because a current meter must have very
following three methods for ac meters. low resistance. For this reason ac-dc multi-
meters generally measure ac voltages as well as
1. Thermal type. In this method, the heating de voltages, but not alternating current.
effect of the current, which is independent Ac meters, other than the rectifier type,
of polarity, is used to provide meter de- generally have a nonlinear scale that is crowded
flection. Two examples are the thermo- at the low end. This crowding of the scale read-
couple type and the hot-wire meter. ings results from the fact that the deflection is
2. Electromagnetic type. In this method, the proportional to the square of the current.
relative magnetic polarity is maintained
constant although the current reverses. Practice Problems 25-9
Examples are the iron -vane meter, dyna- (answers on page 518)
mometer, and wattmeter. Answer true or false.
3. Rectifier type. The rectifier changes the ac (a) The iron-wave meter can read alternating
input to de output for the meter, which is current.
usually a D' Arsonval movement. This type (b) The D'Arsonval meter movement is for
is the most common for ac voltmeters gen- direct current only.
erally used for audio and radio frequen-
cies. 25-10
WATTMETERS
All ac meters have scales calibrated in rms The wattmeter uses fixed coils to indicate cur-
values, unless noted otherwise on the meter. rent in the circuit, while the movable coil indi-
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar cat~s voltage (Fig. 25-14 ). The deflection then is
metals, short-circuited at one end but open at proportional to power. Either de power or real
the opposite side. Heat at the short-circuited ac power can be read directly by the wattmeter.
junction produces a small de voltage across the In Fig. 25-14a, the coils Lli and Llz in
open ends, which are connected to a de meter series are the stationary coils serving as an
movement. In the hot-wire meter, current heats ammeter to measure current. The two I termi-
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 511

terminals

(a) (b)
FIGURE 25-14
Wattmeter. (a) Schematic of voltage and cur-
rent coils. (b) 0- to 200-W meter. (WM. Welch
Mfg. Co.)

nals are connected in one side of the line in 25-11

series with the load. The movable coil Lv and its SUMMARY OF TYPES OF OHMS
multiplier resistance RM are used as a voltmeter, IN AC CIRCUITS
with the V terminals connected across the line The differences in R, XL, Xe, and Z are listed in
in parallel with the load. Then the current in the Table 25-1, but the following general features
fixed coils is proportional to I, while the current should also be noted. Ohms of opposition limit
in the movable coil is proportional to V. As a the amount of current in de circuits or ac cir-
result, the deflection is proportional to the VI cuits. Resistance R is the same for either case.
product, which is power. However, ac circuits can have ohms of reac-
Furthermore, it is the VI product for each tance because of the variations in alternating
instant of time that produces deflection. For current or voltage. XL is the reactance of an
instance, if the V value is high when the I value inductance with sine-wave changes in current.
is low, for a phase angle close to 90 ° , there will Xe is the reactance of a capacitor with sine-
be little deflection. The meter deflection is pro- wave changes in voltage.
portional to the watts of real power, therefore, Both XL and Xe are measured in ohms,
regardless of the power factor in ac circuits. The like R, but reactance has a 90 ° phase angle,
wattmeter is commonly used to measure power while the phase angle for resistance is 0 °. A
from the 60-Hz power line. For radio frequen- circuit with steady direct current cannot have
cies, however, power is generally measured in any reactance.
terms of heat transfer. Ohms of XL or Xe are opposite, as XL has a
phase angle of + 90 °, while Xe has the angle of
Practice Problems 25-10 -90°. Any individual XL or Xe always has a
(answers on page 518) phase angle of exactly 90 ° .
(a) Does a wattmeter measure real or appar- Ohms of impedance Z result from the pha-
ent power? ser combination of resistance and reactance. In
(b) In Fig. 25-14, does the movable coil meas- fact, Z can be considered the general form of
ure Vor I? any ohms of opposition in ac circuits.
 Chapter 25
512 Alternating-Current Circuits

TABLE 25-1. Types of Ohms in AC Circuits

INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE
RESISTANCE REACTANCE REACTANCE IMPEDANCE
R, fl Xu n Xe. n z, n
Definition In-phase oppo- 90° leading 90° lagging Phasor combina-
sition to alter- opposition to opposition to tion of resistance
nating or alternating alternating and reactance
direct current current current Z = yR 2 + X 2
Effect of fre- Same for all Increases with Decreases with XL component
quency frequencies higher fre- higher fre- increases, but
quencies quencies Xe decreases
Phase angle () oo IL lags \{by Ve lags le by Tan () = ± ~ in series,
90° 90°
I .
or ± / m parallel
R

Z can have any phase angle, depending on Series Components. In series circuits, ohms
the relative amounts of R and X. When Z con- and voltage drops have similar phasers. The
sists mostly of R with little reactance, the phase reason is the common I for all the series com-
angle of Z is close to 0 °. With R and X equal, ponents. VR or IR has the same phase as R; \{
the phase angle of Z is 45 °. Whether the angle or IXe has the same phase as Xe; V0 or IX0 has
is positive or negative depends on whether the the same phase as Xe·
net reactance is inductive or capacitive. When Z
consists mainly of X with little R, the phase Resistance. R, VR, and IR always have the
angle of Z is close to 90 ° . same angle because there is no phase shift in a
The phase angle is () z for Z or VT with resistance. This applies to R in either a series or
respect to the common I in a series circuit. With a parallel circuit.
parallel branch currents, ()1 is for IT in the main
Reactance. XL and Xe are 90 ° phasors in
line with respect to the common voltage.
opposite directions. XL or \{ has the angle of
Practice Problems 25-11 +90° with an upward phasor. Xe or Ve has the
(answers on page 518) angle of -90 ° with a downward phasor.
(a) Which of the following does not change
with frequency: Z, XL, Xe, or R? Reactive Branch Currents. The phasor of a
( b) Which of the following has lagging current: parallel branch current is opposite from its re-
R, XL, or Xe? actance. Therefore, le is upward at +90 °, op-
(c) Which of the following has leading current: posite from Xe downward at -90 °. Also, IL is
R, XL, or Xe? downward at -90°, opposite from XL upward
at +90°.
25-12 In short, le and IL are oppos~te from each
SUMMARY OF TYPES OF PHASORS other, and both are opposite from their corre-
IN AC CIRCUITS sponding reactances.
The phasers for ohms, volts, and amperes are
shown in Fig. 25-15. Note the following similar- Phase Angle () z· The phasor resultant for
ities and differences: ohms of reactance and resistance is the imped-
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 513

R
... -+ I'-+
I I I I
+ XL +
VT XL
'V and and R
Zr VL

VL
Rand VR

VR =IR
(a) (b)

IL
... le ,-+ ... IR +/ IR , vA , or z T
•
I
+Ir I
..
+
VA
IL
'V and
Zr

+Ir
l
'-+
(c) (d)
FIGURE 25-15
Summary of phasor relations in ac circuits.
(a) XL and R in series. ( b) Xe and R in series.
( c) Parallel branches with le and IR" ( d) Par-
allel branches with IL and JR.

ance Z. The phase angle () for Z can be any in sine-wave ac circuits in order to take into
angle between 0 and 90 °. In a series circuit () z account the effect of reactance. The phasers
for Z is the same as () for VT with respect to the can be analyzed either graphically, as in Fig.
common current I. 25-15, or by the shorter technique of complex
numbers, with a j operator that corresponds to
Phase Angle () r The phasor resultant of a 90° phasor. How to use complex numbers in
branch currents is the total line current IT. The the analysis of ac circuits is explained in the next
phase angle of IT can be any angle between 0 chapter.
and 90 °. In a parallel circuit, () 1 is the angle of IT
with respect to the applied voltage ~.
The ()1 is the same value but of opposite Practice Problems 25-12
sign from () z for Z, which is the impedance of (answers on page 518)
the combined parallel branches. The reason for (a) Of the following three phasers, which two
the change of sign is that ()1 is for I with respect are 180° opposite: \{, V0 , or VR?
to V, but () z is for V with respect to I. (b) Of the following three phasers, which two
Such phasor combinations are necessary are in quadrature: IR, IT, or IL?
 Chapter 25
514 Alternating-Current Circuits

Summary
1. In ac circuits with resistance alone, the circuit is analyzed the same
way as for de circuits, generally with rms ac values. Without any
reactance, the phase angle is zero.
2. When capacitive reactances alone are combined, the Xe values are
added in series and combined by the reciprocal formula in parallel,
just like ohms of resistance. Similarly, ohms of XL alone can be
added in series or combined by the reciprocal formula in parallel, just
like ohms of resistance.
3. Since Xe and XL are opposite reactances, they cancel each other. In
series, the ohms of Xe and XL cancel. In parallel, the capacitive and
inductive branch currents ·le and XL cancel.
4. In ac circuits with R, XL, and Xe, they can be reduced to one
equivalent resistance and one net reactance.
5. In series, the total R and net X at 90° are combined as
Z = -J R2 + X2 • The phase angle of the series R and X is the angle
with tangent -+XI R. First we calculate ZT and then divide into VT to
find I.
6. For parallel branches, the total IR and net reactive Ix at 90 ° are
combined as IT= -JJR 2 + Ii. The phase angle of the parallel Rand
X is the angle with tangent -+ lxl IR. First we calculate IT and then
divide into ~ to find ZT.
7. R, XL, Xe, and Z in ac circuits all are ohms of opposition. The
differences with respect to frequency and phase angle are summa-
rized in Table 25-1.
8. The phaser relations for resistance and reactance are summarized in
Fig. 25-15.
9. In ac circuits with reactance, the real power in watts equals J2R, or
VI cos(), where ()is the phase angle. The real power is the power
dissipated as heat in resistance. Cos () is the power factor of the
circuit.
10. The wattmeter measures real ac power or de power.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In an ac circuit with resistance but no reactance (a) two 1000-Q

resistances in series total 1414 Q; (b) two 1000-Q resistances in series
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 515

total 2000 Q; (c) two 1000-Q resistances in parallel total 707 Q; (d) a
1000-Q R in series with a 400-Q R totals 600 Q.
2. An ac circuit has a 100-Q Xe 1 , a 50-Q Xe 2 , a 40-Q XL 1 , and a 30-Q XL 2 ,
all in series. The net reactance is equal to (a) an 80-Q XL; (b) a
200-Q XL; (c) an 80-Q Xe; (d) a 220-Q Xe.
3. An ac circuit has a 40-Q R, a 90-Q Xv and a 60-Q Xe, all in series.
The impedance Z equals (a) 50 Q; (b) 70.7 Q; (c) 110 Q; (d) 190 Q.
4. An ac circuit has a 100-Q R, a 100-Q XL, and a 100-Q Xe, all in
series. The impedance Z of the series combination is equal to
(a) 33% Q; (b) 70.7 Q; (c} 100 Q; (d) 300 Q.
5. An ac circuit has a 100-Q R, a 300-Q XL, and a 200-Q Xe, all in
series. The phase angle() of the circuit equals (a) 0 °; (b) 37 °; (c) 45 °;
(d} 90°.
6. The power factor of an ac circuit equals (a) the cosine of the phase
angle; (b) the tangent of the phase angle; (c) zero for a resistive
circuit; (d) unity for a reactive circuit.
7. Which phasors in the following combinations are not in opposite
directions? (a) XL and Xe; (b) XL and le; (c) IL and le; (d) Xe and le.
8. In Fig. 25-8a, the voltage drop across XL equals (a) 60 V; (b) 66% V;
(c) 120 V; (d) 200 V.
9. In Fig. 25-1 Oa, the combined impedance of the parallel circuit equals
(a) 5 Q; (b) 12.5 Q; (c) 20 Q; (d) 100 Q.
10. The wattmeter (a) has voltage and current coils to measure real
power; (b) has three connections, two of which are used at a time;
( c) measures apparent power because the current is the same in the
voltage and current coils; (d) can measure de power but not 60-Hz ac
power.

Essay Questions
1. Why can series or parallel resistances be combined in ac circuits the
same way as in de circuits?
2. (a) Why do XL and Xe reactances in series cancel each other?
(b) With XL and Xe reactances in parallel, why do their branch
currents cancel?
3. Give one difference in electrical characteristics comparing Rand Xe,
R and Z, Xe and C, XL and L.
4. Name three types of ac meters.
5. Make a diagram showing a resistance R1 in series with the load
resistance Rv with a wattmeter connected to measure the power
in RL.
 Cha ter 25
516 Alternating-Current Circuits

6. What is the difference between voltamperes and watts?

7. Make a phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig. 25-8a showing the
phase of the voltage drops IR, !Xe, and IXL with respect to the
reference phase of the current I.
8. Explain briefly why the two opposite phasors at + 90 ° for XL and
-90° for IL both follow the principle that any self-induced voltage
leads the current through the coil by 90 °.
9. Explain briefly why phasors for inductance are opposite from phasors
for capacitance.
10. Why is it that a reactance phasor is always at exactly 90° but an
impedance phasor can be less than 90 °?
11. Why must the impedance of a series circuit be more than either its
reactance or resistance?
12. When resistance is increased in a series impedance, Z increases but
() decreases. Explain why.
13. Why must Ir in a parallel circuit be more than either IR or Ix?
14. Why does the power factor of0.707 correspond to a phase angle of
45°?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Refer to Fig. 25-1 a. (a) Calculate the total real power supplied by the
source. (b) Why is the phase angle zero? (c) What is the power factor
of the circuit?
2. In a series ac circuit, 2 A flows through a 20-Q R, a 40-Q Xv and a
60-Q Xe. (a} Make a schematic diagram of the series circuit.
(b) Calculate the voltage drop across each series component.
(c) How much is the applied voltage? (d) Calculate the power factor
of the circuit. (e) What is the phase angle 8?
3. A parallel circuit has the following five branches: three resistances of
30 Q each; an XL of 600 Q; an Xe of 400 Q. (a) Make a schematic
diagram of the circuit. (b) If 100 Vis applied, how much is the total
line current? (c) What is the total impedance of the circuit? (d) What
is the phase angle ()?
4. Referring to Fig. 25-8, assume that the frequency is doubled from
500 to 1000 Hz. Find XL, Xe, Z, I, and() for this higher frequency.
Also, calculate L and C.
5. A series circuit has a 300-Q R, a 500-Q Xe1 , a 300-Q Xe2 , an 800-
Q XL 1 , and a 400-Q XL2 , all in series with an applied voltage V of
 Chapter 25
Alternating-Current Circuits 517

400 V. (a) Draw the schematic diagram with all components.

(b) Draw the equivalent circuit reduced to one resistance and one
reactance. (c) Calculate ZT, I, and the phase angle.
6. Do the same as Prob. 5 for a circuit with the same components in
parallel across the voltage source.
7. A series circuit has a 600-Q R, a 10-µH inductance L, and a 4-µF
capacitance C, all in series with the 60-Hz 120-V power line as
applied voltage. (a) Find the reactance of Land of C. (b) Calculate
ZT, I, and () z·
8. Do the same as in Prob. 7 for the same circuit, but the 120-V source
has the frequency of 10 MHz.
9. (a) Referring to the series circuit Fig. 25-6, what is the phase angle
between the IXL voltage of 360 V and the !Xe voltage of 240 V?
(b) Draw the two sine waves for these voltages, showing their
relative amplitudes and phase corresponding to the phasor diagram
in Fig. 25-6b. Also show the resultant sine wave of voltage across the
net XL.
10. Do the same as in Prob. 9 for the currents in the parallel circuit of
Fig. 25-7.
11. How much resistance dissipates 600 W of ac power, with 5-A rms
current?
12. How much resistance must be inserted in series with a 1.9-H in-
ductance to limit the current to 0.1 A from the 120-V 60-Hz power
line?
13. How much resistance must be inserted in series with a 10-µF capac-
itance to provide a phase angle of -45°? The source is the 120-V
60-Hz power line.
14. With the same Ras in Prob. 13, what value of C is necessary for the
angle of -45 ° at the frequency of 2 MHz?
15. How much capacitance, in microfarad units, must be inserted in
series with a 200-Q R for a current of 0.3 A, from the 120-V 60-Hz
power line?
16. A parallel ac circuit has the following branch currents: JR = 4.2 mA;
IR 2 = 2 .4 mA; IL 1 = 7 mA; IL 2 = 1 mA; le = 6 mA. Calculate IT.
1 7. With 420 mV applied, an ac circuit has the following parallel
branches: R1 = 100 Q; R 2 = 175 Q; XL 1 = 60 Q; XL 2 = 420 Q;
Xe = 70 Q. Calculate IT, el, and ZT.
18. The same components as in Prob. 17 are in series. Calculate ZT, I,
and Oz.
19. What R is needed in series with a 0.01-µF capacitor for a phase angle
of -64°, with f of 800 Hz?
20. With the same Ras in Prob. 19, what L will provide the phase angle
of 64 ° at 800 Hz?
 Cha ter 25
518 Alternating-Current Circuits

Answers to Practice Problems

25-1 (a) 0° 25-7 (b) 200 Q
(b) 0° (c) 100 Q
25-2 (a) 90° 25-8 (a) Watt
(b) -90° (b) Voltampere
25-3 (a) -90° 25-9 (a) T
(b) 90° (b) T
25-4 (a) 20 Q 25-10 (a) Real power
(b) 1 A (b) v
25-5 (a) Xe= 30 Q 25-11 (a) R
(b) Xe= 30 Q (b) XL
25-6 (a) IL= 3 A (c) Xe
(b) IL= 3 A 25-12 (a) ~and Ve
25-7 (a) 200 Q (b) IR and le
 Chapter 26
520 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

~
180° direction • '
1
-6
I
1
~
-4 -2 0 +2 +4
1
I
1
+6
' • 0° direction

FIGURE 26-1
Positive and negative numbers.

For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 angles to the zero axis, therefore, 90 ° counter-
represent units along the horizontal or x axis, clockwise, is on the + j axis.
extending toward the right along the line of zero In mathematics, numbers on the horizontal
phase angle. Therefore, positive numbers really axis are real numbers, including positive and
represent units having the phase angle of 0 °. Or negative values. Numbers on the j axis are
this phase angle corresponds to the factor of called imaginary numbers, only because they
+1. To indicate 6 units with zero phase angle, are not on the real axis. Also, the abbreviation i
then, 6 is multiplied by + 1 as a factor for the is used in place of j. In electricity, however, j is
positive number 6. The + sign is often omitted, used to avoid confusion \Vith i as the symbol for
as it is assumed unless indicated otherwise. current. Furthermore, there is nothing imagi-
In the opposite direction, negative num - nary about electrical quantities on the j axis. An
bers correspond to 180°. Or, this phase angle electric shock from j500 Vis just as dangerous
corresponds to the factor of -1. Actually, -6 as 500 V positive or negative.
represents the same quantity as 6 but rotated More features of the j operator are shown
through the phase angle of 180°. The angle of in Fig. 26-3. The angle of 180° corresponds to
rotation is the operator for the number. The the j operation of 90° repeated twice. This an-
operator for -1 is 180 °; the operator for + 1 gular rotation is indicated by the factor j 2 . Note
is 0°. that the j operation multiplies itself, instead of
adding.
Practice Problems 26-1 Since j 2 means 180 °, which corresponds
(answers on page 539) to the factor of -1, we can say that j2 is the
(a) What is the angle for the number +5? same as -1. In short, the operator j 2 for a
(b) What is the angle for the number -5? number means multiply by -1. For instance,
j28 is -8.
26-2 Furthermore, the angle of 270 ° is the same
THE j OPERATOR as -90 °, which corresponds to the operator
The operator for a number can be any angle
between 0 and 360 °. Since the angle of 90 ° is ;s
important in ac circuits~ the factor j is used to j axis
indicate 90°. See Fig. 26-2. Here, the number 5
means 5 units at 0 °, the number -5 is at 180 °,
while j5 indicates the 90 ° angle.
The j is usually written before the number.
The reason is that the j sign is a 90° operator, Real axis
just as the + sign is a 0 ° operator and the - FIGURE 26-2
sign is a 180 ° operator. Any quantity at right The j axis at 90 ° from real axis.
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 521

90° = + j

+ j operator = 90°

270° = j 3 = - j
FIGURE 26-3
The j operator shows 90 ° rotation from real
axis; - j operator is - 90 °; j2 operator is 180 °
rotation back to real axis.

- j. These characteristics of the j operator are 26-3

summarized as follows: DEFINITION OF A
COMPLEX NUMBER
0° = 1 The combination of a real and imaginary term is
90° = j a complex number. Usually, the real number is
180° = j 2 = -1 written first. As an example, 3 + j4 is a com-
270° =j 3 =j2 Xj = -1 Xj = - j plex number including 3 units on the real. axis
360° =same as 0° added to 4 units 90 ° out of phase on the j axis.
The name complex number just means that its
terms must be added as phasers.
As examples, the number 4 or -4 represents 4 The phasers for several complex numbers
units on the real horizontal axis; j4 means 4 are shown in Fig. 26-4. Note that the + j phasor
units with a leading phase angle of 90 °; - j4 is up for 90 °; the - j phasor is down for -90 °.
means 4 units with a lagging phase angle The phasers are shown with the end of one
of -90°. joined to the start of the next, to be ready for
addition. Graphically, the sum is the hypote-
Practice Problems 26-2 nuse of the right triangle formed by the two
(answers on page 539) phasers. Since a number like 3 + j4 specifies
(a) What is the angle for the operator j? the phasers in rectangular coordinates, this sys-
(b) What is the angle for the operator -j? tem is the rectangular form of complex num-
bers.
 Chapter 26
522 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

/
,
3 + j4 / j4
/
/
/
/ 3 5
3 ...... ...... -j2
5-j:; ............

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 26-4
Phasers corresponding to real terms and j
terms, in rectangular coordinates.

Be careful to distinguish a number like j2, 0° or a real number without any j operator is
where 2 is a coefficient, from j2, where 2 is the used for resistance R. For instance, 3 Q of R is
exponent. The number j2 means 2 units up on stated just as 3 n.
the j axis of 90 ° . However, j2 is the operator of
-1, which is on the real axis in the negative 90° or +j is used for inductive reactance XL.
direction. For instance, a 4-Q XL is j4 Q. This rule always
Another comparison to note is between j3 applies to XL, whether it is in series or parallel
and j 3 . The number j3 is 3 units up on the j axis, with R. The reason is the. fact that XL represents
while j 3 is the same as the - j operator, which is voltage across an inductance, which always
down on the -90° axis. leads the current through the inductance by
Also note that either the real term or j term 90 °. The + j is also used for \{.
can be the larger of the two. When the j term is
larger, the angle is more than 45 °; when the j -90° or -j is used for capacitive reactance
term is smaller, the angle is less than 45 °. If the Xe. For instance, a 4-Q Xe is - j4 Q. This rule
j term and real term are equal, the angle is 45 °. always applies to Xe, whether it is in series or

Practice Problems 26-3

(answers on page 539)
Answer true or false.
R=3il
(a) For 7 + j6, the 6 is at 90° leading the 7.
(b) For 7 - j6, the 6 is at 90° lagging the 7. z = z b
=
3°+ j4 n 3-i4 n

26-4
HOW COMPLEX NUMBERS ARE
APPLIED TO AC CIRCUITS
The applications are just a question of using a (a) (b)
real term for 0°, + j for 90°, and - j for -90°, FIGURE 26-5
to denote the phase angles. Specifically, Rectangular form of complex numbers for im-
Fig. 26-5 illustrates the following rules: pedances. (a) XL is + j. (b) Xe is -j.
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 523

parallel with R. The reason is the fact that Xe For a 4-kQ R and a 2-kQ XL in series,
represents voltage across a capacitor, which ZT = 4000 + j2000
always lags the charge and discharge current of For a 3-kQ R and a 9-kQ Xe in series,
the capacitor by -90°. The - j is also used ZT = 3000 - j9000
for Ve. For a zero R and a 7 -Q XL in series,
With reactive branch currents, the sign for j ZT = 0 + j7
is reversed, compared with reactive ohms, be- For a 12-Q R and a zero reactance in series,
cause of the opposite phase angle. As shown in ZT = 12 + jO
Fig. 26-6a and b, - j is used for inductive
branch current IL and + j for capacitive branch Note the general form of stating Z = R + jX. If
current le. one term is zero, substitute 0 for this term, in
order to keep Zin its general form. This proce-
dure is not required, but there is usually less
Practice Problems 26-4 confusion when the same form is used for all
(answers on page 539) types of Z. ..
(a) Write 3 kQ of XL with the j operator. The advcSntage of this method is that multi-
(b) Write 5 mA of IL with the j operator. ple impedances written as complex numbers
can then be calculated as follows:
26-5 .zT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + ... +etc.
IMPEDANCE IN COMPLEX FORM for series impedances
The rectangular form of complex numbers is a
convenient way to state the impedance of series J_ = l_ + l_ + l_ + · · · + etc.
resistance and reactance. In Fig. 26-Sa, the zT z1 z2 z3
impedance is 3 + j4, as za is the phasor sum of for parallel impedances
or
a 3-Q R in series with j4 Q for XL. Similarly, zb·is
3 - j4 for a 3-Q R in series with - j4 Q for Xe.
for two impedances
The minus sign results from adding the negative
term for - j. More examples are: in parallel

Ir= IL= IT= le=

2 -i5 A -i5A 2 +;5 A i5A

(a) (b)
FIGURE 26-6
Rectangular form of complex numbers for
branch currents. (a) IL is -j. (b) !0 is +j.
 Chapter 26
524 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

9 n j6D

1 1 1 1 (9 + j5) x (3 - j2)
Zr = (9 + j6) + (3 -j2) -=-+-+- Zr = (9 + j5) + (3 - j2)
Zr 4 j8 -j5

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 26-7
XL is a + j term and Xe is a - j term, whether in
series or parallel. (a) Series circuit. (b) Parallel
branches. ( c) Complex branch impedances Z1
and Z2 in parallel.

Examples are shown in Fig. 26-7. The 26-6

circuit in (a) is just a series combination of OPERATIONS WITH
resistances and reactances. Combining the real COMPLEX NUMBERS
terms and j terms separately, Zr= 12 + j4. Real numbers and j terms cannot be combined
The parallel circuit in (b) shows that XL is + j directly because they are 90 ° out of phase. The
and Xe is - j even though they are in parallel following rules apply:
branches, as they are reactances, not currents.
So far, these types of circuits can be ana - For Addition or Subtraction. Add or subtract
lyzed with or without complex numbers. For the the real and j terms separately:
series-parallel circuit in Fig. 26-7 c, however, the
notation of complex numbers is necessary to (9 + jS) + (3 + j2) = 9 + 3 + jS + j2
state the complex impedance Zr, consisting of = 12 + j7
branches with reactance and resistance in one (9 + jS) + (3 - j2) = 9 + 3 + jS - j2
or more of the branches. Zr is just stated here in = 12 + j3
its form as a complex impedance. In order to (9 +jS) + (3 -j8) =9 +3 +jS -j8
calculate Zr, some of the rules described in the = 12 - j3
next section must be used for combining com-
plex numbers. The answer should be in the form of R -+- jX,
where R is the algebraic sum of all the real or
Practice Problems 26-5 resistive terms and X is the algebraic sum of all
(answers on page 539) the imaginary or reactive terms.
Write the following impedances in complex
form. To Multiply or Divide a j Term by a Real
(a) XL of 7 Q in series with R of 4 Q Number. Just multiply or divide the numbers.
(b) Xe of 7 Q in series with zero R. The answer is still a j term. Note the algebraic
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 525

signs in the following examples. If both factors Note that - j210 equals + 10 because the oper-
have the same sign, either + or - , the answer ator j 2 is -1 and - j 2 becomes + 1.
is +; if one factor is negative, the answer is
negative. To Divide Complex Numbers. This process
becomes more involved because division of a
4 x j3 = jl2 jl2 -+4 = j3
real number by an imaginary number is not
jS x 6 = j30 j30 -+6 = jS
possible. Therefore, the denominator must first
jS x ( -6) = -j30 - j 30 -+ ( -6) = j5
be converted to a real number without any
-jS x6 = -j30 -j30 -+ 6 = -jS
j term.
-j5 x (-6) = j30 j30 -+ (-6) = -jS
Converting the denominator to a real
To Multiply or Divide a Real Number by a number without any j term is called rationaliza-
Real Number. Just multiply or divide the real tion of the [Link]. To do this, multiply both
numbers, as in arithmetic, without any regard to numerator and denominator by the conjugate
j operation. The answer is still a real number. of the denominator. Conjugate complex num-
bers have equal terms but opposite signs for the
To Multiply a j Term by a j Term. Multiply the j term. For instance, (1 + j2) has the conjugate
numbers and the j coefficients to produce a j2 (1 - j2).
term. The answer is a real term because j 2 is Rationalization is permissible because the
-1, which is on the real axis. Multiplying two j value of a fraction is not changed when both
terms shifts the number 90 ° from the j axis to numerator and denominator are multiplied by
the real axis of 180°. As examples: the same factor. This procedure is the same as
multiplying by 1. In the following example of
j4 x j3 = j212 = (-1 )(12) division with rationalization the denominator
= -12 (1 + j2) has the conjugate (1 - j2):
j4 x (-j3) = -j212 = -(-1)(12) 4 -jl = 4 -jl [(1 -j2)]
= 12 1 + j2 x (1 - j2)
1 + j2
To Divide a j Term by a j Term. Divide the 4 - j8 - jl + j22
numbers and the j coefficients to produce a real 1 - j24
number, as the j factors cancel. For instance: 4 - j9 - 2
1+4
jl2 -+ j4 = 3 -jl2 -+ j4 = -3
j30 -+ jS = 6 j30 -+ (-j6) = -5 2 -j9
jl5 -+ j3 = 5 -jl5 -+ (-j3) = 5 5
= 0.4 - jl.8
To Multiply Complex Numbers. Follow the
rules of algebra for multiplying two factors, each Note that the product of a complex num-
having two terms: ber and its conjugate always equals the sum of
the squares of the numbers in each term. As
(9 + jS) x (3 - j2) = 27 + jl5 - jl8 - j210 another example, the product of (2 + j3) and
= 27 - j3 + 10 its conjugate (2 - j3) must be 4 + 9, which
= 37 - j3 equals 13. Simple numerical examples of divi-
 Chapter 26
526 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

sion and multiplication are given here because phasor addition of two terms in quadrature, 90°
when the required calculations become too out of phase.
long, it is easier to divide and multiply complex The phase angle 1 of the resultant is the
numbers in polar form, as explained in angle whose tangent is % or 0.75. This angle
Sec. 26-8. equals 37°. Therefore, 4 + j3 = 5/37°.
When calculating the tangent ratio note the
Practice Problems 26-6 j term is the numerator and the real term is the
(answers on page 539) denominator because the tangent of the phase
(a} (2 + j3} + (3 + j4} = ? angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the
(b} (2 + j3} x 2 = ? adjacent side. With a negative j term, the tan-
gent is negative, which means a negative phase
26-7 angle.
MAGNITUDE AND ANGLE Note the following definitions: (4 + j3} is
OF A COMPLEX NUMBER the complex number in rectangular coordi-
In electrical terms a complex impedance nates. The real term is 4. The imaginary term is
(4 + j3} means 4 Q of resistance and 3 Q of
inductive reactance with a leading phase angle 1Appendix E, Trigonometric Functions, explains the
of 90 °. See Fig. 26-Sa. The magnitude of the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle. See also
combined Z is the resultant, equal to B. Grob, "Problems Workbook in Technical Math-
y16 + 9 = V25 = 5 Q. Finding the square ematics for Basic Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
root of the sum of the squares is vector or Company, New York.

goo

Z= 5 ~
IA
~e =31°
""" jXL = 3

0 R=4

270°
z=JR2 +XL2

8 = arctan (~L) R = Z cos 8

XL =Zsin 8

(a) (b)
FIGURE 26-8
Magnitude and angle of a complex number. (a)
Rectangular form. ( b) Polar form.
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 527

j3. The resultant 5 is the magnitude, absolute To convert any complex number to polar
value, or modulus of the complex number. Its form:
phase angle or argument is 37°. The resultant
value by itself can be written as 15 I , with vertical
1. Find the magnitude by phasor addition of
lines to indicate it is the magnitude without the
the j term and real term.
phase angle. The magnitude is the value a
2. Find the angle whose tangent is the j term
meter would read. For instance, with a current
divided by the real term. As examples:
of 5/37° A in a circuit, an ammeter reads 5 A.
As additional examples:
2 + j4 = 4.47 /63°
2 j4 = V4 + 16 (arctan 2) = 4.47 /63°
+ 4 + j2 = 4.47 /26.5°
4 j2 = V16 + 4 (arctan 0.5) = 4.47 /26.5°
+ 8 + j6 = 10/37°
8 j6 = y64 + 36 (arctan 0.75) = 10/37°
+ 8 - j6 = 10/-37°
8 j6 = y64 + 36 (arctan -0.75)
- 4 + j4 = 5.66/45°
= 10/-37° 4 - j4 = 5.66/-45°
4 +j4=y16+16(arctanl) =5.66/45°
These examples are the same as those given for
4 - j4 = y16 + 16 (arctan -1)
finding the magnitude and phase angle of a
= 5.66/-45° complex number.
· The magnitude in polar form must be more
Note that arctan 2, for example, means the
than either term in rectangular form, but less
angle with a tangent equal to 2. This can also be
than the arithmetic sum of the two terms. For
indicated as tan- 1 2. In either case, the angle is
instance, in 8 + j6 = 10/37° the magnitude of
specified as having 2 for its tangent, and the
10 is more than 8 or 6 but less than their sum
angle is 63.4 °.
of 14.
Practice Problems 26-7 Applied to ac circuits with resistance for
(answers on page 539) the real term and reactance for the j term, then,
the polar form of a complex number states the
(a) For the complex impedance 10 + jlO n,
resultant impedance and its phase angle. Note
calculate the magnitude.
the following cases for an impedance where
(b) Calculate the phase angle.
either the resistance or reactance is reduced to
26-8 zero.
POLAR FORM OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS 0 + j5 = 5/90° 5 + jO = 5LQ.:
Calculating the magnitude and phase angle of a 0 - j5 = 5/-90°
complex number is actually converting to an
angular form in polar coordinates. As shown in The polar form is much more convenient
Fig. 26-8, the rectangular form 4 + j3 is equal for multiplying or dividing complex numbers.
to 5/37° in polar form. In polar coordinates, The reason is that multiplication in polar form is
the distance out from the center is the magni- reduced to addition of the angles, and the an-
tude of the vector Z. Its phase angle (} is coun- gles are just subtracted for division in polar
terclockwise from the 0° axis. form. The following rules apply:
 Cha ter 26
528 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

For Multiplication. Multiply the magnitudes For the opposite case, however, when you
but add the angles algebraically: divide a real number by a complex number, the
angle of the denominator changes its sign in the
24/40° x 2/30° = 48/ + 70° answer in the numerator. This rule still follows
24/40° x [ -2/30°] = -48/ + 70° the procedure of subtracting angles for division,
since a real number has a phase angle of 0 °. As
12/-20° x 3/-50° = 36/- 70°
examples:
12/-20° x 42:_ = 48/-15°

When you multiply by a real number, just multi- -5/-13_00'0- = lOLQ: = 2/00 - 300 = 2/-300
ply the magnitudes: 5/30°

4 x 2/30° = 8/30° 10 lOLQ:

4 x 2/-30° = 8/-30° ----=
5/-30° 5/-30°
-4 x 2/30° = -8/30°
-4 x [ -2/30°] = 8/30°
= 2/0° - [ -30°] = 2/ +30°
Stated another way, we can say that the
This rule follows from the fact that.a real num- reciprocal of an angle is the same angle but with
ber has an angle of 0 °. When you add 0 ° to any opposite sign. Note that this operation is similar
angle, the sum equals the same angle. to working with powers of 10. Angles and pow-
ers of 10 follow the general rules of exponents.
For Division. Divide the magnitudes but sub-
tract the angles algebraically: Practice Problems 26-8
(answers on page 539)
24/40° + 2/30° = 12/40° - 30° (a) 6/20° X 2/30° =?
= 12/10° (b) 6/20° + 2/30° =?

12/20° + 3/50° = 4/20° - 50°

26-9
= 4/-30° CONVERTING POLAR
TO RECTANGULAR FORM
12/-20° + 4/50° = 3/-20° - 50°
Complex numbers in polar form are convenient
= 3/-70° for multiplication and division, but they cannot
be added or subtracted. The reason is that
To divide by a real number, just divide the mag- changing the angle corresponds to the opera-
nitudes: tion of multiplying or dividing. When complex
numbers in polar form are to be added or sub-
12/30° + 2 = 6/30° tracted, therefore, they must be converted back
12/-30° + 2 = 6/-30° into rectangular form.
Consider the impedance Zf!!... in polar form.
This rule is also a special case that follows from Its value is the hypotenuse of a right triangle
the fact that a real number has a phase angle of with sides formed by the real term and j term in
0°. When you subtract 0° from any angle, the rectangular coordinates. See Fig. 26-9. There-
remainder equals the same angle. fore, the polar form can be converted to rectan-
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 529

Z cos e =real term for R

z sine
z sine = - j term
= j term for Xe
for XL

Z cos e = real term for R

(a) (b)
FIGURE 26-9
Converting polar form of Z/!!... to rectangular
R + jX. (a) Positive angle e in first quadrant
has + j term. (b) Negative angle -0 in fourth
quadrant has - j term.

gular form by finding the horizontal and vertical Note that R for cos() is the horizontal pha-
sides of the right triangle. Specifically: ser, which is an adjacent side of the angle. The
X for sin ()·is the vertical phasor, which is oppo-
Real term for R = Z cos () site the angle. The +Xis XL; the -Xis X 0 . You
j term for X = Z sin () can ignore the sign of () in calculating sin () and
cos () because the values are the same up to
In Fig. 26-9a, assume that Zf!!_ in polar +90° or down to -90°.
form is 5/37°. The sine of 37° is 0.6 and its These rules apply for angles in the first or
cosine is 0 .8. fourth quadrant, from 0 to 90 ° or from 0 to
To convert to rectangular form: -90°. As examples:

R = Z cos () = 5 x 0 .8 = 4 14.14/45° = 10 + jlO

X = Z sin()= 5 X 0.6 = 3 14.14/-45° = 10 - jlO
Therefore, 10/90° = 0 + jlO
10/-90° = 0 - jlO
5/37° = 4 + j3 100/30° = 86.6 + j50
100/-30° = 86.6 - j50
This example is the same as the illustration
in Fig. 26-8. The + sign for the j term means it 100/60° = 50 + j86.6
is XL' not X 0 . 100/-60° = 50 - j86.6
In Fig. 26-9b, the values are the same, but
the j term is negative when () is negative. The When going from one form to the other,
negative angle has a negative j term because the keep in mind whether the angle is smaller or
opposite side is in the fourth quadrant, where greater than 45 ° and if the j term is smaller or
the sine is negative. However, the real term is larger than the real term. For angles between 0
still positive because the cosine is positive. and 45 °, the opposite side, which is the j term,
 Chapter 26
530 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

must be smaller than the real term. For angles ZTin Rectangular Form. The total ZT in (a) is
between 45 and 90 ° the j term must be larger the sum of the impedances:
than the real term.
To summarize how complex numbers are ZT = 2 + j4 + 4 - jl2 = 6 - j8
used in ac circuits in rectangular and polar
form: The total series impedance then is 6 - j8. Ac-
tually, this amounts to adding all the series
1. For addition or subtraction, complex num- resistances for the real term and finding the
bers must be in rectangular form. This algebraic sum of all the series reactances for the
procedure applies to the addition of im- j term.
pedances in a series circuit. If the series
impedances are in rectangular form, just ZT in Polar Form. We can convert ZT from
combine all the real terms and j terms rectangular to polar form as follows:
separately. If the series impedances are in
polar form, they must be converted to rec- ZT = 6 - j8 = y36 + 64/arctan - 816
tangular form to be added.
= v'100/arctan - 1.33
2. For multiplication and division, complex
numbers are generally used in polar form ZT = 10/-53° g
because the calculations are faster. If the
complex number is in rectangular form, The angle of -53 ° for ZT means this is the
convert to polar form. With the complex phase angle of the circuit. Or the applied volt-
number available in both forms, then you age and the current are 53 ° out of phase.
can quickly add or subtract in rectangular
form and multiply or divide in polar form. Calculating I. The reason for the polar form is
Sample problems showing how to apply to divide ZT into the applied voltage VT to calcu -
these methods in the analysis of ac circuits late the current I. See Fig. [Link]. Note that the
are illustrated in the following sections. VT of 20 Vis a real number without any j term.
Therefore, the applied voltage is 20tr_. This
Practice Problems 26-9 angle of 0 ° for VT makes it the reference phase
(answers on page 539) for the following calculations. We can find the
Convert to rectangular form. current as
(a) 14.14/45°.
(b) 14.14/-45°. VT 20/!r_
I =- = = 2/0 ° - ( -53 °)
ZT 10/-53°
26-10 I= 2/53° A
COMPLEX NUMBERS
IN SERIES AC CIRCUITS Note that ZT has the negative angle of
Refer to the diagram in Fig. 26-10. Although a -53 ° but the sign changes to +53 ° for I be-
circuit like this with only series resistances and cause of the division into a quantity with the
reactances can be solved just by phasors, the angle of 0 °. In general, the reciprocal of an
complex numbers show more details of the angle in polar form is the same angle with op-
phase angles. posite sign.
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 531

IR,=
4/53°

ZT = 6 -j8 .Q, or
VT = 20 !..§:_ V
ZT = 10 /-53° .Q

~ R2= Xe=
l___C;J c~c IR2 = /Xe=
4 n -i12 n 8 I 530 24 / -370

(a) (b)

ve = 24 / -37° v
(c)
FIGURE 26-10
Complex numbers applied to series ac circuits.
See text for analysis. (a) Circuit with series
impedances. (b) Current and voltages. (c) Pha-
sor diagram of current and voltages.

Phase Angle of the Circuit. The fact that I has age drops around the circuit, each resistance or
the angle of +53 ° means it leads VT. The posi- reactance can be multiplied by /:
tive angle for I shows the series circuit is capaci-
tive, with leading current. This angle is more VR1 = IR1 = 2/53° x
2LQ.'.'. = 4/53° v
than 45 ° because the net reactance is more \{=IXL = 2/53° x 4/90° = 8/143° v
than the total resistance, resulting in a tangent
Ve= !Xe= 2/53° X 12/-90°
function greater than 1.
= 24/-37° v
Finding Each IR Drop. To calculate the volt- VR2 = IR2 = 2/53° x 4LQ.'.'. = 8/53° v
 Chapter 26
532 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

Phase of Each Voltage. The phasers for these Practice Problems 26-10
voltages are in Fig. 26-lOc. They show the (answers on page 539)
phase angles using the applied voltage VT as the Refer to Fig. 26-10.
zero reference phase. (a) What is the phase of I to VT?
The angle of 53 ° for VR 1 and VR 2 shows that (b) What is the phase of \{to VT?
the voltage across a resistance has the same (c) What is the phase of \{to VR?
phase as I. These voltages lead VT by 53 ° be-
cause of the leading current.
For Ve, its angle of -37° means it lags the 26-11
generator voltage VT by this much. However, COMPLEX NUMBERS IN
this voltage across Xe still lags the current by PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS
90 °, which is the difference between 53 ° A useful application here is converting a parallel
and -37°. circuit to an equivalent series circuit. See Fig.
The angle of 143 ° for \{ in the second 26-11, with a 10-Q XL in parallel with a 10-Q R.
quadrant is still 90 ° leading the current at 53 °, In complex notation, R is 10 + jO while XL is
as 143 ° - 53 ° = 90 °. With respect to the 0 + jlO. Their combined parallel impedance ZT
generator voltage VT, though, the phase angle of equals the product over the sum. Or
\{is 143°.
Z _ (10 + jO) x (0 + jlO)
VT Equals the Phasor Sum of the Series Volt- T - (10 + jO) + (0 + jlO)
age Drops. If we want to add the voltage drops 10 x jlO jlOO
around the circuit to see if they equal the ap- =----
10 + jlO 10 + jlO
plied voltage, each V must be converted to
rectangular form. Then these values can be Converting to polar form for division,
added. In rectangular form then
jlOO 100/90°
Val = 4/53 ° = 2.408 + j3.l 96 v ZT = 10 + jlO = 14.14~ = 7.07 /450
\{ = 8/143 ° = -6.392 + j4.816 v
Ve = 24/-37° = 19.176 - jl4.448 V Converting the ZT of 7 .07 /45 ° into rectangular
form to see its resistive and reactive compo-
l.'a2 = 8/53 ° = 4.816 + j6.392 v nents,
Total V = 20.008 - j0.044 V
Real term = 7.07 cos 45°
or = 7.07 x 0.707 = 5
j term = 7.07 sin 45°

approximately
= 7.07 x 0.707 = 5
Therefore,
Note that for 8/143 ° in the second quadrant,
the cosine is negative for a negative real term ZT = 7 .07 /45 ° in polar form
but the sine is positive for a positive j term. ZT = 5 + j5 in rectangular form
 Cha ter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 533

tion. An inductive branch has susceptance - jB,

while a capacitive branch has + jB.
With parallel branches of conductance and
5 j5
susceptance the total admittance YT = G + jB.
j10 10
For the two branches in Fig. 26-11, as an ex-
ample, YT= 0.1 - j 0.1 Sin rectangular form.
In polar form,
ZT = 5 +j5
10 x j10 YT= 0.14/-45° s
ZT=10+j10
FIGURE 26-11
Complex numbers applied to a parallel ac cir-
This numerical value is the same as IT with 1 V
cuit to convert a parallel bank to an equivalent applied across ZT of 7 .07 /45 ° n.
series impedance.
Practice Problems 26-11
The rectangular form of ZT means that (answers on page 539)
5-n R in series with 5-n XL is the equivalent of (a) Z of 3 + j4 Q is parallel with R of 2 n.
10-Q R in parallel with 10-Q XL, as shown in State ZT in rectangular form.
Fig. 26-11. (b) Do the same as in (a) for X 0 instead of XL.
Admittance Y and Susceptance B. In parallel
circuits, it is usually easier to add branch cur-
26-12
COMBINING TWO COMPLEX
rents than to combine reciprocal impedances.
BRANCH IMPEDANCES
For this reason, branch conductance G is often
A common application is a circuit with two
used instead of branch resistance, where
branches Z1 and Z2 , where each is a complex
G = 1 IR. Similarly, reciprocal terms can be
impedance with both reactance and resistance.
defined for complex impedances. The two main
See Fig. 26-12. A circuit like this can be solved
types are admittance Y, which is the reciprocal
only graphically or by complex numbers. Actu-
of impedance, and susceptance B, which is the
reciprocal of reactance. These reciprocals can
be summarized as follows:

Conductance = G = R1 s
Susceptance = B = +1X s z,z2
ZT=z 1 +z2

Admittance =Y =~ s
The phase angle for B or Y is the same as FIGURE 26-12
current. Therefore, the sign is opposite from the Finding ZT for any two complex impedances Z1
angle of X or Z because of the reciprocal rela- and Z2 in parallel. See text for solution.
 Chapter 26
534 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

ally, using complex numbers is the shortest component equals 5.24 X sin ( -14 °) or
method. 5.24 X (-0.242) = -1.27. In rectangular
The procedure here is to find ZT as the form, then,
product divided by the sum for Z1 and Z2 • A
good way to start is to state each branch imped- ZT = 5.08 - jl .27
ance in both rectangular and polar forms. Then
Z1 and Z2 are ready for addition, multiplication, Therefore, this series-parallel circuit com-
and division. The solution of this circuit follows: bination is equivalent to 5.08 0 of R in series
with 1.27 0 of X0 . This problem can also be
Z1 = 6 + j8 = 10/53 ° done in rectangular form by rationalizing the
Z2 = 4 - j4 = 5.66/-45° fraction for ZT.

The combined impedance Practice Problems 26-12

(answers on page 539)
Refer to Fig. 26-12.
(a) Add (6 + j8) + (4 - j4) for the sum of Z1
and Z2 •
Use the polar form of Z1 and Z2 to multiply, but (b) Multiply 10/53° x 5.66/-45° for the
add in rectangular form: product of Z1 X Z2 .

26-13
z - 10~ x 5.66~ - 56.6~
COMBINING COMPLEX
T - 6 + j8 + 4 - j4 - 10 + j4
BRANCH CURRENTS
An example with two branches is shown in Fig.
Converting the denominator to polar form for 26-13, to find IT. The branch currents can just
easier division,
be added in rectangular form for the total IT of
parallel branches. This method corresponds to
10 + j4 = 10.8/22° adding series impedances in rectangular form
to find ZT. The rectangular form is necessary for
Then adding phasors.
Adding the branch currents in Fig. 26-13
56.6~
ZT = 10.8/22° IT= Il + I2
= (6 + j6) + (3 - j4)
Therefore, IT= 9 + j2 A

ZT = 5.24 0/-14° Note that I1 has + j for the +90° of capacitive

current, while I2 has - j for inductive current.
We can convert ZT into rectangular form. These current phasors have the opposite signs
The R component is 5.24 x cos ( -14 °) or from their reactance phasors.
5.24 X 0.97 = 5.08. Note that cos() is In polar form the IT of 9 + j2 A is calcu-
positive in the first and fourth quadrants. The j lated as the phasor sum of the branch currents.
 Cha ter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 535

Branch Branch z,
1 2
IT= 9 +j2 A /1 = 6 + j6 A / 2 = 3 - j4 A

-/Xe,= JXL2 =
son Jon R3=
VA= 30.n
'V 100V

R,= R2=
FIGURE 26-13 son 4on
Finding Ir for two complex branch currents in
parallel. FIGURE 26-14
Finding Zr for any three complex impedances
IT = y9 2 + 22 = V85 =9 .22 A in parallel. See text for solution by means of
tan 8 = % = 0.22 complex branch currents.

8 = 12.53°
1. Convert each branch impedance to polar
Therefore, IT is 9 + j2 A in rectangular form or
form. This is necessary for dividing into the
9.22/12.53° A in polar form. The complex
applied voltage ~to calculate the ·individ-
currents for any number of branches can be
ual branch currents. If~ is not given, any
added in rectangular form. convenient value can be assumed. Note
that ~ has a phase angle of 0 ° because it
is the reference.
Practice Problems 26-13 2. Convert the individual branch currents
(answers on page 539) from polar to rectangular form ~o that they
(a) Find IT in rectangular form for Il of can be added for the total line current. This
0 + j2 A and I2 of 4 + j3 A step is necessary because the resistive and
(b) Find IT in rectangular form for Il of reactive components must be added sepa-
6 + j7 A and I2 of 3 - j9 A rately.
3. Convert the total line current from rectan-
26-14 gular to polar form for dividing into the
PARALLEL CIRCUIT WITH applied voltage to calculate ZT.
THREE COMPLEX BRANCHES 4. The total impedance can remain in polar
Because the circuit in Fig. 26-14 has more than form with its magnitude and phase angle,
two complex impedances in parallel, the or can be converted to rectangular form
method of branch currents is used. There will for its resistive and reactive components.
be several conversions between rectangular and
polar form, since addition must be in rectangu- These steps are used in the following cal-
lar form, but division is easier in polar form. culations to solve the circuit in Fig. 26-14. All the
The sequence of calculations is: values are in A, V, or n units.
 Chapter 26
536 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

Branch Impedances. Each Z is converted Converting 3.8 - jl.8 into polar form
from rectangular form to polar form IT= 4.2/-25.4°
Z1 = 50 - j50 = 70.7 /-45°
Total Impedance. In polar form,
Z2 = 40 + j30 = 50/ +37°
Z3 = 30 + j40 = 50/+53° ZT--~
IT
Branch Currents. Each I is calculated as ~
100
divided by Z in polar form
4.2/-25.4°
I1 =~- lOO = 1.414/+45° ZT = 23.8/ +25.4 °
Z1 70.7 /-45° -
Converting 23.8/ +25.4 ° into rectangular form,
= 1 + jl ZT = 21.5 + jl0.2
12 =~ = lOO = 2.00 1 -37°
Z2 50/37° ~-- Therefore, the complex ac circuit in Fig. 26-14
= 1.6 - jl.2 is equivalent to the combination of 21.5 g of R
I3 =~ = lOO = 2.00/-53° in series with 10.2 g of XL.
This problem can also be done by combin-
Z3 50/53°
ing Z1 and Z2 in parallel as Z1Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 ).
= 1.2 - jl.6
Then combine this value with Z3 in parallel to
The polar form of each I is converted to rectan- find the total ZT of the three branches.
gular form, for addition of the branch currents.
Practice Problems 26-14
Total Line Current. In rectangular form (answers on page 539)
Refer to Fig. 26-14.
IT = Ii + I2 + I3 (a) State Z2 in rectangular form for branch 2.
= 1 + 1.6 + 1.2 + jl - jl.2 - jl.6 (b) State Z2 in polar form.
IT = 3.8 - jl.8 (c) Find I2 •

Summary
1. In complex numbers, resistance R is a real term and reactance is a
j term. Thus, an 8-g R is 8; an 8-g XL is j8; an 8-g X 0 is -j8. The
general form of a complex impedance with series resistance and
reactance then is Z = R + jX, in rectangular form.
2. The same notation can be used for series voltages where
v = Va + j\fx.
3. For branch currents IT = IR + jix, but the reactive branch currents
· have signs opposite from impedances. Capacitive branch current is
jI0 , while inductive branch current is -jIL.
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 537

4. The complex branch currents are added in rectangular form for any
number of branches to find IT.
5. To, convert from rectangular to polar form: R +- jX = Zf!!: The
magnitude of Z is yR 2 + X 2 . Also, 8 is the angle with tan =XI R.
6. To convert from polar to rectangular form, Z!.!!_ = R +- jX, where R
is Z cos 8 and the j term is Z sin 8. A positive angle has a positive j
term; a negative angle has a negative j term. Also, the angle is more
than 45 ° for a j term larger than the real term; the angle is less than
45 ° for a j term smaller than the real term.
7. The rectangular form must be used for addition or subtraction of
complex numbers.
8. The polar form is usually more convenient in multiplying and dividing
complex numbers. For multiplication, multiply the magnitudes and
add the angles; for division, divide the magnitudes and subtract the
angles.
9. To find the total impedance ZT of a series circuit, add all the resist-
ances for the real term and find the algebraic sum of the reactances
for the j term. The result is ZT = R +- jX. Then convert ZT to polar
form for dividing into the applied voltage to calculate the current.
10. To find the total impedance ZT of two complex branch impedances Z1
and Z2 in parallel, ZT can be calculated as Z1Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 ).

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Match the values in the column at the left with those at the right.

1. 24 + j5 + 16 + jlO (a) 14/50°

2. 24 - j5 + 16 - jlO (b) 7~
3. jl2 x 4 (c) 12/-85°
4. jl2 x j4 (d) 40 + jl5
5. jl2 + j3 (e) 90 + j60 V
6. (4 + j2) x (4 - j2) (f) 45/42°
7. 1200 Q of R + 800 Q of Xe (g) 24/-45°
8. 5 A of IR + 7 A of le (h) 4
9. 90 V of VR + 60 V of \{ (i) 10/90°
10. 14/28° x /22° (j) -48
11. 14/28° + 2/22° (k) 5 + j7 A
12. 15/42° x 3~ (I) 20
13. 6/-75° x 4/30° (m) 40 - jl5
14. 50/45° + 5/-45° (n) j48
15. 60/-80° + 5~ (o) 1200 - j800 Q
16. Admittance Y (p) 1I Z
 Chapter 26
538 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. State Zin rectangular form for the following series circuits: {a) 4-Q R
and 3-Q Xe; {b) 4-Q Rand 3-Q XL; {~) 3-Q Rand 6-Q XL; {d) 3-Q R
and 3-Q Xe.
2. Draw the schematic diagram for the impedances in Prob. 1.
3. Convert the following impedances to polar form: {a) 4 - j3;
{b) 4 + j3; {c) 3 + j; {d) 3 - j3.
4. Convert the following impedances to rectangular form: {a) 5/-27°;
{b) 5/27°; {c) 6.71/63.4°; {d) 4.24/-45°.
5. Find the total ZT in rectangular form for the following three series
impedances: {a) 12/10°; {b) 25/15°; {c) 34~26°.
6. Multiply the following, in polar form: {a 45/24° x 10/54°;
{b) 45/-24 ° X 10/54 °; {c) 18/-64 ° X 4/14 °;
{d) 18/-64° x 4/-14°.
7. Divide the following, in polar form: {a) 45/24 ° + 10/10°;
{b) 45/24° + 10/-10°; {c) 500/-72° + 5/12°;
{d) 500/-72° + 5/-12°.
8. Match the four phasor diagrams in Fig. 26-4a, b, c, and d with the
four circuits in Fig. 26-5 and 26-6.
9. Find ZT in polar form for the series circuit in Fig. 26-7a.
10. Find ZT in polar form for the series-parallel circuit in Fig. 26-7 c.
11. Solve the circuit in Fig. 26-12 to find ZT in rectangular form by
rationalization.
12. Solve the circuit in Fig. 26-12 to find ZT in polar form, using the
method of branch currents. Assume an applied voltage of 56.6 V
13. Show the equivalent series circuit of Fig. 26-12.
14. Solve the circuit in Fig. 26-14 to find ZT in polar form, without using
branch currents. {Find the Z of two branches in parallel; then com-
bine this Z with the third branch Z.)
15. Show the equivalent series circuit of Fig. 26-14.
16. Refer to Fig. 26-13. {a) Find Z1 and Z2 for the two branch currents
given. {b) Calculate the values needed for R1 , R2 , Xe, and XL for
these impedances. {c) What are the Land Cvalues for a frequency of
60 Hz?
17. Solve the series ac circuit in Fig. 25-8 in the previous chapter by the
use of complex numbers. Find Z~, I~, and each V~. Prove that the
sum of the complex voltage drops around the circuit equals the
applied voltage VT. Make a phasor diagram showing all phase angles
with respect to VT.
18. The following components are in series: L = 100 µH, C = 20 pF,
 Chapter 26
Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 539

VA= 24 V an j8!i

FIGURE 26-15
For Prob. 20.

1n j9il

a b

2n 4n

ZT

j2il -j3il

FIGURE 26-16
For Prob. 21.

R = 2000 n. At the frequency of 2 MHz calculate XL, Xe, ZT, I, (}' ~'
\{, and Ve. The applied VT = 80 V
19. Solve the same circuit as in Prob. 18 for the frequency of 4 MHz.
Give three effects of the higher frequency.
=
20. In Fig. 26-15, show that Zr= 4.8 n and(} 36.9° by (a) the method
of branch currents; (b) calculating Zr as Z1Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 ).
21. In Fig. 26-16, find Zr/!_ by calculating Zbc of the parallel bank and
combining with the series zab·

Answers to Practice Problems

26-1 (a) (Jo 26-5 (a) 4 + j7
(b) 180° (b) 0 - J7
26-2 (a) 90° 26-6 (a) 5 + j7
(b) -90 or 270° (b) 4 + j6
26-3 (a) T 26-7 (a) 14.14 n
(b) T (b) 45 °
26-4 (a) j3 kn 26-8 (a) 12/50°
(b) -j5 mA (b) 3/-10°
 Chapter 26
540 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

26-9 (a) 10 + jlO 26-12 (a) 10 + j4

(b) 10 -jlO (b) 56.6&:_
26-10 (a) 53° 26-13 (a) 4 + j5 A
(b) 143° (b) 9 - j2 A
(c) 90° 26-14 (a) 40 + j30
26-11 (a) (6 + j8) I (5 + j4) (b) 50/37° Q
(b) (6 - j8) I (5 - j8) (c) 2/-37° A
 Resonance
This chapter explains how XL and Xe can be combined to favor one
particular frequency, the resonant frequency to which the LC circuit is
tuned. The resonance effect occurs when the inductive and capacitive
reactances are equal.
The main application of resonance is in rf circuits for tuning to an ac
signal of the desired frequency. All examples of tuning in radio and
television receivers, transmitters, and electronics equipment in general are
applications of resonance. The topics are:

27-1 The Resonance Effect

27-2 Series Resonance
27-3 Parallel Resonance
27-4 The Resonant Frequency /,,. = l / (27T vf[C)
27-5 Q Magnification Factor of Resonant Circuit
27-6 Bandwidth of Resonant Circuit
27-7 Tuning
27-8 Mistuning
27-9 Analysis of Parallel Resonant Circuits
27-10 Damping of Parallel Resonant Circuits
27-11 Choosing L and C for a Resonant Circuit

27-1 This frequency can be calculated as

THE RESONANCE EFFECT /, . =l / (2'1T vf[C) where L is the inductance in
Inductive reactance increases as the frequency henrys, C is the capacitance in farads, and f,,. is
is increased, but capacitive reactance decreases the resonant frequency in hertz that makes
with higher frequencies. Because of these op- XL= Xe.
posite characteristics, for any LC combination In general, we can say that large values of
there must be a frequency at which the XL L and C provide a relatively low resonant fre·
equals the X 0 , as one increases while the other quency. Smaller values of Land Callow higher
decreases. This case of equal and opposite values for fr· The resonance effect is most useful
reactances is called resonance, and the ac cir- for radio frequencies, where the required values
cuit is then a resonant circuit. of microhenrys for L and picofarads for C are
Any LC circuit can be resonant. It all de- easily obtained.
pends on the frequency. At the resonant fre- The most common application of reso-
quency, an LC combination provides the nance in rf circuits is called tuning. In this use,
resonance effect. Off the resonant frequency, the LC circuit provides maximum voltage out-
either below or above, the LC combination is put at the resonant frequency, compared with
just another ac circuit. the amount of output at any other frequency
The frequency at which the opposite either below or above resonance. This idea is
reactances are equal is the resonant frequency. illustrated in Fig. 27-1 a, where the LC circuit
 Chapter 27
542 Resonance

LC

Resonant Maximum
LC circuit output
1 at 1000 kHz
f, = 2rry'LC
= 1000 kHz

(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-1
(a) Circuit resonant at 1000 kHz to provide
maximum output at this fr· ( b) Wavemeter as an
example of tuning an LC circuit to resonance.
(James Millen Mfg. Co. Inc.)

resonant at 1000 kHz magnifies the effect of 27-2

this particular frequency. The result is maxi- SERIES RESONANCE
mum output at 1000 kHz, compared with lower In the series ac circuit in Fig. 27-2a, when the
or higher frequencies. frequency of the applied voltage is 1000 kHz,
For the wavemeter in (b), note that the the reactance of the 239-µH inductance equals
capacitance C can be varied to provide reso- 1500 Q. At the same frequency, the reactance
nance at different frequencies. The wavemeter of the 106-pF capacitance also is 1500 Q.
can be tuned to any one frequency in a range Therefore, this LC combination is resonant at
depending on the LC combination. 1000 kHz. This is fr, because the inductive re-
All examples of tuning in radio and televi- actance and capacitive reactance are equal at
sion are applications of resonance. When you this frequency.
tune a radio to one station, the LC circuits are In a series ac circuit, inductive reactance
tuned to resonance for that particular carrier leads by 90 °, compared with the zero reference
frequency. Also, when you tune a television angle of the resistance, while capacitive react-
receiver to a particular channel, the LC circuits ance lags by 90 °. Therefore, XL and Xe are
are tuned to resonance for that station. There 180° out of phase. The opposite reactances
are almost unlimited uses for resonance in ac cancel each other completely when they are
circuits. equal.
Figure 27-2b shows XL and Xe equal, re-
Practice Problems 27-1 sulting in a net reactance of zero ohms. The
(answers on page 569) only opposition to current then is the coil resist-
Refer to Fig. 27-1. ance r8 , which is the limit on how low the series
(a) Give the resonant frequency. resistance in the circuit can be. With zero react-
(b) Give the frequency that has maximum out- ance and just the low value of series resistance,
put. the generator voltage produces the greatest
 Chapter 27
Resonance 543

's = L =
10 n 239 µH

XL=
1500 n

VT= Frequency
300 µV f"\J 1000 kHz

Xe= 1500 n

C= 106pF

(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-2
Series resonance. (a) Schematic diagram of
series r8 , L, and C. (b) X0 and XL are equal and
opposite at the resonant frequency fr·

amount of current in the series LC circuit at the response curve for a series resonant circuit. The
resonant frequency. The series resistance response curve in (b) can be considered as an
should be as small as possible for a sharp in- outline of the increasing and decreasing ampli-
crease in current at resonance. tudes for the individual cycles shown in (a).
The response curve of the series resonant
Maximum Current at Series Resonance. The circuit shows that the current is small below
main characteristic of series resonance is the resonance, rises to its maximum value at the
resonant rise of current to its maximum value of resonant frequency, and then drops off to small
VT! rs at the resonant frequency. For the circuit values also above resonance. To prove this fact,
in Fig. 27-2a, the maximum current at series Table 27-1 lists the calculated values of imped-
resonance is 30 µA, equal to 300 µV/10 n. At ance and current in the circuit of Fig. 27 -2 at
· any other frequency either below or above the the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz, and at two
resonant frequency, there is less current in the frequencies below and two frequencies above
circuit. resonance.
This resonant rise of current to 30 µA at Below resonance, at 600 kHz, Xe is more
1000 kHz is illustrated in Fig. 27-3. In (a), the than XL and there is appreciable net reactance,
amount of current is shown as the amplitude of which limits the current to a relatively low value.
individual cycles of the alternating current pro- At the higher frequency of 800 kHz, Xe de-
duced in the circuit by the ac generator voltage. creases and XL increases, making the two
Whether the amplitude of one ac cycle is con- reactances closer to the same value. The net
sidered in terms of peak, rms, or average value, reactance is then smaller, allowing more cur-
the amount of current is greatest at the resonant rent.
frequency. In (b), the current amplitudes are At the resonant frequency, XL and X 0 are
plotted on a graph for frequencies at and near equal, the net reactance is zero, and the current
the resonant frequency, producing a typical has its maximum value equal to VT!rs·
 Chapter 27
544 Resonance

~Current
30
I
maximum
Highest current I at/,
value at/, I
I
I
20 I
I
<(
::t I
..... I
I
'V\J
'---y----"
1\1\J 1\1\J~ 10 I
I
I
'----y---J I
Small current
values below/,
Small current
values above/,
l /,
600 800 1000 1200 1400
Frequency, kHz
(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-3
Graphs showing maximum current at reso-
nance, for the series circuit in Fig. 27 -2. (a)
Amplitudes of individual cycles. (b) Response
curve showing amount of I below and above
resonance. Values of I in Table 27 -1.

Above resonance at 1200 and 1400 kHz, but XL has high values that limit the
XL is greater than Xe, providing net reactance amount of current.
that limits the current to much smaller values 3. At the resonant frequency, XL equals Xe,
than at resonance. and they cancel to allow maximum current.
In summary:
Minimum Impedance at Series Resonance.
1. Below the resonant frequency, XL is small, Since the reactances cancel at the resonant
but Xe has high values that limit the frequency, the impedance of the series circuit is
amount of current. minimum, equal to just the low value of series
2. Above the resonant frequency, Xe is small, resistance. This minimum impedance at reso-

TABLE 27-1. Series-Resonance Calc\llations for the Circuit in Fig. 27-2•

NET REACTANCE,
XL= Xe= rl I= VL = Ve=
FREQUENCY, 2rrfL, l/(2rrjC), Vr!Z'I" IXu IXc,
kHz rl rl Xe - XL XL -Xe Zr, rlt /lAt MV /lv
600 900 2500 1600 1600 0.19 171 475
800 1200 1875 675 675 0.44 528 825
fr~ 1000 1500 1500 0 0 10 30 45,000 45,000
1200 1800 1250 550 550 0.55 990 688
1400 2100 1070 1030 1030 0.29 609 310
*L = 239 µH, C = 106 pF, VT= 300 µV, rs= 10 rl.
t Zr and I calculated without rs when its resistance is
very small compared with the net XL or Xe- Zr and I
are resistive at fr
 Chapter 27
Resonance 545

rs= L =
10 n 239 µH
Voltage output
Frequency VT = C= maximum at
600-1400 kHz l'"'\J 300 µV 106 pF 1000 kHz equals
45,000 µV

FIGURE 27-4
Series circuit selects frequency by producing
maximum IX0 voltage output across C at reso-
nance.
nance is resistive, resulting in zero phase angle. In Table 27-1, the voltage across C is cal-
At resonance, therefore, the resonant current is culated as IXe and across L as IXL. Below the
in phase with the generator voltage. resonant frequency, Xe has a higher value than
at resonance, but the current is small. Similarly,
Resonant Rise in Voltage Across Series L or above the resonant frequency, XL is higher than
C. The maximum current in a series LC circuit at resonance, but the current has a low value
at resonance is useful because it produces max- because of the inductive reactance. At reso-
imum voltage across either XL or Xe at the nance, although XL and Xe cancel each other to
resonant frequency. As a result, the series reso- allow maximum current, each reactance by it-
nant circuit can select one frequency by provid- self has an appreciable value. Since the current
ing much more voltage output at the resonant is the same in all parts of a series circuit, the
frequency, compared with frequencies above maximum current at resonance produces maxi-
and below resonance. Figure 27 -4 illustrates the mum voltage !Xe across C and an equal IXL
resonant rise in voltage across the capacitance voltage across L for the resonant frequency.
in a series ac circuit. At the resonant frequency Although the voltage across Xe and XL is
of 1000 kHz, the voltage across C rises to the reactive, it is an actual voltage that can be
value of 45,000 µV, while the input voltage is measured. In Fig. 27 -5, the voltage drops
only 300 µV. around the series resonant circuit are
rs= XL=
10 n 1500.Q

300µV 45,000 µV
VR VL

fr = 1000 kHz "'V OµV

VT= 300 µV
I= 30 µA Ve
45,000 µV

Xe=
1500 n
FIGURE 27-5
Voltage drops around series resonant circuit.
 Chapter 27
546 Resonance

45,000 µV across C and 45,000 µV across L, currents are practically equal when XL and Xe
with 300 µV across rs. The voltage across the are equal.
resistance is equal to the generator voltage and
has the same phase. Minimum Line Current at Parallel Reso-
Across the series combination of both L nance. To show how the current in the main
and C, the voltage is zero because the two series line dips to its minimum value when the parallel
voltage drops are equal and opposite. In order LC circuit is resonant, Table 27-2 lists the val-
to use the resonant rise of voltage, therefore, ues of branch currents and the total line current
the output must be connected across either Lor for the circuit in Fig. 27 -6.
C alone. We can consider the \.{ and Ve voltages With L and C the same as in the series
as similar to the idea of two batteries connected circuit of Fig. 27-2, XL and Xe have the same
in series opposition. Together, the net resultant values at the same frequencies. Since L, C, and
is zero for the equal and opposite voltages, but the generator are in parallel, the voltage applied
each battery still has its own potential differ- across the branches equals the generator volt-
ence. age of 300 µV. Therefore, each reactive branch
In summary, for a series resonant circuit current is calculated as 300 µV divided by the
the main characteristics are: reactance of the branch.
The values in the top row of Table 27 -2 are
1. The current I is maximum at the resonant
obtained as follows: at 600 kHz the capacitive
frequency fr·
branch current equals 300 µV/2500 Q, or
2. I is in phase with the generator voltage, or
0.12 µA. The inductive branch current at this
the phase angle of the circuit is 0 °.
frequency is 300 µV !900 Q, or 0.33 µA. Since
3. The voltage is maximum across either Lor
C alone.
this is a parallel ac circuit, the capacitive current
4. The impedance is minimum at fr, equal leads by 90 ° while the inductive current lags by
only to the low rs-
90 °, compared with the reference angle of the
generator voltage, which is applied across the
Practice Problems 27-2 parallel branches. Therefore, the opposite cur-
(answers on page 569) rents are 180° out of phase, canceling each
Answer true or false, for series resonance. other in the main line. The net current in the
(a) XL and Xe are maximum. line, then, is the difference between 0 .33 and
(b) XL and Xe are equal. 0.12, which equals 0.21 µA.
(c) I is maximum. Following this procedure, the calculations
show that as the frequency is increased toward
27-3 resonance, the capacitive branch current in-
PARALLEL RESONANCE creases because of the lower value of Xe, while
With L and C in parallel as shown in Fig. 27 -6, the inductive branch current decreases with
when XL equals Xe, the reactive branch currents higher values of XL. As a result, there is less net
are equal and opposite at resonance. Then they line current as the two branch currents become
cancel each other to produce minimum current more nearly equal.
in the main line. Since the line current is mini- At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz,
mum, the impedance is maximum. These rela- both reactances are 1500 Q, and the reactive
tions are based on rs being very small compared branch currents are both 0.20 µA, canceling
with XL at resonance. In this case, the branch each other completely.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 547

L = 239 µH
f,= 1000 kHz '"\.., XL= 1500 .Q
C=106pF
VA= 300 µV Xe= 1500 n
rs= 10 n

(a)

Line impedance
1000 kHz maximum at f,

Line current
0.001 33 µA minimum at f,

1000 kHz
Frequency Frequency
(b) (c)
FIGURE 27-6
Parallel resonant circuit. (a) Schematic diagram
of L and C in parallel branches. ( b) Response
curve of Ir shows line current dips to minimum
at f,. (c) Response curve of Zr shows it rises to
maximum at f,.
Above the resonant frequency, there is tive line current. At the resonant frequency
more current in the capacitive branch than in when the reactive currents cancel, however, the
the inductive branch, and the net line current resistive component is the entire line current. Its
increases above its minimum value at reso- value at resonance equals 0.001 33 µA in this
nance. example. This small resistive current is the min-
The dip in IT to its minimum value at f, imum value of the line current at parallel reso-
is shown by the graph in Fig. 27-6b. At paral- nance.
lel resonance, Ir is minimum and ZT is maxi-
mum. Maximum Line Impedance at Parallel Reso-
The in-phase current due to rs in the in- nance. The minimum line current resulting
ductive branch can be ignored off resonance from parallel resonance is useful because it
because it is so small compared with the reac- corresponds to maximum impedance in the line
 Chapter 27
548 Resonance

TABLE 27-2. Parallel-Resonance Calculations for the Circuit in Fig. 27-6*

NET REACTIVE
LINE CURRENT,
Xe= ~= le= IL= µA Zr=
FREQUENCY, l/(27TjC), 27TjL, Vil\:. V!XL, VAII'.['7
kHz Q Q µA µAt IL - le le - IL IT, µAt Qt
600 2500 900 0.12 0.33 0.21 0.21 1400
800 1875 1200 0.16 0.25 0.09 0.09 3333
fr~ 1000 1500 1500 0.20 0.20 0 0 0.001 33 225,000t
1200 1250 1800 0.24 0.17 0.08 0.08 3800
1400 1070 2100 0.28 0.14 0.14 0.14 2143
*L = 239 µH, C = 106 pf,~= 300 µV.
t IL, Ir, and Zr calculated approximately without r8
when its resistive component of the line current is very
small compared with IL.
tAt resonance, Zr calculated by Formula (27-8). Zr
and Ir are resistive at fr-

across the generator. Therefore, an impedance impedance is higher because there is less line
that has a high value for just one frequency but current.
a low impedance for other frequencies, either At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz,
below or above resonance, can be obtained by the line current is at its minimum value of
using a parallel LC circuit resonant at the de- 0.001 33 µA. Then the impedance is maximum,
sired frequency. This is another method of se- equal to 300 µV!0.001 33 µA, or 225,000 Q.
lecting one frequency by resonance. The re- Above 1000 kHz, the line current in -
sponse curve in Fig. 27 -6c shows how the creases, and the impedance decreases from its
impedance rises to maximum for parallel reso- maximum value.
nance. The idea of how the line current can have a
The main application of parallel resonance very low value even though the reactive branch
is the use of an LC tuned circuit as the load currents are appreciable is illustrated in Fig.
impedance ZL in the output circuit of rf ampli- 27-7. In (a), the resistive component of the total
fiers. Because of the high impedance, then, the line current is shown as though it were a sepa-
gain of the amplifier is maximum at fr· The rate branch drawing an amount of resistive cur-
voltage gain of an amplifier is directly propor- rent from the generator in the main line equal
tional to ZL. The advantage of a resonant LC to the current resulting from the coil resistance.
circuit is that Z is maximum only for an ac signal Each reactive branch current has its value equal
at the resonant frequency. Also, L has practi- to the generator voltage divided by the react-
cally no de resistance, which means practically ance. Since they are equal and of opposite
no de voltage drop. phase, however, in any part of the circuit where
Referring to Table 27-2, the total imped- both reactive currents are present, the net
ance of the parallel ac circuit is calculated as the amount of electron flow in one direction at any
generator voltage divided by the total line cur- instant of time corresponds to zero current. The
rent. At 600 kHz, for example, ZT equals graph in (b) shows how equal and opposite
300 µV/0.21 µA, or 1400 Q. At 800 kHz, the currents for IL and 10 cancel.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 549

Ile
--+
OµA
I

!
VA

T
(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-7
Distribution of currents in parallel circuit at
resonance. Resistive current shown as an
equivalent branch for IR. (a) Circuit with branch
currents for R, L, and C. (b) Graph of equal
and opposite reactive currents IL and 10 .

If a meter is inserted in series with the main The branch currents cancel in the main
line to indicate total line current IT, it dips line because le is at 90° with respect to the
sharply to the minimum value of line current at source ~ while IL is at -90 °, making them
the resonant frequency. With minimum current opposite with respect to each other.
in the line, the impedance across the line is However, inside the LC circuit, IL and le do
maximum at the resonant frequency. The maxi- not cancel because they are in separate
mum impedance at parallel resonance corre- branches. Then IL and le provide a circulating
sponds to a high value of resistance, without current in the LC circuit, which equals 0.2 µA in
reactance, since the line current is then resistive this example. For this reason, a parallel reso-
with zero phase angle. nant LC circuit is often called a tank circuit.
In summary, for a parallel resonant circuit, Because of the energy stored by L and C,
the main characteristics are: the circulating tank current can provide full sine
waves of current and voltage output when the
1. The line current IT is minimum at the reso- input is only a pulse. The sine-wave output is
nant frequency. always at the natural resonant frequency of the
2. IT is in phase with the generator voltage~, LC tank circuit. This ability of the LC circuit to
or the phase angle of the circuit is 0 °. supply complete sine waves is called the
3. The impedance ZT, equal to ~!IT, is maxi- flywheel effect.
mum at fr because of the minimum IT.
Practice Problems 27-3
The LC Tank Circuit. It should be noted that (answers on page 569)
the individual branch currents are appreciable Answer true or false, for parallel reso-
at resonance, although IT is minimum. For the nance.
example in Table 27-2, at fr either the IL or le (a) IL and le are
maximum.
equals 0 .2 µA. This current is greater than the le (b) IL and le are
equal.
values below fr or the IL values above fr· (c) IT is minimum.
 Chapter 27
550 Resonance

27-4 Taking the square root of the denominator,

THE RESONANT FREQUENCY
fr = 1 /(2w VLC) 0.159 0.159
This formula is derived from XL = Xe. Using fr fr = 15.9 X 10-s = 0.159 X 10-6
to indicate the resonant frequency in the for- 0.159 x 10 6
=
mulas for XL and Xe, we have 0.159
fr = 1 X 106 Hz = 1 MHz = 1000 kHz

For any LC circuit, series or parallel,

Inverting the factor fr gives fr = 1 /(27T VLC) is the resonant frequency that
makes the inductive and capacitive reactances
equal.

How fr Varies with L or C. It is important to

Inverting the factor 27TL gives note that higher values of L or C result in lower
values of fr· Also, an LC·circuit can be resonant
at any frequency from a few Hz to many MHz,
depending upon the inductance and capaci-
tance values.
The square root of both sides is then As examples, an LC combination with the
relatively large values of an 8-H inductance and
a 20-µF capacitance is resonant at the low audio
(27-1) frequency of 12.6 Hz; a small inductance of
2 µH will resonate with the small capacitance of
3 pF at the high radio frequency of 64.9 MHz.
With units of henrys for L and farads for C, These examples are solved in the next two
the resonant frequency fr is in hertz. Since 1 /27T problems for more practice with the resonant
is a numerical value equal to 1h;_ 28 , or 0.159, a frequency formula. Such calculations are often
more convenient form for calculations is used in practical applications of tuned circuits.
Probably the most important feature of any LC
Hz (27-2) combination is its resonant frequency.

Example 1. Calculate the resonant frequency for an

For example, to find the resonant frequency of 8-H L and a 20-µF C.
the LC combination in Fig. 27-2, the values of
1 0.159
239 X 10-6 H and 106 X 10- 12 F are substi-
tuted for L and C:
Answer.
fr = 27T VIT vs x 20 x 10- 6

0.159 x 10 3
159
!. = 0.159
VI60 12.65
r y239 X 10-6 X 106 X 10-12 fr= 12.6 Hz

0.159 Example 2. Calculate the resonant frequency for a

= -----;=====-
v'253 x 10- 16 2-µH L and a 3-pF C.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 551

1 termined by the value of the LC product in

Answer.
fr= 27TVUE fr = 1 /{2'7T-vp5).
0.159
v'2x 10-6 x 3 x 10-12 Measuring L or C by Resonance. Of the three
factors L, C, and fr in the resonant-frequency
0.159 0.159 x 10 9
v'6 x 10-18 V6 formula, any one can be calculated when the
other two are known. The resonant frequency
6
= 159 x 10 = 159 106 of the LC combination can be found experi-
V6 2.45 x
mentally by determining the frequency that
fr= 64.9 MHz produces the resonant response in an LC com-
bination. With a known value of either L or C,
More specifically, fr decreases inversely as and the resonant frequency determined, the
the square root of L or C. For instance, if L or C third factor can be calculated. This method is
is quadrupled, fr is reduced by one-half. Sup- commonly used for measuring inductance or
pose fr is 6 MHz with an LC combination. If L capacitance. A test instrument for this purpose
or C is made four times larger, then fr will be is the Q meter, which also measures the Q of a
reduced to 3 MHz. Or to take the opposite case, coil.
to double fr, the value of L or C must be re-
duced by one-fourth, or both reduced by one- Calculating C from fr· The C can be taken out
half. of the square root sign or radical in the reso-
nance formula, as follows:
LC Product Determines fr· There are any
number of LC combinations that can be reso-
nant at one frequency. Table 27-3 lists five pos-
sible combinations of L and C resonant at
1000 kHz. The resonant frequency is the same Squaring both sides to eliminate the radical
because when either Lor C is decreased by the gives
factor of 10 or 2, the other is increased by the
same factor, resulting in a constant value for the 12 -
1
1
r - (2'7T)2LC
LC product.
The reactance at resonance changes with Inverting C and f/ gives
different combinations of L and C, but in all five
cases XL and X 0 are equal to each other at c 1 - 1 - 0.0254 (27-3)
1000 kHz. This is the resonant frequency de- = (2'7T) 2f/L - 4'7T 2f/L - f/L

TABLE 27-3. LC Combinations Resonant at 1000 kHz

LC Xu Q Xe. Q
L, µH C,pF PRODUCT AT 1000 kHz AT 1000 kHz

23.9 1060 25,334 150 150

119.5 212 25,334 750 750
239 106 25,334 1500 1500
478 53 25,334 3000 3000
2390 10.6 25,334 15,000 15,000
 Chapter 27
552 Resonance

With fr in hertz, the units are farads for C and These values are from the LC circuit illustrated
henrys for L. in Fig. 27 -2 for series resonance and Fig. 27 -6
The constant factor 0.0254 in the numera- for parallel resonance.
tor is the reciprocal of 39.44 for 4?T2 in the
denominator. These numbers remain the same Practice Problems 27-4
for any values of fr, L, and C. (answers on page 569)
(a) To increase fr, must the Cbe more or less?
Cctlculating L from fr· Similarly, the reso-
(b) C is increased from 100 to 400 pF. L must
nance formula can be transposed to find L. be decreased from 800 µH to what value
Then for the same fr?

1 1 0.0254 27-5
---=--- (27-4)
L = (2'7T) 2f/C 4'7T2f/C f/C Q MAGNIFICATION FACTOR
OF RESONANT CIRCUIT
With Formula (27-4 ), L is determined by its fr The quality, or figure of merit, of the resonant
with a known value of C. Similarly, C is deter- circuit, in sharpness of resonance, is indicated
mined from Formula (27 -3) by its fr with a by the factor Q. In general, the higher the ratio
known value of L. of the reactance at resonance to the series re-
Example 3. What value of C resonates with a 239- sistance, the higher is the Q and the sharper the
µH L at 1000 kHz? resonance effect.
Answer. C = 0.0 254 Q of Series Circuit. In a series resonant circuit
fr2L
0.0254 we can calculate Q from the following formula:
= (1 x 10 6)2 x 239 x 10-6
0.0254 (27-5)
= 1 x 10 12 x 239 x 10-6
- 0.0254 - 0.0254 x 10-6
- 239 x 10 6 - 239 where Q is the figure of merit, XL is the induc-
tive reactance at the resonant frequency, and r8
- 25,400 x 10-12 is the resistance in series with XL. For the series
- 239
resonant circuit in Fig. 27-2,
= 106 x 10-12 F
C = 106 pF Q = 1500 Q = 150
Example 4. What value of L resonates with a 106-
10 n
pF Cat 1000 kHz?
Q is a numerical factor without any units,
L _ 0.0254 because it is a ratio of reactance to resistance
Answer.
- f/C and the ohms cancel. Since the series resistance
0.0254 limits the amount of current at resonance, the
= 1 x 10 12 x 106 x 10-12 lower the resistance, the sharper is the increase
0.0254 to maximum current at the resonant frequency,
=156 and the higher the Q. Also, a higher value of
= 2 ~,~go x 10-6 = 239 x 10-6 H reactance at resonance allows the maximum
current to produce a higher value of voltage
L = 239 µH output.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 553

The Q has the same value if calculated with the same value calculated in Table 27-1 for Ve
Xe instead of Xv since they are equal at reso- or \{ at resonance.
nance. However, the Q of the circuit is generally
considered in terms of XL, because usually the How to Measure Q in a Series Resonant Cir-
coil has the series resistance of the circuit. In cuit. The fundamental nature of Q for a series
.this case, the Q of the coil and the Q of the resonant circuit is seen from the fact that the Q
series resonant circuit are the same. If extra can be determined experimentally by measuring
resistance is added, the Q of the circuit will be the Q rise in voltage across either L or C and
less than the Q of the coil. The highest possible comparing this voltage with the generator volt-
Q for the circuit is the Q of the coil. age. As a formula,
The value of 150 can be considered as a
high Q. Typical values are 50 to 250, approxi-
mately. Less than 10 is a low Q; more than 300
Q = \1aut (27-7)
\{n
is a very high Q.
where \1aut is the ac voltage measured across
Higher LI C Ratio Can Provide Higher Q. As the coil or capacitor and \{n is the generator
shown before in Table 27-3, different LC com- voltage.
binations can be resonant at the same fre- Referring to Fig. 27 -5, suppose that you
quency. However, the amount of reactance at measure with an ac voltmeter across L or C and
resonance is different. More XL can be obtained this voltage equals 45,000 µV at the resonant
with a higher L and smaller C for resonance, frequency. Also, measure the generator input of
although XL and Xe must be equal at the reso- 300 µV. Then
nant frequency. Therefore, both XL and Xe are
higher with a higher LI C ratio for resonance. Q = \1aut = 45,000 µV
More XL can allow a higher Q if the ac
\{n 300 µV
resistance does not increase as much as the
reactance. With typical rf coils, an approximate Q = 150
rule is that maximum Q can be obtained when
XL is about 1000 Q. This method is better than the XL/rs for-
mula for determining Q because rs is the ac
Q Rise in Voltage Across Series L or C. The resistance of the coil, which is not so easily
Q of the resonant circuit can be considered a measured. Remember that the coil's ac resist-
magnification factor that determines how much ance can be more than double the de resistance
the voltage across L or C is increased by the measured with an ohmmeter. In fact, measuring
resonant rise of current in a series circuit. Spe- Q with Formula (27-7) makes it possible to
cifically, the voltage output at series resonance calculate the ac resistance. These points are
is Q times the generator voltage: illustrated in the following examples.
Example 5. A series circuit resonant at 0.4 MHz
(27-6) develops 100 mV across a 250-µH L with a 2-mV
input. Calculate Q.
In Fig. 27 -4, for example, the generator voltage
is 300 µV and Q is 150. The resonant rise of Answer. Q = ~ut = 100 mV
voltage across either L or C then equals \.-fn 2 mV
300 µV x 150, or 45,000 µV. Note that this is Q =50
 Chapter 27
554 Resonance

Example 6. How much is the ac resistance of the

coil in the preceding example?

Answer. The Q of the coil is 50. We need to know XL=

XL 1500 n
the reactance of this 250-µH coil at the frequency of Q=-
0.4 MHz. Then, 's Xe=
'V 1500 n
= 150
's =
XL = 27TfL = 27T x 0.4 x 106 x 250 x 10-6 10 n
= 27T x 100
XL= 628 Q

Also, FIGURE 27-8

Q of a parallel resonant circuit in terms of XL
XL and its series resistance rs.
or rs =75
628 Q
Specifically, the impedance across the parallel
=so resonant circuit is Q times the inductive react-
rs= 12.56 Q
ance at the resonant frequency:

(27-8)
Q of Parallel Circuit. In a parallel resonant
circuit, where rs is very small compared with Referring back to the parallel resonant circuit in
XL, the Q also equals XL! rs. Note that rs is still Fig. 27 -6, as an example, XL is 1500 n and Q is
the resistance of the coil in series with XL (see 150. The result is a rise of impedance to the
Fig. 27-8). The Q of the coil determines the Q maximum value of 150 X 1500 n, or
of the parallel circuit here because it is less than 225,000 n, at the resonant frequency.
the Q of the capacitive branch. Capacitors used Since the line current equals ~I ZT, the
in tuned circuits generally have a very high Q minimum value of line current then is
because of their low losses. In Fig. 27 -8, the Q is 300 µV/225,000 n, which equals 0.001 33 µA.
1500 ~2/10 n, or 150, the same as the series At fr the minimum line current is 1 IQ of
resonant circuit with the same values. either branch current. In Fig. 27 -7, IL or 10 is
This example assumes that the generator 0.2 µA and Q is 150. Therefore, IT is 0.2/150,
resistance is very high and that there is no other or 0.001 33 µA, which is the same answer as
resistance branch shunting the tuned circuit. ~/ ZT. Or, stated another way, the circulating
Then the Q of the parallel resonant circuit is the tank current is Q times the minimum IT.
same as the Q of the coil. Actually, shunt resist-
ance can lower the Q of a parallel resonant How to Measure ZT of a Parallel Resonant
circuit, as analyzed in Sec. 27-10. Circuit. Formula (27 -8) is also useful in its
inverted version as Q = ZTIXL. We can mea-
Q Rise in Impedance Across Parallel Reso- sure ZT by the method illustrated in Fig. 27-9.
nant Circuit. For parallel resonance, the Q Then Q can be calculated.
magnification factor determines by how much To measure ZT, first tune the LC circuit to
the impedance across the parallel LC circuit is resonance. Then adjust R1 to the resistance that
increased because of the minimum line current. makes its ac voltage equal to the ac voltage
 Cha ter 27
Resonance 555

R 1 =225 k.Q

VT= VLC = 150 µV Xe

l"\J 300µV Z 1 =225 k.Q 1500.Q

FIGURE 27-9
Adjust RI to make VR 1 equal \{ 0 . Then ZT = RI.

across the tuned circuit. With equal voltages, ZT Practice Problems 27-5
must be the same as R1 • (answers on page 569)
For the example here, which corresponds (a) In a series .resonant circuit, \{ is 300 mV
to the parallel resonance shown in Figs. 27-6 with input of 3 mV. · Calculate Q.
and 27-8, ZT is 225,000 n. Therefore, Q equals (b) In a parallel resonant circuit, XL is 500 Q.
ZTIXL or 225,00011500, which equals 150. With a Q of 50, calculate ZT.

Example 7. In Fig. 27-9, assume that with 4-V ac

27-6
input signal for VT, the voltage across RI is 2 V when
BANDWIDTH OF
RI is 225 kn. Determine ZT and Q.
RESONANT CIRCUIT
When we say an LC circuit is resonant at one
Answer. Because they divide VT equally, ZT is frequency, this is true for the maximum reso- ·
225 kn, the same as RI. The amount of input voltage nance effect. However, other frequencies close
does not matter, as the voltage division determines to fr also are effective. For series resonance,
the relative proportions between RI and ZT. With frequencies just below and above fr produce
225 kn for ZT and 1.5 kO for XL, the Q is 225/i. 5 , or increased current, but a little less than the value
Q = 150. at resonance. Similarly, for parallel resonance,
frequencies close to fr can provide a high im-
Example 8. A parallel LC circuit tuned to 200 kHz
pedance, although a little less than the maxi-
with a 350-µ.H L has a measured ZT of 17,600 n.
Calculate Q.
mum ZT.
Therefore, any resonant frequency has an
Answer. First, calculate XL as 27T JL at fr: associated band of frequencies that provide
resonance effects. How wide the band is de-
XL = 27T x 200 x 10 x 350 x 10- = 440 Q
3 6
pends on the Q of the resonant circuit. Actually,
Then, it is practically impossible to have an LC circuit
with a resonant effect at only one frequency.
Q = ZT = 17,600 The width of the resonant band of frequencies
XL 440 centered around fr is called the bandwidth of
Q =40 the tuned circuit.
 Chapter 27
556 Resonance

Measurement of Bandwidth. The . group of wide allow 70.7 mA, or more, as the resonant
frequencies with a response 70. 7 percent of response in this example.
maximum, or more, is generally considered the
bandwidth of the tuned circuit, as shown in Fig. Bandwidth Equals f/ Q. Sharp resonance
27-lOb. The resonant response here is increas- with high Q means narrow bandwidth. The
ing current for the series circuit in (a). There- lower the Q, the broader is the resonant re-
fore, the bandwidth is measured between the sponse and the greater the bandwidth.
two frequencies, f1 and f2 , producing 70.7 per- Also, the higher the resonant frequency,
cent of the maximum current at fr· the greater is the range of frequency values
For a parallel circuit, the resonant re- included in the bandwidth for a given sharpness
sponse is increasing impedance Zr. Then the of resonance. Therefore, the bandwidth of a
bandwidth is measured between the two fre- resonant circuit depends on the factors fr and
quencies allowing 70.7 percent of the maximum Q. The formula is
ZT at fr·
The bandwidth indicated on the response
curve in Fig. 27-lOb equals 20 kHz. This value f, -f, =flf= ~ (27-9)
is the difference between f2 at 60 kHz and f1 at
40 kHz, both with 70.7 percent response. where Mis the total bandwidth in the same units
Compared with the maximum current of as the resonant frequency fr The bandwidth M
100 mA for fr at 50 kHz, f1 below resonance can also be abbreviated BW.
and f2 above resonance each allow a rise to For example, a series circuit resonant at
70. 7 mA. All frequencies in this band 20 kHz 800 kHz with a Q of 100 has a bandwidth of

f,
100

80

<t 60
E
......
VT '"\,, Frequencies 40
0-100 kHz L

20
c
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency, kHz

(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-10
Bandwidth of a tuned LC circuit. (a) Series
circuit with input of 0 to 100 kHz. ( b) Response
curve with bandwidth t:.f equal to 20 kHz be-
tween f1 and f2 .
 Cha ter 27
Resonance 557

80
o/i 00 , or 8 kHz. Then the I is 70.7 percent of resonant frequency results in less bandwidth.
maximum, or more, for all frequencies for a The slope is sharper for the sides or skirts of the
band 8 kHz wide. This frequency band is cen- response curve, in addition to its greater ampli-
tered around 800 kHz, from 796 to 804 kHz. tude.
With a parallel resonant circuit having a Q
higher than 10, Formula (27-9) also can be The Edge Frequencies. Either Ji or f2 is sepa-
used for calculating the bandwidth of frequen- rated from fr by one-half of the total bandwidth.
cies which provide 70. 7 percent or more of the For the top curve in Fig. 27 -11, as an example,
maximum ZT. However, the formula cannot be with a Q of 80, Mis +5 kHz centered around
used for parallel resonant circuits with low Q, as 800 kHz for fr. To determine the edge frequen-
the resonance curve then becomes unsym - cies:
metrical.
Ji = fr - 2M = 800 - 5 = 795 kHz
High Q Means Narrow Bandwidth. The
effect for different values of Q is illustrated in
Fig. 27-11. Note that a higher Q for the same fz = fr + 2M = 800 + 5 = 805 kHz
These examples assume the resonance
curve is symmetrical. This is true for a high-Q
parallel resonant circuit and a series resonant
circuit with any Q.

Example 9. An LC circuit resonant at 2000 kHz has

a Q of 100. Find the total bandwidth 6.f and the edge
frequencies f1 and fz.

Answer. 6.f _ fr _ 2000 kHz _ 20 kH

- Q - 100 - z

fl = fr - 2M = 2000 - 10

= 1990 kHz
f2 = fr + 2M = 2000 + 10
= 2010 kHz
' fr=
800 kHz Example 10. Do the same as in Example 9 for an fr
Frequency, kHz equal to 6000 kHz and the same Q of 100.
FIGURE 27-11
Higher Q provides a sharper resonant re- Answer. f = fr = 6000 kHz _ 60 kH
Q 100 - z
sponse. Amplitude is I for series resonance or
Zr for parallel resonance. Bandwidth at half- f1 = 6000 - 30 = 5970 kHz
power frequencies is !:lf. f2 = 6000 + 30 = 6030 kHz
 Chapter 27
558 Resonance

Notice that M is three times as wide for the same Q quired value here is 0.707 X 10,000, or
because fr is three times higher. 7070 Q, for Z1 at f1 . Assume this frequency
Ji is determined to be 195 kHz.
Half-Power· Points. It is simply for conven- 3. Similarly, find the frequency f2 above fr that
ience in calculations that the bandwidth is de- results in the impedance Z2 of 7070 Q.
fined between the two frequencies having 70.7 Assume f2 is 205 kHz.
percent response. At each of these frequencies, 4. ·The total bandwidth between the half-
the net capacitive or inductive reactance equals power frequencies equals f2 - Ji or
the resistance. Then the total impedance of the 205 - 195. Then 6.f = 10 kHz.
series reactance and resistance is 1.4 times 5. Then Q = f/ M = 200 kHz/10 kHz, or
greater than R. With this much more imped- the Q = 20.
ance, the current is reduced to 1/i.414 , or 0.707,
of its maximum value.
Practice Problems 27-6
Furthermore, the relative current or volt-
(answers on page 569)
age value of 70. 7 percent corresponds to 50
(a) An LC circuit with fr of 10 MHz has a Q of
percent in power, since power is J2 R or V2 /R
40. Calculate the half-power bandwidth.
and the square of 0.707 equals 0.50. There-
( b) For an fr of 500 kHz and bandwidth M of
fore, the bandwidth between frequencies having
10 kHz, calculate Q.
70. 7 percent response in current or voltage is
also the bandwidth in terms of half-power
points. Formula (27-9) is derived for Lif between 27-7
the points with 70. 7 percent response on the TUNING
resonance curve. This means obtaining resonances at different
frequencies by varying either L or C. As illus-
Measuring Bandwidth to Calculate Q. The trated in Fig. 27-12, the variable capacitance C
half-power frequencies f1 and f2 can be deter- can be adjusted to tune the series LC circuit to
mined experimentally. For series resonance, resonance at any one of the five different fre-
find the two frequencies at which the current is quencies. Each of the voltages \1i to \.'s indicates
70.7 percent of maximum I. Or, for parallel an ac input with a specific frequency. Which
resonance, find the two frequencies that make one is selected for maximum output is deter-
the impedance 70.7 percent of the maximum mined by the resonant frequency of the LC
Zr. The following method uses the circuit in Fig. circuit.
27 -9 for measuring Zr, but with different values When C is set to 424 pF, for example, the
to determine its bandwidth and Q. resonant frequency of the LC circuit is 500 kHz
for fr The input voltage that has the frequency
1
•

1. Tune the circuit to resonance and deter- of 500 kHz then produces a resonant rise of
mine its maximum Zr at fr· In this example, current which results in maximum output volt-
assume that Zr is 10,000 Q at the resonant age across C. At other frequencies, such as
frequency of 200 kHz. 707 kHz, the voltage output is less than the
2. Keep the same amount of input voltage, input. With C at 424 pF, therefore, the LC
but change its frequency slightly below fr to tuned to 500 kHz selects this frequency by pro-
determine the frequency Ji which results in viding much more voltage output compared
a Z1 equal to 70. 7 percent of Zr. The re- with other frequencies.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 559

L=
rs

Vs

V4

V3 C= Ve
25-425 pF
V2

v1
500 707 1000 1410 2000
Frequency, kHz

(a) (b)
FIGURE 27-12
Tuning a series circuit. (a) Circuit with· input
voltages at different frequencies. ( b) Resonant
responses at different frequencies when C is
varied. Relative amplitudes not to scale.

Suppose that we want maximum output for 500to1000 kHz. Or the frequency is increased
the ac input voltage that has the frequency of by the factor 1 I V%, which equals 2.
707 kHz. Then C is set at 212 pF to make the Suppose that we want to tune through the
LC circuit resonant at 707 kHz for fr2 • Similarly, whole frequency range of 500 to 2000 kHz.
the tuned circuit can resonate at a different This is a tuning ratio of 4: 1 for the highest
frequency for each input voltage. In this way, frequency to the lowest frequency. Then the
the LC circuit is tuned to select the desir~d capacitance must be varied from 424 to·
frequency. 26.5 pF, a 16: 1 capacitance ratio.
The variable capacitance C can be set at
the values listed in Table 27-4 to tune the LC Radio Tuning Dial. Figure 27-13 illustrates a
circuit to different frequencies. Only five fre- common application of resonant circuits in .tun-
quencies are listed here, but any one capaci- ing a receiver to the carrier frequency of a
tance value between 26.5 and 424 pF can tune desired station in the band. The tuning is done
the 239-µH coil to resonance at any frequency by the air capacitor C, which can be varied from
in the range of 500 to 2000 kHz. It should be
noted that a parallel resonant circuit also can be
TABLE 27-4. Tuning LC Circuit
tuned by varying C or L. by Varying C
L, µH C, pF fr, kHz
Tuning Ratio. When an LC circuit is tuned,
the change in resonant frequency is inversely 239 424 500
proportional to the square root of the change in 239 212 707
L or C. Referring to Table 27-4, notice that 239 106 1000
when C is decreased by one-fourth, from 424 to 239 53 1410
239 26.5 2000
106 pf, the resonant frequency doubles from
 Chapter 27
560 Resonance

1080 kHz

540 kHz Frequency range 1620 kHz

C= 360 pF 540 to 1620 kHz C= 40 pF

40 to 360 pF
capacitance range

L = 239 µH

rz-iinput
FIGURE 27-13
Application of tuning LC circuit through the
AM radio band of 540 to 1620 kHz.

360 pf with the plates completely in mesh to Practice Problems 27-7

40 pf out of mesh. The fixed plates form the (answers on page 569)
stator, while the rotor has the plates that move (a) When a tuning capacitor is completely in
in and out. mesh, is the station tuned in the highest or
Note that the lowest frequency FL at lowest frequency in the band?
540 kHz is tuned in with the highest C at (b) A tuning ratio of 2: 1 in frequency requires
360 pf. Resonance at the highest frequency what ratio of variable L or C?
FH at 1620 kHz results with the lowest C at
40 pf. 27-8
The capacitance range of 40 to 360 pf MIS TUNING
tunes through the frequency range from For example, suppose that a series LC circuit is
1620 kHz down to 540 kHz. FL is one 1 third FH tuned to 1000 kHz but the frequency of the
because the maximum C is nine times the mini- input voltage is 1 7 kHz, completely off reso-
mum C. The tuning dial, in kHz, usually omits nance. The circuit could provide a Q rise in
the last zero to save space. output voltage for current having the frequency
The same idea applies to tuning through of 1000 kHz, but there is no input voltage and
the commercial FM broadcast band of 88 to therefore no current at this frequency.
108 MHz, with smaller values of L and C. Also, The input voltage produces current that
television receivers are tuned to a specific has the frequency of 17 kHz. This frequency
broadcast channel by resonance at the desired cannot produce a resonant rise in current,
frequencies. however, because the current is limited by the
 Chapter 27
Resonance 561

net reactance. When the frequency of the input resonance are opposite for series and parallel
voltage and the resonant frequency of the LC LC circuits.
circuit are not the same, therefore, the mis-
tuned circuit has very little output compared Practice Problems 27-8
with the Q rise in voltage at resonance. (answers on page 569)
Similarly, when a parallel circuit is mis- (a) Is a series resonant circuit inductive or
tuned, it does not have a high value of imped- capacitive below resonance?
ance. Furthermore, the net reactance off reso- (b) Is a parallel resonant circuit inductive or
nance makes the LC circuit either inductive or capacitive below resonance?
capacitive.
27-9
Series Circuit off Resonance. When the fre- ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL
quency of the input voltage is lower than the RESONANT CIRCUITS
resonant frequency of a series LC circuit, the Parallel resonance is more complex than series
capacitive reactance is greater than the induc- resonance because the [Link] branch currents
tive reactance. As a result, there is more voltage are not exactly equal when XL equals Xe. The
across the capacitive reactance than across the reason is that the coil has its series resistance rs
inductive reactance. The series LC circuit is in the XL branch, while the capacitor has only
capacitive below resonance, therefore, with ca- Xe in its branch.
pacitive current leading the generator voltage. For high-Q circuits, we consider rs to be
Above the resonant frequency, the induc- negligible. In low-Q circuits, however, the in-
tive reactance is greater than the capacitive ductive branch must be analyzed as a complex
reactance. As a result, the circuit is inductive impedance with XL and rs in series. This im-
above resonance, with inductive current that pedance is in parallel with Xe, as shown in Fig.
lags the generator voltage. In both cases, there 27-14. The total impedance ZT can then be
is much less output voltage than at resonance. calculated by using complex numbers, as ex-
plained in Chap. 26.
Parallel Circuit off Resonance. With a paral-
lel LC circuit, the smaller amount of inductive
reactance below resonance results in more in- Z1 = Z2 =
ductive branch current than capacitive branch - iXc rs+ iXL
current. The net line current is inductive, there-
fore, making the parallel LC circuit inductive
below resonance, as the line current lags the
generator voltage.
-iXc
Above the resonant frequency, the net line
current is capacitive because of the higher value
of capacitive branch current. Then the parallel
LC circuit is capacitive, with line current leading
the generator voltage. In both cases the total FIGURE 27-14
impedance of the parallel circuit is much less General method of calculating ZT for a parallel
than the maximum impedance at resonance. resonant circuit as Z1 X Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 ) with
Note that the capacitive and inductive effects off complex numbers.
 Chapter 27
562 Resonance

High-Q Circuit. We can apply the general The phase angle () is not zero because the
method in Fig. 27 -14 to the parallel resonant reactive branch currents are unequal, even
circuit shown before in Fig. 27 -6 to see if Zr is though XL and X 0 are equal. The appreciable
225,000 Q. In this example, XL and X 0 are value of rs in the XL branch makes this branch
1500 Q and rs is 10 Q. The calculations are current smaller than I0 in the X 0 branch.

zr = Z1 x Z2 - il500 x (11500 + 10) Criteria for Parallel Resonance. The fre-

Z1 + Z2 - jl500 + jl500 + 10 quency fr that makes XL = X 0 is always
x 10 6 - jl5,000
-j22.25 1 /(2'77 y'I1;). However, for low-Q circuits fr
10 does not necessarily provide the desired reso-
nance effect. The three main criteria for parallel
= -j22.25 X 105 - jl500
resonance are
= 225,000 - jl500
ZT = 225,000~ Q
1. Zero phase angle and unity power factor.
2. Maximum impedance Zr and minimum
Note that - j2 is + 1. Also, the reactive jl500 Q line current.
is negligible compared with the resistive 3. XL = X 0 . This is the resonance at
225,000 Q. This answer for Zr is the same as fr= 11(2'7TVIC).
Q X XL, or 150 X 15,000, because of the high
Q with negligibly small rs· These three effects do not occur at the
same frequency in parallel circuits that have a
Low-Q Circuit. We can consider a Q less than low Q. The condition for unity power factor is
10 as low. For the same circuit in Fig. 27 -6, if rs often called antiresonance in a parallel LC cir-
is 300 Q with an XL of 1500 Q, the Q will be cuit to distinguish it from the case of equal XL
1500/300, which equals 5. For this case of and X 0 .
appreciable rs, the branch currents cannot be It should be noted that when Q is 10 or
equal when XL and X 0 are equal because then higher, though, the parallel branch currents are
the inductive branch will have more impedance practically equal when XL = X 0 . Then at
and less current. fr= l/(2'7TVLC), the line current is minimum
With a low-Q circuit Zr must be calculated with zero phase angle, and the impedance is
in terms of the branch impedances. For this maximum.
example, the calculations are simpler with all For a series resonant circuit there are no
impedances stated in kilohms: parallel branches to consider. Therefore, the
current is maxim um at exactly fr, whether the Q
z _ Z1 X Z2 = -jl.5 x (jl.5 + 0.3) is high or low.
T - Z1 + Z2 -jl.5 + jl.5 + 0.3
- j22.25 - j0.45 -- - ·27 5 - ·1 5 Practice Problems 27-9
= 0.3 J • J • (answers on page 569)
(a) Is the Q of 8 a high or low value?
= 7.5 - jl.5 = 7.65/ - 11.3° kQ (b) With this Q, will the IL be more or less than
ZT = 7650/-11.3° Q I0 in the parallel branches when XL = X 0 ?
 Chapter 27
Resonance 563

27-10 sistive branch current cannot be canceled at

DAMPING OF PARALLEL resonance by the reactive currents. Therefore,
RESONANT CIRCUITS the resonant dip to minimum line current is less
In Fig. 27-lSa, the shunt RP across Land C is a sharp with more resistive line current. Specifi -
damping resistance because it lowers the Q of cally, when Q is determined by parallel resist-
the tuned circuit. RP may represent the resist- ance
ance of the external source driving the parallel
resonant circuit, or Rp can be an actual resistor (27-10)
added for lower Q and greater bandwidth.
Using the parallel RP to reduce Q is better than
increasing the series resistance rs because the This relation with shunt RP is the reciprocal of
resonant response is more symmetrical with the Q formula with series rs. Reducing RP de-
shunt damping. creases Q, but reducing rs increases Q. The
The effect of varying the parallel RP is damping can be done by series rs, parallel RP,
opposite from the series rs. A lower value of RP or both.
lowers the Q and reduces the sharpness of
resonance. Remember that less resistance in a Parallel RP Without rs. In Fig. 27-lSa, Q is
parallel branch allows more current. This re- determined only by the RP, as no series rs is

XL=
soon
Rp Xe=
Q = - = 100 Rp= Xe=
XL so kn soon soon

(a) (b)

XL=
soon
Q= so
xe =
soon

(c)
FIGURE 27-15
Q of parallel resonant circuit in terms of coil
resistance rs and parallel damping resistor Rr
(a) Parallel Rp but negligible rs. (b) Series rs but
no RP branch. ( c) Both RP and rs. See Formula
(27 -11) for calculating Q.
 Chapter 27
564 Resonance

shown. We can consider that rs is zero or very to Q = RPI XL. This is the same as Formula
small. Then the Q of the coil is infinite or high (27 -10) for shunt damping alone.
enough to be greater than the damped Q of the For the opposite case of RP being infinite
tuned circuit, by a factor of 10 or more. The Q for an open parallel path, Formula (27 -11) re-
of the damped resonant circuit here is duces to XL! rs. This is the same as Formula
Rp!XL = 50,0001500 = 100. (27 -5) without shunt damping.

Series rs Without RP. In Fig. 27-15b, Q is Practice Problems 27-10

determined only by the coil resistance rs, as no (answers on page 569)
shunt damping resistance is used. Then (a) A parallel resonant circuit has an XL of
Q =XL/rs= 500!5 = 100. This value is the Q 1000 Q and an rs of 20 Q, without any
of the coil, which is also the Q of the parallel shunt damping. Calculate Q.
resonant circuit without shunt damping. (b) A parallel resonant circuit has an XL of
1000 Q, negligible rs, and shunt RP of
Conversion of rs or RP. Q is 100 for the cir- 50 kn. Calculate Q.
cuits in both (a) and (b) because the 50,000-Q (c) How much is Zr at fr for the circuits in both
(a) and (b)?
RP is equivalent to the 5-Q rs as a damping
resistance. One value can be converted to the
27-11
other. The rs= XL 2 / RP. Also, the RP= XL 2 1rs.
CHOOSING L AND C FOR A
In this example, rs is 250,000/50,000 = 5 Q,
RESONANT CIRCUIT
or RP is 250,00015 = 50,000 n.
The following example illustrates how reso-
nance is really just an application of XL and Xe.
Damping with Both rs and Rr Figure 27-15c Suppose that we have the problem of determin-
shows the general case of damping where both ing the inductance and capacitance for a circuit
rs and RP must be considered. Then the Q of
to be resonant at 159 kHz. First, we need a
the circuit can be calculated as known value for either L or C, in order to
calculate the other. Which one to choose de-
(27-11) pends on the application. In some cases, partic-
ularly at very high frequencies, C must be the
minimum possible value, which might be about
For the values in Fig. 27-15c 10 pF. At medium frequencies, though, we can
choose L for the general case where an XL of
500 500 500 1000 Q is desirable and can be obtained. Then
Q = 5 + 250,000/50,000 = 5 + 5 10 the inductance of the required L, equal to
Q =50 XLl2'1Tf, is 0.001 H or 1 mH, for the inductive
reactance of 1000 Q.
The Q is lower here compared with (a) or (b) For resonance at 159 kHz with a 1-mH L,
because this circuit has both series and shunt the required C is 0.001 µF or 1000 pF. This
damping. value of C can be calculated for an Xe of
It should be noted that for an rs of zero, 1000 Q, equal to XL at the fr of 159 kHz, or
Formula (27 -11) can be inverted and simplified from Formula (27 -3). In either case, if you sub-
 Chapter 27
Resonance 565

stitute 1 x 10-9 F for C and 1 x 10-3 H for L is 50. This value is also the Q of the series
in the resonant frequency formula, fr will be resonant circuit. If there is no shunt damping
159 kHz. resistance across the parallel LC circuit, its Q is
This combination is resonant at 159 kHz also 50. With a Q of 50 the bandwidth of the
whether L and C are in series or parallel. In resonant circuit is 159 kHz/50, which equals
series, the resonant effect is to produce maxi- 3.18 kHz for ~f.
mum current and maximum voltage across L or
Cat 159 kHz. In parallel, the resonant effect at
159 kHz is minimum line current and maximum Practice Problems 27-11
impedance across the generator. (answers on page 569)
If we assume the 1-mH coil used for L has (a) What is fr for 1000 pF of C and 1 mH of L?
an internal resistance of 20 Q, the Q of the coil (b) What is fr for 250 pF of C and 1 mH of L?

Summary
Series and parallel resonance are compared in Table 27-5. The main
difference is that series resonance produces maximum current and very
low impedance at fr, but with parallel resonance the line current is
minimum to provide a very high impedance. Remember that these
formulas for parallel resonance are very close approximations that can be
used for circuits with a Q higher than 10. For series resonance, the
formulas apply whether the Q is high or low.

TABLE 27-5. Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance

SERIES RESONANCE PARALLEL RESONANCE (HIGH Q)
1 1
fr= 2'7TVLE fr= 2'7TVLC
I maximum at fr with (J of 0° Ir minimum at fr with (J of 0 °
Impedance Z minimum at fr Impedance Z maximum at fr
Q =XL/rs, or Q = XL!r8 , or
Q = \,~mt I \{n Q = zmax!XL
Q rise in voltage = Q X ~en Q rise in impedance = Q X XL
Bandwidth !if = fr! Q Bandwidth !if = f/ Q
Capacitive below fr, but Inductive below fr, but
inductive above fr capacitive above fr
Needs low-resistance source Needs high-resistance source
for low rs, high Q, and for high RP, high Q, and
sharp tuning sharp tuning
Source is inside LC circuit Source is outside LC circuit
 Chapter 27
566 Resonance

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. For a series or parallel LC circuit, resonance occurs when (a) XL is

ten times X 0 or more; (b) X 0 is ten times XL or more; (c) XL= X 0 ;
(d) the phase angle of the circuit is 90 °.
2. When either L or C is increased, the resonant frequency of the LC
circuit (a) increases; (b) decreases; (c) remains the same; (d) is
determined by the shunt resistance.
3. The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is 1000 kHz. If Lis doubled
but C is reduced to one-eighth of its original value, the resonant
frequency then is (a) 250 kHz; (b) 500 kHz; (c) 1000 kHz;
(d) 2000 kHz.
4. A coil has a 1000-Q XL and a 5-Q internal resistance. Its Q equals
(a) 0.005; (b) 5; (c) 200; (d) 1000.
5. In a parallel LC circuit, at the resonant frequency, the (a) line current
is maximum; (b) inductive branch current is minimum; (c) total
impedance is minimum; (d) total impedance is maximum.
6. At resonance, the phase angle equals (a) 0°; (b) 90°; (c) 180°;
(d) 270°.
7. In a series LC circuit, at the resonant frequency, the (a) current is
minimum; (b) voltage across C is minimum; (c) impedance is maxi-
mum; (d) current is maximum.
8. A series LC circuit has a Q of 100 at resonance. When 5 mV is
applied at the resonant frequency, the voltage across C equals
(a) 5 mV; (b) 20 mV; (c) 100 mV; (d) 500 mV.
9. An LC circuit resonant at 1000 kHz has a Q of 100. The bandwidth
between half-power points equals (a) 10 kHz between 995 and
1005 kHz; (b) 10 kHz between 1000 and 1010 kHz; (c) 5 kHz
between 995 and 1000 kHz; (d) 200 kHz between 900 and
1100 kHz.
10. In a low-Q parallel resonant circuit, when XL = X 0 (a) IL equals I0 ;
(b) IL is less than I0 ; (c) IL is more than I0 ; (d) the phase angle is 0°.

Essay Questions
1. (a) State two characteristics of series resonance. (b) With a micro-
ammeter measuring current in the series LC circuit of Fig. 27-2,
describe the meter readings for the different frequencies from 600 to
1400 kHz.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 567

2. (a) State two characteristics of parallel resonance. (b) With a micro-

ammeter measuring current in the main line for the parallel LC
circuit in Fig. 27 -6a, describe the meter readings for the different
frequencies from 600 to 1400 kHz.
3. State the Q formula for the following LC circuits: (a) series resonant;
(b) parallel resonant, with series resistance rs in the inductive branch;
(c) parallel resonant, with zero series resistance but shunt RP.
4. Explain briefly why a parallel LC circuit is inductive but a series LC
circuit is capacitive below fr·
5. What is the effect on Q and bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit if
its shunt damping resistance is decreased from 50,000to10,000 Q?
6. Describe briefly how you would use an ac meter to measure the
bandwidth of a series resonant circuit for calculating its Q.
7. Why is a low-resistance generator good for a high Q in series
resonance, while a high-resistance generator is needed for a high Q
in parallel resonance?
8. Referring to Fig. 27-13, why is it that the middle frequency of
1080 kHz does not correspond to the middle capacitance value of
200 pF?
9. (a) Give three criteria for parallel resonance. (b) Why is the anti-
resonant frequency fa different from fr with a low-Q circuit? (c) Why
are they the same for a high-Q circuit?
10. Show how Formula (27-11) reduces to RP/XL when rs is zero.
11. (a) Specify the edge frequencies Ji and f2 for each of the three
response curves in Fig. 27-11. {b) Why does lower Q allow more
bandwidth?
12. (a) Why does maximum ZT for a parallel resonant circuit correspond
to minimum line current? (b) Why does zero phase angle for a
resonant circuit correspond to unity power factor?

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Find fr for a series circuit with a 10-µF C, a 16-H L, and a 5-Q rs.
2. Find fr for a parallel circuit with a 2-µF C, a 2-H L, and a 5-Q rs.
3. Find fr for L of 80 µHand C of 120 pF.
4. The fr is 1.6 MHz with L of 40 µH. Find C.
5. In a series resonant circuit, XL is 1500 Q and the internal coil
resistance is 15 Q. At the resonant frequency: (a) How much is the Q
of the circuit? (b) How much is Xe? (c) With a generator voltage of
15 mV, how much is I? (d) How much is the voltage across Xe?
 Chapter 27
568 Resonance

6. In a parallel resonant circuit, XL is 1200 Q, the resistance of the coil is

practically zero, but there is a 36,000-Q resistance across the LC
circuit. At the resonant frequency: (a) How much is the Q of the
circuit? (b) How much is Xe? (c) With a generator voltage of 12 mV
and zero resistance in the main line, how much is the main-line
current? (d) How much is the voltage across L, C, and R? (e) How
much is the impedance across the main line?
7. What value of L is necessary with a C of 100 pF for series resonance
at 1 MHz? At 4 MHz?
8. Calculate the C needed with a 350-µH L for a 200-kHz fr·
9. Calculate the lowest and highest values of C needed with 0.1-µH L
to tune through the commercial FM broadcast band of 88 to
108 MHz.
10. (a) At what frequency will a 200-µH coil with a 20-Q rs have a 1000-Q
XL? (b) What size C is needed for a 1000-Q Xe at this frequency?
(c) What is fr for this LC combination? (d) How much is the Q of the
coil?
11. Draw the schematic diagram of a parallel resonant circuit with the L,
C, and rs of Prob. 10. Let the applied voltage be 5 V. Calculate the
values of main-line current IT, ZT, and(} at: (a) the resonant frequency
fr; (b) 0.1 MHz below fr; (c) 0.1 MHz above fr.
12. For the series resonant circuit in Fig. 27-16: (a) How much is XL?
(b) Calculate Lin millihenrys and C in microfarads. (c) Calculate the
Q and bandwidth. (d) Calculate Ve and\{. (e) If Lis doubled and C
is one-half, what is fr? Calculate Q and bandwidth for this case. ( f) If
the original values of both L and C are doubled, calculate fr·
13. Redraw Fig. 27-16 as a parallel resonant circuit with the original
values and rs in series with the coil. (a) What are the Q and band-
width? (b) Calculate ZT at fr·
14. For the same circuit as Prob. 13, let rs increase to 500 Q. (a) What is
the Q now? (b) Calculate ZT at fr, one-half fr, and twice fr· (c) What
value of RP would be used for the same Q if rs were zero?

VT= Xe=
0.5V 1ooon

FIGURE 27-16
For Prob. 12.
 Chapter 27
Resonance 569

Frequency
FIGURE 27-17
For Prob. 18.

15. For the series circuit in Fig. 27-16: (a) Tabulate the I and(} values
every kilohertz from 2 to 9 kHz. (b) Draw the response curve showing
I vs. frequency.
16. For the values in Fig. 27-16 connected for parallel resonance:
(a) Calculate ZT and(} every kilohertz from 2 to 9 kHz. (b) Draw the
response curve showing ZT vs. frequency.
17. A series resonant circuit produces 240 mV across L with a 2-mV
input. (a) How much is the Q of the coil? (b) Calculate r8 , if Lis 5 mH
and fr is 0.3 MHz. (c) How much C is needed for this fr?
18. Refer to the relative response curve in Fig. 27-17. (a) For
fr= 10.7 MHz and Q = 50, determine the bandwidth Mand the
edge frequencies Ji and fz. (b) Do the same for a lower fr of 456 kHz.
Q is still 50.

Answers to Practice Problems

27-1 (a) 1000 kHz 27-6 (b) Q = 50
(b) 1000 kHz 27-7 (a) Lowest
27-2 (a) F (b) 1 :4
(b) T 27-8 (a) Capacitive
(c) T (b) Inductive
27-3 (a) F 27-9 (a) Low
(b) T (b) Less
(c) T 27-10 (a) Q = 50
27-4 (a) Less (b) Q = 50
(b) 200 µH (c) ZT = 50 kn
27-5 (a) Q = 100 27-11 (a) fr = 159 kHz
(b) zT = 25 kn (b) fr= 318 kHz
27-6 (a) M = 0.25 MHz
 Pllters
A filter separates different components that are mixed together. For
instance, a mechanical filter can separate particles from liquid, or small
particles from large particles. An electrical filter can separate different
frequency components.
Generally, inductors and capacitors are used for filtering because of
their opposite frequency characteristics. XL increases but X0 decreases
with higher frequencies. In addition, their filtering action depends on
whether L and Care in series or parallel with the load. The most common
filtering applications are separating audio from radio frequencies, or vice
versa, and separating ac variations from the average de level. More details
are explained in the following topics:

28-1 Examples of Filtering

28-2 Direct Current Combined with Alternating Current
28-3 Transformer Coupling
28-4 Capacitive Coupling
28-5 Bypass Capacitors
28-6 Filter Circuits
28-7 Low-pass Filters
28-8 High-pass Filters
28-9 Resonant Filters
28-10 Interference Filters

28-1 different frequency components, it is usually

EXAMPLES OF FILTERING necessary either to favor or to reject one fre-
Electronic circuits often have currents of differ- quency or a band of frequencies. Then an elec·
ent frequencies corresponding to voltages of trical filter is used to separate higher or lower
different frequencies. The reason is that a frequencies.
source produces current with the same fre- The electrical filter can pass the higher-
quency as the applied voltage. As examples, the frequency component to the load resistance,
ac signal input to an audio circuit can have high which is the case of a high-pass filter, or a
and low audio frequencies; an rf circuit can low-pass filter can be used to favor the lower
have a wide range of radio frequencies in its frequencies. In Fig. 28-la, the high-pass filter
input; the audio detector in a radio has both allows 10 kHz to produce output, while reject~
radio frequencies and audio frequencies in the ing or attenuating the lower frequency of
output. Finally, the rectifier in a power supply 100 Hz. In (b), the filtering action is reversed to
produces de output with an ac ripple superim· pass the lower frequency of 100 Hz, while at-
posed on the average de level. tenuating 10 kHz. These examples are for high
In such applications where the current has and low audio frequencies.
 Chapter 28
Filters 571

Input Output to load

(a)

Input Output to load

(b)
FIGURE 28-1
Function of electrical filters. (a) High-pass filter
couples higher frequencies to the load. (b)
Low-pass filter couples lower frequencies to the
load.

For the case of audio mixed with radio polarity remains the same, either positive or
frequencies, a low-pass filter allows the audio negative. The same idea applies to voltages.
frequencies in the output. Or, a high-pass filter Figure 28-2 illustrates how a circuit can
allows the radio frequencies to be passed to the have pulsating direct current or voltage. Here,
load. the steady de voltage of the battery VB is in
series with the ac voltage ~. Since the two
Practice Problems 28-1 series generators add, the voltage across RL is
(answers on page 592) the sum of the two applied voltages, as shown
A high-pass filter will pass which of the by the waveshape of uR in (b).
following: If values are taken at opposite peaks of the
(a) 10 or 500 kHz. ac variation, when ~ is at + 10 V, it adds to the
(b) 60 Hz or a steady de level. +20 V of the battery to provide +30 V across
RL; when the ac voltage is -10 V, it bucks the
28-2 battery voltage of +20 V to provide +10 V
DIRECT CURRENT COMBINED across RL. When the ac voltage is at zero, the
WITH ALTERNATING CURRENT voltage across RL equals the battery voltage of
Current that varies in amplitude but does not +20 v.
reverse in polarity is considered pulsating or The combined voltage uR then consists of
fluctuating direct current. It is not a steady di- the ac variations fluctuating above and below
rect current because its value fluctuates. How- the battery voltage as the axis, instead of the
ever, it is not alternating current because the zero axis for ac voltage. The result is a pulsating
 Chapter 28
572 Filters

+10V~
+ :ime

-10 v

(a} (b)
FIGURE 28-2
Pulsating direct current and voltage. (a) Circuit.
(b) Graph of voltage across RL equal to V8 plus
~. Frequency of ac voltage is 1000 Hz.

de voltage, since it is fluctuating but always has be VI RL. This alternating current is a sine wave,
positive polarity with respect to zero. with an rms value of 1.2 A.
The pulsating direct current i through RL Also, if you connect the same RL across
has the same waveform, fluctuating above and the 200-V de source in (b), instead of using the
below the steady de level of 20 A. The i and v ac source, the steady direct current in RL will be
values are the same because R is 1 Q. 200fi , or 2 A. The battery source voltage and its
00
Another example is illustrated in Fig. 28-3. current are considered steady de values be-
If the 100-Q RL is connected across the 120-V cause there are no variations.
60-Hz ac power line in (a), the current in RL will However, suppose that the ac source ~

Ac variations
60 Hz

RL = RL = RL =
100 n 100.Q 100.Q
VA =
120 v
60 Hz
~
Time

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 28-3
An example of providing fluctuating de voltage
across RL. (a) Ac source alone. ( b) De source
alone. ( c) Ac source in series with de source.
 Chapter 28
Filters 573

and de source VB are connected in series with It should be noted that with respect to the
RL, as in (c). What will happen to the current de level the fluctuations represent alternating
and voltage for RL? Will ~ or VB supply the voltage or current that actually reverses in po-
current? The answer is that both sources will. larity. For example, the change of vR from +20
Each voltage source produces current as to + 10 Vis just a decrease in positive voltage
though the other were not there, assuming the compared with zero. However, compared with
sources have negligibly small internal imped- the de level of + 20 V, the value of+ 10 V is
ance. The result then is the fluctuating de volt- 10 V more negative than the axis.
age or current shown, with the ac variations of
~ superimposed on the average de level of VB. Typical Examples of DC Level with AC Com-
ponent. As a common application, electron
DC and AC Components. The pulsating de tubes and transistors always have fluctuating de
voltage vR in Fig. 28-2 is just the original ac voltage or current when used for amplifying an
voltage ~ with its axis shifted to a de level by ac signal. The tube or transistor amplifier needs
the battery voltage VB. In effect, a de component steady de voltages to operate. The signal input
has been inserted into the ac variations. is an ac variation, usually with a de axis to
Referring back to Fig. 28-2, if you measure establish the desired operating level. The am-
across RL with a de voltmeter, it will read the de plified output is also an ac variation superim-
level of 20 V. An ac voltmeter will read the rms posed on a de supply voltage that supplies the
value of the variations, which is 7 .07 V. required power output. Therefore, the input
It is convenient, therefore, to consider the and output circuits have fluctuating de voltage.
pulsating or fluctuating voltage and current in The examples in Fig. 28-4 illustrate two
two parts. One is the steady de component, possibilities, in terms of polarities with respect
which is the axis or average level of the varia - to chassis ground. In (a), the waveform is al-
tions; the other is the ac component, consisting ways positive, as in the previous examples. This
of the variations above and below the de axis. example could apply to collector voltage on an
Here the de level for VT is + 20 V, while the ac NPN transistor amplifier. Note the specific val-
component equals 10 V peak or 7 .07 V rms ues. The average de axis is the steady de level.
value. The positive peak equals the de level plus the

10 0
8 -2
:i
0
> 4
6 ..."'
0
>
-4 I8 v p-p
2
0
-8
_l
-10 v
{a) (b)
FIGURE 28-4
Typical examples of de voltage with ac compo-
nent. (a) Positive de values. (b) Negative de
values.
 Chapter 28
574 Filters

peak ac value. The minimum point equals the Practice Problems 28-2
de level minus the peak ac value. The peak-to- (answers on page 592)
peak value of the ac component and its rms For the fluctuating de waveform in Fig.
value are the same as for the ac signal alone. 28-4a, specify the following voltages:
However, it is better to subtract the minimum (a) Average de level.
from the maximum for the peak-to-peak value, (b) Maximum and minimum values.
in case the waveform is unsymmetrical. (c) Peak-to-peak of ac component.
In (b) all the values are negative. This ex- (d) Peak and rms of ac component.
ample could apply to control-grid voltage in a
vacuum-tube amplifier. Notice that here the 28-3
positive peak of the ac component subtracts TRANSFORMER COUPLING
from the de level because of the opposite Remember that a transformer produces in-
polarities. Now the negative peak adds to the duced secondary voltage just for variations in
negative de level to provide a maximum point of primary current. With pulsating direct current in
negative voltage. the primary, the secondary has output voltage
only for the ac variations, therefore. The de
Separating the AC Component. In many ap- component in the primary has no effect in the
plications, the circuit has pulsating de voltage, secondary.
but only the ac component is desired. Then the In Fig. 28-5, the pulsating de voltage in the
ac component can be passed to the load, while primary produces pulsating primary current.
the steady de component is blocked, either with The de axis corresponds to a steady value of
transformer coupling or with capacitive cou- primary current that has a constant magnetic
pling. A transformer with a separate secondary field, but only when the field changes can sec-
winding isolates or blocks steady direct current ondary voltage be induced. Therefore, only the
in the primary. A capacitor isolates or blocks a fluctuations in the primary can produce output
steady de voltage. in the secondary. Since there is no output for

Pulsating de Ac output
in primary in secondary

2 4
FIGURE 28-5
Transformer coupling blocks de component.
With pulsating direct current in primary, the
output voltage in secondary has ac component
only.
 Chapter 28
Filters 575

the steady primary current, this de level corre- The steady de component is blocked, therefore,
sponds to the zero level for the ac output in the since it cannot produce voltage across R. How-
secondary. ever, the ac component is developed across R,
When the primary current increases above between the output terminals 3 and 4. Note that
the steady level, this increase produces one the zero axis of the ac voltage output corre-
polarity for the secondary voltage as the field sponds to the average level of the pulsating de
expands; when the primary current decreases voltage input.
below the steady level, the secondary voltage
has reverse polarity as the field contracts. The The DC Component Across C. The voltage
result in the secondary is an ac variation having across Cc is the steady de component of the
opposite polarities with respect to the zero level. input voltage because the variations of the ac
The phase of the ac secondary voltage may component are symmetrical above and below
be as shown or 180° opposite, depending on the average level. Furthermore, the series re-
the connections and direction of the windings. sistance is the same for charge and discharge.
Also, the ac secondary output may be more or As a result, any increase in charging voltage
less than the ac component in the primary, above the average level is counteracted by an
depending on the turns ratio. This ability to equal discharge below the average.
isolate the steady de component in the primary In Fig. 28-6, for example, when vin in-
while providing ac output in the secondary ap- creases from 20 to 30 V, this effect on charging
plies to all transformers with a separate second- Cc is nullified by the discharge when vin de-
ary winding, whether iron-core or air-core. creases from 20 to 10 V. At all times, however,
vin has a positive value that charges Cc in the
Practice Problems 28-3 polarity shown.
(answers on page 592) The net result is that only the average level
(a) Is transformer coupling an example of a is effective in charging Cc, since the variations
high-pass or low-pass filter? from the. axis neutralize each other. After a
(b) In Fig. 28-5, what is the level of v8 for the period of time, depending on the RC time con-
average de level of ip? stant, Cc will charge to the average value of the
pulsating de voltage applied, which is 20 V
28-4 here.
CAPACITIVE COUPLING
This method is probably the most common type The AC Component Across R. Although Cc
of coupling in amplifier circuits. The coupling is charged to the average de level, when the
means connecting the output of one circuit to pulsating input voltage varies above and below
the input' of the next. The requirements are to this level, the charge and discharge current
include all frequencies in the desired signal, produces IR voltage corresponding to the fluc-
while rejecting undesired components. Usually, tuations of the input. When vin increases above
the de component must be blocked from the the average level, Cc takes on charge, produc-
input to ac amplifiers. ing charging current through R. Even though
In Fig. 28-6, the pulsating de voltage the charging current may be too small to affect
across input terminals 1 and 2 is applied to the the voltage across Cc appreciably, the IR drop
RC coupling circuit. Cc will charge to the steady across a large value ohesistance can be practi-
de level, which is the average charging voltage. cally equal to the ac component of the input
 Chapter 28
576 Filters

3
0

Pulsating
de input
L2ov
de Ac output

Ac component

2 4
FIGURE 28-6
RC coupling blocks de component. With pul-
sating de voltage applied, output voltage across
R has ac component only.

voltage. In summary, a long RC time constant is It is important to note that there is practi-
needed for good coupling. (See Fig. 24-8 on cally no phase shift. This rule applies to all RC
p. 485.) coupling circuits, since R must be ten or more
If the polarity is considered, in Fig. 28-6, times X0 . Then the reactance is negligible com-
the charging current produced for an increase pared with the series resistance, and the phase
of vin produces electron flow from the low side angle of less than 5.7° is practically zero.
of R to the top, adding electrons to the negative
side of C0 . The voltage at the top of R is then Voltages Around the RC Coupling Circuit. If
positive with respect to the line below. you measure the pulsating de voltage input
When vin decreases below the average voltage across points 1 and 2 in Fig. 28-6 with a
level, C loses charge. The discharge current de voltmeter, it will read the average level of
then is in the opposite direction through R. The 20 V A voltmeter that reads only ac values
result is negative polarity for the ac voltage across these same points will read the fluctuat-
output across R. ing ac component, equal to 7 V rms.
When the input voltage is at its average Across points 1 and 3, a de voltmeter
level, there is no charge or discharge current, reads the steady de value of 20 V across C0 . An
resulting in zero voltage across R. The zero ac voltmeter across 1 and 3 reads zero.
level in the ac voltage across R corresponds to However, an ac voltmeter across the out-
the average level of the pulsating de voltage put R between points 3 and 4 will read the ac
applied to the RC circuit. voltage of 7 V rms; a de voltmeter across R
The end result is that with positive pulsat- reads zero.
ing de voltage applied, the values above the
average produce the positive half-cycle of the ac Typical Coupling Capacitors. Common val-
voltage across R; the values below the average ues of rf and of coupling capacitors for different
produce the negative half-cycle. Only this ac sizes of series R are listed in Table 28-1. In all
voltage across R is coupled to the next circuit. cases the coupling capacitor blocks the steady
 Chapter 28
Filters 577

TABLE 28-1. Typical AF and RF Coupling Capacitors•

VALUES OF C0
FREQUENCY R = 1.6 kQ R = 16 kQ R = 160 kQ FREQUENCY BAND
100 Hz 10 µF 1 µF 0.1 µF Lowaf
1000 Hz 1 µF 0.1 µf 0.01 µF Medium af
10 kHz 0.1 µF 0.01 µF 0.001 µF High af
100 kHz 0.01 µF 0.001 µF 100 pF Low rf
1 MHz 0.001 µF 100 pF 10 pF Medium rf
10 MHz 100 pF 10 pF 1 pF High rf
100 MHz 10 pF 1 pF 0.1 pF Vhf
*For coupling circuit in Fig. 28-6; X 0 c = 1/i. 0 R.

de component of the input voltage, while the ac coupling capacitor with a 1-kQ R: 1 pF,
component is passed to the resistance. 0.001 µF, or 5 µF?
The size of C0 required depends on the
frequency of the ac component. At each fre- 28-5
quency, the values of capacitance in the hori- BYPASS CAPACITORS
zontal row have an X 0 equal to one-tenth the A bypass is a path around a component. In
resistance value for each column. Typical audio circuits, the bypass is a parallel or shunt path.
coupling capacitors, then, are about 0.1 to Capacitors are often used in parallel with resis-
10 µF, depending on the lowest audio fre- tance, to bypass the ac component of a pulsating
quency to be coupled and the size of the series de voltage. The result, then, is a steady de volt-
resistance. Similarly, typical rf coupling capaci- age across the RC parallel combination, if the
tors are about 1 to 100 pF. bypass capacitance is large enough to have little
Values of C0 more than about 1 µF are reactance for the lowest frequency of the ac
usually electrolytic capacitors, which must be variations.
connected in the correct polarity. These can be As illustrated in Fig. 28-7, the capacitance
very small, many being 1lz in long, with a low cl in parallel with RI is an ac bypass capacitor
voltage rating of 3 to 25 V for transistor circuits. for R1 . For any frequency at which X01 is one-
Also, the leakage current of electrolytic capaci- tenth of R1 , or less, the ac component is by-
tors is not a serious problem in this application passed around R1 through the low reactance in
because of the low voltage and small series the shunt path. The result is practically zero ac
resistance for transistor coupling circuits. voltage across the bypass capacitor because of
its low reactance.
Practice Problems 28-4 Since the voltage is the same across R1 and
(answers on page 592) cl because they are in parallel, there is also no
(a) In Fig. 28-6, what is the voltage level for ac voltage across R1 for the frequency at which
the vout across R corresponding to the C1 is a bypass capacitor. We can say that R is
average de level of vin? bypassed for the frequency at which X 0 is one-
(b) Which of the following is a typical audio tenth of R. The bypassing also applies to higher
 Chapter 28
578 Filters

R2 =
sooon
,..,._ _ _ _ _---<> 3

vdc = 5 v
vac= 9.1 v
R,=
Xe, = + sooon
soon vdc =5 v
~ Vdc = 10V vac = 0.9 v

20---------------i-----04
FIGURE 28-7
Bypass capacitor C1 short-circuits R1 for ac
component of pulsating de input voltage.

frequencies where X 0 is less than one-tenth of ac voltage, equal to 0.9 V here, is the same
R. Then the ac voltage across the bypass capac- across R1 and C1 in [Link]. The remainder of
itor is even closer to zero because of its lower the ac applied voltage, equal to approximately
reactance. 9.1 V, is across R2 • In summary, then, the by-
pass capacitor provides an ac short circuit
Bypassing the AC Component of a Pulsating across its shunt resistance, so that little or no ac
DC Voltage. The voltages in Fig. 28-7 are voltage can be developed, without affecting the
calculated by considering the effect of C1 sepa- de voltages.
rately for \.'a.c and for Vac. For direct current, C1 Measuring voltages around the circuit in
is practically an open circuit. Then its reactance Fig. 28-7, a de voltmeter reads 5 V across R1
is so high compared with the 5000-Q R1 that X 01 and 5 V across R2 . An ac voltmeter across R2
can be ignored as a parallel branch. Therefore, reads 9 .1 V, which is almost all the ac input
R1 can be considered as a voltage divider in voltage. Across the bypass capacitor C1 the ac
series with R2 . Since R1 and R2 are equal, each voltage is only 0.9 V.
has 5 V, equal to one-half Vdc· Although this de In Table 28-2, typical sizes for rf and af
voltage division depends on R1 and R2 , the de bypass capacitors are listed. The values of C
voltage across C1 is the same 5 V as across its have been calculated at different frequencies for
parallel R1 . an X 0 one-tenth the shunt resistance given in
For the ac component of the applied volt- each column. Note that smaller values of R
age, however, the bypass capacitor has very low require larger values of C for bypassing. Also,
reactance. In fact, X 01 must be one-tenth of R1 , when X 0 equals one-tenth of R at one fre-
or less. Then the 5000-Q R1 is so high com- quency, X 0 will be even less for higher frequen-
pared with the low value of X 01 that R1 can be cies, improving the bypassing action. Therefore,
ignored as a parallel branch. Therefore, the the size of bypass capacitors should be consid-
500-Q X 01 can be considered as a voltage di- ered on the basis of the lowest frequency to be
vider in series with R2 • bypassed.
With an X 01 of 500 Q, this value in series It should be noted that the applications of
with the 5000-Q R2 allows approximately one- coupling and bypassing for C are really the
eleventh of Vac to be developed across C1 . This same, except that C0 is in series with R and the
 Chapter 28
Filters 579

TABLE 28-2. Typical AF and RF Bypass Capacitors•

VALUES OF C

FREQUENCY R = 16 kQ R = 1.6 kQ R = 160 Q FREQUENCY BAND

100 Hz 1 µF 10 µF 100 µF Lowaf

1000 Hz 0.1 µF 1 µF 10 µF Medium af
10 kHz 0.01 µF 0.1 µF 1 µF High af
100 kHz 0.001 µF 0.01 µF 0.1 µF Low rf
1 MHz 100 pF 0.001 µF [Link] µF Medium rf
10 MHz 10 pF 100 pF 0.001 µF High rf
100 MHz 1 pF 10 pF 100 pF Vhf
*For RC bypass circuit in Fig. 28-7; X 01 = 1/i 0 R.

bypass C is in parallel with R. In both cases X 0 equal to 5 V across R 2 and 5 V across R1 . This
must be one-tenth or less of R. Then C0 couples 5 vat 1000 Hz is also present across cl' since it
the ac signal to R. Or the shunt bypass short- is in parallel with R1 .
circuits R for the ac signal. For the rf voltage at 1 MHz, however, the
reactance of the bypass capacitor is only
Bypassing Radio Frequencies but Not Audio 1600 Q. This is one-tenth of R1 . Then X 0 and
Frequencies. See Fig. 28-8. At the audio fre- R1 in parallel have a combined impedance
quency of 1000 Hz, C1 has a reactance of equal to approximately 1600 Q.
1.6 MQ. This reactance is so much higher than Now, with a 1600-Q impedance for the
R1 that the impedance of the parallel combina- R1 C1 bank in series with the 16,000 Q of R 2 , the
tion is essentially equal to the 16,000 Q of R1 . voltage across R1 and C1 is one-eleventh the
Then R1 and R2 serve as a voltage divider for applied rf voltage. Then there is 0.9 V across
the applied af voltage of 10 V. Each of the equal the lower impedance of R1 and C1 , with 9.1 V
resistances has one-half the applied voltage, across the larger resistance of R 2 . As a result,

R 2 = 16,000 .Q
v-----.----03
vat= 5 v
vrt = 10 v vrt = 9.1 v
f= 1 MHz
R 1 = 16,000 .Q
c, vat= 5 v
100 pF vrf = 0.9 v
vat= 10 v
f = 1 kHz Xe, = 1.6 Mn at 1 kHz
= 1600 .Q at 1 MHz
o---------------------..&......----04
FIGURE 28-8
C1 bypasses R1 for radio frequencies but not
audio frequencies.
 Chapter 28
580 Filters

the rf component of the applied voltage can be With combinations of Land C, filters are
considered bypassed. cl is the rf bypass capac- named to correspond to the circuit configura-
itor across R1 . tion. Most common types are the L, T, and 'lT,
shown in Figs. 28-9 to 28-11. Any one of the
Practice Problems 28-5 three can function as either a low-pass or a
(answers on page 592) high-pass filter.
(a) In Fig. 28-8, is C1 an af or rf bypass? For either low-pass or high-pass filters with
(b) Which of the following is a typical audio L and C the reactance XL must increase with
bypass capacitor across a 1-kQ R: 1 pF, higher frequencies, while Xe decreases. The
0.001 µF, or 5 µF? frequency characteristics of XL and Xe cannot
be changed. However, the circuit connections
28-6 are opposite to reverse the filtering action.
FILTER CIRCUITS In general, high-pass filters use:
In terms of their function, filters can be classi-
fied as either low-pass or high-pass. A low-pass 1. Coupling capacitance C in series with the
filter allows the lower-frequency components of load. Then Xe can be low for high fre-
the applied voltage to develop output voltage quencies to be passed to RL, while low
across the load resistance, while the higher frequencies are blocked.
frequency components are attenuated or re- 2. Choke inductance Lin parallel across RL.
duced in the output. A high-pass filter does the Then the shunt XL can be high for high
opposite, allowing the higher-frequency com- frequencies to prevent a short circuit
ponents of the applied voltage to develop volt- across RL, while low frequencies are by-
age across the output load resistance. passed.
The case of an RC coupling circuit is an
example of a high-pass filter because the ac
The opposite characteristics for low-pass
component of the input voltage is developed
filters are:
across R while the de voltage is blocked by the
series capacitor. Furthermore, with higher fre-
quencies in the ac component, more ac voltage 1. Inductance L in series with the load. The
is coupled. For the opposite case, a bypass high XL for high frequencies can serve as a
capacitor is an example of a low-pass filter. The choke, while low frequencies can be
higher frequencies are bypassed, but the lower passed to RL.
the frequency, the less the bypassing action. 2. Bypass capacitance C in parallel across RL.
Then lower frequencies can develop output Then high frequencies are bypassed by a
voltage across the shunt bypass capacitor. small Xe, while low frequencies are not
In order to make the filtering more selec- affected by the shunt path.
tive in terms of which frequencies are passed to
produce output voltage across the load, filter Practice Problems 28-6
circuits generally combine inductance and ca- (answers on page 592)
pacitance. Since inductive reactance increases (a) Is series C for high-pass or low-pass filter-
with higher frequencies, while capacitive react- ing?
ance decreases, the two opposite effects im- (b) Is parallel C for high-pass or low-pass fil-
prove the filtering action. tering?
 Chapter 28
Filters 581

28-7 lower frequencies, L has low reactance, and

LOW-PASS FILTERS most of the input voltage can be developed
Figure 28-9 illustrates low-pass circuits from the across RL.
case of a single filter element with a shunt by- In (c), the use of both the series choke and
pass capacitor in (a) or a series choke in (b), to bypass capacitor improves the filtering by pro-
the more elaborate combinations of an L-type viding sharper cutoff between the low frequen-
filter in (c), a T type in (d), and a 7T type in (e) cies that can develop voltage across RL and the
and ( f). With an applied input voltage having higher frequencies stopped from the load by
different frequency components, the low-pass producing maximum voltage across L. Simi-
filter action results in maximum low-frequency larly, the T-type circuit in (d) and the 7T-type
voltage across RL, while most of the high-fre- circuits in (e) and (f) improve filtering.
quency voltage is developed across the series Using the series resistance in ( f), instead of
choke or resistance. a choke, provides an economical 7T filter need-
In (a), the shunt capacitor C bypasses RL ing less space.
for high frequencies. In (b), the choke L acts as The ability to reduce the amplitude of
a voltage divider in series with RL. Since L has undesired frequencies is the attenuation of the
maximum reactance for the highest frequen- filter. The frequency at which the attenuation
cies, this component of the input voltage is reduces the output to 70. 7 percent response is
developed across L, with little across RL. For the cutoff frequency.

Output= low
Input= low frequencies
and high c RL c
frequencies

(a) (b) (c)

L R

c, c,

(d) (e) (/)

FIGURE 28-9
Low-pass filter circuits. (a) Bypass capacitor C
in parallel with RL. ( b) Choke L in series with
RL. (c) The inverted-L type with choke and
bypass. ( d) T type with two chokes and one
bypass. ( e) '7T type with one choke and two
bypass capacitors. (f) '7T type with series resistor
instead of choke.
 Cha ter 28
582 Filters

Passband and Stop Band. As illustrated in the higher frequency 60-Hz ac component, as
Fig. 28-10, a low-pass filter attenuates frequen- in the pulsating de output of a power rectifier.
cies above the cutoff frequency of 15 kHz in this
example. Any component of the input voltage Circuit Variations. The choice betwe~n the
having a frequency lower than 15 kHz can pro- T-type filter with a series input choke and the 'lT
duce output voltage across the load. These type with a shunt input capacitor depends upon
frequencies are in the passband. Frequencies of the internal resistance of the generator supply-
15 kHz or more are in the stop band. The ing input voltage to the filter. A low-resistance
sharpness of filtering between the passband and generator needs the T filter so that the choke
the stop band depends on the type of circuit. In can provide a high series impedance for the
general, the more L and C components, the bypass capacitor. Otherwise, the bypass must
sharper the response of the filter can be. There- have extremely large values to short-circuit the
fore, 'lT and T types are better filters than the L low-resistance generator for high frequencies.
type and the bypass or choke alone. The 'lT filter is more suitable with a high-
The response curve in Fig. 28-10 is illus- resistance generator where the input capacitor
trated for the application of a low-pass filter can be effective as a bypass. For the same rea-
attenuating rf voltages while passing audio fre- sons, the L filter can have the shunt bypass
quencies to the load. This is necessary where either in the input for a high-resistance genera-
the input voltage has rf and af components but tor or across the output for a low-resistance
only the audio voltage is desired for the af cir- generator.
cuits that follow the filter. For all the filter circuits, the series choke
A good example is filtering the audio out- can be connected either in the high side of the
put of the detector circuit in a radio receiver, line, as in Fig. 28-9, or in series in the opposite
after the rf-modulated carrier signal has been side of the line, without any effect on the filter-
rectified. Another common application of low- ing action. Also, the series components can be
pass filtering is where the steady de component connected in both sides of the line for a bal-
of pulsating de input must be separated from anced ft lter circuit.

Practice Problems 28-7

(answers on page 592)
"i .....----- (a) Which diagrams in Fig. 28-9 show a 'TT-type
.2
filter?
e"'"'u (b) Does the response curve in Fig. 28-10
<ti

ig, show low-pass or high-pass filtering?

j9
0 Passband
> audio frequencies 28-8
HIGH-PASS FILTERS
As illustrated in Fig. 28-11, the high-pass filter
Frequency-.. passes to the load all frequencies higher than
FIGURE 28-10 the cutoff frequency, while lower frequencies
Response of low-pass filter with cutoff at cannot develop appreciable voltage across the
15 kHz, passing audio voltage but attenuating load. The graph in (a) shows the response of a
radio frequencies. high-pass filter with a stop band of 0 to 50 Hz.
 Chapter 28
Filters 583

"'C
Ctl
.2
"'"'
E
I.I
Ctl
Cl)
Cl
.I!!
Passband
audio
re
Input=
high and low
frequencies
Output= high
frequencies

RL
]'
L RL

0 frequencies
>

Frequency__.

rt
(a) (b) (c)

C2 c

L RL L, L2 RL

(d) (e)
FIGURE 28-11
High-pass filters. (a) Response curve for af
filter cutting off at 50 Hz. ( b) RC coupling cir-
cuit. (c) Inverted L. (d) T type. (e) 'TT type.

Above the cutoff frequency of 50 Hz, the higher For low frequencies, however, RL is effec-
audio frequencies in the passband can produce tively short-circuited by the low inductive react-
af voltage across the output load resistance. ance across the line. Also Cc has high reactance
The high-pass filtering action results from and develops most of the voltage at low fre-
using Cc as a coupling capacitor in series with quencies, stopping these frequencies from de-
the load, as in (b). The L, T, and 7T types use the veloping voltage across the load.
inductance for a high-reactance choke across
the line. In this way the higher-frequency com- Bandpass Filtering. A high-pass filter can be
ponents of the input voltage can develop very combined with a low-pass filter. Then the net
little voltage across the series capacitance, al- result is to pass the band of frequencies that are
lowing most of this voltage to be produced not stopped by either circuit. Such a bandpass
across RL. The inductance across the line has response is shown in Fig. 28-12 for audio fre-
higher reactance with increasing frequencies, quencies. In this example, the only frequencies
allowing the shunt impedance to be no lower passed by both filters are 50 to 15,000 Hz. It
than the value of RL. should be noted, though, that filters for a spe-
 Chapter 28
584 Filters

Stop-band of 28-9
high-pass filter
RESONANT FILTERS
15,000 Hz Tuned circuits provide a convenient method of
filtering a band of radio frequencies because
relatively small values of L and C are necessary
for resonance. A tuned circuit provides filtering
Passband action by means of its maximum response at the
50-15,000 Hz resonant frequency.
The width of the band of frequencies af-
fected by resonance depends on the Q of the
Frequency ---..
tuned circuit, a higher Q providing narrower
FIGURE 28-12
bandwidth. Because resonance is effective for a
Bandpass response curve for audio frequen- band of frequencies below and above fr, reso-
cies.
nant filters are called band-stop or bandpass
filters. Series or parallel LC circuits can be used
cific band of frequencies are most often used at
for either function, dep~nding on the connec-
radio frequencies, as another application of
tions with respect to RL.
resonant circuits.

Constant-k Filter. If we consider an L type, as Series Resonance Filters. A series resonant

a basic example, the values of inductance and circuit has maximum current and minimum
capacitance can be designed to make the prod- impedance at the resonant frequency. Con-
uct of XL and X0 constant at all frequencies. nected in series with RL, as in Fig. 28-13a, the
The purpose is to have the filter present a con- series-tuned LC circuit allows frequencies at
stant impedance at the input and output termi- and near resonance to produce maximum out-
nals. The constant-k filter can be high-pass or put across RL. Therefore, this is a case of
low-pass. band-pass filtering. When the series LC circuit is
connected across RL as in (b), however, the
The m-derived Filter. This is a modified form resonant circuit provides a low-impedance
of the constant-k filter. The design is based on shunt path that short-circuits RL. Then there is
the ratio of the filter cutoff frequency to the minimum output. This action corresponds to a
frequency of infinite attenuation. This ratio de- shunt bypass capacitor, but the resonant circuit
termines the m factor, which is generally be- is more selective, short-circuiting RL just for
tween 0.8 and 1.25. The m-derived filter also frequencies at and near resonance. For the
can be high-pass or low-pass. The advantage is bandwidth of the tuned circuit, therefore, the
very sharp cutoff. Details on the design of filters series resonant circuit in shunt with RL provides
can be found in most electronics handbooks. band-stop filtering.

Practice Problems 28-8 Parallel Resonance Filters. A parallel reso-

(answers on page 592) nant circuit has maximum impedance at the
Refer to Fig. 28-11. resonant frequency. Connected in series with
(a) Which diagram shows a T-type filter? RL, as in Fig. 28-14a, the parallel-tuned LC
(b) Does the response curve in (a) show circuit provides maximum impedance in series
high-pass or low-pass filtering? with RL, at and near the resonant frequency.
 Chapter 28
Filters 585

L c

Series resonant
Series
resonant

(a) (b)
FIGURE 28-13
Filtering action of series resonant circuit. (a)
Bandpass in series with RL. ( b) Band stop in
shunt with RL.

Then these frequencies produce maximum resonance, though, RL is shunted by a high

voltage across the LC circuit but minimum out- impedance, resulting in maximum output volt-
put voltage across RL. This is a band-stop filter, age.
therefore, for the bandwidth of the tuned circuit.
The parallel LC circuit connected across L-type Resonant Filter. Series and parallel
RL, however, as in (b), provides a bandpass resonant circuits can be combined in L, T, or 'TT
filter. At resonance, the high impedance of the sections to improve the filtering. Figure 28-15
parallel LC circuit allows RL to develop its out- illustrates the L-type filter, with band-stop filter-
put voltage. Below resonance, RL is short-cir- ing for the circuit arrangement in (a} but band-
cuited by the low reactance of L; above reso- pass filtering in (b). The circuit in (a} is a band-
nance, RL is short-circuited by the low stop filter because the. parallel resonant circuit is
reactance of C. For frequencies at the near in series with the load, while the series resonant·

Parallel
resonant

c Parallel
L
resonant
c

(a) (b)
FIGURE 28-14
Filtering action of parallel resonant circuit. (a)
Band stop in series with RL. (b) Bandpass in
shunt with RL.
 Chapter 28
586 Filters

L,

(a) (b)
FIGURE 28-15
Inverted-L filter with resonant circuits. (a) Band
stop. ( b) Bandpass.

circuit is in shunt with the load. In (b) the band- Power-Line Filter. Although the power line is
pass filtering results from connecting the series a source of 60-Hz voltage, it is also a conductor
resonant circuit in series with the load, while the for interfering rf currents produced by motors,
parallel resonant circuit is across the load. fluorescent lighting circuits, and rf equipment.
When a receiver is connected to the power line,
Practice Problems 28-9 the rf interference can produce noise and whis-
(answers on page 592) tles in the receiver output. To minimize this
Answer true or false. interference, the filter shown in Fig. 28-16 can
(a) A parallel resonant LC circuit in series with be used. The filter is plugged into the wall outlet
the load is a band-stop filter. for 60-Hz power, while the receiver is plugged
(b) A series resonant LC circuit in series with into the filter. An rf bypass capacitor across the
the load is a bandpass filter. line with two series rf chokes forms a low-pass
balanced L-type filter. Using a choke in each
28-10 side of the line makes the circuit balanced to
INTERFERENCE FILTERS ground.
Voltage or current not at the desired frequency The chokes provide high impedance for
represents interference. Usually, such interfer- interfering rf current but not for 60 Hz, isolating
ence can be eliminated by a filter. Some typical the receiver input connections from rf interfer-
applications are (1) low-pass filter to eliminate rf ence in the power line. Also, the bypass capaci-
interference from the 60-Hz power-line input to tor short-circuits the receiver input for radio
a receiver, (2) high-pass filter to eliminate rf frequencies but not for 60 Hz. The unit then is a
interference from the signal picked up by a low-pass filter for 60-Hz power applied to the
television receiving antenna, and (3) resonant receiver while rejecting higher frequencies. The
filter to eliminate an interfering radio frequency current rating means the filter can be used for
from the desired rf signal. The resonant band- equipment that draws 3 A or less from the
stop filter is called a wavetrap. power line without excessive heat in the chokes.
 Chapter 28
Filters 587

attenuates frequencies below 54 MHz, which is

1 mH
the lowest frequency for channel 2.
At frequencies lower than 54 MHz these-
ries capacitances provide increasing reactance
Input 0.01 µF Output with a larger voltage drop, while the shunt
inductances have less reactance and short-cir-
cuit the load. Higher frequencies are passed to
1 mH
the load as the series capacitive reactance de-
creases and the shunt inductive reactance in-
creases.
(a) (b)
Connections to the filter unit are made at
FIGURE 28-16 the receiver end of the line from the antenna.
Power-line filter to pass 60 Hz but filter out Either end of the filter is connected to the an-
radio frequencies. (a) Circuit of balanced L- tenna terminals on the receiver, with the oppo-
type low-pass filter. ( b) Filter unit, rated 3 A, site end connected to the antenna line.
120 V. (P. R. Mallory and Co., Inc.) ·

Television Antenna Filter. When a television Practice Problems 28-10

receiver has interference in the picture resulting (answers on page 592)
from radio frequencies below the television Answer true or false.
broadcast band, picked up by the receiving an- (a) A wavetrap is a band-stop filter.
tenna, this rf interference can be reduced by the (b) The television antenna filter in Fig. 28-17 is
high-pass filter shown in Fig. 28-17. The filter a high-pass filter with series capacitors.

(a) (b)
FIGURE 28-17
Television antenna filter to pass channel fre-
quencies above 54 MHz but attenuate lower
frequencies. (a) Filter unit. ( b) Underside of
cover showing series capacitors and shunt
chokes. (R. L. Drake Co.)
 Chapter 28
588 Filters

Summary

1. A filter separates high and low frequencies. With input of different

frequencies, the high-pass filter allows the higher frequencies to
produce output voltage across the load; a low-pass filter provides
output voltage for the lower frequencies.
2. Pulsating or fluctuating direct current varies in amplitude but does
not reverse its direction. Similarly, a pulsating or fluctuating de
voltage varies in amplitude but maintains one polarity, either positive
or negative.
3. The pulsating direct current or voltage consists of a steady de level,
equal to the average value, and an ac component that reverses in
polarity with respect to the average level. The de and ac components
can be separated by filters.
4. An RC coupling circuit is effectively a high-pass filter for pulsating
direct current. C0 blocks the steady de voltage but passes the ac
component.
5. A transformer with an isolated secondary winding also is effectively a
high-pass filter. With pulsating direct current in the primary, only the
ac component produces output voltage in the secondary.
6. A bypass capacitor in parallel with R provides a low-pass filter.
7. Combinations of L, C, and R can be arranged as L, T, or 'TT filters for
more selective filtering. All three arrangements can be used for either
low-pass or high-pass action.
8. In high-pass filters, the capacitance must be in series with the load as
a coupling capacitor, with shunt R or L across the line.
9. For low-pass filters, the capacitance is across the line as a bypass
capacitor, while R or L then must be in series with the load.
10. A bandpass or band-stop filter has in effect two cutoff frequencies.
The bandpass filter passes to the load those frequencies in the band
between the cutoff frequencies, while attenuating all other frequen-
cies higher and lower than the passband. A band-stop filter does the
opposite, attenuating the band between the cutoff frequencies, while
passing to the load all other frequencies higher and lower than the
stop band.
11. Resonant circuits are generally used for bandpass or band-stop
filtering with radio frequencies.
12. For bandpass filtering, the series resonant LC circuit must be in series
with the load, for minimum series opposition, while the high imped-
ance of parallel resonance is across the load.
 Chapter 28
Filters 589

13. For band-stop filtering, the circuit is reversed, with the parallel
resonant LC circuit in series with the load, while the series resonant
circuit is in shunt across the load.
14. A wavetrap is an application of the resonant band-stop filter.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

1. With input frequencies from direct current up to 15 kHz, a high-pass

filter allows the most output voltage to be developed across the load
resistance for which of the following frequencies? (a) Direct current;
(b) 15 Hz; (c) 150 Hz; (d) 15,000 Hz.
2. With input frequencies from direct current up to 15 kHz a low-pass
filter allows the most output voltage to be developed across the load
resistance for which of the following frequencies? (a) Direct current;
(b) 15 Hz; (c) 150 Hz; (d) 15,000 Hz.
3. An R 0 C 0 coupling circuit is a high-pass filter for pulsating de voltage
because: (a) C0 has high reactance for high frequencies; (b) C0
blocks de voltage; ( c) C0 has low reactance for low frequencies;
(d) R 0 has minimum opposition for low frequencies.
4. A transformer with an isolated secondary winding is a high-pass filter
for pulsating direct primary current because: (a) the steady primary
current has no magnetic field; (b) the ac component of the primary
current has the strongest field; (c) only variations in primary current .
can induce secondary voltage; (d) the secondary voltage is maximum
for steady direct current in the primary.
5. Which of the following is a low-pass filter? (a) L type with series C and
shunt L; (b) 'TT type with series C and shunt L; (c) T type with series C
and shunt L; (d) L type with series L and shunt C.
6. A bypass capacitor Cb across Rb provides low-pass filtering because:
(a) current in the Cb branch is maximum for low frequencies;
(b) voltage across Cb is minimum for high frequencies; (c) voltage
across Cb is minimum for low frequencies; (d) voltage across Rb is
minimum for low frequencies.
7. An ac voltmeter across C0 in Fig. 28-6 reads (a) practically zero;
(b) 7.07 V; (c) 10 V; (d) 20 V
8. Which of the following L-type filters is the best band-stop filter?
(a) Series resonant LC circuit in series with the load and parallel
resonant LC circuit in shunt; (b) parallel resonant LC circuit in series
with the load and series resonant LC circuit in shunt; (c) series
 Chapter 28
590 Filters

resonant LC circuits in series and in parallel with the load; (d) parallel
resonant LC circuits in series and in parallel with the load.
9. A 455-kHz wavetrap is a resonant LC circuit tuned to 455 kHz and
connected as a (a) band-stop filter for frequencies at and near
455 kHz; (b) bandpass filter for frequencies at and near 455 kHz;
(c) band-stop filter for frequencies from direct current up to 455 kHz;
(d) bandpass filter for frequencies from 455 kHz up to 300 MHz.
10. A power-line filter for rejecting rf interference has (a) rf coupling
capacitors in series with the power line; (b) rf chokes in shunt across
the power line; (c) 60-Hz chokes in series with the power line; (d) rf
bypass capacitors in shunt across the power line.

Essay Questions
1. What is the function of an electrical filter?
2. Give two examples where the voltage has different frequency com-
ponents.
3. (a) What is meant by pulsating direct current or voltage? (b) What are
the two components of a pulsating de voltage? (c) How can you
measure the value of each of the two components?
4. Define the function of the following filters in terms of output voltage
across the load resistance: (a) High-pass filter. Why is an R0 C0
coupling circuit an example? (b) Low-pass filter. Why is an Rb~
bypass circuit an example? (c) Bandpass filter. How does it differ
from a coupling circuit? (d) Band-stop filter. How does it differ from
a bandpass filter?
5. Draw circuit diagrams for the following filter types. No values are
necessary. (a) T-type high-pass and T-type low-pass; (b) '7T-type
low-pass, balanced with a filter reactance in both sides of the line.
6. Draw the circuit diagrams for L-type bandpass and L-type band-stop
filters. How do these two circuits differ from each other?
7. Draw the response curve for each of the following filters: (a) low-pass
cutting off at 20,000 Hz; (b) high-pass cutting off at 20 Hz;
(c) bandpass for 20 to 20,000 Hz; (d) bandpass for 450 to 460 kHz.
8. Give one similarity and one difference in comparing a coupling
capacitor and a bypass capacitor.
9. Give two differences between a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter.
10. Explain briefly why the power-line filter in Fig. 28-16 passes 60-Hz
alternating current but not 1-MHz rf current.
 Chapter 28
Filters 591

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Refer to the RC coupling circuit in Fig. 28-6, with R equal to

160,000 Q. (a) Calculate the required value for C0 at 1000 Hz.
(b) How much is the steady de voltage across C0 and across R? (c)
How much is the ac voltage across C0 and across R?
2. Refer to the R1 C1 bypass circuit in Fig. 28-8. (a) Why is 1 MHz
bypassed but not 1 kHz? (b) If C1 were doubled in capacitance, what
is the lowest frequency that could be bypassed, maintaining a 10: 1
ratio of R to X 0 ?
3. Calculate the C0 needed to couple frequencies of 50 to 15,000 Hz
with a 500-kQ R.
4. Show the fluctuating plate current ib of a vacuum tube that has an
average de axis of 24 mA and a square-wave ac component with a
10-mA peak value. Label the de axis, maximum and minimum
positive values, and the peak-to-peak alternating current.
5. Show the fluctuating grid voltage v0 of a vacuum tube that has an
average de axis of -8 Vanda sine-wave ac component with 3 V
peak value. Label the de axis, maximum and minimum negative
values, and peak-to-peak ac voltage.
6. Do the same as in Prob. 4 for the fluctuating collector current i0 of an
NPN transistor.
7. (a) Draw an inverted L-type band-stop filter used as a wavetrap for
455 kHz. (b) Give the inductance necessary with a 80-pF C.
8. (a) Referring to Fig. 28-6, calculate the value of C0 necessary for
coupling 50 Hz when R is 500 kQ. (b) Referring to Fig. 28-7, calcu-
late the value of C1 necessary for bypassing R1 at 50 Hz.
9. Referring to the audio tone-control switch in Fig. 28-18, calculate the
required capacitance values for the following: (a) C1 to bypass R1 at

R 1 =100 k.Q

FIGURE 28-18
For Prob. 9.
 Chapter 28
592 Filters

10,000 Hz; (b) C2 to bypass R1 at 5000 Hz; (c) C3 to bypass R1 at

2000 Hz.
10. Referring to the RC low-pass filter in Fig. 28-9a, draw the schematic
diagram with values of 75 kQ for R, 0.001 µF for C, and 10 MQ for
RL. (a) For 10 V input, calculate the values of Ve at 1, 2, 5, 10, and
15 kHz. (b) Draw the response curve of the filter, plotting Ve vs.
frequency.

Answers to Practice Problems

28-1 (a) 500 kHz 28-5 (b) 5 µF
(b) 60 Hz 28-6 (a) High-pass
28-2 (a) 6V (b) Low-pass
(b) 10 and 2 V 28-7 (a) e and f
(c) 8V (b) Low-pass
(d) 4 and 2.8 V 28-8 (a) d
28-3 (a) High pass (b) High-pass
(b) ov 28-9 (a) T
28-4 (a) OV (b) T
(b) 5 µF 28-10 (a) T
28-5 (a) Rf (b) T
 Review of
Chapters
3Sto28
Summary
1. Xe and XL are opposite reactances. In series, the ohms of Xe and XL
cancel; in parallel, the capacitive and inductive branch currents
cancel.
2. As a result, circuits with R, Xe, and XL can be reduced to one net
reactance and one equivalent resistance. In series circuits, the net
reactance is added with the total resistance by phasors:
Z = yR 2 + X 2 ; then I= VIZ. In parallel circuits, the net reactive
branch current is added with the total resistive branch current by
phasors: IT = yIR 2 + I/; then Z = VI IT.
3. The ohms of R, Xe, Xv and Zin ac circuits are compared in Table
25-1.
4. In ac circuits with reactance, the real power in watts equals J2R, or
VI cos (}, where (} is the phase angle of the circuit and cos (} is the
power factor.
5. Ac meter scales are generally calibrated in rms values.
6. The wattmeter uses the dynamometer ac meter movement to read V
and I at the same time, measuring watts of real power.
7. Since XL and Xe cancel in series, when they are equal, the net
reactance is zero. In parallel, the net reactive branch current is zero.
The specific frequency that makes XL = Xe is the resonant frequency
fr= 11(2wv'LC).
8. Larger values of L and C mean lower resonant frequencies, as fr is
inversely proportional to the square root of Lor C. If the value of L
or C is quadrupled, for instance, fr will decrease by one-half.
9. For a series resonant LC circuit, the current is maximum, since the
opposition is just the low resistance of the conductors; the voltage
drop across each reactance is maximum, but they are equal and
opposite; the phase angle is zero. The reactive voltage at resonance
is Q times greater than the applied voltage.
594 Review of Chapters 25 to 28

10. For a parallel resonant LC circuit, the impedance is maximum with

minimum line current, since the reactive branch currents cancel. The
impedance at resonance is Q times the XL value, but it is resistive
with a phase angle of zero.
11. The Q of the resonant circuit equals XL! r8 for resistance in series
with XL' or RPI XL for resistance in parallel with XL.
12. The bandwidth between half-power points is f/Q.
13. A filter uses inductance and capacitance to separate high or low
frequencies. A low-pass filter allows low frequencies to develop
output voltage across the load; a high-pass filter does the same for
high frequencies. Series inductance or shunt capacitance provides
low-pass filtering; series capacitance or shunt inductance provides
high-pass filtering.
14. A fluctuating or pulsating direct current or voltage varies in amplitude
but with one direction or polarity. It is equivalent to an ac component
varying in opposite directions around the average-value axis. The
axis, which is just the arithmetical average of all the values in one
cycle, is the steady de value.
15. An RC coupling circuit is effectively a high-pass filter for pulsating de
voltage, passing the ac component but blocking the de component.
16. A transformer with an isolated secondary is a high-pass filter for
pulsating direct current, allowing ac variations in the secondary but
no output for the de level of primary current.
17. A bypass capacitor in parallel with R is effectively a low-pass filter,
since its low reactance reduces the voltage across R for high fre-
quencies.
18. The main types of filter circuits are 7T type, L type, and T type. These
can be high-pass or low-pass, depending on how the L and C
components are connected.
19. Resonant circuits can be used as bandpass or band-stop filters. For
bandpass filtering, series resonant circuits are in series with the load
or parallel resonant circuits are across the load. For band-stop
filtering, parallel resonant circuits are in series with the load or series
resonant circuits are across the load.
20. A wavetrap is an application of a resonant band-stop filter.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Fill in the numerical answer.

1. A sine-wave ac circuit with 100-Q R1 and 200-Q R2 in series has Rr of

_ _ Q.
2. With 100-Q XLr in series with 200-Q XLr• the total X 0 is ___ Q.
 Review of Chapters 25 to 28 595

3. With 100-Q XLr in series with 200-Q XLr the XLr is ___ Q.
4. Two Xe branches of 500 Q each in parallel have XLr of - - - Q.
5. Two XL branches of 500 Q each in parallel have XLr of ___ Q.
6. With 500-Q XL in series with 300-Q Xe, the net XL is ___ Q.
7. With 500-Q Xe in series with 300-Q Xv the net Xe is ___ Q.
8. With 10-Q XL in series with 10-Q R, the total ZT is ___ Q.
9. With 10-Q Xe in series with 10-Q R, the total ZT is ___ Q.
10. With 14 V applied across 14-Q ZT, the I is _ _ A
11. With 10-Q XL and 10-Q R in series, 8 is ___ degrees.
12. With 10-Q Xe and 10-Q R in series, 8 is ___ degrees.
13. With 10-Q XL and 10-Q R in parallel across 10 V, the amount of each
branch I is ___ A
14. In question 13, the total line current IT equals ___ A
15. In questions 13 and 14, ZT of the parallel branches equals ___ Q.
16. With 120 V, an I of 10 A, and 8 of 60°, a wattmeter reads _ _ W.
17. A 60-Hz ac voltage with a peak value of 500 V will be read by an
iron-vane meter as ___ V.
18. L of 10 H and C of 40 µF has f of _ _ Hz.
19. L of 100 µH and C of 400 pF has fr of _ _ MHz.
20. In question 19, if Cis reduced to 100 pF, fr increases to_·__ MHz.
21. In question 20, if L is increased to 400 µH, the fr decreases to
_ _ MHz.
22. In a series resonant circuit with 10 mV applied across a 1-Q R, a
1000-Q Xv and a 1000-Q Xe, at resonance the current is ___ mA.
23. In question 22, the voltage across Xe equals ___ V.
24. In a parallel resonant circuit with a 1-Q rs in series with a 1000-Q XL
in one branch and a 1000-Q Xe in the other branch, with 10 mV
applied, the voltage across Xe equals ___ mV.
25. In question 24, Z of the parallel resonant circuit equals ___ MQ.
26. An LC circuit resonant at 500 kHz has a Q of 100. Its total bandwidth
between half-power points equals ___ kHz.
27. In question 26, if the Q is reduced to 10 by a shunt RP, the bandwidth
becomes kHz.
28. A coupling capacitor for 40 to 15,000 Hz in series with a 0.5-MQ
resistor has the capacitance of ___ µF.
29. A bypass capacitor for 40to15,000 Hz in shunt with a 1000-Q R has
the capacitance of ___ µF.
30. A pulsating de voltage varying in a symmetrical sine wave between
100 and 200 V has the average value of ___ V.

Answer true or false.

31. In an ac circuit with Xe and R in series, if f is increased, the current

will increase.
596 Review of Chapters 25 to 28

32. In an ac circuit with XL and R in series, if f is increased, the current

will be reduced.
33. The voltampere is a unit of apparent power.
34. A circuit with a phase angle of 90 ° does not dissipate any real power.
35. Effective value and rms value of a sine-wave ac voltage are the same.
36. In a capacitive voltage divider, the smallest Chas the most voltage.
37. A steady direct current in the primary of a transformer cannot
produce any ac output voltage in the secondary.
38. A '7T-type filter with shunt capacitances is a low-pass filter.
39. An L-type filter with a parallel resonant CC circuit in series with the
load is a band-stop filter.
40. With pulsating de voltage applied across an RC coupling circuit, the
average de level of the applied voltage is across C.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Gillie, A C.: "Electrical Principles of Electronics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Siskind, C. S.: "Electricity, Direct and Alternating Current," 2d ed.,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Turner, R. P.: "Basic Electronic Test Instruments," Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., New York.
Weick, C. B.: "Principles of Electronic Technology," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Zeines, B.: "Electric Circuit Analysis," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.
 vacuum
Tubes
This chapter describes the. construction of tubes, the different types of
tubes, and their applications as amplifiers or as rectifiers. An amplifier Cbapt
circuit increases the amplitude of a desired signal. For instance, the
amplifier can have 1 ·mV input and 100-mV output for a voltage gain of
100. A rectifier converts alternating current to direct current. The ac input
to the rectifier has positive and negative polarities, but the de output has
only one polarity, either positive or negative.
Similarly, semiconductor diodes and transistors are used for rectifiers
28
and amplifiers, as described in Chap. 30. Separate diodes and transistors
are discrete components, but many of them can be combined in an
integrated circuit (IC) unit, as described in Chap. 31. In general, then, the
functions of amplifiers, oscillators, rectifiers, and electronic switching can
be performed by tubes, transistors, or integrated circuits.
The analysis of tubes and semiconductor devices starts the subject of
active components for electronic circuits. Essentially, the active compo-
nents are tubes and semiconductors for amplification or rectification. The
passive components R, L, and Care still necessary. However, when they
are combined with tubes or semiconductor devices, the result is almost
unlimited possibilities for using electronic circuits in many functions. The
topics here are:

29·1 Rectifiers, Amplifiers, and Oscillators

29-2 Construction of Tubes
29-3 Diodes
294 Plate Current
29-5 Diode Rectifier Circuit
29-6 Triodes
29·7 How a Triode Amplifies the Control-Grid Voltage
29-8 Triode Characteristics
29·9 Tube Parameters
29-10 Tetrodes
29-11 Pentodes
29·12 Tube Types
29-13 The cathode-Ray Tube (CRT}
29-14 Troubles in Vacuum Tubes
 Chapter 29
598 Vacuum Tubes

29-1 signal is shown with reversed polarity, as many

RECTIFIERS, AMPLIFIERS, amplifier circuits invert the phase of the signal
AND OSCILLATORS by 180°.
Most electronic circuits can be divided in these For the passive components, R is always
three groups. A rectifier changes its ac input to useful in providing a desired IR voltage, for
de output. An amplifier circuit amplifies its input either direct current or alternating current. C is
signal. An oscillator circuit is a special case of commonly used for capacitive coupling to pass
the amplifier, but the oscillator generates ac the ac signal while blocking any de component.
output from its de power supply, without any ac Or a transformer can be used for coupling. C
input signal. can also be used as a bypass capacitor. L can be
used as an audio or rf choke, and for trans-
Amplifiers. The block diagram in Fig. 29-1 formers. LC resonant circuits are generally
illustrates an amplifier for audio signal. In gen- used in rf amplifiers.
eral, the term signal is used for the variations in It should be noted that nonsinusoidal ac
voltage or current corresponding to the desired voltages can be amplified. In addition, de am-
information. The ac input of 0.2 V here could plifiers are used.
be the audio signal from a phonograph. By Although the amplifier in Fig. 29-1 is am-
means of a tube or transistor, with its associated plifying ac signal, the circuit requires a steady
passive components, this audio amplifier circuit de supply voltage. The reason is that transistors
provides an output of 8 V. Then this signal can or tubes need de voltage for the electrodes in
be used to drive a power amplifier stage that order to conduct any current at all. In general,
provides enough current to drive a loud- any amplifier operates by having the input sig-
speaker. Amplifiers connected with the output nal variations control a larger amount of de
driving the input of the next stage are cascaded power in the output circuit. As a result, ampli-
stages. fier circuits have currents and voltages that in-
For the voltage amplifier in Fig. 29-1, the clude ac variations on an average de axis.
ac output signal of 8 V is forty times more than
the input signal of 0 .2 V. Note that the output Oscillators. The block diagram in Fig. 29-2
illustrates an rf feedback oscillator. There is no
ac input signal, but the oscillator circuit gener-
8 v p-p
ates rf output at the natural resonant frequency
0.2 v p-p of the LC circuit tuned to 1 MHz.
Ac
Amplifier The only difference between this circuit
input
400 Hz and an rf amplifier for a 1-MHz signal is that the
oscillator has positive feedback, from the output
to the input. This polarity reinforces the signal
variations of the input circuit. The positive feed-
De supply back can be obtained by two phase reversals
voltage
of 180°.
Although a tuned rf oscillator circuit is
FIGURE 29-1 shown here for a 1-MHz sine-wave output, os-
Function of an amplifier circuit. The ac signal cillator circuits also can be used to generate
input of 0.2 Vis amplified to 8 V p-p. pulses, square waves, or sawtooth waves. The
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 599

Feedback
The function of the power supply could be
to provide the de supply voltage needed for the
amplifier and oscillator in Figs. 29-1 and 29-2.
Rf Diode semiconductors or tubes can be used as
Oscillator 1----"'"T"""~t--'....- output the rectifiers, but semiconductor diodes are
1 MHz
most common because of their high efficiency
and .small size. Although 60 Hz is illustrated
L here for the ac power line, it should be noted
that the ac input to the rectifier can have any
De supply
voltage -!- 1 MHz
frequency.

FIGURE 29-2 Practice Problems 29-1

(answers on page 623)
An rf feedback oscillator circuit, tuned to
(a) In Fig. 29-1, how much is the voltage gain
1 MHz as the resonant frequency.
for the audio signal?
(b) In Fig. 29-2, what is the resonant fre-
frequency can be almost any value, from low
quency of the LC circuit for the tuned rf
audio frequencies to extremely high radio fre-
oscillator?
quencies.
29-2
Rectifiers. The block diagram in Fig. 29-3
CONSTRUCTION OF TUBES
illustrates a rectifier, changing the 60-Hz ac
As illustrated in Fig. 29-4, a vacuum tube has a
input voltage to fluctuating de output voltage.
glass or metal envelope enclosing metal elec-
The diode allows current in only one direction,
trodes in a vacuum. The electrodes make it
for one polarity of applied voltage. Therefore,
current flows in the output circuit only during
the half-cycles of the ac input voltage that turn
the diode on. This circuit is a half-wave rectifier.
Although not shown here, the output cir-
cuit usually has shunt filter capacitors, with a
series choke or resistor, to remove the fluctua-
tions in the de output. The entire circuit then is
a de power supply.

Rectifier
De output

Ac input
60 Hz
FIGURE 29-3
A rectifier circuit converts its ac input to pul- FIGURE 29-4
sating de output. Typical amplifier tube. Height is 1 %in.
 Chapter 29
600 Vacuum Tubes

possible to have electrons flow through the Then triodes were invented, making use of the
evacuated space inside the tube. The electrode grid to control plate current. These were fol-
that emits electrons is the cathode. Generally, lowed by tetrodes and pentodes. The tetrode
the cathode is heated by a wire filament, result- has four electrodes, including two grids; the
ing in thermionic emission of electrons. The pentode has five electrodes with three grids.
electrode that collects the emitted electrons is They all need the cathode to emit electrons and
the anode, or the plate. In general, an anode is the plate to collect the emitted electrons. These
a positive electrode while the cathode is nega- are the main types of vacuum tubes. The source
tive with respect to the anode. for the filament or heater is often called
The plate has a positive potential applied A voltage, with B voltage used for the plate and
with respect to the cathode, so that the emitted C voltage for the grid.
electrons are attracted to provide plate current.
Between the cathode and plate the tube can Practice Problems 29-2
also have a wire mesh serving as a control-grid (answers on page 623)
electrode to increase or decrease electron flow (a) Which electrode emits electrons?
to the plate. The current flow is almost instanta- (b) What is the polarity of plate voltage, with
neous, a typical transit time being 0.001 µs for respect to cathode?
electrons emitted from the cathode to reach the
plate. 29-3
The vacuum tube is fundamentally a low- DIODES
current device, as the electron flow is limited by A diode has just two electrodes: cathode and
the amount of thermionic emission from the plate, as shown in Fig. 29-5. Note the schematic
cathode. For conventional sizes, typical values symbol. The heater is not counted as an elec-
of plate current are less than 1 to about trode because it is merely an incandescent fila-
100 mA. Compared with transistors, most vac- ment to heat the cathode electrically. If any
uum tubes have much higher internal resistance other method were convenient for heating the
because of the relatively small plate current. cathode to its emission temperature, it would
In their historical development, the first serve just as well.
tubes were diodes, with a cathode and anode. Note that the plate surrounds the cathode.
Therefore, electrons emitted from the surface of
the cathode sleeve can be attracted to the metal
anode to provide plate current. The plate is
usually made of iron, nickel, or molybdenum.
Larger plate area is used for tubes that conduct
larger values of plate current.

Thermionic Emission. When a metal is

heated, electrons in the atoms are accelerated
in their random motion because of the added
(a) (b) heat energy. With enough heat to make the
FIGURE 29-5 metal glow as an incandescent filament, some
Diode vacuum tube. (a) Construction. {b) Sche- internal electrons gain enough velocity to break
matic symbol. away from the surface of the metal. In a sense,
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 601

the electrons can be considered as "boiled off" eral reasons why the vacuum is necessary. First,
the surface. Now the metal is a cathode that the heated filament would oxidize in air and
supplies electrons by thermionic emission. burn. Also, the cathode emits more electrons in
a vacuum. Finally, when it is desired that only
Cathode Construction. The two types are the electrons emitted from the cathode travel to
illustrated schematically in Fig. 29-6. In (a), the the plate, without ionizing air molecules, the
filament-cathode is heated directly by electrical electrodes must be in a vacuum.
current, serving as an incandescent filament When enough air has been pumped out,
that produces thermionic emission. In (b), the the envelope is sealed off. To improve the vac-
cathode is heated indirectly by a separate uum further, the entire assembly is then heated
heater. The directly heated type is usually called to force out any additional gas molecules in the
a filament, while the filament for the indirectly metal electrodes. At this time, a magnesium
heated cathode is a heater. getter compound, mounted on a small disk
Filament Current. Power for heating the fila- inside, vaporizes because of the heating. The
ment is obtained by applying the rated filament resultant chemical action of the vaporized mag-
voltage so that the correct amount of current nesium, with the gases released from the metal,
can flow to heat the filament. The ratings are removes the final traces of gas in the tube. After
given in the manufacturer's tube manual. For the tube cools off, the vaporized getter con-
instance, many tubes are rated at 6.3 V, 0.3 A denses on the inside of the envelope, forming
for the heater; that is, 6.3 V applied will pro- the silvery film usually seen in glass tubes.
duce the rated heater current of 0 .3 A. Most
receiver tubes use an indirectly heated cathode, Practice Problems 29-3
with a 60-Hz ac heater current. (answers on page 623)
(a) Thermionic emission is from which elec-
The Vacuum. After the tube is assembled, air trode?
is exhausted from the envelope. There are sev- (b) Which electrode collects electrons?

Plate Plate

Cathode

Filament-
cathode

t,_1,
-------41111
v,
(a) (b)
FIGURE 29-6
(a) Filament-cathode heated with direct cur-
rent. (b) Indirectly heated cathode with ac
power for heater.
 Chapter 29
602 Vacuum Tubes

29-4 order to concentrate on the plate current. The

PLATE CURRENT heater circuit is omitted because it operates at
The plate is made positive with respect to the rated voltage and is not varied for this experi-
cathode in order to attract the emitted elec- ment.
trons. Furthermore, the plate has a continuous The resulting graph is a plate characteristic
path for electron flow returning to the cathode curve, plotting the amount of lb for a corre-
in the external circuit through the plate supply. sponding \{. For example, the curve shows that
a plate voltage of 100 V allows a plate current of
Space Charge. This is a cloud of electrons 8 mA. Such a curve is a voltampere character-
near the cathode, produced by thermionic istic of the diode.
emission. Since electrons are negative, they are
attracted to the anode with its positive acceler- Practice Problems 29-4
ating voltage. (answers on page 623)
(a) In Fig. 29- 7 a, does the milliammeter read
Plate-Current Characteristics. If a milliam - lb, \{, or heater current?
meter is connected in series in the plate circuit, (b) In Fig. 29-7b, for \{ of 50 \!, how much
as shown in Fig. 29- 7 a, the meter can read the is lb?
values of plate current lb produced by different
amounts of plate voltage \{. Remember that \{ 29-5
must be positive. The results are tabulated and DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
plotted on the graph in (b). The fact that the diode allows current to flow in
The procedure is simply to vary the poten- only one direction means that it is useful as a
tiometer R to obtain the desired value of \{ and rectifier to change alternating current to direct
then read the corresponding lb. A tube with an current. Such a diode rectifier circuit is shown
indirectly heated cathode is shown here, in in Fig. 29-8.

vb lb
20
0 0
<t 16 50 2
E 100 8
I
...
Cl)
150 12
+I
I
\
+
11:1
Q.
.....::.
12

8
200
250
16
17
~- ..
•.. __ •-· ·--+'t 4

0 50 100 150 200 250

Vb, plate volts
(a) (b)
FIGURE 29-7
Measuring lb for different plate voltages ~ to
obtain the diode plate characteristic curve.
(a) Circuit. (b) Graph.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 603

V1 V1
Positive
de output Diode switch

Ac
input

~
Time

(a) (b)
FIGURE 29-8
Diode tube in a half-wave rectifier circuit. (a)
Ac input to Vl rectified to pulsating de output.
(b) Equivalent circuit with Vl as a switch.

Load Resistance. The plate current becomes Current cannot flow in the opposite direction
useful when it is made to flow through an exter- because I flows only from cathode to plate in the
nal load RL outside the tube. The purpose of tube.
using RL is to have a load that can develop an The output voltage across RL equals IRL.
IRL voltage drop outside the tube that depends This output is a de voltage, therefore, because it
on the amount of plate current flowing within has just one polarity. The circuit is a half-wave
the tube. Then the IRL drop is output voltage rectifier because it produces a half-wave of rec-
that can be coupled to another circuit. For the tified output for each cycle of the ac input.
diode rectifier circuit in Fig. 29-8, therefore, RL
is connected in series with the diode Vl and the Ripple Frequency. The fluctuating component
ac input voltage. is the ripple in the de output. In this circuit, the
ripple is half-wave pulsations at the same fre-
Half-Wave Rectifier. The voltage applied to quency as the ac input. Therefore, the ripple
the diode plate-cathode circuit through RL is the frequency of the half-wave rectifier for the
ac input voltage. There is no de supply voltage 60-Hz ac power-line voltage is 60 Hz. The rip-
for the tube now because the ac input voltage ple can be removed, however, by using series
makes the diode plate positive every half-cycle. filter chokes and shunt filter capacitors.
When the plate is driven positive, plate
current flows through the tube and the input DC Polarity. The rectified output has the po-
voltage source, returning to the cathode larity shown in Fig. 29-8 because RL is in the
through RL. lb is IL through the load. For the cathode side of the diode circuit. Then lb flow-
half-cycle when the input voltage makes the ing in the plate circuit must return from the low
diode plate negative, there is no plate current side of Rv through its resistance, and back to
and no output voltage across RL. the cathode. Since the electron flow is from
The result is half-cycles, or half-waves, of minus to plus, the cathode side of RL must be
current through RL in the direction shown. the positive side of the rectified output voltage.
 Chapter 29
604 Vacuum Tubes

The positive polarity of \{is only with re- semiconductor, corresponds to the plate of the
spect to the opposite side of RL. The cathode is tube. In either case, positive voltage applied to
still less positive than the plate voltage supplied the anode makes the diode conduct. More de-
by the ac input when it drives the diode into tails of rectifiers, including full-wave circuits, are
conduction. Otherwise, there could be no plate explained with semiconductor diodes in
current. The plate voltage is just the ac input, Chap. 30. Practically all rectifier circuits now
however, without any rectification. use solid-state devices.

The Diode as a One-way Switch. In Fig. Practice Problems 29-5

29-9b, the rectifier circuit is redrawn to show (answers on page 623)
the diode as a switch that lets current flow in Refer to Fig. 29-8.
only one direction. When the diode plate is (a) Does diode Vl conduct when the ac input
positive, plate current flows. Then the tube is voltage makes the plate positive or nega-
on, or the switch Vl is closed. With the diode tive?
plate negative, the diode is an open circuit, (b) Is the cathode side of the de output voltage
since its resistance is practically infinite without positive or negative?
plate current. Then the switch Vl is open.
As a result, we can consider the rectifica- 29-6
tion in terms of the switching action. Only when TRIODES
"8.c is positive does the ac input voltage become As illustrated in Fig. 29-9, a cathode and a plate
connected to RL through Vl. Now we can also are needed to provide plate current like a
see why ~c across RL must be positive at the diode, but in addition the triode has the con-
cathode end. This terminal is connected to the trol-grid electrode. The grid is a fine metal wire,
positive side of "8.c by the closed switch when Vl usually nickel, molybdenum, or iron, wrapped
conducts. Therefore, the only time any output around two supports placed in the space be-
can be produced is when the cathode side of RL tween the cathode and the plate. All electrons
is positive. attracted to the plate from the cathode go
As a one-way switch, the diode tube and a through the openings in the grid. The grid is
semiconductor diode really have the same connected to a base pin, however, so that it can
function. The anode, or positive side of the have voltage applied to determine the amount
of electrons that travel from cathode to plate.
Grid
Now the plate current depends on two factors:
Plate the plate voltage and the control-grid voltage.

~
C- Voltage. The potential applied to the
Cathode
control grid is usually a small negative voltage
with respect to the cathode, as shown in
Fig. 29-10. This voltage completes the alphabet,
with A voltage for the heater, B + voltage for
(a) (b) the plate, and C- for the control grid. The grid
FIGURE 29-9 voltage is usually made negative so that it can-
Triode amplifier tube. (a) Construction. (b) not attract electrons. Then there will be no grid
Schematic symbol. current. The function of the control grid is not
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 605

vb=+ 200 v
-----..
lb= 5 mA

+
vbb =Joo v
B +supply

FIGURE 29-10
Triode amplifier circuit. B + voltage is for plate
and C- voltage for grid.

to provide current but to have its voltage control cutoff voltage. The electron flow inside the tube
the plate current. is from the cathode, through the spaces be-
The effect of the grid voltage on plate cur- tween the grid wire, to the anode.
rent can be summarized as follows: In the external plate circuit, the electrons
flow through the 20-kQ plate-load resistor
1. Less negative grid voltage increases the RL and the B supply, returning to the cath-
plate current. ode through the chassis. Assuming a 5-mA
2. More negative grid voltage decreases the plate current value, the IbRL drop is
plate current. 0.005 x 20,000 = 100 v.
3. If the grid voltage is made negative The plate-to-cathode circuit of the tube
enough, there will be no plate current even and RL are in series as a voltage divider across
with the plate positive. the 300-V supply \{b. Therefore, the plate-to-
cathode voltage is 300 V minus the 100-V drop
Grid-Cutoff Voltage. This is the amount of across RL, or \{ is 300 - 100 = 200 V. As a
negative grid voltage required to cut off the formula
plate current with a specified amount of positive
(29-1)
voltage on the plate. For some tubes, the grid-
cutoff voltage may be as little as -1 V; for This formula is used to determine the actual
others, the grid-cutoff voltage may be -60 V, as plate-to-cathode voltage.
typical examples. The grid-cutoff voltage is a
characteristic of the tube construction, but also Example 1. Calculate \'ii for a 20-mA lb with a
depends on the amount of plate voltage. 2000-Q RL and a plate supply of 250 V.

Answer. \{ = Vzib - lbRL

Triode Circuit. Plate current flows in Fig. 29- = 250 - (20 x 10-3 x2 x 10 3 )
10 because the plate has its positive voltage and = 250 - 40
the control-grid potential is less than the grid- \{ = 210 v
 Chapter 29
606 Vacuum Tubes

TABLE 29-1. Vacuum-Tube Letter Symbols

Vbb = de plate supply voltage, equal to B +
vb = average de plate-cathode voltage
vb = instantaneous value of the fluctuating de plate voltage with signal variations
vP = ac component of the fluctuating de plate voltage. This is the amplified ac signal output
Vee = control-grid de bias supply voltage
Ve = average control-grid de voltage. This equals ~e when there is no control-grid current
ve = instantaneous value of the fluctuating de grid voltage with signal variations
v0 = ac signal input to the control grid

Control-Grid Bias. A bias voltage is a constant Practice Problems 29-6

voltage that is used to obtain the desired (answers on page 623)
method of operation. In Fig. 29-10 the ~ of (a) Does negative vc increase or decrease ib?
-3 Vis a negative de grid bias. Its function is to (b) How much is vb with a B + of 180 V and
maintain the average grid voltage negative, VRL of 60 V?
even with an ac signal input. The ac signal
swings the grid voltage in a positive direction, 29-7
but the negative de bias is more than the posi- HOW A TRIODE AMPLIFIES
tive peak of the ac signal. THE CONTROL-GRID VOLTAGE
The main advantage in having the control grid
Symbols for Tube Voltages. In analyzing vac- is the fact that it enables the vacuum tube to
uum -tube amplifier circuits, we must distinguish amplify a small voltage at the grid to provide
between plate and grid voltages and between much more voltage at the plate. The amplifica-
plate-to-cathode voltage and the B + supply. tion results from the ability of the control-grid
Furthermore, when the ac signal is amplified, voltage to vary the plate current.
the resultant grid and plate voltages have fluc- Consider the numerical examples listed in
tuating de waveforms with an average de value Table 29-2. For the circuit in Fig. 29-10, let the
and an ac component. The symbols in average plate current lb be 5 mA with -3 V for
Table 29-1 are generally used. the control-grid bias voltage ~· These values
The same system of nomenclature also are listed in the middle row of Table 29-2. With
applies to the plate current, with lb for average a 3-mA lb, the plate voltage equals 200 V. The
de, ib for instantaneous de, and iP for ac values. 300-V B + voltage drops to 200 V for the plate
These symbols are used for diodes, triodes, because of the 100-V IR drop across the
tetrodes, or pentodes. 20,000-Q RL.

TABLE 29-2. Amplification in the Plate Circuit•

Ve, V ib,mA ibRL, V Vb = 300 - ibRL, V
-2 6 120 180
Average
level ~ -3 5 100 200
-4 4 80 220
* RL = 20 kQ and B + or \.'iib = 300 V.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 607

Now suppose the grid voltage ve is reduced

from -3 to -2 V. The grid, being less negative,
allows more plate current. For the case of ib
increasing to 6 mA, then, the voltage drop
across RL increases to 120 V. The voltage for vb is (a)
less, however, falling to 180 Vas the remainder
of the 300-V B + supply minus the ibRL drop.
For the third case, in the bottom row, when
ve is made more negative, from -3 to -4 V,
less plate current flows. Then ib is reduced to
4 mA. This change results in a smaller ibRL drop
of 80 V. The resulting plate voltage, equal to
300 V minus 80 V, rises to 220 V.
Note the effect of the change as ve varies (b)
-+-1 V, above and below the middle value of
-3 V. Similarly, ib varies -+-1 mA around the 220 v
5-mA middle value.
So far, all that the control-grid voltage has
done is vary the plate current. In terms of plate
voltage, however, vb varies -+-20 V above and
below the middle value of 200 V. Here is where
0 ___.
the voltage amplification is accomplished. Time
The changes in plate current through the (c)
plate-load resistance allow the plate voltage to FIGURE 29-11
vary by a much larger amount than the grid- Ladder diagram of waveshapes for Table 29-2.
voltage variation. In this example, the grid volt- (a) Sine-wave grid voltage vc. (b) Plate current
age of -+-1 V has been multiplied by a factor of ib. ( c) Plate voltage vb equal to \'iib - ibRL.
20 to produce a corresponding plate voltage
variation of -+-20 V. average de axis of 5 mA. The voltage across RL
For voltage amplification, the requirements has similar variations, as vL = ibRL.
are that (1) the grid voltage must vary the plate However, the plate voltage vb shown in (c)
current and (2) the plate circuit must have a has polarity opposite from ib and vL. The reason
plate-load resistance that can vary the plate is that vb is the difference between \{b and vL. As
voltage as the plate current varies. vL increases, the value of positive de plate volt-
age vb decreases. Therefore, the variations in vb
Phase Inversion. If we consider the variations have opposite polarity from the variations in ve.
in Table 29-2 as peak values of a sine-wave ac Or the input signal is inverted by 180° in the
signal, the resultant wavefQrms are shown in amplified output.
Fig. 29-11. In (a) the grid voltage ve is a fluctu-
ating de voltage with variations above and below Voltage Gain. The symbol is Av. As a formula
the bias axis of -3 V. These variations in ve
produce the variations of ib in waveform (b). A _ ~mt (29-2)
The plate current varies above and below the V - \.{n
 Chapter 29
608 Vacuum Tubes

These are ac signal voltages, in rms, peak, or that plate current ib is affected by both plate
peak-to-peak values, as long as the same meas- voltage vb and control-grid voltage ve is shown
ure is used for both. Av has no units since it is a by the characteristic curves in Fig. 29-12.
ratio of two voltages. For this example, Av is One characteristic is shown separately in
20V/l V = 20. (a), with -2 V for vc- With this grid voltage, the
triode curve shows that 80 Von the plate allows
Practice Problems 29-7 slightly less than 4-mA ib; or a 120-V vb pro-
(answers on page 623) duces 8 mA, as examples. The vb values are
Refer to Fig. 29-11. plate-to-cathode voltages, not the supply volt-
(a) How much is the average negative de grid age.
bias voltage v/ The manufacturer's tube manual shows a
(b) How much is the ac input signal voltage to family of plate characteristics for different val-
the grid? ues of grid voltage. Typical curves are shown in
(c) How much is the average de plate (b). Note that the curve marked -2 V for ve is
voltage \{? the same characteristic shown in (a).
(d) How much is the amplified ac output volt- The family of characteristics, however, has
age? more information for typical values of negative
grid voltage. From left to right, the individual
29-8 curves show plate characteristics for ve values of
TRIODE CHARACTERISTICS 0, -2, -4, -6, and more negative voltages up
The plate current is not linear for all values of to -24 V. The family of curves shows all the
electrode voltages. Therefore, it is necessary to plate-current characteristics of the tube.
show tube characteristics by curves. The way For any fixed value of ve, just read the one

16

12
<( <(
E E
$ca 8 $ 81----__.~------ll"--+--­
ca
[Link] [Link]

0 80 160 0 80 160 240 320 400 480

Plate volts Plate volts
(a) (b)
FIGURE 29-12 ·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~·~~~~~~~~~~~·

Triode characteristic curves. (a) Graph of plate

characteristics vb and ib for one value of grid
voltage. (b) Family of plate characteristics for
different vc values.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 609

curve to determine ib for a specified vb. For Liv

r =-b for the same vc (29-4)
instance, with -4 V for ve, this curve intersects p Liib
the vertical line for a 160-V vb at the horizontal
line for an 8-mA ib. Therefore, the grid potential This value is considered the ac or small-
of -4 Vallows 8 mA of ib with 160 V for vb. As signal rP' since it is calculated from small
another example, -8 V for ve with the same changes. The de or large-signal values, indi-
160 V for vb allows only 1 mA plate current. The cated as Rb, can be calculated simply as \{!lb.
cutoff grid voltage resulting in zero plate current
with 160 Vat the plate is approximately -10 V.
Transconductance. This factor states how ef-
Practice Problems 29-8 fective the grid voltage is in changing the plate
(answers on page 623) current.
Refer to Fig. 29-12.
(a) In (a), how much is ib with 160 V at the for the same vb (29-5)
plate?
(b) In (b), how much is ib with 160 V at the
plate and a grid bias of -4 V? In Fig. 29-12b, let the grid voltage change
from -4 to -2 V for Live of 2 V. Reading these
29-9 two curves on the same vertical line of 160 V for
TUBE PARAMETERS vb, the ibis increased from 8 to 13 mA. This Liib
A parameter is a measurement that describes a is 5 mA. Then to calculate this transconduct-
particular characteristic. For amplifier tubes, the a nee,
main characteristics are the amplification factor
µ, or mu, the internal plate-cathode resistance Liib 0.005 A
g ------
rP, and the grid-plate transconductance gm. m - Liv - 2V
e
These parameters are for the tube itself, not the = 0.0025 s = 2500 x 10-6 s
amplifier circuit.
gm= 2500 µS
Amplification Factor. This ratio compares the
effectiveness of the control-grid voltage veto the The unit for gm is the siemens for conduct-
plate voltage vb in changing the plate current ib. ance, since any ii v ratio is the reciprocal of
ohms.
Since vacuum tubes are low-current de-
for the same ib (29-3) vices, the transconductance will be a fraction of
1 S. It is more convenient, therefore, to specify
gm in microsiemens. Typical values for receiver
There are no units for µ because it is a ratio of tubes are 2000 to 14,000 µS.
two voltages and the volt units cancel.

Plate Resistance. This R is the equivalent Practice Problems 29-9

resistance of the internal plate-to-cathode cir- (answers on page 623)
cuit. Since plate voltage is applied across the (a) A grid voltage change of +-2 V swings the
tube and plate current is flowing through it, the plate current +-24 mA. Calculate the gm of
tube has a resistance equal to its vii ratio. the tube.
 Chapter 29
610 Vacuum Tubes

(b) A tube has 400 mA of lb with 300 V for\{. closer to the plate. It is not used to control the
Calculate the de plate resistance Rb. plate current but has steady positive de voltage
to help accelerate electrons to be collected by
29-10 the plate. The path for plate current inside the
TETRO DES tube is from the cathode, through the control
This construction is similar to the triode, with grid, and through the spaces in the screen grid
cathode, control grid, and plate, but there is an to be collected by the plate.
additional electrode called the screen grid be- Since the screen grid is positive, it will
tween the control grid and the plate. See collect some electrons. These provide screen-
Fig. 29-13. grid current that returns to the cathode through
The control grid is grid No. 1, placed close the screen-grid circuit. The screen-grid current
to the cathode so that it still functions to control is waste current, however, since it is not used in
the space charge. The screen grid is grid No. 2, the output circuit.

Plate

Grid No. 2
Grid No. 1
screen grid
control grid

Cathode
(a)

Tetrode
amplifier
---·
lb= 12 mA Output
voltage

ls= 4 mA

Input
---·
voltage Rs
50kn

+
vbb = 300 v
8 +supply

~
(b)
FIGURE 29-13
The tetrode. (a) Schematic symbol. (b) Circuit
with positive de voltage for the screen grid, in
addition to plate voltage.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 611

Screen-Grid Voltage. The positive screen-grid de value, the screen-grid resistor is bypassed by
potential ~ 2 can be obtained from the same B + Cs. It returns to the cathode through the chassis
supply that provides plate voltage. As shown in ground connections. The capacitance of Cs
Fig. 29-13b, the resistor Rs, called the screen- must be large enough to have reactance low
dropping resistor, is in series with the B + volt- enough to be one-tenth or less of Rs. The react-
age. Then the screen current returning through ance is figured at the lowest frequency of the ac
the B + supply to the cathode flows through Rs· signal being amplified. Because of the bypass
The lsRs voltage drop allows the screen -grid Cs, there should be practically zero ac signal
voltage to be less than the B + voltage by the voltage at the screen grid.
amount of voltage across the screen-dropping
resistor. Grid-Plate Capacitance. The screen grid also
In Fig. 29-13b, the lsRs voltage drop of reduces the capacitance between the control
4 mA through 50 kQ equals 200 V across Rs· grid and plate inside the tube. This capacitance
The remainder for the screen-grid-to-cathode is noted as CYP in Fig. 29-14. The reason for the
circuit then is 300 - 200 = 100 V. As a for- capacitance is simply the fact that the control
mula, grid and plate are two metal conductors sepa-
rated by an insulator, which is the vacuum in
(29-6) the tube.
As Fig. 29-14b shows, the typical value of
Example 2. Calculate ~ 2 with a 20-kQ Rs, an 8- 4 pF for a triode is reduced by a factor of
mA ls, and 250 V for the supply voltage \.{b. 1 /1000 to the low value of 0.004 pF for Cgp in
the equivalent tube with a screen grid. The
Answer. ~z = \.{b - lsRs reason for the reduced value of cgp is that the
= 250 - (0.008 x 20,000)
screen grid acts as a shield between the plate
= 250 - 160
and control grid for an ac signal.
~2 = 90 v

Secondary Emission. Metals have the prop-

Screen Bypass Capacitor. In order to make erty of releasing electrons when the surface is
sure that the voltage remains fixed at its steady bombarded by incident electrons. No heat is

(a) (b)
FIGURE 29-14
Interelectrode capacitance between plate and
control grid. (a) Triode. (b) Screen-grid tube.
 Chapter 29
612 Vacuum Tubes

necessary. The requirement is high positive No. 3 is the suppressor grid. The suppressor
voltage to provide a strong accelerating field so grid is not used for input or output signal but
that the incident electrons can strike at high has a fixed potential, usually equal to the cath-
velocity. The electrons released are then called ode voltage. In most pentacles, the suppressor
secondary electrons, and the process is sec- is connected internally to the cathode. When
ondary emission. the suppressor has its own external pin connec-
In a vacuum tube, the metal plate is bom- tion, it is connected either to the cathode pin or
barded by the electrons attracted from the cath- to chassis ground.
ode. Therefore, the plate has secondary Since the suppressor is close to the plate
emission. In a diode or triode, though, second- but has the cathode potential that is negative
ary electrons are no problem because any sec- with respect to the plate, any secondary elec-
ondary electrons near the plate are collected by trons emitted are repelled back to the plate. The
the positive anode. plate can still attract electrons from the cathode,
In a tetrode, however, the positive screen however, to provide plate current.
grid can attract secondary electrons. This effect Referring to the pentacle circuit in
occurs when the plate voltage drops below the Fig. 29-15b, the screen-grid voltage is operated
screen voltage. Then the plate current is re- at a fixed positive de voltage, as for a tetrode.
duced. For this reason, tetrodes are not com- Just as in triodes, the input voltage to be ampli-
monly used in amplifier circuits. Generally, fied is connected to the control-grid circuit,
when a screen-grid tube is desired for an ampli- which has its required negative C- bias volt-
fier, a pentacle is used. age. The amplified output signal voltage in the
plate circuit results from plate current flowing
Practice Problems 29-10 through the plate-load resistor RL.
(answers on page 623)
Refer to Fig. 29-13b. Current Paths. In a circuit like Fig. 29-15b, it
(a) How much is the de voltage from screen is important to keep in mind the different cur-
grid to cathode? rents for each electrode. Let us assume lb is
(b) How much is the ac signal voltage from 12 mA and /c 2 is 3 mA. This means a 12-mA lb
screen grid to cathode? flows in the plate circuit through RL. Also, a
3-mA /c 2 flows in the screen-grid circuit through
29-11 R8 . In the B + supply, both lb and /c 2 add to
PENTODES result in 15 mA.
As shown in Fig. 29-15, the pentacle has the This 15 mA is actually the space current
same construction as a tetrode but with the in the tube. The reason is that the negative side
addition of a suppressor grid in the space be- of the B + supply is returned to the cathode.
tween the screen grid and the plate. Since it is a If you insert a milliammeter in the cathode
screen-grid tube, the pentacle has the advan- circuit, it will read 15 mA.
tages Of little C!JP and the Operating characteris- Furthermore, if the control grid goes
tics of a tetrode. However, there is negligible positive, it can attract electrons to produce grid
secondary emission from the plate because of current /c 1• Then /c 1 flows through R!J and the
the suppressor grid. C- supply back to the cathode.
In Fig. 29-15a, the first grid is the control In summary, the cathode current is the
grid, grid No. 2 is the screen grid, and grid total space current, equal to the sum of all the
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 613

Plate
Grid No. 3
suppressor grid

Grid No. 1 Grid No. 2

screen grid
control grid

Cathode

(a)

Output
voltage
Pentode
amplifier
Input
v C2
=
voltage + 100 v

+
vbb =Joo v
s+ supply

~
(b)
FIGURE 29-15
The pentode. (a) Schematic symbol, with sup-
pressor grid tied internally to cathode. (b)
Amplifier circuit, with input signal to control
grid and output from plate.

individual electrode currents. As a formula, proximately 5 mA with 100 V for vb to 5.5 mA

IK = lb + Ic 2 + /c 1 • If we assume 40, 8, and with 400 V.
1 mA for these values, as an example, The very slow rise of the curve means that
Ix = 40 + 8 + 1 = 49 mA. Usually, though, the plate current increases very little with in -
/c 1 is zero. creased plate voltage in a pentode. This char-
acteristic is a result of the screen-grid voltage,
Pentode Characteristics. As for triodes, the which is constant. In terms of the plate resist-
manufacturer's tube manual shows plate char- ance of the tube, its rP is very high because ib
acteristic curves of pentodes for different values changes very little with a change in vb.
of control-grid voltage. For the vc 1 value of
-1 Vin Fig. 29-16, as an example, the curve Remote Cutoff Pentodes. As an example, a
shows that plate current increases from ap- pentode with a sharp cutoff of -3 V for ~ 1 may
 Chapter 29
614 Vacuum Tubes

12
0
10

8 f ---- -0.5

'r- -
I

Grid No. 1 volts - -1.0

--- ___ ---

\

4 r
>- i----
~---
,_
Ic2
-1.5

2
r -2.0
'r -2.5
I 3.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Plate volts
FIGURE 29-16
Plate characteristic curves for pentode tube.

correspond to a similar remote cutoff tube that the 6AU6 heater voltage is 6.3 V, and the 1 7 JT6
cuts off plate current with -30 Vat the control uses 17 V. The 6.3-V tubes are for parallel heat-
grid. The remote cutoff pentodes are also called ers. Other heater voltages such as 3, 5, 1 7, 25,
supercontrol or variable-µ tubes. In these tubes, 35, and 50 V are for series circuits, where the
the control grid has its turns closely spaced at heater voltages add to equal the ac power-line
both ends but wider spacing at the center. Then voltage of 120 V.
higher negative values of \1c 1 are required for For the cathode-ray tube (CRT), however,
the wider spaces of the grid to cut off electron the first digits give the screen size. The heater
flow. These pentodes are used in amplifier cir- voltage is usually 6.3 V.
cuits where the grid bias is varied over a wide
range of voltages. Pin Connections. Four types of base diagrams
or socket connections are shown in Fig. 29-1 7.
Practice Problems 29-11 The pins are numbered clockwise, looking at
(answers on page 623) the socket or the tube base from the bottom.
Answer true or false. The top view of the socket is opposite. Wider
(a) Grid 1 is the control grid. It usually has spacing between the end pins makes the tube fit
negative de bias and ac signal input. the socket only one way.
(b) Grid 2 is the screen grid. It usually has For small amplifier tubes, the seven-pin
positive de voltage and zero ac signal. socket in (a) and nine-pin novar socket in (b)
(c) Grid 3 is the suppressor grid. It usually is at are most common. Larger tubes use the
cathode potential. twelve-pin duodecar base in (c). The eight-pin
octal socket is seldom used for tubes any-
29-12 more.
TUBE TYPES The novar base comes in two sizes: small-
The first digits in the type number for amplifier button and large-button with a wider glass bulb.
tubes indicate the heater voltage. For example, The duodecar base also comes in two sizes.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 615

6AU6A 6CG7 6JM6 16WP4A

Anode

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 29-17
Tube sockets with pin connections. Bottom
view of socket or base of tube. For picture tube
in (d), the C indicates external conductive
coating; anode button is a recessed cavity.

The notation IS indicates an internal the plate because of the small waste current in
shield; NC means no internal connection. It the screen-grid circuit. Typical tubes are the
should be noted that some tubes have a top cap 6JM6, 6V6, 35L6, and SOCS.
for the plate connection, generally for high volt-
age. See Fig. 29-17 c. Tube Shields. Glass tubes often have an ex-
ternal metal shield which slips over the tube and
Heater Pins. You can check continuity with an contacts spring clips connected to the chassis.
ohmmeter to find an open heater. The heater Tubes that have two or more sections in one
pins are 3 and 4 for the seven-pin base or 4 and envelope usually have an internal shield be-
5 for the nine-pin base. On the duodecar base, tween sections. A shield minimizes interaction
the end pins 1and12 across the wide space are between tubes amplifying high frequencies.
for the heater. For a CRT also, the heater pins
are usually the end pins.
High-Power Tubes. In transmitters, larger
Multipurpose Tubes. To save space, one en- tubes are generally used to produce the re-
velope often includes two or more tube func- quired amount of output power. Typical ratings
tions. As examples, the 6FQ7 is a twin-triode are several hundred watts up to kilowatts. The
and the 6AN8 is a triode-pentacle. A compac- larger tubes may have a water-cooled anode.
tron usually combines three or four functions in
one envelope. Phototubes. These have a photocathode
which emits photoelectrons with incident light.
Beam Power Tubes. These tubes operate as The electrons are collected by a positive anode
pentacles, but instead of a suppressor grid, the to provide photoelectric current proportional to
tube has internal beam-forming plates tied to the light. Such PE cells can be used in many
the cathode. The feature of this construction is light-control circuits. Semiconductor devices
low screen current, which is important for are also used for photoelectric effects, but pho-
power tubes. In this application, the screen grid totubes are preferred where heat is a problem,
can be at approximately the same potential as as in oil-burner control circuits.
 Chapter 29
616 Vacuum Tubes

Practice Problems 29-12 green screen is generally used for the CRT in
(answers on page 623) oscilloscopes, because green phosphors are
(a) What is the heater voltage for the 21JZ6 most efficient.
amplifier tube? When the electron beam hits the screen, it
(b) What are the heater pins on this duodecar produces a spot of light visible through the
base? glass. In order to deflect the electron beam and
move the position of the light spot on the
29-13 screen, deflection voltage can be applied to the
THE CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT) deflection plates. A pair of horizontal deflection
As illustrated in Fig. 29-18, this tube consists of plates provides the potential difference needed
an electron gun, deflection plates, and a fluo- to move the electron beam left or right. Simi-
rescent screen inside the evacuated glass enve- larly, the pair of vertical deflection plates can
lope. Although the cathode, control grid and move the beam up or down. This type of CRT is
anode electrodes are constructed as cylinders, used in an oscilloscope (Fig. 29-19). This test
their function is the same as in conventional instrument shows the waveform of voltage ap-
vacuum tubes. The cathode is heated to emit plied to its input terminals. An example is the
electrons, and the control grid controls the flow sine-wave photograph shown in Fig. 16-1.
of electrons attracted by the positive potential of Similarly, the picture reproduced on the
the anodes. High voltages are used, on the order screen of the picture tube in a television re-
of 2 to 80 kV for the last anode. The entire ceiver is another application of the CRT. How-
cylinder assembly can be considered an elec- ever, picture tubes use magnetic deflection be-
tron gun, producing electrons formed into a cause of the larger screen. In this case, a yoke
narrow beam attracted to the screen. with deflection coils is slipped over the neck of
The inside surface of the front glass face- the tube, against the wide bell.
plate is coated with a fluorescent material that In CRT type numbers, the first digits give
emits light when bombarded by electrons. the screen size in inches for the diameter of a
Green and white are two common colors of round screen or the diagonal of a rectangular
illumination that can be produced by the screen, screen. The phosphor numbers at the end of
depending on its chemical composition. A the type number are generally Pl for a green

Electron gun

Electron beam
-~==:::=-=====--=-.=:- ==..~..,;=-.:;...-::;-c_,....-,,,.... w ..

Fluorescent screen
Accelerating
grid

FIGURE 29-18
Cathode-ray tube (CRT) using electrostatic de-
flection and focusing. Screen diameter is gen-
erally 3 or 5 in for oscilloscopes.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 617

cathode. Sometimes there may be an internal

short circuit between electrodes, or the tube
may be microphonic. Also, tubes may have
excessive cathode-to-heater leakage, which
causes hum. In all cases, the defective tube
must be replaced.

Open Filament. There is no current, and the

tube is cold. In glass tubes usually you can see
that the filament is not lit. The possibility of an
open can be checked by the ohmmeter, with
power off. Just place the ohmmeter leads
across the two filament pins and check continu-
ity.
Typical resistance for the cold heater is 1 to
50 Q, depending on the tube. A low resistance
reading indicates that there is no open and that
the filament is normal. Note that the cold resist-
ance of the filament is much less than the hot
FIGURE 29-19
resistance, by a factor of about 1/i. 0 . For exam-
ple, a tube rated for a 0.3-A heater current at
Oscilloscope with 8 X 10 cm grf;en screen.
6.3 V has a hot resistance in normal operation
This unit is a dual-trace "scope," with two in-
put channels. (Tektronix)
of 6.3 V!0.3 A, which equals 21 Q. The normal
resistance of the cold heater, however, as
checked by an ohmmeter, is about 2 Q.
screen, P4 for a white screen, and P'22 foi a
red, green, and blue screen in color picture
tubes. For instance, the 5BP1 CRT for oscillo- Microphonics. A tube with electrodes that are
scopes has a 5-in green screen. For oscillo- not perfectly rigid is called microphonic be-
scopes, the screen size is often given in centi- cause the electrodes can act like a microphone
meters. if the tube vibrates. In a receiver, when a [Link]-
phonic tube is tapped, it produces a hollow
Practice Problems 29-13 ringing noise that dies out slowly. At loud vol-
(answers on page 623) ume settings, the sound can make the micro-
(a) In a CRT, which electrode has the highest phonic tube vibrate, and it causes a sustained
positive voltage? howl.
(b) What is the phosphor number for a green
screen? Cathode-to-Heater Leakage. If the insulation
resistance between cathode and heater is not
29-14 high enough, this leakage resistance can cause
TROUBLES IN VACUUM TUBES hum in the receiver. With 60-Hz alternating
The most common troubles in vacuum tubes current for the heater, the hum frequency
are an open heater or weak emission from the is 60 Hz.
 Chapter 29
618 Vacuum Tubes

Tube Noise. Although it is not necessarily a Tube Tester. This instrument provides operat-
defect, tubes do produce a small amount of ing voltages for a tube inserted in its proper
noise. In a receiver the tube noise produces a socket, and conduction is indicated by a meter
continuous hissing or "frying" sound. This on the panel that reads "good" or "bad."
noise can often be heard between stations when There are two types. In the emission tester, only
the volume is all the way up. static plate current is indicated. In the mutual-
Much of the tube noise results from the conductance type, a small ac voltage is applied
random flow of electrons forming the plate cur- to the grid, and the change in plate current
rent and is called shot effect. The resultant indicates whether the tube is good or bad. This
noise voltage is in the order of microvolts, but type, which is preferable, can have the meter
for tubes with a small amount of signal voltage scale calibrated to read gm in microsiemens.
input that will be amplified to a great extent, the The scale of a tube checker has a question
noise generated in the first stages of amplifica- mark at the center range to indicate a tube of
tion may be significant. doubtful quality. For power tubes, it is usually
In general, the more grids there are, the better to replace a questionable tube.
more noise the tube will generate because of the
partition effect of the grids on the space current, Practice Problems 29-14
causing a more random electron flow to the (answers on page 623)
plate. Triodes are therefore less noisy than (a) How much is the resistance on an open
equivalent multigrid types. As a result, where heater?
low tube noise is important, triodes may be used (b) Which can produce more tube noise:
in preference to pentodes. triodes or pent odes?

Summary
1. The main types of electronic circuits for vacuum tubes and semi-
conductors are rectifiers, amplifiers, and oscillators, as illustrated in
Figs. 29-1 to 29-3.
2. Diodes have a heated cathode and anode. The cathode emits elec-
trons by thermionic emission; the cloud of emitted electrons near the
cathode is the space charge. The anode attracts the electrons when it
is positive with respect to cathode. The plate current can flow in only
one direction, from cathode to plate. The more positive the plate
voltage vb, the more plate current ib, up to saturation.
3. In a filament cathode, the heated filament emits electrons and serves
as the cathode. With an indirectly heated cathode, a separate heater
makes the insulated cathode emit electrons.
4. The diode is useful as a rectifier to change alternating to direct
current. One diode is used as a half-wave rectifier; two diodes can be
used in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
5. In a triode, the control grid determines how many electrons from the
space charge are attracted by the positive plate to provide plate
 Chapter 29
vacuum Tubes 619

TABLE 29-3. Types of Vacuum Tubes

TUBE SYMBOL* ELECTRODES CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS

~
Diode Plate When plate is positive, One diode for half-wave
Cathode conducts current rectifier; two diodes
only from cathode for full-wave rectifier
to plate

~
Triode Plate Negative grid controls Triode amplifier with
Control grid plate current; has external Rv for af
Cathode large cgp amplifiers; low tube
noise

Tetrode Plate Screen grid reduces Cup; Tetrode little used be-
Screen grid screen must have cause of secondary
Control grid +de voltage and emission from plate
- Cathode bypass C to cathode

'
for ac signal

Pentode Plate Suppressor grid elimi- For af or rf ampli-

Suppressor nates secondary fiers; sharp cutoff
- Screen grid
Control grid
emission; screen grid
provides high µ and
except variable-µ
tubes

'
Cathode high rP

*Tubes shown with indirectly heated cathode.

current. The more negative the control grid voltage ve is, the less the
plate current. The negative ve value that results in zero ib is the
grid-cutoff voltage. The fixed negative de voltage for ~ is the grid
bias.
6. The function of the triode is to amplify a grid-voltage variation.
Amplification requires a steady positive de plate voltage to allow plate
current, with an external RL in series between the plate and B +.
Plate current flowing through RL can produce changes in plate
voltage much greater than the changes in grid voltage.
7. The three main characteristics for triode, tetrode, and pentode
amplifier tubes are the amplification factor µ equal to /),.vb/ /),.ve, plate
resistance rP equal to /),.vb//),.ib, and transconductance gm equal to
l),.Vl),.ve.
8. Tetrodes have the cathode, control-grid, and plate structure of a
triode, plus the screen grid between the control grid and plate. The
 Chapter 29
620 Vacuum Tubes

screen grid must have a positive de voltage, bypassed to the cathode

at the ac signal frequency. The screen grid reduces Cw
9. Pentodes have the cathode, control grid, screen grid, and plate plus
the suppressor grid between the plate and screen grid. The suppres-
sor grid eliminates the effect of secondary emission from the plate.
The suppressor grid is generally connected internally to the cathode.
10. Table 29-3 summarizes the main points about pentodes, tetrodes,
triodes, and diodes. The nomenclature for electrode voltages is given
in Table 29-1 on page 606.
11. In type numbers for amplifier tubes, the first number gives the heater
voltage, the letters indicate the type, and the final number indicates
pins actually used.
12. The most common tube troubles are low emission or an open heater.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d).

1. In a diode the plate current increases when the (a) plate voltage is
made more positive; (b) plate voltage is made less positive;
(c) control-grid voltage is made less negative; (d) saturation plate
current is reached.
2. With an indirectly heated cathode, the heater voltage (a) is applied to
the cathode; (b) is separate from the cathode circuit; (c) must be a
steady de voltage; (d) is equal to the C- bias voltage.
3. In a triode, tetrode, or pentode, the plate current increases when the
(a) control-grid voltage is made more negative; (b) control-grid
voltage is made less negative; (c) plate voltage is made less positive;
(d) screen-grid voltage is made less positive.
4. The screen grid in a pentode (a) makes the plate current more
dependent on plate voltage; (b) has the same potential as the cath-
ode; (c) decreases the grid-plate capacitance, as compared with a
triode; (d) eliminates the problem of secondary emission from the
plate.
5. The suppressor grid in a pentode (a) reduces the grid-plate capaci-
tance, as compared with a triode; (b) eliminates the problem of
secondary emission from the plate; (c) usually has a positive de
potential less than the plate voltage; (d) is usually connected inter-
nally to the control grid.
6. With 250 V for B + and 10 mA for lb through a 20-kQ RL, the
plate-cathode voltage \{ equals (a) 10; (b) 20; (c) 50; (d) 250.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 621

7. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the diode conducts when the (a) plate
is made positive by the positive alternation of the ac input voltage;
(b) plate is made negative by the negative alternation of the ac input
voltage; (c) cathode is made positive by the positive alternation of the
ac input voltage; (d) ac input voltage is at its average value of zero.
8. In a pentode, when vc varies -+-2 V, the plate current varies -+-10 mA.
The grid-plate transconductance gm in microsiemens equals
(a) 500 µS; (b) 1000 µS; (c) 2000 µS; (d) 5000 µS.
9. The heater power required for the 12BA6 remote-cutoff pentode is
(a) 7 Vat 0.15 A; (b) 12.6 Vat 0.15 A; (c) 6.3 Vat 0.3 A; (d) 22.6 V
at 0.3 A.
10. With an 8-mA lb, a 2-mA Ic 2 , and a 500-µA /c 1 , the total cathode
current IK equals (a) 2 mA; (b) 8 mA; (c) 10.5 mA; (d) 500 mA.

Essay Questions
1. Give the functions for rectifier, amplifier, and .oscillator circuits.
2. Draw the schematic symbols for diode, triode, and pentode vacuum
tubes, labeling all electrodes.
3. Show the schematic symbols for a filament cathode and an indirectly
heated cathode.
4. Define the following in terms of vacuum-tube operation: (a) satura- .
tion plate current; (b) space charge; (c)' grid-plate capacitance.
5. Draw the schematic diagram of a triode amplifier circuit with a
plate-load RL. Give the function of (a) A voltage; (b) B+ voltage;
(c) C- voltage; (d) RL.
6. Draw the schematic diagram of a pentode amplifier with a plate load
resistance RL. (a) What is the function of the screen-grid resistor Rs?
(b) What is the function of the screen bypass capacitor Cs? (c) What is
the path of plate current? (d) What is the path of screen current?
(e) Why is there no control-grid current?
7. Define µ, rP, and gm for a triode or pentode amplifier tube.
8. Define the following symbols: \.'zib, \.'zi, vb, ~ 2 , and ~ 1 •
9. Referring to Fig. 29-15, why is a bypass capacitor used for Rs in the
screen-grid circuit but not for RL in the plate circuit?
10. How would you test for an open heater with an ohmmeter?
11. Draw the schematic diagram of a half-wave rectifier circuit.
12. Refer to Fig. 29-8. (a) Why is the de output positive? (b) Why is the
ripple frequency 60 Hz?
 Chapter 29
622 Vacuum Tubes

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. (a) Calculate ~ 2 , with a 4-mA le 2 , a 25-krl Rs, and 250 V for B +.

(b) Calculate \'zi, with a 12-mA lb, a 5-krl RL, and 250 V for B +.
2. Referring to the triode plate characteristic curves in Fig. 29-12, how
much is the plate current ib for the following? (a) vb is 120 V and ve
is zero volts; (b) same vb, but ve is -2 V; (c) same vb, but ve is -6 V;
(d) ve is -6 V, but vb is 200 V; (e) vb is 400 V, and ve is -18 V.
( /) How much negative grid voltage ve is required for zero ib with
400 V at the plate?
3. Referring to the pentacle plate characteristic curves in Fig. 29-16,
how much is ib with -2.5 V for ve when vb has values of 100, 200,
250, and 300 V? Why do these values indicate that plate current is
relatively independent of plate voltage in a screen-grid tube?
4. Referring to the family of plate characteristics for the pentacle in
Fig. 29-16: (a) Tabulate the values of ib, with a constant vb at 250 V,
for ve values in 0.5-V steps from 0 to 3.5 V. (b) Draw a graph showing
ib on the vertical axis and ve on the horizontal axis. (This graph is in
the second quadrant for the negative values of ve.)
5. Referring to Fig. 29-10, with vb constant at 200 V, calculate gm for a
ve change of 0.5 V from an average of -1 V.
6. (a) Calculate Rs to drop Vzib of 300 V to 90 V for ~ 2 , with an le 2 of
4 mA. (b) Calculate Cs needed to bypass Rs at 50 Hz.
7. Calculate RL for \'ii of 40 V with 300 V for \'zib and 2 mA of lb.
8. How much is the hot resistance of the heater in the 38HK7 diode-
beam power tube, with heater current of 450 mA?

Vb lb = 12 mA C2
------t------+-

FIGURE 29-20
For Probs. 13 and 14.
 Chapter 29
Vacuum Tubes 623

9. Calculate the voltage gain of a triode amplifier with 300-mV input

signal and 12-V output signal.
10. In Fig. 29-15: (a) Calculate the total cathode current IK if lb = 12 mA,
Ic 2 = 4 mA, and /c 1 = 0. (b) Calculate lb if IK = 18 mA, /c 1 = 1 mA,
and /c 2 = 4 mA.
11. (a) An amplifier has a 50-µV ac input signal and a 600-µV output.
How much is the voltage gain Av? (b) If the gain were 24, how much
would the ac output voltage be?
12. Calculate the C needed to bypass a 200-Q cathode resistance at the
lowest audio frequency of 50 Hz.
13. For the pentacle amplifier circuit in Fig. 29-20, calculate \{, ~ 2 , Ix,
and \{.
14. In Fig. 29-20, how much would Rx be for \{of 1.5 V?

Answers to Practice Problems

29-1 (a) 40 29-8 (a) 13 mA
(b) 1 MHz (b) 8mA
29-2 (a) Cathode 29-9 (a) 12,000 µS
(b) Positive (b) 750 Q
29-3 (a) Cathode 29-10 (a) 100 V
(b) Plate or anode (b) Zero
29-4 (a) lb 29-11 (a) T
(b) 2mA (b)' T
29-5 (a) Positive (c) T
(b) Positive 29-12 (a) 21 V
29-6 (a) Decreases (b) Pins 1 and 12
(b) 120 v 29-13 (a) Anode
29-7 (a) -3 V (b) Pl
(b) +1 v 29-14 (a) Infinity
(c) 200 V (b) Triodes
(d) +20 v
semiconductor
Diodes
and
Transistors
This chapter discusses how the semiconductor elements germanium and
silicon are used for diode rectifiers and transistor amplifiers. Because of Chapter
so
their small size and efficient operation, these semiconductor devices have
replaced vacuum tubes in most electronic circuits. Typical examples are
shown in Fig. 30-1. The transistor was invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen and
W. H. Brattain of the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
The name transistor is derived from ''transfer resistor,'' indicating a
solid-state device. Instead of depending on thermal emission, the solid
semiconductor has free charges that are controlled by the input voltage to
provide rectification or amplification in the output. Since there is no
heated filament, the operation of semiconductor devices is instantaneous,
without any warmup time. The topics here are:
30-1 Types of Semiconductor Devices
30-2 Characteristics of Semiconductors
30-3 N-type and P-type Doping
30-4 Current in Semiconductors
30-5 The PN Junction
30-6 Diode Rectifier Circuits
30-7 Transistors
30-8 Transistor Amplifier Circuits
30-9 The CE Amplifier Circuit
30-10 Collector Characteristic Curves
30-11 Load-Line Analysis
30-12 Bias Stabilization
30-13 Field-Effect Transistor (FET)
30-14 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
30-15 Types of Transistors
30-16 Special -Purpose Diodes
30-17 Transistor Troubles
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 625

A PN junction by itself is a semiconductor

diode with two electrodes. The PN diode can be
used as a rectifier because it conducts current in
one direction.
With either a P or N between two opposite
types, the result is a PNP or NPN triode transis-
tor. Now there are three electrodes with two
junctions. These electrodes are the emitter, the
base in the middle, and the collector. The emit-
ter supplies charges through its junction with
FIGURE 30-1 the base to provide current to the collector
Typical transistors. Height is %-1/z in without through its junction with the base. For a typical
leads. transistor amplifier, the base-emitter junction
voltage in the input circuit controls the current
through the collector junction for the output
30-1 circuit.
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR The field-effect transistor (FET) is also an
DEVICES amplifier, with the same functions as PNP and
A semiconductor is a material which has a re- NPN transistors. However, the FET is con-
sistance in between that of a conductor and an structed to operate with only one polarity of
insulator. The special feature of the semicon- charge carriers, either P or N. The FET has a
ductor elements, however, is that the atomic restricted channel that can be electrically ex-
structure allows their conductivity to be in- panded or reduced to control the charge car-
creased by adding impurity elements, a process riers for current. The FET electrodes are
called doping. The purpose is to increase the source, gate, and drain, corresponding to
number of free charges that can be moved by an emitter, base, and collector in junction transis-
external applied voltage. When the number of tors. These electrodes are summarized in Table
free electrons is increased, the doped semicon- 30-1 and compared with vacuum tubes.
ductor is negative or N type; reducing the num- An integrated circuit (IC) combines tran-
ber of free electrons makes the material P type. sistors and diodes with resistors and capacitors
Both germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) can be on one silicon chip. More details of IC units are
used with either P-type or N-type doping, but described in Chap. 31.
silicon semiconductor devices are most com- The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) or thy-
mon. ristor is a power rectifier that has a gate elec-
Where two opposite types meet, the result trode to control the start of conduction. This
is a PN or NP junction. The junction is a con- function is useful for control circuits in industrial
tinuous structure of the solid semiconductor, electronics.
but with opposite free charges on opposite Finally, there are many types of semicon-
sides. A small internal contact potential across ductor diodes that have useful applications be-
the junction keeps the opposite charges sepa- sides rectification, because of the special char-
rate. It is the junction that is useful for practical acteristics of a PN junction. These include
semiconductor devices, because the junction capacitance that varies with the junction voltage
voltage controls the flow of current. and photoelectric effects.
 Cha ter 30
626 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

TABLE 30-1. Electrodes in Transistors and Vacuum Tubes

FIELD-
VACUUM JUNCTION EFFECT
FUNCTION TUBE TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR
Source of Cathode Emitter Source
charges
Control of Control Base Gate
charges grid
Collector Plate Collector Drain
of charges

Practice Problems 30-1 union of atoms sharing the valence electrons is

(answers on page 668) called a covalent bond. 1
(a) What electrode in a junction transistor cor-
responds to the cathode in a tube? Resistivity. With filled covalent bonds, a semi-
(b) What electrode in the FET corresponds to conductor does not have the individual free
the collector in a junction transistor? electrons present in metal conductors. This fac-
tor is why semiconductors have more resistance
than metals. As a comparison, approximate
30-2
values of resistivity p in Q • cm units are:
CHARACTERISTICS OF 2 x 10-6 for copper, 50 for Ge, 50 X 10 3 for
SEMICONDUCTORS Si, and 2 X 10 12 for mica.
The main features of pure semiconductors
without doping are: (1) R more than metal
Crystal Structure. Si and Ge have atoms in a
conductors but less than insulators; (2) negative
regular network or lattice of cubes to form a
temperature coefficient a as R decreases with
crystal solid. A crystal has a definite geometrical
heat; and most important, (3) electron valence
form of the internal atoms. A diamond is an
of -+-4. This valence means the atom has four
example of the crystalline structure for pure
electrons in the outside ring, halfway to the
carbon. When a crystal is broken into smaller
goal of 8 electrons.
segments, each has the same structure as the
As an example of atomic structure, Si has
original crystal.
the atomic number 14. This atom has 14 pro-
If we visualize atoms of Si interconnected
tons in the nucleus balanced by 14 electrons in
by covalent bonds, as in Fig. 30-2, the result is a
the outer shells. The electrons are distributed in
lattice of atoms to illustrate the crystalline struc-
rings of 2, 8, and 4.
ture. Because of this crystal lattice of covalent

Covalent Bonds. Such atoms do not usually 1 More details of atomic structure and electron va-
gain or lose the 4 valence electrons but share lence are explained in Chap. 1. Covalent bonds
them with neighboring atoms. The result is a between silicon atoms are illustrated in Fig. 10-15 in
stable configuration with 8 outer electrons. This Chap. 10.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 627

0---0---0---0
I I I I
Extrinsic Semiconductors. The doping results
in an extrinsic semiconductor, meaning it is not
I I I I in the natural form. The difference is that an

®---®---®---®
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
intrinsic semiconductor has only covalent bonds
for all the atoms, but an extrinsic semiconductor
also has free charges as a result of the doping.

®---®---®---®
FIGURE 30-2
Temperature Coefficient a. Intrinsic semicon-
ductors have a negative a, since R decreases
Crystal lattice structure of a semiconductor,
with heat. The reason is in the covalent bond
with covalent bonds between Si atoms.
structure. However, an extrinsic semiconductor
bonds, it is possible to add impurity atoms for acts more like a metal conductor because both
doping. The purpose is to alter the electrical have free charges that can be moved easily by
characteristics of the semiconductor. applied voltage. Therefore extrinsic semicon-
ductors, like metal conductors, have a positive
Intrinsic Semiconductors. A pure semicon- a, since R increases with heat.
ductor without any doping is called an intrinsic
semiconductor. Silicon itself is an element in Practice Problems 30-2
most common rocks. Sand is silicon dioxide. (answers on page 668)
The element Si was discovered in 1823 and Ge (a) What is the electron valence for Si and Ge?
in 1886. Germanium is recovered from the ash (b) Which has the lowest resistivity p: copper,
of certain coals. The oxides of both Ge and Si paper, or intrinsic silicon?
are reduced chemically to produce the ele-
ments with almost 100 percent purity. Figure 30-3
30-3 shows a solid bar of silicon and the slices N-TYPE AND P-TYPE DOPING
or disks that are doped for use in semiconduc- The elements used for doping generally have an
tor devices. electron valence of either 5 or 3. As a result, the
doped semiconductor has either an excess or
shortage of electrons in the covalent bond
structure. A semiconductor with excess elec-
trons is an N type, while a P type has a shortage
of electrons. The doping elements are listed in
Table 30-2.

Free Electron Charges in N-Type Semicon-

ductor. The doping elements arsenic, anti-
mony, and phosphorus have a valence of 5. For
(a) (b) each of these atoms there are 5 electrons in the
FIGURE 30-3 outermost ring. In a covalent bond with Ge or Si
Forms of pure silicon. (a) Solid bar. (b) Wafer atoms having 4 valence electrons, each impurity
disks. Diameter 11lz in. (Dow Corning) atom provides an extra electron.
 Chapter 30
628 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

TABLE 30-2. Doping Elements and Semiconductors

ATOMIC VALENCE
ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER ELECTRONS APPLICATIONS
Antimony Sb 51 5 Donor impurity elements. Give electrons to form
Arsenic As 33 5 N-type semiconductor. As and Sb used for Ge;
Phosphorus p 15 5 phosphorus for Si
Germanium Ge 32 4 Intrinsic semiconductors used in pure crystal form to
Silicon Si 14 4 be doped with impurity elements. Doped
semiconductors are extrinsic
Aluminum Al 13 3 Acceptor impurity elements. Take electrons to form
Boron B 5 3 P-type semiconductor. Ga and In used for Ge; Al
Gallium Ga 31 3 and B for Si
Indium In 49 3

This idea is illustrated in Fig. 30-4, where atoms, there are 7 electrons instead of 8 for
the crystal lattice of Si atoms includes one each bond with an impurity element. The 1
phosphorus atom. Four of the five valence missing electron in such a covalent bond can be
electrons of the impurity element become part considered as a free positive charge called a
of the covalent bond structure. However, the 1 hole charge. Figure 30-5 illustrates a hole
extra electron can be considered a free charge charge in the crystal lattice of doped silicon.
because it is not needed for a covalent bond. A hole has the same amount of positive
charge as a proton, equal to an electron but
Free Hole Charges in P-Type Semiconduc- with opposite polarity. However, a hole charge
tor. The doping elements aluminum, boron, is not a proton. The proton is a stable charge in
gallium, and indium have a valence of 3. For the nucleus that is not free to move. A hole is a
each of these atoms there are 3 electrons in the positive charge outside the nucleus present only
outermost ring. In a covalent bond with Ge or Si in semiconductors because of unfilled covalent
bonds.

0---0---0---0 I
I
0---0---0---0
I I I I
I I I I I I I I

0---0---0---0 ©---©---@---©
~ : c: :
~---cb-t-~---~
I I I I

0---0- -0---0
Positive /
Negative /
~hosphorus Free electron charge
ion aluminum ion Free hole charge
FIGURE 30-4 FIGURE 30-5
Crystal lattice structure of Si doped with phos- Crystal lattice structure of Si doped with alumi-
phorus. The covalent bonds have one free num. The covalent bonds have one free posi-
electron for each phosphorus atom. tive hole charge for each Al atom.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 629

Hole Current. The idea of hole charges mov- Any atom with unbalanced charges is an
ing to provide hole current is illustrated in Fig. ion. The phosphorus atom in Fig. 30-4 is a
30-6. In (a), along the top row, a hole charge is positive ion, therefore.
shown at point 1, along with some filled cova- In Fig. 30-5, the aluminum atom effectively
lent bonds. Suppose that a valence electron has an extra electron as a part of a covalent
from the filled bond at point 2 moves to point 1. bond structure, with 8 electrons whenever the
As shown in (b), the bond at point 1 becomes free hole charge moves away from the impurity
filled and there is a hole charge at point 2. atom. Therefore, the aluminum atom becomes
Similarly, an electron can move from point 3 to a negative ion.
point 2 to fill this bond. With this sequence, the The ions are fixed charges that are not
hole charge is moving from point 1 to point 6 to easily moved in the solid crystal. Since the ions
provide hole current, from left to right here. are impurity atoms, they are present only in the
To produce this hole current, voltage could doped semiconductor. The fixed charges of the
be applied across the semiconductor with the ions are important because they provide an
positive terminal at point 1. The direction of internal contact potential across a PN junction.
hole current is the same as conventional cur- It should be noted that the doping really
rent, opposite from electron flow. All symbols does not add or subtract charges. The semicon-
for current in semiconductors are shown for the ductor is still neutral, with equal positive and
direction of hole current. negative charges. However, the doping redis-
It should be noted, though, that hole cur- tributes the valence electrons so that more free
rent flows only in P-type semiconductors. The charges are available.
current is electron flow in N-type semiconduc-
tors and all wire conductors. Practice Problems 30-3
(answers on page 668)
Fixed Ion Charges. The free charges in a (a) Is the doped semiconductor illustrated in
doped semiconductor are balanced by ions of Fig. 30-4 N type or P type?
the impurity element. For example, in Fig. 30-4, (b) What is the type in Fig. 30-5?
the phosphorus atom with a valence of 5 sup-
plies 1 free electron that can easily move 30-4
through the crystal. As a result, the nucleus of CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
the phosphorus atom has 1 extra proton. With doping, an N-type semiconductor now has
a large supply of free electrons, a result of the
added impurity atoms. Then the electrons be-
Hole come the dominant or majority charges. Still
charge Filled covalent bonds
there are minority charges of holes. Similarly,
(a) 0 0 0 0 0
(±) a P-type semiconductor has majority hole
2 3 4 5 6 charges, but there are minority electron
(b) 0 (f) 0 0 0 0 charges.
When the majority charges are made to
--+ Hole current move in the semiconductor by an applied volt-
FIGURE 30-6 age, the result is a relatively large amount of
Hole charge moving in a P-type semiconductor forward current or easy current. This easy cur-
to provide hole current. rent is a flow of electrons as the majority car-
 Chapter 30
630 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

riers in N-type semiconductors, or hole current tration to areas of lower concentration. This
in P-type semiconductors. The amount of I is in idea is similar to a drop of ink diffusing through
the range of milliamperes and amperes. a glass of water.
When minority charges move, this current Either electrons or hole charges can dif-
is in the reverse direction, compared with the fuse through a solid semiconductor when one
forward current of the majority charges. The side has a high concentration of majority car-
reason is simply that the polarity of minority riers. In a transistor, the majority charges into
charges is always opposite from the majority the base from the emitter junction diffuse
charges. through the base to the collector junction.
This very small current of minority charges
is called reverse current or leakage current. It is Practice Problems 30-4
in the order of microamperes. (answers on page 668)
Furthermore, the reverse current increases (a) Are electrons majority or minority charge
with higher temperatures, as more minority carriers in N-type semiconductors?
charges are produced by an increase of thermal (b) Are hole charges majority or minority car-
energy. This increase in the reverse current of riers in N-type semiconductors?
minority charges is the reason why temperature
is very important in the operation of bipolar 30-5
transistors. THE PN JUNCTION
Figure 30-7 illustrates a magnified view of the
Drift Current. This term is used for charges in junction to analyze the effect of the P and N
motion that are forced to move by the electric semiconductors. Actually, the regular structure
field of a potential difference, which is the usual of the single crystal is the same through the P
method of producing current. For instance, the and N bulk materials and their junction.
electron flow produced by applied voltage is a Some electrons in the N side are attracted
drift current. Hole charges in a P-type semicon- to the P side, while at the same time an equal
ductor can also provide a drift current with an number of hole charges move in the opposite
applied voltage. However, hole current is in the direction. These charges produce neutral elec-
opposite direction from electron flow. The drift tron-hole pairs. However, this effect at the
current in semiconductors, therefore, can be junction uncovers the charged ions of the im-
electron flow or hole current. Also, it can be a purity atoms. These ions provide an internal
motion of majority charges for forward current barrier potential \{ across the two sides of the
or minority charges for reverse current. junction. \{has the polarity to prevent any more
free electrons or hole charges from crossing the
Diffusion Current. This results from a differ- junction. In effect, \{ maintains the free elec-
ence in concentration of the charge carriers in trons in the N semiconductor and the hole
adjacent areas of the crystal lattice in a solid charges in the P semiconductor, to prevent the
semiconductor. An applied voltage is not nec- opposite sides from becoming neutralized.
essary. The difference in charge concentration
in the solid results in motion. The Internal Barrier Potential(\{). Although
The charge carriers have a random motion it is an internal contact potential that cannot be
of their own from heat energy, but the motion is measured directly, the effect can be overcome
restricted to the solid material. The tendency is by 0.3 V for a Ge junction or 0.7 V for Si. The
for charges to move from areas of high concen- barrier voltage is more for Si because its lower
 Cha ter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 631

P-type size or power rating. \{ is 0. 7 V for any junction

Free
holes j Free
electrons
in all semiconductors made of silicon; \{ is
0.3 V for any junction made of germanium.
o~o<t>o<t> Eoeoeo- The barrier voltage is what makes the
o <t> o <t> o <t> ~y o e o e o e junction useful because the effect of \{ can be
O<t>O<t>O<t> ooeoeoe controlled by an external voltage. With forward
o<t>o<t>o<t> . . oeoeoe voltage applied in the polarity to cancel \{,
forward current flows. \{ can be neutralized
Junction
either completely or partially. Reverse voltage is
applied in the polarity that does not cancel \{.
80(±)
Ions
80© +I ons
Depletion Zone. Because of its neutral elec-
80(±) tron-hole pairs, the junction area is the deple-
tion zone, meaning it has no free charges.
80© However, it still has the ion charges anchored in
.fb = 0.3 for Ge~ position to produce \{ .
0.7 for Si
FIGURE 30-7
Effect of Temperature on ~- The values of
PN junction with depletion zone magnified to 0.3 V for Ge and 0. 7 V for Si are at normal
show how ion charges produce internal contact room temperature of 25 ° C. However, \{ de-
potential Vii at the barrier.
creases at higher temperatures. The reason is
atomic number allows more stability in the co- more minority charge carriers. Specifically, \{
valent bonds. decreases 2.5 mV/°C rise in temperature, for
The \{ is a characteristic of the element. both Ge and Si.
Therefore these values apply to all PN junctions
for semiconductor diodes and transistors of any Forward Voltage. See Fig. 30-8a. The for-

Hole current
--+
+ p N p N """+_ _ ____,

Low resistance High resistance

Forward voltage Reverse voltage

+ +

{a) {b)
FIGURE 30-8
(a) Polarity for applying forward voltage VF
across PN junction. Note direction of hole cur-
rent in the forward direction from P to N. ( b)
Polarity for rever~e voltage VR. Then there is no
forward current.
 Chapter 30
632 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

ward voltage is applied by wire conductors to positive side of \{ to neutralize the positive
the P and N electrodes for the bulk materials. ions.
Such a connection without any barrier potential
is called an ohmic contact. Then the external Reverse Voltage. In Fig. 30-Sb, the reverse
voltage is applied through the bulk materials to voltage VR attracts minority charges away from
the PN junction. Forward current flows as the the junction. Then the ion charges at the junc-
forward voltage neutralizes \{. The required tion remain intact to maintain \{. The polarity of
polarity is VR is reversed from VF. Specifically, the re-
quired polarity is
+VF to the P electrode
forward - VR to the P electrode
- VF to the N electrode reverse
+ VR to the N electrode
In other words, the polarity of VF corresponds to Voltampere Characteristic. Figure 30-9
the semiconductor types. summarizes the effects of forward or reverse
This polarity of the external VF can neu- voltages for Ge and Si. Separate graphs are
tralize the internal \{. The reason is that + VF at shown because the forward characteristics in (a)
the P electrode repels hole charges to the side are for VF in tenths of a volt and high currents in
of the junction that has negative ion charges for the ampere range, while the reverse character-
\{.Then the negative ions are neutralized. Also, istics in (b) are for higher voltages with very
- ~ repels electrons to the junction at the small reverse currents.

Reverse volts
...--
400 Ge 25 20 15 10 5 0

Si= 1 µA

<( 300 Ge= 1 mA

E I
...; I
r::
E I
:; I
u 200 I Reverse
"Eca :--- Junction
I breakdown
wcurrent
:!: I voltage
0 100 I
u.
I
I
I
I
I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
~
Forward volts
(a) (b)
FIGURE 30-9
Voltampere characteristic curves of Ge and Si
junctions. (a) Small forward voltage and high
current. ( b) High reverse voltage and small
reverse leakage current.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 633

Forward Current. As shown in Fig. 30-9a, for Practice Problems 30-5

Si with \{of 0.7 V, forward current flows when (answers on page 668)
VF approaches 0 .5 V. With 0. 7 V or more for \{, (a) VF of 0 .6 Vis applied to an Si junction. Will
forward current increases sharply to the maxi- forward current flow?
mum value at saturation. Then the external VF (b) Does \{increase or decrease with temper-
completely neutralizes the internal \{. ature?
A middle value of VF for forward current is (c) Does 100 increase or decrease with tem-
0.6 V for a Si junction. Similarly, for a Ge junc- perature?
tion the range of VF for forward current is 0 .1 to
0.3 V. Typical values of forward current are 0.2 30-6
to 20 A. DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
The standard symbol for a semiconductor diode
is an arrow and bar showing the direction of
Reverse Current. With reverse voltage, only a hole current (Fig. 30-10). Therefore the arrow
small reverse current of minority charges can is the P side and the bar is the N side. Positive
flow, as shown in Fig. 30-9b. The separate voltage applied to the P arrow makes the diode
curves indicate typical values of 1 mA for Ge conduct since this side is the anode, while the N
and 1 µA for Si. Note the advantage of Si with bar is the cathode.
practically zero reverse current. The arrow and bar are generally marked
This current has the symbol 100 , indicating on the diode. If not, a dot or band at one end
a small cutoff current. The junction is practically indicates the cathode side. Or a + mark at the
an open circuit with reverse voltage, compared cathode shows this is the terminal for positive
to a short circuit with forward voltage. de voltage output.
100 is in the opposite direction from the The only numbering system is the letter N
forward current. Since 100 consists of minority for semiconductors and the prefix 1 for diodes
charges, the reverse current increases with with one junction. As an example, the diode in
temperature. For every 10°C rise, the 100 dou- Fig. 30-12 is type number 1 N3754. The last
bles approximately for both Ge and Si. digits indicate a specific type. In schematic dia-
grams, the semiconductor diodes are labelled
X, Y, or CR for crystal rectifier.
Junction Breakdown. The reverse current is However, general-purpose silicon diode
constant at a very small value until ~ reaches rectifiers for receivers often do not have a type
the junction breakdown voltage, shown as 25 V number. They usually have maximum ratings of
in Fig. 30-9b. Then a relatively large reverse 1 A forward current and 200 to 400 V reverse
current can flow. Most important, the reverse breakdown voltage. The forward voltage drop
voltage across the junction is constant at the across a silicon diode is approximately 1 V,
breakdown value. This effect is used for voltage which is very low compared with about 18 V for
regulator diodes. a tube.
For transistor amplifiers and rectifier di-
odes, though, the forward characteristics in Fig. Half-Wave Rectifier. In Fig. 30-11, the input
30-9a are used. Then the forward current can voltage ~c is applied to the diode in series with
be controlled to provide amplification and recti- the output load resistor RL. For the positive
fication. half-cycles of ac input, the P side of the diode is
 Chapter 30
634 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

Cathode
polarity provides reverse voltage, and the diode
cannot conduct. Then there is no output.
Although not a steady de value, the fluctu-
ating output \.{ is a de voltage because it has
p t
Hole
current
only one polarity. The fluctuating component is
the ac ripple in the de output. With 60 Hz ac
N voltage from the power line, the ripple fre-
quency is 60 Hz. In a de power supply, a filter is
used to reduce the amplitude of ac ripple.
Anode
Operating Characteristics. The graph in Fig.
(a) (b) (c)
30-12a shows how much de output voltage can
FIGURE 30-10
be produced across RL for the half-wave power
Semiconductor diode rectifiers. Length about supply in (b). Three curves are shown for differ-
% in without leads. (a) Silicon power diode ent values of C because the filter capacitor at
rated at 1 A Arrow shows hole current. ( b)
Germanium detector diode. Band at cathode
the cathode of the rectifier has a big effect on
end. ( c) Schematic symbol showing direction of the operating characteristics.
hole current. Besides reducing the ac ripple, C can
charge to the peak value of the ac input voltage,
which is close to 170 V. How much C dis-
positive. This is the polarity for [Link] current. charges between positive peaks depends on RL.
Then the diode conducts. Vac then produces Lower values of RL, corresponding to more
current through RL, providing fluctuating de load current Iv allow more discharge from C,
voltage output \.{ across RL. resulting in less de output voltage.
The polarity of \.{ is positive at the top of To take one example from the curve for a
RL in Fig. 30-11 because this end is connected 50-µF C, the de load current IL of 100 mA
to the positive terminal of vac through the con- allows 145 V for \.{. The de output voltage is
ducting diode. On the negative half-cycle of ac more than the rms ac input because C charges
input, the P side of the diode is negative. This to the peak value. The 5.6-Q R8 is a surge-
p N

Diode Positive
rectifier de output

:0{]11 v..
+

---.
Time
FIGURE 30-11
Half-wave rectifier circuit using silicon diode.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 635

Type 1N3756
Ambient temperature= 25°C
Supply frequency = 60 Hz
> 180t----+~-+-~+---+~-+-~+----I 5.6 .Q

Ac input c + Positive
de output
117 v filter voltage
120----~--~+---+~-+-~+-----'

100----~...._~.__--~--~"----'
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
De load, mA (IL )

(a) (b)
FIGURE 30-12
Operating characteristics of half-wave power
supply with filter C and load RL. (a) Graph of
de output voltage vs. load current. (b) Circuit.

limiting resistor. It protects the diode against verted diode then conducts on the negative
excessive charging current at the start of opera- half-cycle of ac input. Also, the de output volt-
tion when C charges from zero. age across RL in the anode circuit then is nega-
tive.
Inverted Diode Rectifier. If the connections to
CRl are reversed in Fig. 30-12, the de output Full-Wave Rectifier. In Fig. 30-13, both alter-
with respect to chassis ground will have nega- nations of the ac input produce de output. Two
tive polarity. Then the ac input is applied to the diodes are necessary. The diode Y1 conducts
cathode. Driving the cathode negative is the for one alternation when its anode is driven
same as making the anode positive. The in- positive, while Y2 rests as its anode is negative.

Positive
de output

__.
Time
FIGURE 30-13
Full-wave rectifier circuit with two diodes.
 Chapter 30
636 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

On the next alternation, the ac input voltage 4. Voltage doubler. Two diodes provide a se-
reverses in polarity and Y2 conducts without ries circuit for de output voltage double the
Yl. The ac input supplies equal and opposite ac input voltage. Either a half-wave or
voltages, usually with a center-tapped second- full-wave circuit can be used.
ary winding in the power transformer.
Although the diodes conduct on opposite Detector Circuits. A detector is just a low-
half-cycles, notice that in both cases the polarity power diode rectifier for a few volts of ac signal.
is the same for the de output across RL. For For the audio detector in AM radio receivers, as
either Yl or Y2 the de load RL is in the cathode an example, the ac input is modulated rf signal.
return circuit. The top of RL is connected to a This ac voltage must be rectified to filter out the
cathode for positive de output from both di- rf carrier wave and extract the variations of
odes. amplitude in the audio modulation. Generally, a
The ripple frequency for the full-wave rec- detector uses a very small Ge or Si diode as a
tifier is double the frequency of the ac input, as half-wave rectifier, as shown in Fig. 30-lOb.
each half-cycle produces a fluctuation of de
output voltage. With the 60-Hz power line as an Checking Diodes with an Ohmmeter. The
ac input, the ripple frequency in the de output is diode should have at least 100 times more R in
120 Hz. the reverse direction, compared with the for-
ward resistance. Just connect the ohmmeter
Power-Supply Hum. In a receiver, insufficient across the diode in one polarity, and then re-
filtering of the ac ripple can cause hum to be verse the leads for the opposite polarity. A sili-
heard from the loudspeaker. Excessive hum is con diode has practically infinite R in the re-
often the result of an open or leaky filter capac- verse direction.
itor. The hum frequency is 60 Hz for a half- When R is very high in both directions, the
wave rectifier or 120 Hz with a full-wave recti- diode is open. When R is very low in both
fier, with an ac input of 60 Hz. A higher ripple directions, the diode is shorted. If parallel paths
frequency means better filtering as the same confuse the readings, disconnect one side of the
shunt Chas one-half reactance for double the diode from the circuit.
frequency.
Practice Problems 30-6
Power Supplies. The following types of recti- (answers on page 668)
fier circuits are often used for a de power supply (a) What is the ripple frequency of a full-wave
operating from the 60-Hz ac power line. power supply?
(b) Referring to the graph in Fig. 30-12a, how
1. Half-wave rectifier. One diode for a simple much is V across RL with 100 µF for C and
and economical circuit. The ripple is 150 mA for IL?
60 Hz.
2. Full-wave rectifier. Two diodes can supply 30-7
double the load current. The ripple is TRANSISTORS
120 Hz. As shown in Fig. 30-14, the transistor consists
3. Full-wave bridge rectifier. Four diodes are of a PN junction and an NP junction, by making
used for full-wave operation without a either a P or N semiconductor between oppo-
center tap in the ac input. The ripple is site types. The purpose is to have the first sec-
120 Hz. tion supply charges, either holes or electrons, to
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 637

Forward Reverse
voltage voltage
+
+

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

Base Base
(a) (b)
FIGURE 30-14
Junction transistors illustrating emitter, base,
and collector. (a) PNP. (b) NPN.

be collected by the third section, through the In the schematic symbols, only the emitter
middle section. The electrode that supplies has an arrow. The arrow pointing into the base
charges is the emitter; the electrode at the op- means a PNP transistor; the arrow out from the
posite end to collect the charges is the collector. base means an NPN transistor. Practically all
The base in the middle forms two junctions small transistors for audio and rf amplifiers are
between emitter and collector, to control the NPN, made of silicon, with a typical forward
collector current. bias of 0 .6 V between base and emitter.

Emitter. The emitter-base junction is biased Collector. Its function is to remove charges
with forward voltage. Typical values are 0.2 V from the junction with the base. In Fig. 30-14a,
for Ge or 0 .6 V for Si. the PNP transistor has a P collector receiving
As shown for the PNP transistor in Fig. hole charges. For the NPN transistor in (b), the
30-14a, the P emitter supplies hole charges to N collector receives electrons.
its junction with the base. This direction is indi- The collector-base junction always has re-
cated by the emitter arrow for forward hole verse voltage. Typical values are 4 to 100 V.
current in the schematic symbol. The arrow This polarity means no majority charges can
pointed into the base shows a PN junction be- flow from collector to base. However, in the
tween emitter and base, corresponding to the opposite direction, from base to collector, the
symbol for a PN diode. collector voltage attracts the charges in the base
For the NPN transistor in (b), the emitter supplied by the emitter.
supplies electrons to the base. Therefore, the
symbol for the N emitter shows the arrow out Base. The base in the middle separates the
from the base, opposite to the direction of elec- emitter and collector. The base-emitter junction
tron flow. is forward-biased. As a result, the resistance is
 Chapter 30
638 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

very low for the emitter circuit. The base-collec- electron charges in the base at the emitter junc-
tor junction is reverse-biased, providing a much tion, because of the forward bias. As a result,
higher resistance in the collector circuit. almost all the electrons diffuse through the thin
base to the collector junction.
Collector Current. The final requirement for The N collector has reverse voltage of pos-
transistor action is to have the collector current itive polarity. For electrons moving from the
controlled by the emitter-base circuit. The emit- base, however, the positive collector voltage
ter has heavy doping to supply majority attracts these free charges. As a result, the elec-
charges. However, the base has only light trons diffused from the emitter side of the base
doping and is very thin, so that its charges can move into the collector to provide a drift current
move to the collector junction. The collector of electrons for 10 in the collector circuit. For a
voltage is relatively high. Because of these fac- PNP transistor, all voltage polarities are re-
tors, practically all the charges supplied by the versed and 10 at the collector electrode consists
emitter to the base are made to flow in the of hole charges.
collector circuit. Typically, 98 to 99 percent or
more of the emitter charges provide collector Electrode Currents. As an example, in Fig.
current (10 ). The remaining 1 to 2 percent or 30-15, the emitter supplies 10 mA of forward
less becomes base current Un). current. This is IE. Of this, 9 .8 mA is injected
Consider the currents for an NPN transis- into the collector circuit. This is 10 . Only 0.2 mA
tor. The N emitter supplies electrons to the P or 200 µA of IB flows through the base terminal
base. Here the electrons are minority charges. to return to the emitter. As a formula
Because of light doping in the base, though,
very few of the electrons can recombine with (30-1)
hole charges. Any recombination of charges in
the base provides the very small IB returning Note that IE in Fig. 30-15 is marked nega-
from base to emitter. tive, only to indicate its direction is opposite
There is a heavy concentration of free from 10 and In. It is standard practice to consider

Forward Reverse
voltage c voltage
+
I
E 1
I
I
+
le= 9.8 mA

FIGURE 30-15
Electrode currents IE, IB, and 10 shown for NPN
transistor. Dotted arrows show direction of
electron flow for I in external circuit.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 639

hole current into a semiconductor as the posi- 30-8

tive direction of I. Since IE is electron flow into TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
the transistor, this I is in the negative direction. CIRCUITS
Algebraically, the values are -10 mA + Since a PNP or NPN transistor has only three
9.8 mA + 0.2 mA = 0. In practical terms, the electrodes, one must be a common connection
formula states that the collector and base cur- for two pairs of terminals for input and output
rents must add to equal the emitter current, signals. The general case of three electrodes,
which is the source. with one common, is illustrated in Fig. 30-16a.
Specifically, the three possibilities for amplifier
Example 1. How much is IE with 100 mA for le and circuits are: common base (CB) in (b), common
800 µA or 0.8 mA for IB? emitter (CE) in (c), and common collector (CC)
in (d). The circuits are shown for NPN transis-
Answer. IE = le + IB = 100 + 0.8 tors, but they are the same for PNP transistors
IE= 100.8 mA with all polarities reversed. Although the com-
mon electrode is shown grounded here, it need
Example 2. With 4 A for IE and 3.8 A for le, how not be connected to chassis ground. The main
much is IB?
features of these circuits are compared in Table
Answer. Transposing Formula (30-1 ), 30-3.
For all these amplifier circuits, the collector
IB =IE - le has reverse voltage and the emitter-base junc-
= 4 - 3.8 tion requires forward bias. It is labeled either
IB = 0.2 A or 200 mA VBE or VEs· This average forward voltage is
called bias voltage, and the corresponding cur-
For power transistors, IE and /0 are generally in rent is bias current. The bias sets the average de
amperes. values in the amplifier. Then ac signal varies the
values around the bias level.
The Base Current Controls the Collector
The common-emitter circuit is the one
Current. When Is is increased by more for-
generally used for transistor amplifi~ because
ward voltage, this means more majority charges
it has the most gain with cascaded stages. How-
are in the base to be injected into the collector.
ever, each type of circuit has special features.
Therefore, increasing Is means more le. For the
opposite effect with less forward voltage and
Common-Base (CB) Circuit) In Fig. 30-16b,
less Is, the collector current is reduced.
the input voltage is applied to the emitter, with
respect to the grounded base. The amplified
Practice Problems 30-7 output is taken from the collector. RL is in series
(answers on page 668) with the collector supply Vee· The positive side
(a) Does the base-emitter junction have for- of Vee supplies reverse voltage for the N collec-
ward or reverse bias? tor.
(b) Does the collector-emitter junction have In the CB circuit the emitter input has low
forward or reverse bias? resistance ri because IE is high. The output
(c) le is 1 mA. Is is 5 µA. How much is IE? resistance r0 for the collector is high. Typical
(d) An Si transistor has 0.1-Vforward bias. Is it values for a small-signal transistor with IE of
conducting or cut off? 1.5 mA are 20 n for ri and 1 Mn for r0 • These
 Chapter 30
640 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

NPN
E

Output

-- - -- -
-
Input B
RL
-b
lnpu t
- Common
0 utput
-- 1- + VEB = Vee
J-
- .... -
(a) (b)

B Output
NPN

Input Output

L_~_v_nE_________f cc
(c) (d)
FIGURE 30-16
Types of amplifier circuits, shown with NPN
transistor. All polarities are reversed for a PNP
transistor. (a) General case of a common ter-
minal for two pairs of connections. (b) Com-
mon base (CB). (c) Common emitter (CE). (d)
Common collector (CC) or emitter-follower.

TABLE 30-3. Comparison of Transistor Circuits

COMMON COMMON COMMON
CHARACTERISTIC BASE (CB) EMITTER (CE) COLLECTOR (CC)
Signal into Emitter Base Base
Signal out of Collector Collector Emitter
Advantage Stability High gain High ri
Phase inversion No Yes No
Similar vacuum- Grounded Grounded Grounded plate
tube circuit grid cathode (cathode-follower)
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 641

values are for the internal resistance of each caded amplifiers where the collector output of
electrode to the common base. one stage drives the base input of the next. The
The CB circuit is seldom used. It has no CE circuit is the amplifier generally used for
current gain from input to output because le transistors because it has the best combination
must be less than IE. The voltage gain can be of voltage gain and current gain. The disadvan-
high, but the output is shunted by the low input tage is that reverse leakage current is amplified
resistance of the next stage. The only advantage in the CE circuit, but bias stabilization methods
is that the CB circuit has the best stability with can be used.
an increase in temperature. The reason is that Only the CE amplifier inverts the polarity
reverse leakage current from collector to base is of signal voltage. This phase inversion of 180°
not amplified in the CB circuit. is neither good nor bad, but just a result of the
circuit connections. When the base input signal
Common-Emitter (CE) Circuit. See Fig. 30- increases the forward voltage, the collector
16c. Input voltage is applied to the base instead voltage of the same polarity decreases because
of the emitter, which is now the grounded elec- of the voltage drop across RL.
trode. Note that the emitter is shown at the
bottom of the schematic symbol. The input cir- Common-Collector (CC) Circuit. See Fig.
cuit here involves IB instead of IE. As a result the 30-16d. Signal input is applied to the base, as in
ri for the CE circuit is much higher than for the the CE circuit. However, the collector is
CB circuit. A typical value is 1000 Q for ri. grounded, instead of the emitter. Therefore, the
The output voltage is still taken from the emitter has RL for output signal.
collector with its RL. The Vee is positive for Now there are two questions for the elec-
reverse bias on the N collector. A typical value trode voltages: How to apply reverse voltage for
for r0 in the collector output circuit is 50 kQ. the grounded collector and forward bias for the
In the input circuit, the forward bias VBE is base. Note that the emitter is at -14 Vwith re-
applied to the base instead of the emitter. Note spect to chassis ground. ThB collector is at chas-
the polarity. Positive VBE to the P base corre- sis ground,. In effect, the collector. is connected
sponds to negative VEB at the negative emitter. to the positive side of the emitter supply volt-
Both are forward-bias voltages, with the polarity age. This makes the N collector positive with re-
the same as the N or P electrode. spect to the emitter, as reverse voltage for VeE·
Furthermore, the positive VBE at the base For forward voltage, the base must be
for forward bias uses the same voltage polarity more positive than the emitter. VE in this exam-
as positive Vee for reverse voltage at the N ple is -14 V. Therefore VB is made -13.4 V.
collector. This feature allows the practical con- The actual bias VBE then is 0 .6 V.
venience of using one voltage supply for both In the CC circuit, the input circuit has high
forward bias in the input and reverse bias in the ri. A typical value is 150 kQ. The output in the
output. As an example, the CE circuit in Fig. emitter circuit has low r0 of about 80 Q. Note
30-1 7 uses R1 to drop the collector supply of that for the CC circuit, the input resistance is
12 V to 0.6 V for the base. high and output resistance is low, compared
The CE circuit has current gain because le with low ri and high r0 for the other circuits.
is much larger than IB. The voltage gain is the There is no voltage gain in the CC circuit
same as for the CB circuit. With a higher ri, because the output signal voltage across RL in
however, the CE circuit can be used in cas- the emitter circuit provides negative feedback to
 Chapter 30
642 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

3mA
~--------i~ Ac output
± 1.1 v

~6.6V
Ac input
'V
~
±5mV

- R1
-
= 190 k.Q
-

rµF c, t11.4 VJ'

0.06 mA

FIGURE 30-17
Common-emitter amplifier circuit. NPN takes
+ Vee for reverse voltage and + Vs for forward
bias. VB is 0.6 V for Si.

the base input circuit. However, there is appre- Practice Problems 30-8
ciable current gain. (answers on page 668)
(a) Which circuit has input signal to the base
Emitter-Follower. This is the name generally and output from the collector?
used for the CC circuit, because it corresponds (b) Which circuit has the most gain?
to the cathode-follower circuit with vacuum (c) Which circuit has the highest input resist-
tubes. The output signal follows the polarity of ance?
the input signal. These circuits are often used
for impedance matching, from a high-imped- 30-9
ance source to a low-impedance load. THE CE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Typical values of VBE are in tenths of a volt for a
Darlington Pair. This circuit consists of two junction transistor. The required bias at the
emitter-followers in cascade. The two stages are base for a class A amplifier is 0.6 V for Si or
usually packaged in one unit, with de coupling 0.2 V for Ge. Furthermore, the maximum ac
internally and just three external leads. The input signal without overload distortion is
package provides higher input resistance and -+-0.1 V. These values are summarized in Table
more current gain than just one stage. 30-4. Note that 0.1 Vis 100 mV.

TABLE 30-4. Input Voltages VBE at 25°C

CUT-IN SATURATION ACTIVE AVERAGE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE REGION BIAS VOLTAGE

Ge 0.1 0.3 0.1-0.3 0.2

Si 0.5 0.7 0.5-0.7 0.6
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 643

Without any forward bias a junction tran- 0.07

sistor is cut off by its own internal barrier poten- 0.06 mA axis ]
------- on2mA
tial. The cut-in voltage in the first column of
Table 30-4 is the lowest VBE that allows appreci- (a)
0.05
able le. This VBE for any le at all is only 0.1 V 0 ____.
less than the average forward bias. Time
The saturation voltage in the second col- 3.5
umn of Table 30-4 is the highest VBE that allows
it to produce proportional changes in le. At
saturation, the maximum le does not increase
with an increase of forward voltage. The satura-
2.5
tion VBE is only 0 .1 V more than the average (b)
forward bias. 0
____.
Time

Circuit Components. The transistor amplifier 6.5

itself is usually labelled Q, as for Ql in Fig.
30-17. RL is the collector load. It is in series with
the positive Vee of 12 V for reverse collector
voltage on the NPN transistor. 4.3
(c)
One supply voltage is used for both collec-
0
____.
tor and base in the CE circuit, as positive base Time
bias and positive collector voltage are needed. FIGURE 30-18
However, the collector voltage is too high for Ladder diagram of signal waveforms for circuit
base bias. Therefore, R1 is connected in series in Fig. 30-17. (a) Base current iB. (b) Collector
as a voltage-dropping resistor for the base. current ie. ( c) Output voltage Ve = Vee - ieRL.
The required forward-bias voltage for Si is
0 .6 V. The corresponding bias current for this bias axis, up to the peak of 70 µA. On the down
transistor is taken as 60 µA or 0.06 mA, as an side, iB decreases by 10 µA, from 60 to 50 µA.
example. Therefore, the voltage drop across Positive signal voltage in the forward direction
R1 is 0.06 mA x 190 kn = 11.4 V. Then increases iB, while negative signal voltage re-
12 - 11.4 = 0.6 V remains for VBE as forward duces iB. The peak-to-peak signal in iB then is
voltage for the base. 70 - 50 = 20 µA, or 0.02 mA.
The bypass C1 allows the ac input signal The variations in iB cause corresponding
voltage to vary the base current without the variations in ie, as shown in waveform (b). Let
series resistance of R1 . Then very small changes the current transfer ratio be 50, meaning this is
of input voltage can produce appreciable the ratio of collector output current to base
changes in base current. We are assuming an ac input current. Then the iB variations of -+-10 µA
input of -+-5 mV for the base input signal, or swing ie by 50 X 10 = 500 µA or 0.5 mA.
10 mV p-p. The average de level for le is taken as
3 mA for a small-signal low-power transistor.
Signal Variations. The input signal of base Then the ac signal swing of ie is -+-0 .5 mA
current iB is shown in Fig. 30-18a. This wave- above and below the axis of 3 mA. In ie, the
form shows iB varies by 10 µA above the 60-µA peak-to-peak signal is 3.5 - 2.5 = 1 mA.
 Chapter 30
644 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

The signal changes in i0 produce variations in Fig. 30-19. RL is the external collector load.
in the voltage drop i0 RL across the collector RQ is the internal resistance of the transis-
load for the output circuit. As a result, V0 varies tor conducting current from emitter to collec-
because it is the difference between V00 of the tor. In this example, Ql is conducting 3 mA
supply and the voltage drop across RL. As a with 5.4 V for V0 E. The equivalent RQ is
formula, 5.410.003 = 1800 Q. Note that VQ is the same
as V0 .
(30-2)
Gain. To calculate the voltage amplification, or
For example, with an average level of gain, with p-p values for Fig. 30-17,
3-mA 10 through the 2.2-kQ RL, this voltage
drop is 0.003 X 2200 = 6.6 V. Subtracting
A _ ~ut (30-3)
6.6 V from 12 V, the difference is 5.4 V for the V - \.{n
average V0 .
The variations of v0 are in waveform (c).
This shows the amplified signal output voltage.
The average de level or axis is 5.4 V. When iB
Av = 0~021 0 = 220

increases, the vc decreases to 4.3 V because of The current amplification is

a larger voltage drop across RL. On the next
half-cycle iB decreases. Then less voltage across
RL allows v0 to rise to 5.4 V. Then peak-to-peak (30-4)
signal voltage is 6.5 - 4.3 = 2.2 V for v0 at the
collector. This amplified output voltage is 180 °
out of phase with the signal input voltage at the A = }.Q_ = 1 mA p-p = 50
1 iB 0.02 mA p-p
base.
The basis for Formula (30-2) is just the fact
that RL and the collector-emitter circuit of the The power amplification is
transistor are in series with each other as a
voltage divider from the high side of V00 to AP= Av X A1 (30-5)
chassis ground. The equivalent circuit is shown AP= 220 x 50 = 11,000

Since the CE circuit has both voltage and

current amplification, the power gain is high.
Power gain is desirable because it means the
voltage output can drive a low-impedance cir-
~Vee= cuit without too much loss of voltage amplifica-
~12V tion.

Emitter _ _ _ ____.__ _ _ _ ___. Cascaded Stages. As shown in Fig. 30-20, the

amplifiers Ql, Q2, Q3, and Q4 are in cascade.
FIGURE 30-19 With CE amplifiers, the collector output of one
Equivalent voltage divider circuit for V0 in se- stage drives the base input of the next. It is
ries with \{. important to realize that the voltage amplifica-
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 645

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Input I= 250 mA Power I= 5A
Predriver Driver ...,..__....,To load
stage output

FIGURE 30-20
Amplifier stages in cascade.

tion need not build up the signal to a level curves. Figure 30-21 illustrates a circuit to vary
greater than -+-0.1 V. This is the maximum sig- the voltages experimentally in order to deter-
nal swing without distortion for junction transis- mine the values of 10 .
tors. However, the cascaded stages provide The main idea here is to change V0 E to
enough signal current to drive the base of the determine 10 in the output. However, 10 also
output stage Q4. depends on how much lB is in the input, for the
As an example, suppose that Q4 is a CE circuit. The results for one value of lB at
power output stage to drive a loudspeaker as 50 µA are shown by the graph in (b). Finally, the
the load that needs 5 A. With an average level values for all typical operating conditions are
of 5 A for 10 in Q4, its lB would be in the order shown in (c). This is a family of collector char-
of 250 mA or 5 A/20, with a current transfer acteristic curves for different values of base
ratio of 20. This lB of 250 mA can be supplied current. The curves are for lB values, not VB,
by the collector output of the driver-stage Q3. because the base current determines 10 . Fur-
Similarly, Q3 with an 10 of 250 mA would have thermore, lB is not linear with respect to VB.
lB of 12.5 mA with a current ratio of 20. Also, Such curves are provided by the manufac-
with a current ratio of 50 for Q2, its lB would be turer, in a transistor manual, or in application
12.5 mA/50 = 0.25 mA, or 250 µA. This drive notes. It should be noted that for a CB circuit,
for base current in Q3 can be provided by the the collector curves would be shown for differ-
collector current of the input stage Ql. ent values of emitter current.
The curve in (b) shows that with a 50-µA
Practice Problems 30-9 lB, the collector current is about 3 mA. Note
(answers onpage 668) that lB is in microamperes here while 10 is in
(a) In Fig. 30-17, how much is the base-bias milliamperes. In general, 10 must be larger than
voltage VBE? lB, as 10 is almost all the emitter current, but lB is
(b) In Fig. 30-19, how much is VQ with \{of only 1 or 2 percent of IE.
5.5 V? The collector current increases very little
(c) In Fig. 30-18, how much is the p-p signal as the reverse voltage V0 E is increased to 16 V.
output in i0 ? The reason is that 10 is limited by how much
emitter current and base current are permitted
30-10 by the forward voltage VBE in the input circuit.
COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC The results for different values of IB are
CURVES shown in the family of collector characteristic
The transistor is a nonlinear device, since the curves in (c). Each curve can be considered as a
collector current does not vary in direct pro- single graph of 10 vs. V0 E for a specific value of
portion to changes in either V0 or VB. Therefore, base current IB.
it is necessary to show the characteristics by As an example of how to read the family of
 Chapter 30
646 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

p
N 0 to
p
15mA
-15 ..... -300
1- I
,__ 2~

-- ---
I

Vee r ~-
-2.Q2.;: i;;;;--
...... I
0 to 16 V / I

+ + [ ............ -150-=
-10
<( / ~
I
E i--
I
'-
-5 ~
(a)

-5 ,
---
/"

-
-- Base micro~mperes
-100_

= -50 -
I
-
Jo~--,
10 = -50 µA
I I I
I
0 + I
0 -4 -8 -12 -16 0 -4 -8 -12 -16
VeE• V
(b)
FIGURE 30-21
Collector characteristic curves. These show a
separate graph for each lB value in the CE
circuit. (a) Circuit to determine le vs. Ve with a
fixed lB. (b) Typical collector characteristic for
lB of 50 µA. ( c) Family of collector curves for
different values of lB.

curves, assume lB is 100 µA for the second Answer. The 100-µA lB is 0.1 mA. Then
curve up from the bottom in (c). Then for a VeE
of 8 V, the value of le is 6 mA, as shown by the /3 = .!£ = 6 mA
arrows on the graph. lB 0.1 mA
/3 = 60
Beta Characteristic. The ratio of collector
current to base current is the f3 (beta) charac-
teristic of the transistor. As a formula, Example 4. Calculate le for a 1-mA lB and a /3 of 50.

/3 = le (30-6)
Answer. le is /3 X lB. Also, lB = lei /3. Then
lB
le = /3 X lB
The beta characteristic is the current transfer = 50 x 1
ratio for a common-emitter circuit. There are le= 50 mA
no units, since this is a ratio of two currents.
Values for f3 are 10 to 300. For a small-signal
low-power transistor 200 is typical, while power Alpha Characteristic. The a (alpha) is the
transistors have f3 of 20 to 30 as a typical value. current transfer ratio for a common-base cir-
cuit. Then the input current is emitter current,
Example 3. Calculate f3 from Fig. 30-21 c for a although the output is still collector current. As
6-mA le and a 100-µA lB with VeE at 8 V. a formula,
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 647

is a reverse current of minority carriers in the

(30-7)
same direction as the collector current of ma-
jority carriers. The problem with lea is that the
Values of a are 0.97 to 0.99, with 0.98 as typi- output current does not drop completely to zero
cal. This means 98 percent of the emitter cur- when the input circuit is cut off.
rent is injected into the collector. The a must be lea is very sensitive to temperature because
less than 1, as le cannot be more than IE. it consists of minority carriers. As in diodes, the
reverse saturation current doubles approxi-
Example 5. Calculate a for 6.1-mA IE, 6-mA le, and mately for every 10 ° C rise in temperature, for
0.1-mA 18 . both Ge and Si. However, lea for Si is about
1/i. 000 of the value for Ge. As an example, for a
Answer. These values show that IE is the total of 5-W Si transistor with le of 5 A, the lea is only
le and 18 , but the base current is not used for calcu- 10 µA at 25°C. However, at 150°C, lea rises to
lating alpha. several milliamperes.
le 6 mA
a------ Saturation. The collector is saturated, with
- IE - 6.1 mA
maximum le, when Ve drops below the base
a= 0.984
voltage. Then the collector junction becomes
forward-biased, instead of having its normal
These values for a and (3 are static de
reverse voltage. The low Ve can result from the
values, without ac signal input. The ac dynamic
voltage drop across RL.
values are calculated for small changes in the
currents. It should be noted that a and (3 are Practice Problems 30-10
related as (3 = a!(l - a). (answers on page 668)
(a) In Fig. 30-21c, how much is le for 4 V of
Cutoff Frequency. The frequency at which the VeE and 300 µA of IB?
value of a or (3 drops to 0. 707 of its value at (b) How much is (3 when a change of 10 µA in
1 kHz is the cutoff frequency of the transistor. iB changes ie by 3 mA?
Internal capacitances and diffusion time in the
base cause the drop at higher frequencies. For 30-11
small-signal transistors in rf circuits, the cutoff LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
frequency is typically 300 MHz. Typical values The collector characteristic curves show elec-
of collector-base capacitance are 5 to 10 pF for trode voltages and currents for the transistor
small transistors and up to 900 pF for power itself, without a load in the output circuit. Actu -
transistors. ally an external load impedance is necessary to
provide amplified output voltage. A typical cir-
Collector Cutoff Current. If the emitter were cuit is shown in Fig. 30-22a with a 5-r2 RL.
open, there would be no forward current into Although the transistor is nonlinear, RL has
the base. Then the collector junction with the a linear voltampere characteristic. To see the
base is the same as a diode with reverse bias effect of RL on the collector voltage and current,
provided by the collector voltage. The normal le the straight-line characteristic of RL is superim-
of majority carriers is zero, but the diode has its posed on the collector characteristic curves, as
reverse saturation current lea· In a transistor, lea in (b). This graphical analysis with the load line
 Chapter 30
648 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

Cc Ac Common-emitter circuit, base input.

~---T--tr output, Mounting-flange temperature= 25°C
±5V
I I I I
Saturation
region - - Boundary of recommended
/ operating region
I I I I I I I

Ac
input
<(
......~ -5
-50
-Ii"' ·-
-40 A I
- /.~- ":J Base milliamperes= -35
V cc - -4 30
=+ Collector ~~
'J I
- 0.2 V
VBB = 20 V supply r, 25 I
De bias
+ or
[BB= 20 mA
-3
-2
~ ""' ~ ..
I'...~ J ' -
.....

~,::-20
' I

I
......... .f2 -15
I -,._ __
r- -__
'.i.

-1
0
,
I I ...........
I
'"""" I -5
-10 ,...

-5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30

VCE,V
(a) (b)
FIGURE 30-22
Load-line analysis for circuit with 5-Q RL and
20-V collector supply. (a) CE circuit. (b) Con-
struction of load line between points at 20 V for
Ve and 2% = 4 A for le.

of RL can be used to determine specific values. collector current. In the output circuit, the col-
The details of the load-line intercepts with the lector supply voltage Vee is 20 V. In the input
collector characteristics are shown separately in circuit, a VBB of 0 .2 V provides the forward bias
Fig. 30-23. for a 20-mA base current. It should be noted
The CE circuit in Fig. 30-22a uses a PNP that currents and voltages are negative for the
germanium power transistor, with amperes of base and collector of a PNP transistor, but only

-4

-3

<(
. -2
......
!;,,)

0 -5 -10 -20

FIGURE 30-23
Details of load line for Fig. 30-22. See text for
this graphical analysis.
 Cha ter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 649

the values are considered here. 10 and lB are in are average de values without signal, or quies-
the negative direction because hole charges are cent values.
moving out of the transistor.
AC Signal Swing. With input signal to the
Constructing the Load Line. All values of base, the ac drive changes the base current up
collector current and voltage with a specified RL to the peak of 30 mA and down to the mini-
are on the load line of Rv drawn on the family mum of 10 mA. These values of iB are two
of collector characteristics. To construct the curves up and down from the Q point of
load line, we need only the values of RL and the 20 mA. The intercepts with the load line are
supply voltage V00 , which determine the two shown in Fig. 30-23.
end points. One point is at V00 , equal to 20 Von The peak iB of 30 mA produces a peak
the horizontal axis where 10 is zero. This is one collector current of 3.4 A; the minimum iB of
operating point because the collector voltage 10 mA produces a minimum i0 of 1.0 A. These
equals V00 when there is no 10 and no voltage values are read by projecting the points of in-
drop across RL. tersection over to the vertical axis of 10 . As a
The opposite point is at the extreme value result, the peak-to-peak swing of collector cur-
of collector current where V0 would be zero with rent is 3.4 - 1.0 = 2.4 A. Then A1 is
the voltage drop across RL equal to the supply 2.4/0.02 = 120, for the current gain.
voltage V00 . This end of the load line is at 10 = We can read the minimum and peak values
V00 ! RL on the vertical axis where V0 is zero. 9f v0 by projecting the points of intersection
This point on the vertical 10 axis is at 2% = 4 A. down to the axis of collector voltage. These
The straight line drawn between 4 A on the values are 3 and 15 V Note that the minimum
vertical axis and 20 V on the horizontal axis is v0 corresponds to the maximum i0 , because of
the load line for the 5-Q RL with a 20-V supply. the voltage drop across RL. The peak-to-peak
For any value of i0 , the corresponding v0 must swing in v0 then is 15 - 3 = 12 V, for vout·
be on the load line, which takes into account the With a 0.2-Vp-p input, then Avis 12/0.2 = 60. ·
i0 RL voltage drop. The power gain is 60 x 120 = 7200.

Q Point. Where the load line intersects the Class of Operation. The method of operation
collector curve for the base-bias current of for the amplifier in Fig. 30-22 is class A, mean-
20 mA in this example is the Q point or quies- ing that collector output current flows for the
cent point. This point specifies the static de full 360 ° of the input signal, without any part of
values without any ac signal input. The operat- the signal being cut off. In class B operation,
ing point of 20 mA for lB is chosen here be- output current flows for 180 °, or one-half the
cause it is a middle value between saturation input cycle. For class C operation, output cur-
and cutoff of the collector current. rent flows for less than 180°, usually 120°.
As shown in Fig. 30-23, the curve for a The class of operation is determined by the
20-mA IB intersects the load line where the Q point set by the bias of the input circuit and by
value of V0 is 8 V and 10 equals 2.4 A. As a the amount of ac signal. Class A operation is
check on these values, V0 and the voltage drop the most inefficient but has the least distortion.
10 RL must add to equal the 20-V supply. 10 RL is Class C operation has the most distortion but
2.4 x 5 = 12 V. Adding this 12 V to the 8 V of the highest efficiency. Class B operation is be-
V0 , the sum then equals the 20 V of V00 . These tween A and C.
 Cha ter 30
650 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

With one amplifier in a stage for audio axis, it is important to distinguish between the
signal, the operation must be class A. However, different currents and voltages. In general, the
two audio amplifiers can operate class B in a capital letters V and l are used for average de
push-pull circuit where each supplies opposite values. Double subscripts, as in Vee, indicate the
halves of the signal. Class C operation is used in supply voltage that does not change. The small
tuned rf power amplifiers, where the LC circuit letters v and i indicate values that vary with
can supply full sine waves of output. time. These symbols are summarized in Table
30-5.
Power Dissipation. The quiescent de power Note that in the symbol leBo for leakage
dissipated at the collector junction is Ve X le. current the system is to use the letter 0 for the
For the example in Fig. 30-22, open electrode in the subscript. This also ap-
plied to BVeBo for breakdown voltage.
In the symbol hfe the h stands for hybrid
P =Ve X le
parameters. These are combinations of voltage
= 8 V x 2.4 A
and current ratios in the forward or reverse
p = 19.2 w direction used in analyzing transistors as two-
port networks. The f subscript is for a forward
Typical power ratings range from 75 to characteristic from the base input to collector
300 mW for small transistors up to 5 to 100 W output, while thee indicates the common-emit-
for power transistors, rated at 25 ° C. ter circuit.
At higher temperatures up to a maximum
of 150 to 200°C, the maximum permissible Practice Problems 30-11
power dissipation must be derated. In many (answers on page 668)
cases, the power rating is reduced 50 percent Answer true or false.
for operation at one-half the maximum temper- (a) In Fig. 20-23, when le is 4 A, then Ve is
ature. zero.
(b) The power dissipation with 5 V for Ve and
Letter Symbols for Transistors. Because of 5 A for le is 5 W. ·
the combination of an ac component on a de (c) The hfe of 75 corresponds to f3 of 75.

TABLE 30-5. Letter Symbols for Transistors

SYMBOL DEFINITION NOTES
Vee Collector supply voltage Same system for collector currents; also for
Ve Average de voltage base or emitter voltages and currents.
Ve Ac component Also applies to drain, gate, and source of
Ve Instantaneous value field-effect transistors
~ Rms value of ac component
le BO Collector cutoff current, emitter open Reverse leakage current
BVeBo Breakdown voltage, collector to base, emit- Ambient temperature (T) is 25°C
ter open
hfe Small-signal foward-current transfer Same as ac beta (CE)
ratio (CE)
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 651

30-12 Self-Bias in the Emitter Circuit. In Fig. 30-

BIAS STABILIZATION 24, the emitter bias VE of 0.8 V results from the
The power dissipated as heat at the collector voltage drop JERE. This voltage is self-bias be-
junction raises the junction temperature. This cause VE depends on the transistor's own emit-
increases the collector leakage current, which is ter current.
IeBo· In the CE circuit, more IeBo increases the However, note that VE is positive at the N
forward-bias current. The reason is that the emitter of the NPN transistor. This is opposite
reverse current of minority charges in IeBo is in from the polarity for forward bias. Therefore, a
the same direction as the forward current of voltage divider is- used in the base circuit to
majority charges from the emitter. The collector provide the required positive bias voltage at the
current increases, which raises the junction P base. Here the R1 R2 divider from the 9-V
temperature. Since the action is cumulative, supply line provides 1.4 V positive at the base,
excessive le and heat can destroy the collector which is the forward polarity. The net bias volt-
junction, resulting in an internal short circuit to age from base to emitter then is VBE' equal to
the base. This effect is called thermal runaway. 1.4 - 0.8 = 0.6 v.
Methods of preventing thermal runaway
include operating the transistor well within its Stabilizing Effect of RE. The purpose of stabi-
maximum power ratings and stabilizing the bias lization is to prevent le from increasing with
against any increase in the average collector more leakage current. The self-bias of VE in the
current. Also, Si transistors have very little leak- emitter circuit accomplishes this effect, as it
age current. ~pposes the forward bias in the base circuit.

De supply line
+9V

R, RL
1 kn
39 kn
C2
7.5 v + ( ..
c,
I 1.4 v to Q3
Signal

~:~:'Q1 • + 30 µF
30µF

R2
10 kn
+CE
_ 100 µF

FIGURE 30-24
-
Typical audio amplifier circuit with emitter
self-bias for stabilization and R 1 R2 voltage di·
vider for base bias.
 Chapter 30
652 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

Any increase of le also increases IE. The in- When voltage is applied between the drain
crease in reverse VE, though, reduces the for- and source at opposite ends of the channel, the
ward bias VBE to decrease le. The result can be a current through the channel is controlled by the
steady value of average le that does not increase gate. The terms anode and cathode are not
with temperature. A higher RE improves the used here because the channel can be either N
stabilization, as the circuit becomes more like a or P, but current always flows from the source
CB stage, which has the best stability. to the drain.
The FET is a unipolar device, as the charge
Temperature-compensating Components. carriers in the channel have only one polarity.
Additional techniques for bias stability include A conventional PNP or NPN transistor is bi-
compensating diodes, thermistors, and sensis- polar with both majority and minority charge
tors. These components can be used in the bias carriers.
network for the base to maintain a stable value The FET has very high input resistance
for the average le. The forward characteristic of from gate to source. Also, the FET is less sensi-
a compensating diode is used to control the bias tive to temperature, x-rays, and cosmic radia-
current in the base circuit. A thermistor de- tion, which can produce minority carriers in
creases its R with higher temperatures; a sen- bipolar transistors. The disadvantages are less
sistor increases its R. gain for a given bandwidth and smaller power
ratings, compared with bipolar transistors.
Practice Problems 30-12 In summary, the electrodes of the FET
(answers on page 668) correspond to the emitter, base, and collector in
Refer to Fig. 30-24. a junction transistor, as follows:
(a) How much is the voltage across R2 ?
(b) When VE increases to 0.87 V, how much is 1. Source. This is the terminal where the
the bias VBE? charge carriers enter the channel bar to
provide current through the channel.
30-13 Source current is Is. The source corre-
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) sponds to the emitter.
This device is a semiconductor amplifier with 2. Drain. This is the terminal where current
the same function as junction transistors, but leaves the channel. Drain current is Iv. The
the FET construction provides a very high input drain corresponds to the collector.
resistance, in megohms. Also, the FET can take 3. Gate. This electrode controls the conduc-
several volts for the input circuit, compared with tance of the channel between the source
tenths of a volt for junction transistors. and drain. Input signal voltage is generally
As illustrated in Fig. 30-25, the FET oper- applied to the gate. The gate voltage is V0 .
ation depends on controlling current through a The gate corresponds to the base, but the
semiconductor channel of one polarity. An N gate voltage controls the electric field in the
channel is shown here, but a P channel can be channel, while the base controls the cur-
used instead. The bulk or substrate material is rent in a bipolar transistor.
neutral or lightly doped silicon. This only serves 4. Substrate or bulk. This electrode is usually
as a platform on which the other electrodes are connected to the source, with both
diffused. grounded in a common-source circuit.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 653

Gate

Source

Substrate or bulk

(a) (b)

N channel Drain

Gate 20--.....-
Gate 10--.....,

Source

(c) (d)
FIGURE 30-25
Field-effect transistor. (a) Construction with
insulated gate. (b) Symbol for IGFET. ( c) With
double gate. ( d) Symbol for JFET with PN
junction at gate.

The arrow for hole charges into the chan- tion. However, this junction has high input re-
nel indicates an N channel. The source and sistance because of reverse bias.
drain have no polarity, as they are just [Link]
contacts. All the electrodes are listed in Table IGFET. The insulated gate consists of a metal ·
30-1 on page 626. electrode separated from the channel by a thin
layer of glassy silicon dioxide. Voltage applied to
Function of the Gate. Input signal is generally the gate can induce charges in the channel to
applied to the gate, with amplified output from control the drain current, but there is no PN
the drain. In the input circuit, the gate and junction. The insulated gate has very high input
channel act like two plates of a capacitor. A resistance independent of the polarity of the
charge of one polarity on the gate induces an gate voltage. Also, the characteristics are not
equal and opposite charge in the channel. As a sensitive to temperature. This type is a metal-
result, the conductivity of the channel can be oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
increased or decreased by the gate voltage. (MOSFET) or an IGFET.
With an N channel, positive voltage at the gate The insulated gate is essentially an electro-
induces negative charges in the channel to static device with very high resistance. A typical
allow more electron flow from source to drain. rin is 15 MQ. An IGFET not connected in a
circuit may require a shorting ring on the leads
JFET. In the junction-gate type, or JFET, the to protect against a buildup of static charge. The
gate and channel form a conventional PN junc- IGFET has many uses for low-power amplifiers
 Chapter 30
654 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

and in counting circuits. This method of con- --------.-----a Amplified

output
struction is also applied in IC units. _j_10 v p-p
D
B
FET Types. When the channel can conduct s
current from source to drain only with gate Ac input
voltage applied, the transistor is an enhance- 1 v p-p
ment type. This means the gate voltage must
increase the charge carriers in the channel to
allow any drain current to flow. When the chan-
nel conducts with zero gate voltage, the transis- FIGURE 30-26
tor is a depletion type. In schematic symbols the Common-source circuit, corresponding to CE
depletion type has a solid channel bar, as in Fig. amplifier.
30-25. For the enhancement type, the channel
line is shown broken by the D, B, and S elec- and output signals. The three possibilities are
trodes. common source, corresponding to the CE am-
plifier; common gate, similar to the CB ampli-
FET Amplifier Circuit. The common-source fier; and common drain or source-follower, like
(CS) circuit in Fig. 30-26 is similar to a com- the emitter-follower. These are summarized in
mon-emitter (CE) amplifier. This FET is an N- Table 30-6, with a comparison to vacuum tubes.
channel depletion type. In the input circuit the
gate has zero bias. Then the ac input swings the
gate voltage +-0.5 V, or 1 V p-p. As a result, the Drain Characteristic Curves. As shown in
channel conductance changes to vary the drain Fig. 30-27, the characteristics of the FET are
current ID. shown by a family of curves of drain current vs.
In the output circuit, the varying ID pro- drain voltage for different gate voltages. These
duces corresponding changes in the voltage curves correspond to a family of collector char-
drop across the 2-kQ RL. Note the drain acteristics for different base currents.
voltage vD is the difference between the supply In the drain characteristics, note that the
VDD and vRL• just as in a collector circuit. The curve for zero gate voltage is in the middle,
result is voltage amplification. In this example, approximately. With the Q point at Vas= 0 V,
vout is 10 V p-p. Then Av is 10/i = 10. the ac signal input can swing the gate voltage
positive and negative. It should be noted, how-
FET Amplifier Circuits. As with all amplifiers, ever, that a small negative bias on the gate can
any one electrode can be common for the input be used.

TABLE 30-6. Amplifier Circuits for Transistors and Vacuum Tubes

JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT
VACUUM TUBE TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR
• Grounded cathode Common emitter Common source
Grounded grid Common base Common gate
Cathode-follower Emitter-follower Source-follower
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 655

The load line for a specific RL and Vnn can 5mA

be drawn on the FET characteristic curves,
gm = 1V = 5 x 10-3 S = 5000 µS
using the same method shown for the collector
curves in Fig. 30-22. For the FET, the bottom Typical values of gm are 1000 to 10,000 µS.
end of the load line is where Vn = Vnn· The top
end on the vertical axis is where In = Vnnl RL. Practice Problems 30-13
The gate circuit can accomodate a wide (answers on page 668)
range of input voltages, compared to bipolar (a) Which electrode in the FET corresponds to
transistors. Because of the very high gate resist- the collector in a junction transistor?
ance, there is practically no gate current. (b) In the common-source circuit, which elec-
Therefore, the IGFET takes voltage drive for the trode has the signal input?
ac input signal, like grid signal for a vacuum (c) The in changes by 10 mAwhen Va changes
tube. by 1 V. How much is gm?

30-14
Transconductance gm. The mutual trans-
SILICON CONTROLLED
conductance between the input voltage to the RECTIFIER (SCR)
gate and the output current from the drain is As shown in Fig. 30-28, the SCR is a four-layer
device used as a silicon rectifier, but conduction
with VD constant (30-8) is controlled by a gate electrode. When forward
~oltage is applied between cathode and anode,
in series with an external load, no appreciable
In Fig. 30-27, assume Vn is constant at 10 V. load current can flow until the barrier voltage at
Then a change in Vas of 1 V, from 0 to -1 V, the gate-cathode junction is overcome. This
decreases in by 5 mA, from 15 to 10 mA. internal reverse bias is about 0. 7 V.
Therefore, Forward voltage is applied for one-half.
cycle of the ac input between the anode and
cathode. However, note that the cathode-anode
Type 3N139 voltage is distributed over four layers, reducing
30 ....._---Substrate connected to source
Ambient temperature TA= 25°C Cathode G (short lead)

~ 20 N
c:
'iii Gate-to-source volts V cs Gate
c I
10 ........__--+___....... -1 ---+----..___--! N
', Dissipation p
----~----"!~'. =150mW
---3
-4 Anode A (case)
0 10 20 30 40
Drain-to-source volts (a) (b)
FIGURE 30-27 FIGURE 30-28
Family of drain characteristic curves. (From Silicon controlled rectifier. (a) Four-layer con-
RCA transistor manual) struction. ( b) Symbol.
 Chapter 30
656 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

the amount of forward voltage at the gate. But teristics are similar to the thyratron gas tube,
with a high enough forward voltage applied, the where the grid voltage starts conduction. The
SCR can conduct. This value is the forward- main types are the SCR, triac, and unijunction
breakover voltage. transistor. The SCR and triac are also in the
When the SCR is conducting, this is the ON class of four-layer diodes, because of the con-
state. The SCR has a very low resistance then, struction with alternate P and N layers. They are
serving as a silicon diode rectifier. In the oFF used as a gate-controlled switch (GCS).
state, though, the SCR is a very high resistance,
practically an open circuit. Triac. As shown in Fig. 30-29, the construc-
tion enables the triac to conduct for either po-
The Gate Trigger. The breakover voltage to larity of load voltage in the main circuit. Also,
turn on the SCR is controlled by the gate. A the gate can have either positive or negative
small positive voltage here neutralizes the inter- forward voltage. In effect, the triac is a bidirec-
nal reverse bias of the gate to allow conduction tional SCR. There is no anode or cathode in the
in the main circuit for the load. triac, as current can flow in either direction
In normal operation, the forward voltage between main terminals 1 and 2.
from the anode circuit is below the breakover
voltage but the SCR is switched on by the gate. Diac. This is also bidirectional between main
Once the SCR is turned on by the gate signal, terminals 1 and 2, but it does not have a gate.
the load current is independent of the gate There are just three layers.
voltage or current. The SCR remains on, con-
ducting its holding current, until the main circuit Unijunction Transistor (UJT). As shown in
reduces the forward voltage below the value Fig. 30-30, the UJT has an emitter and two
required to sustain conduction. Then when the connections to the base, without a collector
SCR is off, the gate signal can turn it on again. terminal. The UJT is not used as a transistor
amplifier, but is used in switching and timing
Thyristors. This is the general name for gate- applications. In effect, the emitter serves as a
controlled rectifiers like the SCR. The charac- gate to control the resistive voltage divider be-
tween Bl and B2.
Terminal 1 Gate Gate
The PUT. This abbreviation is for a program -
mable unijunction transistor. However, the
construction is a four-layer device with a gate,
N
like the SCR. A resistive voltage divider in the
p gate circuit determines the firing voltage,
p N
though, similar to the idea of the divided base
resistances in the UJT.
Terminal 2 Terminal 2
Practice Problems 30-14
(a) (b) (answers on page 668)
FIGURE 30-29 Answer true or false.
The triac, a gate-controlled rectifier. (a) Con- (a) The SCR is used as a gate-controlled
struction. (b) Symbol. switch.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 657

E~B2
E

~B1

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 30-30
The unijunction transistor (UJT). (a) Construc-
tion. (b) Symbol. (c) Equivalent circuit for
double-base connections.

(b) The triac is bidirectional. silicon crystal. Then impurities can be diffused
(c) The UJT is a four-layer device like the in the vapor state onto the crystal block. Vertical
triac. penetration is controlled by temperature and
time. The surface area depends on masking and
the use of photochemical techniques for etching
30-15
specific areas. Specific techniques are used for
TYPES OF TRANSISTORS
mesa transistors and epitaxial transistors, for
NPN and PNP transistors are the bipolar junc-
the purpose of providing low saturation voltage
tion type. The FET is unipolar, with either an N
for the collector. This feature is important for
or P channel. Most junction transistors are
the switching transistors used in digital circuits.
NPN, using Si because of its lower leakage
In the planar construction, the base thick-
current and higher temperature ratings. Also, Si
ness is reduced to only 5 x 10-6 m. The size of
is generally used for the FET and integrated
circuits. Ge is used for some power transistors
because of its lower internal voltage drop. E
B

Construction. The first transistors were the

point-contact type, with two thin wires or
"whiskers" welded on a semiconductor block to N
form two junctions. A later type was the alloy
junction, where the doping material was fused
as dots on opposite sides of a P or N base. The
advantage was a bigger area for the junction.
However, transistors and integrated circuits
now generally use the planar construction illus- c
trated in Fig. 30-31. In this method the junc- FIGURE 30-31
tions are parallel planes. Diffused planar construction generally used for
The starting material is a uniform P or N transistors and integrated circuits.
 Chapter 30
658 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

the whole transistor chip is only about %in2 for ture to radiate heat, mainly away from the col-
medium power ratings. lector junction.
In power transistors of 10 to 25 W, the
Transistor Packages. After fabrication of the collector is usually connected internally to the
individual transistor chips, wires are bonded to steel or aluminum case, as shown in Fig. 30-
the electrodes and connected to the pins. The 32c. In (b), the collector is tied internally to the
entire unit is sealed, either in epoxy plastic or in copper mounting tab, in a medium-power tran-
a metal case with inert filler. This encapsulation sistor. For both types, the transistor uses the
is necessary for mechanical ruggedness and to metal chassis for heat dissipation.
prevent moisture from contaminating the semi- If the collector must be insulated from
conductor. Three common types of transistor chassis ground, a thin mica insulating spacer is
packages are shown in Fig. 30-32. The types in used. The spacer is generally covered with a
(a) and (b) are generally soldered into the silicon grease for better heat transfer. For power
printed-circuit board, instead of using a socket. transistors of 25 W or more, a separate heat
The reason is that oxidation at a socket connec- sink with large radiating fins is generally used.
tion can affect the very small base-emitter volt-
age. Type Numbers. The letter N indicates a semi-
conductor, with a numerical prefix for the num-
Heat Sink. Heat is a problem with power ber of junctions. Diodes are numbered lN,
transistors. Although there is no heater, a junction transistors are 2N, and an FET with
power transistor in normal operation can be hot one gate is 3N. The digits that follow are for
enough to burn your fingers. The failure rate specific types registered with the Electronic In-
can be ten times greater for a temperature rise dustries Association (EIA). An example is the
of 25 ° C above normal. It is necessary, there- 2N5102 junction transistor. However, foreign
fore, to use a heat sink, which is a metal struc- transistor types not registered with the EIA are

Mounting
tab (C)

E B C
or
B C E

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 30-32
Transistor packages. (a) Plastic encapsulation
for small-signal types. (b) Plastic package with
metal tab as heat sink for medium-power tran-
sistors, the SCR, and triacs. ( c) Metal can for
high-power transistors.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 659

often labelled 2SA for PNP and 2SC for NPN of charge carriers through the depletion zone at
types. the junction. One important feature of the tun-
nel diode is its negative resistance for a specific
Practice Problems 30-15 range of forward voltage. In a negative resist-
(answers on page 668) ance, the current decreases for an increase of
Answer true or false. applied voltage. Because of this characteristic,
(a) The FET is unipolar, while junction tran- the tunnel diode can operate as an amplifier or
sistors are bipolar. oscillator. Essentially, this diode is a low-power
(b) The metal power tab on an NPN transistor device for microwave frequencies with relative
is usually connected internally to the base. freedom from radiation effects.
(c) Most small-signal transistors are NPN, sili-
con, in a plastic package. Compensating Diodes. These are used for
(d) A heat sink is used to radiate heat away bias stabilization in transistor circuits.
from the collector junction.
Varistor. As shown in Fig. 30-33, two junc-
30-16 tions of opposite polarities are used. The varis-
SPECIAL-PURPOSE DIODES tor is often used as a shunt for the collector to
A semiconductor diode is just a PN junction. protect against excessive voltage spikes, either
Since current flows only one way, the main positive or negative.
application is rectification. However, the junc- Also, asingle diode rectifier can be used in
tion has additional properties that are useful. series with the collector. This function is to
With reverse bias, the junction has capacitance isolate the collector from voltage spikes that
which can be controlled by an external voltage. have forward polarity.
Also, the PN junction is photosensitive. Fur-
thermore, the reverse breakdown voltage can Zener 1 Diodes. These are also called voltage-
be used for voltage-reference diodes. The sche- reference diodes. They are silicon diodes de-
matic symbols for these diodes are shown in signed for a specific reverse breakdown voltage.
Fig. 30-33. When the avalanche current flows, the voltage
across the diode remains constant. This char-
Tunnel Diodes. These are also called Esaki
diodes, named after the man who discovered 1Named after C. A. Zener, who analyzed voltage
that heavy doping can cause a tunneling effect breakdown of insulators.

Temperature-
Rectifier Tunnel Zener Varactor compensating
diode diode diode diode diode Varistor LED

FIGURE 30-33
ttttl+f/
Schematic symbols for types of semiconductor
diodes.
 Chapter 30
660 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

acteristic makes the diode useful as a voltage

regulator, instead of gas tubes. Multiple diodes
in series increase the voltage rating.

Varactor Diodes. The barrier voltage at a

I I
reverse-biased junction enables the junction to
serve as a capacitance because of the separated
charges in the depletion zone. Most important,
I I
FIGURE 30-34
the amount of junction capacitance can be con- Seven segments for a numerical display, either
trolled by the reverse voltage. The C changes as LED or LCD.
the depletion zone is made wider or narrower
by changes in V. Diodes made for this use as a
voltage-sensitive capacitor are varactors or an LED display. The liquid-crystal display de-
varicaps. A common application is electronic pends on ambient light for its energy. Only the
tuning for television receivers. orientation of the molecules is controlled by
applied voltage to turn the display on or off. As
Photoconductive Diodes. These are made of a result, the LCD display requires much less
a photosensitive material, such as cadmium load current than the LED display.
sulfide, where the resistance decreases with
more light. The applications include many Practice Problems 30-16
light-control devices. (answers on page 668)
ls forward or reverse voltage used on the
Light-emitting Diodes (LED). The PN junc- following:
tion can radiate light, as energy is released by (a) Zener diode.
the recombination of charges. For greater effi- (b) Varactor.
ciency, special compounds of gallium (Ga) are (c) LED.
used.
The light is emitted when forward voltage 30-17
is applied. Typical ratings are 1.2 V with a for- TRANSISTOR TROUBLES
ward current of 20 mA. Many of these diodes Failures generally result from an open weld at
are connected in series to provide a display for the wire leads to the semiconductor, a short
a number or letter. The radiation is in the wave- circuit caused by momentary overloads, and
lengths for red, green, and yellow light. circuit failures that cause transistor overheating.
Figure 30-34 shows the seven segments of In most cases a defective transistor is internally
a display that are used to form the digits 0 to 9, short-circuited or open, and simple tests will
as they would be used for an electronic calcula- reveal the trouble.
tor. Each segment containing the LED units can Some problems, like an increase in leak-
be turned on or off by digital control circuits to age, a drop in breakdown voltage, or excessive
form the desired digit. For instance, when all noise are more difficult to detect, and direct
segments are on, the digit is 8. If only the center substitution may be the easiest way to localize
one is off, the digit is 0. the fault. Transistor testers are available to
The same idea of segments for a digit is check the transistor in or out of the circuit, for
used with a liquid-crystal display (LCD) as with an open circuit, short circuit, leakage, and beta.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 661

However, open and short circuits can be be open. However, check for opens in the emit-
checked with a multimeter. ter circuit before making a replacement.
If excessive le is flowing, short-circuit the
In-Circuit Tests. These tests are very helpful base-to-emitter voltage and repeat the test.
because transistors are usually soldered into Under these conditions only the small leakage
place. Voltage measurements can determine if current should flow. If le is still high, the transis-
the junctions are intact and if the transistor is tor collector is probably short-circuited.
conducting properly.
Measuring le. Calculation of collector current
Check Forward Bias. Measure the base-to- may be difficult if the collector circuit contains
emitter voltage by putting the voltmeter leads little resistance or an unknown value, such as a
directly across these terminals. VBE should be transformer primary. In this case current meas-
about 0.2 V for Ge and 0.6 V for Si transistors. urements may be better. You can open the
Referring back to Fig. 30-24, as an example, a collector circuit easily by cutting the foil of the
VOM from base to emitter should read 0.6 V for printed-circuit board with a razor blade. Then
~E· If a VIVM is used, measure each voltage to put the leads of your VOM, set to read milliam-
the common line and subtract the readings. peres or amperes, across the cut. You can
If the reading is zero for ~E' the base- bridge the cut with solder when the test is fin-
emitter junction is short-circuited. If ~Eis 0.8 V ished.
or higher, the base-emitter junction is probably
open. One word of caution here. These voltage Checking the Emitter Circuit. You can also
readings apply to class A amplifiers. In pulse check current by measuring the voltage drop
circuits, it is normal for a reverse bias of a few across the emitter resistance and dividing by the
volts to appear between base and emitter, in value of the resistor. However, be careful in
order to cut off le until the input pulse drives the your analysis. This voltage will read almost nor-
transistor into conduction. mal even if the emitter resistor is open. The
reason is that the voltmeter resistance then
Checking leRL Voltage. To check for correct completes the emitter circuit. So check the
collector current, put the voltmeter between the value of the emitter resistor first.
collector and the supply voltage to read the
voltage drop across the load. In Fig. 30-24, a Resistance Tests. Resistance measurements
VOM across the 1-kn RL should read 1.5 V in transistor circuits are often misleading, as the
Then divide this reading by the de resistance in internal battery of the ohmmeter may forward-
the collector circuit to calculate the current le. bias a junction and provide a parallel path for
For this example, the normal le value is current. Know the voltage polarity at your ohm-
1.5 v/l kn = 1.5 mA. meter leads and make sure all junctions are
If there is no voltage drop across RL, then reverse-biased for ohmmeter readings. Or, best
le must be zero. Then Ve at the collector will of all, use an ohmmeter with low-power ohms,
have the same value as the supply voltage Vee· which does not have enough voltage for for-
For the opposite trouble, excessive le can cause ward bias on transistors.
excessive voltage across Rv resulting in zero or
very low Ve. Out-of-Circuit Tests. Ohmmeter checks on a
If le is zero or very low, the transistor may transistor are useful for finding opens or short
 Chapter 30
662 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

circuits. Avoid the R X 1 scale when checking Replacing Transistors. Small-signal and me-
low-power transistors. On this scale the current dium-power transistors are usually soldered on
in the leads is usually more than 100 mA when the printed-circuit board. However, the transis-
the leads are short-circuited, even though the tor can be removed easily, without damage to
current through the meter movement may be the PC board, by using desoldering techniques
less. Check the resistance between base and to suck out the old solder. The trick is to re-
collector and reverse the leads. Do the same for move all the solder from the terminals so that
base and emitter. You should get a very high the leads can be straightened to lift out the
reading when the junction is reverse-biased and transistor. Desoldering methods for PC boards
a very low reading when the junction is for- are described in Appendix H.
ward-biased. These tests really check each
transistor junction as a diode. Practice Problems 30-17
The actual reading in ohms depends upon (answers on page 668)
your ohmmeter, the range selected, and the (a) When the emitter junction is shorted to the
type of transistor. For conclusive tests, make a base, how much is VBE?
comparison with another transistor of the same (b) When the collector terminal is open, how
type that is known to be good. It is helpful to much is le?
realize that the reverse resistance of a silicon (c) When the base has no forward bias, how
junction is usually infinite. much is le?

Summary
The main types of semiconductor devices are listed in Table 30-7.
Examples of pin connections are shown in Fig. 30-35. More details appear
in transistor manuals, replacement guides, and cross-reference guides
published by manufacturers.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. Silicon and germanium are semiconductors with a valence of 4.

2. Phosphorus with an atomic number 15 has 5 valence electrons.
3. Doping with phosphorus makes silicon N type, with majority electron
charges and minority hole charges.
4. Hole current is the movement of positive charges in the opposite
direction from electron flow.
5. Hole current into an electrode is considered the positive direction of
current.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 663

TABLE 30-7. Semiconductor Devices

SYMBOL TYPE SYMBOL TYPE

B-0: PNP transistor; needs

negative Ve :~T,
Triac thyristor; MT is main
terminal; uses either
polarity of MT voltage

B~: ~
NPN transistor; needs Diac trigger diode; uses
positive Ve either polarity of voltage

Go@:~ Junction field-effect tran-

sistor ( JFET); N channel
AO ~ OK
Diode rectifier; arrow
shows hole current

G~~ub
Field-effect transistor; N
0 0
Tunnel diode or Esaki
channel, depletion 9Ji3 diode
IGFET

G~~ub
Field-effect transistor; P
Zener diode or voltage ref-
channel, enhance- 0
~ 0
erence diode
ment IGFET

G~DSub Capacitive 'diode or varac-

""~
1 IGFET with two gates 0 0
G2 S tor

A~:
Silicon controlled rectifier Temperature-
(SCR); gate G is shorter 0
~ to
0
dependent diode
lead

~ Photosensitive diode;
Unijunction transistor
E~B, (UJT); thyristor with 8 1
0 ~ 0 light in
82 and 8 2 as gates for t; Photoemissive diode; light
N bar 0 ~ 0 out (LED)

6. Atoms of the impurity element in a doped semiconductor provide

fixed ion charges.
7. A drift current requires a difference of potential, but a diffusion
current requires only a difference in charge density.
8. The internal barrier potential at a PN junction for silicon is approxi-
mately 9 V.
 Chapter 30
664 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

IWl~l· ~~;n
1 2 3
Io o oI Io o oI
CB E MT 1MT2 Gate
Plastic T0-5 Case 90 (B)

8 Q G

T0-3
-8-
T0-5
c Sub
and case

T0-72 A
c

T0-92 B
FIGURE 30-35
Typical transistor pin connections, bottom view.
The TO is "transistor outline."

9. The collector circuit in a transistor amplifier always has reverse

voltage, while the base-emitter circuit has forward bias.
10. For an NPN transistor, negative voltage is needed at the collector.
11. For an NPN transistor, positive voltage at the base, with respect to
emitter, provides forward bias.
12. The common-emitter amplifier circuit is used most often because it
has the best combination of voltage and current gain.
13. The arrow for current in semiconductors indicates the direction of
electron flow.
14. The internal barrier potential \{, decreases at higher temperatures.
15. The semiconductor type number 2N34 indicates a diode with two
electrodes.
16. When a change of iB from 30 to 40 mA changes ie from 500 to
900 mA, the beta characteristic equals 40.
1 7. When le = 99 mA and IB = 1 mA, then IE is 100 mA and the alpha
characteristic equals 0.99.
18. With an alpha of 0.98 and IE= 50 mA, then le= 52 mA.
19. With le= 100 mA and a beta of 50, then IB = 2 mA.
20. For the transistor in question 19, IE = 52 mA.
21. The de output voltage from a power supply increases with higher
values of filter capacitance but decreases with more load current.
22. With an ac input from the 60-Hz power line, the ripple frequency is
60 Hz in the de output of either a half-wave or full-wave rectifier.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 665

23. Bias stabilization is often used with transistor amplifiers to prevent

thermal runaway.
24. In Fig. 30-17 the average IE is 3.06 mA.
25. The FET is a unipolar transistor with high input resistance.
26. When a 1-Vincrease in gate voltage changes the drain current 10 mA
in an FET, its gm equals 10,000 µS.
27. An ac input signal of -+-1 V can be applied to the gate of an FET, but
this is too much input voltage for any bipolar transistor amplifier.
28. The SCR is a silicon diode rectifier with a gate-control electrode.
29. Without forward bias for the input, 10 in the output is zero.
30. The triac is a bidirectional gate-controlled rectifier.
31. The LED emits light.
32. The capacitive diode uses reverse voltage.

Essay Questions
1. Show the atomic structure of silicon with atomic number 14, indi-
cating the four valence electrons.
2. Define the following: (a) doping; (b) N-type silicon; (c) P-type silicon;
(d) PN junction; (e) internal barrier potential; (f) ion charge;
(g) depletion zone.
3. (a) Give two characteristics of semiconductors. (b) Name four types
of semiconductor devices.
4. Compare the following: (a) electron and hole charges; (b) electron
current and hole current.
5. Define the positive direction of current in semiconductors.
6. Compare the following: (a) majority and minority carriers; (b) drift
current and diffusion current; (c) free charges and ion charges;
(d) intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
7. For a PN junction, show a battery applying forward voltage and
reverse voltage.
8. Show the schematic symbol for PNP and NPN transistors, indicating
emitter, base, and collector.
9. Give one feature of the CB, CE, and CC circuits, in addition to the
information on which terminal is common.
10. Why is the 100 for a PN junction called reverse saturation current?
11. Why is the reverse leakage current lcso in a transistor essentially the
same as 100 in a diode?
12. Why does the value of 100 or lcso increase with temperature?
13. Draw the complete schematic diagram of a common-emitter ampli-
 Chapter 30
666 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

fier, using an NPN transistor with an external RL. Indicate where

input voltage is applied and where output voltage is obtained. Give
typical values for the forward bias in the input circuit and collector
voltage in the output. Assume a silicon transistor.
14. What is meant by thermal runaway in a transistor?
15. Show two methods of forward bias for the CE circuit.
16. Show the complete schematic diagram of a full-wave rectifier circuit
using silicon diodes for the 120-V power line with a step-down
transformer for 40 V to each diode.
1 7. Define class A, B, and C operations for amplifier circuits.
18. Why is a transistor cut off with zero bias in the emitter-base circuit?
19. Give the functions of source, gate, and channel in the FET and
compare these electrodes to a bipolar transistor.
20. Define JFET, MOSFET, IGFET, junction gate, insulated gate, N
channel, and P channel for field-effect transistors.
21. Show the schematic symbols for an N-channel FET, depletion type
and enhancement type.
22. Draw the diagram of an FET in a common-source amplifier circuit,
with 30 V for Vnn and a 1500-Q RL.
23. Define transconductance gm for an FET.
24. Define SCR, thyristor, triac, and UJT.
25. List three types of semiconductor diodes other than silicon power
rectifiers.
26. What is meant by a four-layer device?
27. Describe briefly how you could measure le as 2.4 A in Fig. 30-22a,
without opening the collector circuit.
28. Give two troubles that can cause zero le.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. VB is 18.4 V VE is 17.8 V How much is VBE?

2. IB = 500 µA and le= 22 mA. Calculate IE. {b) IE= 5 A and
IB = 80 mA. Calculate le. {c) IE= 41 mAand le= 40 mA. Calculate
the IB.
3. For the half-wave rectifier in Fig. 30-12, how much is the de output
voltage with {a) 250-µFfilter capacitance and 50-mA load current IL?
{b) 50-µF C and 150-mA IL?
4. Referring to the CE circuit in Fig. 30-17, list the values of Ve, le, VB,
IB, and the total emitter current IE.
 Chapter 30
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors 667

5. Referring to the CE circuit with bias stabilization in Fig. 30-24, give

the values with polarity for V0 , V0 E, VB, VBE' and VE.
6. In Fig. 30-24, determine 10 , IE, and IB.
7. From the values in Prob. 6, calculate the de values of a and f3 for the
transistor in Fig. 30-24.
8. A transistor amplifier has V00 = 50 V, V0 = 10 V, and an RL of
200 Q. Calculate 10 .
9. Calculate the quiescent de power dissipated at the collector for the
transistor in Prob. 8.
10. Refer to the collector characteristic curves in Fig. 30-21b. (a) Give
the values of 10 for the different base currents of -100, -150, and
-200 µA, with a constant collector-emitter voltage V0 E of -12 V.
(b) Give the values of 10 for different collector-emitter voltages V0 E of
-4, -8, and -12 V, with a constant base current of -150 µA
11. An FET has -2-V gate voltage for 14-mA Iv. When V0 changes to
-2.4 V, Iv decreases to 11 mA. Calculate gm in microsiemens.
12. Given that 10 = 9 mA and IB = 150 µA, how much is IE? Calculate a
and f3 for this transistor.
13. Given that IB is 40 µA and /3 is 70, calculate 10 .
14. (a) Given that IE = 20 mA and a is 0.98, calculate 10 . (b) How much
is the base current IB? (c) Calculate /3 for this transistor.
15. In a common-emitter circuit, iB variations of +100 µA swing i0 by
+5 mA, with an RL of 2000 Q. (a) How much is the current gain?
(b) Calculate the peak-to-peak ac output voltage across RL. (c) If the
input voltage is +40 mV, how much is the voltage gain?
16. Determine the forward bias VBE and reverse collector voltage V0 E and
draw the circuit diagram with a PNP transistor for the following
electrode voltages to ground: (a) Common-emitter circuit with
V00 = -6 V, VRL = 2 V, V0 = -1 V, and VE = 0.8 V. (b) Common-
collector circuit (emitter-follower) with V0 = 0 V, VEE= 6 V,
VE = 3.2 V, and VB = 3 V.
17. Refer to the collector characteristic curves in Fig. 30-21 c. Draw the
load line for a 1.6-kQ RL with 16 V for V00 . Assume a base-bias
current lb of 100 µA and an ac signal swing of +50 µA Determine
the peak-to-peak i0 and v0 . Calculate A 1, Av, and the power gain.
18. Refer to the drain characteristic curves for the FET in Fig. 30-27.
Draw the load line for a 1.5-kQ RL with 30 V for Vvn· Assume a gate
bias voltage of -2 Vand an ac signal swing of +1 V. Draw a ladder
diagram showing waveforms with peak values for v0 , iv, and Vv. (A
ladder diagram means that the waveforms are in line vertically with
respect to time, as in Fig. 30-18.)
19. For each of the circuits in Fig. 30-36, on the next page, indicate
whether the diode and transistors are cut off or conducting.
 Chapter 30
668 Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

4a v -4a v
0
4aV •I 0
12 v
0
-4a v 1-- 0
-12 v
RL

- -
(a) (b) (c) (d)

-9a v
a.6V
0

(e)
8.6V
0

(fl
av
0

(g)
-a.6V
-a.2 v
0

CE:
(h)
av

FIGURE 30-36
For Prob. 19.

Answers to Practice Problems

30-1 (a) Emitter 30-10 (a) 14.8 mA
(b) Drain (b) 300
30-2 (a) +4 30-11 (a) T
(b) Silicon (b) F
30-3 (a) N type (c) T
(b) P type 30-12 (a) 1.4 V
30-4 (a) Majority (b) 0.53 v
(b) Minority 30-13 (a) Drain
30-5 (a) Yes (b) Gate
( b) Decreases (c) 10,000 µS
( c) Increases 30-14 (a) T
30-6 (a) 120 Hz (b) T
(b) 152 V (approx.) (c) F
30-7 (a) Forward 30-15 (a) T
(b) Reverse (b) F
(c) IE= 1005 µA (c) T
(d) Cut off (d) T
30-8 (a) CE 30-16 (a) Reverse
(b) CE (b) Reverse
(c) CC (c) Forward
30-9 (a) 0.6 V 30-17 (a) Zero
(b) 6.5 v (b) Zero
(c) 1 mA (c) Zero
 Review of
Chapters
aeandao
Summary
1. In vacuum tubes the cathode is heated to emit electrons. The anode
or plate collects these electrons to provide plate current. The main
tube types are diodes, triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes, as listed in
Table 29-3. Semiconductor devices are listed in Table 30-7.
2. Diodes are used as rectifiers to change alternating current to direct
current. Current can flow through the diode on!y when the anode is
positive.
3. Triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes are used for amplifiers since the
control-grid voltage controls the plate current. Making the control-
grid voltage more negative decreases the plate current; making it less
negative increases the plate current.
4. Transistors are amplifiers making use of controlled current flow in
solid semiconductors such as germanium and silicon. No heater is
necessary.
5. N-type germanium or silicon is doped with an impurity that makes it
negative with a surplus of free electrons; P type has a surplus of
positive hole charges.
6. The transition between P and N semiconductors is a PN junction.
The junction has an internal barrier voltage of 0. 7 V for silicon or
0.3 V for germanium that blocks forward current. However, forward
voltage of the same polarity as the electrodes allows current in the
forward direction. Reverse voltage of opposite polarity prevents
forward current.
7. A current of hole charges is in the direction of conventional current,
opposite from electron flow. Hole current into the semiconductor is
considered the positive direction of I.
8. A PNP transistor has a wafer of an N-type semiconductor forming
two junctions with two P-type semiconductors. An NPN transistor is
the reverse. Both types are used as amplifiers. The semiconductor in
670 Review of Chapters 29 and 30

the center is the base. The emitter at one end has forward bias to
supply charges to its junction with the base; the collector at the other
end has reverse bias and receives charges from its junction with the
base.
9. In the schematic symbol the arrowhead on the emitter indicates the
direction of hole current into the base for a P emitter or out from the
base for an N emitter.
10. The main types of transistor circuits are common base (CB), com-
mon emitter (CE), and common collector (CC). The CE circuit is
generally used for amplifiers because it has the most gain.
11. The two main characteristics of a transistor are its a (alpha), which is
the ratio of collector current to emitter current, and f3 (beta), which is
the ratio of collector current to base current.
12. Silicon and germanium diodes are generally used in rectifier circuits.
13. A half-wave rectifier uses one diode. With 60-Hz ac input, the ripple
frequency in the de output is 60 Hz. A full-wave rectifier uses two
diodes to rectify both halves of the ac input cycle; the ripple fre-
quency is 120 Hz.
14. The SCR is a silicon power rectifier with a gate electrode to control
the start of current between anode and cathode.
15. The field-effect transistor (FET) has a gate electrode to control the
electric field in the channel between source and drain. The gate
corresponds to the base; the source supplies charges like an emitter;
the drain corresponds to a collector receiving the charges. Input
signal voltage is applied to the gate, and amplified output is taken
from the drain, in the common-source (CS) circuit.
16. The main characteristic of the FET is its transconductance gm equal
to f:livl l:lv0 .

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. A thermionic cathode is heated to emit electrons.

2. The anode has a positive potential with respect to the cathode to
attract electrons.
3. Plate current can flow in only one direction.
4. An open heater results in zero plate current.
5. An N-type semiconductor has free electrons, while a P type has hole
charges.
6. The emitter is always forward-biased, while the collector has reverse
volt,age.
 Review of Chapters 29 and 30 671

7. The schematic symbol with an arrowhead into the base indicates an

NPN transistor.
8. Forward bias is applied to an NPN transistor by + voltage to the
emitter and - voltage to the base.
9. The /3 characteristic of transistors compares collector current to base
current.
10. Typical values of /3 for transistors are 0.98 to 0.99.
11. In the NPN transistor, collector current' is hole charges supplied by
the emitter.
12. The + mark or a band on silicon diode power rectifiers indicates
where positive de output voltage is obtained.
13. Positive voltage applied to the collector of an NPN transistor is the
polarity for reverse voltage.
14. Minority charge carriers have opposite polarity from majority car-
riers.
15. 100 in a diode and IcBo in a transistor consist of majority carriers.
16. A typical value of input signal for a PNP transistor is about 8 V.
17. Bias stabilization is used to prevent thermal runaway.
18. The FET has a very high input resistance.
19. The gate electrode in the FET corresponds to the collector in a
bipolar transistor. ·
20. The SCR is a silicon rectifier with a gate electrode to control when
current flows from cathode to anode.
21. Typical forward bias on a silicon NPN transistor is 0.6 V.
22. The Zener diode is used as a constant-voltage source.

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Books

Bell, D. A.: "Fundamentals of Electronic Devices," Reston Publishing

Company, Inc., Reston, Va.
Cutler, P.: "Semiconductor Circuit Analysis," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York.
Fitchen, F. C.: "Transistor Circuit Analysis and Design," D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J.
Hibberd, R. B.: "Integrated Circuits," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
Kiver, M.: "Transistors," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Millman, J. and C. Halkias: "Electronic Devices and Circuits," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York.
672 Review of Chapters 29 and 30

"Radio Amateur's Handbook," American Radio Relay League, Newing-

ton, Conn.
Ristenbatt, M. and R. Riddle: "Transistor Physics and Circuits," Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Sams, H. W.: "Transistor Substitution Handbook," Howard W. Sams &
Co., Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.
Sowa, W. A.: "Active Devices for Electronics," Rinehart Press, San
Francisco, Calif.

Pamphlets, Catalogues, and Manuals

Application Notes, Motorola Semiconductor Products Inc., Phoenix, Ariz.

Application Notes, Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas, Tex.
GE Transistor Manual, General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products,
Syracuse, N.Y.
RCA Receiving Tube Manual, RCA Electronic Components and Devices,
Harrison, N.J.
RCA Solid-State Devices Manual, RCA Solid-State Division, Somerville,
N.J.
RCA Transistor Manual, RCA Electronic Components and Devices,
Harrison, N.J.
Semiconductor Cross-reference Guide, Motorola Semiconductor Prod-
ucts Inc., Phoenix, Ariz.
Solid-State Replacement Guide, RCA Electronic Components and De-
vices, Harrison, N.J.
 Integrated
Circuits
Transistor chips are small, but when they are packaged as discrete
transistors with separate resistors and capacitors, the circuits are relatively apter
large. Actually, the techniques of making diffused planar transistors can be
combined with printed circuits to integrate all the components· on one
chip. The result is an integrated circuit (IC). The integration methods can
be applied to bipolar transistors or MOSFET types. Typical IC units are
shown in Fig. 31·1. An IC unit in a package 1 in long by %in can contain
dozens of transistor circuits.
81
Common uses are in electronic calculators, watches, and computers
for digital applications. In addition, audio amplifiers, rf amplifiers, and the
color circuits in television receivers generally use IC units, as applications
of linear amplifiers. The power rating for IC units is generally 100 mW to
5 W. More details are in the following topics:

31-1 Types of Integrated Circuits

31-2 Production of Integrated Circuits
31-3 Integrated Components
31-4 The Differential Amplifier
31-5 Linear IC Applications

31-1 For the construction in Fig. 31 ·2, the dif ·

TYPES OF INTEGRATED fused layers at the left form an NPN transistor.
CIRCUITS Note that the collector has a reverse NP junc-
The example in Fig. 31-2 illustrates a transistor, tion with the wafer to isolate the transistor from
resistor, and capacitor integrated on a single the silicon substrate or platform. In the middle
silicon wafer. Inductors are not generally inte- section, R between the two ohmic contacts is
grated because they take too much space. determined by the length and width of the strip.
Transistors and diodes are the easiest compo- C at the right is the capacitance across the
nents to integrate. Resistors are not precise, but reverse-biased junction of the N material to the
the circuits are designed to depend on the ratios P wafer.
of resistances rather than absolute values. The
range of R values is 100 to 25,000 0, approxi-
mately. The range of C values is approximately Monolithic IC. In this type, all the components
3 to 30 F. External components are connected are formed as part of a single P-type or N-type
to the IC unit for larger values of R and C, with wafer. This is the construction shown in
any L required for tuning. Fig. 31-2.
 Chapter 31
674 Integrated Circuits

FIGURE 31-1
IC packages. Round IC unit is T0-5, with di-
ameter of 1;; in. The 16-pin dual inline package
(DIP) is %in long. Flat pack at right is 1 in.

Thin-film IC. In this type, the substrate is ce- Hybrid IC. This type combines monolithic and
ramic or glass, which is an insulator. All the thin-film units on a single ceramic platform.
components are evaporated on this insulating Discrete transistors may also be included, where
platform. The advantage is good isolation be- high power rating is needed.
tween the integrated components.
Digital and Linear IC Units. In terms of their
function, IC chips are classified in either of
Thick-film IC. In this type, R and C are these two broad groups. Digital circuits are
formed on the substrate, but the transistors are pulse circuits. The digital IC chips contain an
added as discrete chips. array of pulse switching circuits to torm logic
functions, as explained in Chap. 32, Digital
Electronics.
R Linear IC chips generally contain several
C B E ~
amplifier circuits for either audio or rf signals. A
linear amplifier operates on the linear portion of
p
its forward transfer characteristic curve, result-
ing in an amplified duplicate of the input signal.
N
P wafer LSI and MSI Chips. Digital IC units contain
(a)
many circuits of the same type, repeating a
basic logic circuit, such as the gate function.
c
The degree of complexity is indicated by LSI for
large-scale integration, including over 100
gates, and MSI for medium-scale integration,
with 10 to 100 gates.

(b) Practice Problems 31-1

FIGURE 31-2 (answers on page 684)
Integrated circuit on silicon wafer. (a) Con- Answer true or false.
struction with NPN transistor, R, and C. (b) (a) Digital IC units contain gate circuits for
Schematic diagram. pulse waveforms.
 Chapter 31
Integrated Circuits 675

(b) The unit for an audio amplifier would be a each wafer is polished to a mirror finish by acid
linear IC. etching. Then a layer of silicon dioxide (Si0 2 ) is
(c) Figure 32-2 illustrates the hybrid IC con- formed on the wafer. This thin glass insulator
struction. protects the silicon surface and serves as a
barrier to the doping for semiconductor junc-
31-2 tions. The oxide coating is opened in a window
PRODUCTION OF pattern by photochemical techniques, to allow
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS doping where desired. A sequence of oxidation
For the monolithic type, IC chips are made by and diffusion operations results in layers of the
the batch of 25 to 100 chips from one silicon doped semiconductors. The oxidation forms
wafer. Figure 31-3 illustrates the steps in con- silicon dioxide as a barrier and insulator. Then
struction, from the wafer slices of a silicon ingot the diffusion forms the junctions.
in (a), to the scribed chips on the wafer in (b), Metallic paths are needed to interconnect
and the diffused components in (c) and (d). the components in each IC chip. These are
The individual silicon wafers are about 10 essentially aluminum printed wiring. They
mil thick, with a diameter of 1.5 to 2 in. First, terminate at the edges of the chip, where tiny

Wafers
- 10 mil thick

t
-1.5 in
t
Silicon
crystal
ingot
~~
(a)

NPN
transistor
-i s-112mi1 I
Slice
Chip _//11100111~il
,,..,.,,..,.
fiili ___ ---F12mil---i-1
---
c=3f:~ . _---lri
. :!ii 2 mil
---· ·---r
\ 1000-!l resistor

(b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 31-3
Construction of integrated-circuit chips starting
from silicon ingot in (a) to slice in ( b) and IC
chip in ( c), with magnified view of diffused
components in (d).
 Chapter 31
676 Integrated Circuits

wires are bonded for connection to the external Then each chip is mounted in its package,
leads. which is generally a plastic case. The chip is
Automatic equipment with test probes is essentially glued with epoxy. The terminal leads
used to check the aluminum electrode pads. on the package are connected to the internal
Each complete chip is tested sequentially by a electrodes on the chip with 1.5-mil wire, alumi-
large number of needle-tipped probes. This num or gold. Connections are made either by
wafer probing on many electrodes for all the ultrasonic bonding or thermocompression
chips is controlled and monitored by com- bonding. The ultrasonic energy vibrates the
puters. bonding tip to produce heat. The final IC pack-
Since the complete silicon wafer has the age is shown in Fig. 31-4. Note that most of the
physical properties of a thin sheet of glass, the space in the package is needed for the connect-
chips are separated by methods similar to cut- ing leads and pins.
ting glass. A fine diamond point is used to scribe The IC package is generally in the round
the wafer into the chips (Fig. 31-3b}. All the T0-5 case, ceramic flat pack, or dual inline
chips on one wafer are the same. The slice is form (DIP}. The T0-5 style may be a glass-
held firmly and then stressed to break along the metal package, hermetically sealed in dry nitro-
scribe lines. This division of the slice into chips gen, or a plastic case. The flat pack and DIP
is called "dicing." packages may be ceramic or plastic. Ceramic
Chips that are defective in probe testing packages have a better hermetic seal than plas-
are sorted out. Also, microscopic examination tic.
shows chips with imperfections due to dicing. Typical pin connections for IC units are
shown in Fig. 31-5. The round T0-5 package
generally has 8, 10, or 12 leads. The dual inline
and flat pack may have 8, 14, 16, 24, or 28
pins. Corresponding sockets are available for all
the IC packages, but they are often soldered on
the printed-circuit board.

Practice Problems 31-2

(answers on page 684)
Answer true or false.
(a} Dicing is the process of breaking the silicon
slice into 25 to 100 chips.
(b} Silicon dioxide (Si0 2 } is an insulator, like
glass.

31-3
INTEGRATED COMPONENTS
These include transistors, diodes, resistors, and
capacitors. Isolation between adjacent compo-
nents is provided by a reverse-biased PN junc-
FIGURE 31-4 tion. The isolation R can be 100 MQ or more.
IC chip in DIP unit. Length of package is 1 in. The advantages of integrated components are
 Chapter 31
Integrated Circuits 677

16
2 15
3 14 -----.10
4 _ ____,g
13
_ ____,8
5 12 -----.7
_ ____,6
6 11
7 10
8 9

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 31-5
Pin connections for IC packages. Dot or notch
at pin 1. (a) 16-pin DIP in T0-116 case. Top
view. (b) 10-pin T0-5 case. Bottom view. (c)
10-pin ceramic flat pack in T0-81 case. Top
view.

miniaturization and matched characteristics for odes can be used for transistor bias in the base
the components with respect to operating val- circuit, temperature compensation, and isolat-
ues and temperature gradient. ing the incorrect polarity of voltage for the col-
lector on a separate transistor.
Integrated Bipolar Transistors. Most com - The collector can also be connected to the
man is the NPN construction shown before in emitter for diode operation. This way both
Fig. 31-2. Note that the P substrate forms a junctions are used in parallel for the diode.
reverse diode with the P collector. Also, the P
substrate could be the collector for a PNP tran- Integrated Zener Diodes. By using reverse
sistor with the adjacent N and P layers. Then voltage on the emitter-base junction, it can
the combination would form a complementary serve as a zener diode. The zener voltage is
pair of NPN and PNP transistors. typically 7 V. Zener diodes are used for voltage
regulation, to stabilize the supply voltage against
changes with different load currents.
Integrated Diodes. An N-type diffusion into
the P substrate can produce diode junctions
where they are needed on the chip. However, Anode
this is essentially the same as the emitter-base
junction on a transistor. Therefore, the diode
function can be provided by joining the transis-
NPN
tor collector to base, serving as the anode (Fig.
31-6). The collector should not be left open, to
prevent parasitic circuits with other components
on the chip. Furthermore, the diode character- Cathode
istics are matched to the transistors in the chip, FIGURE 31-6
as they are all made the same way. These di- Triode transistor connected as a diode.
 Chapter 31
678 Integrated Circuits

Integrated Resistors. A common method uses 0.1 to 0.4 pF per square mil, with reverse bias
a strip of lightly doped P material, as shown in of 5 V. If an area of 100 square mil is used out
Fig. 31- 7. The N layer below the P layer will be of the 2500 square mil on a chip, the Cthen will
reverse-biased for isolation from the substrate. be 10 to 40 pF.
The silicon dioxide provides insulation from the For the MOS capacitor in Fig. 31-8, the N+
next layer. External connections to the resistor layer forms the bottom plate, the Si02 insulating
are made with the aluminum pads. layer is the dielectric, and the aluminum metal-
This type of monolithic R has a resistivity of lization serves as the opposite plate. The C
about 200 Q for the entire chip. However, the value of 3 to 30 pF depends just on the dielec-
ratio of length to width of the R strip can pro- tric and plate area. The + sign for N or P
vide values of 100 to 25,000 Q. Higher values indicates heavy doping.
of 10 to 50 kQ can be obtained by special
doping techniques to reduce the cross-sectional COS/MOS or C/MOS Transistors. This ab-
area of the R strip. This type of resistor is a breviation stands for complementary symmetry
pinch resistor. with P-channel and N-channel MOSFET or
The tolerance on monolithic resistors is IGFET units, generally of the enhancement
-+30 to -+50 percent, which is poor for precise type. Figure 31-9 illustrates a COS/MOS in-
values. Also, the temperature coefficient of re- verter circuit in digital logic. The function of the
sistivity is high. However, the resistance ratios inverter is to change the conditions in a train of
on the same chip can be controlled within 2 to 3 pulse signals from high to low amplitude, or
percent. Therefore, the circuits are designed to vice versa.
depend on a resistance ratio, rather than the In Fig. 31-9a, the FET at the right uses the
absolute value of R. N substrate for the N channel. The gate, drain,
and source electrodes are shown with heavy
Integrated Capacitors. The two types are the lines. The p+ areas are used as guard bands to
junction type illustrated for C in Fig. 31-2 and separate the different electrodes from each
the MOS type in Fig. 31-8. In the junction type, other. For the FET at the left, the P well forms
the capacitance is across the depletion zone of a the P channel. In this FET, the gate, drain, and
PN junction with reverse bias. Typical values are source electrodes are separated from each
other by N+ guard bands.
Silicon
Aluminum dioxide In Fig. 31-9b, the inverter circuit makes
use of cornplementary symmetry. The substrate

Silicon
Aluminum dioxide

P-type N-type P-type

resistor isolation substrate
region
FIGURE 31-7 FIGURE 31-8
Cross section of P-type diffused resistor in IC Cross section of MOS type of monolithic ca-
chip. (From RCA Manual IC-42) pacitor. (From RCA Manual IC-42)
 Chapter 31
Integrated Circuits 679

Pcha~nel VDD
G S

Q1 Sub

V;" ~
-!- Q2G ~"'
NchLel ~1 *
(a) (b)
FIGURE 31-9
(a) Cross section of COS/MOS diffused tran-
sistors on IC chip. (b) Inverter circuit for con-
struction in (a). (From RCA Manual SC-16)

of the P channel is at + VDD' and the N channel 31-4

is at ground or 0 V. When the input voltage is THE DIFFERENTIAL
zero, the P-channel FET is conducting but the AMPLIFIER
N-channel FET is off. Then the output voltage is This circuit is commonly used in linear IC units
close to Vvn· When the input has a positive for a broad variety of functions. The schematic
voltage pulse, however, conditions are re- diagram of the basic amplifier circuit is shown in
versed. Then the P-channel FET is off and the Fig. 31-10. Ql and Q2 are NPN transistors in a
N-channel FET is on. These conditions make differential pair. They are de coupled between
the output voltage close to 0 V. The net result is the two emitters.
that \1cmt is high when \{n is low and ~ut is low The stages are balanced with equal values
when \{n is high, which is the inverting function. of RL from one Vee supply. In the emitter circuit,
R1 can adjust the emitter-base bias for equal
Supply Voltage. Typical values are 15 to 40 V values of le in Ql and 02. R2 is used to in-
for linear IC units and 3 to 15 V for digital IC crease the resistance in the emitter circuit. Its
units, with monolithic construction. Usually, effect is to provide a constant-current source to
positive polarity is required, as for collector stabilize the bias current. Furthermore, the
voltage on NPN transistors. common resistance for both emitter circuits
provides feedback.
Practice Problems 31-3 In many cases, the bias circuit in the emit-
(answers on page 684) ter branch uses a separate transistor conducting
Answer true or false. saturation current. This method has the advan-
(a) A typical value for an integrated monolithic tages of constant bias current and elimination of
C is 80 µF. the need for negative bias voltage.
(b) To use an NPN transistor as a diode, join There are several possible methods for
the collector and base. input and output signals, as follows:
 Cha ter 31
680 Integrated Circuits

1. Differential output. This signal voltage be- by Ql for -100 mV at point A Also, the Q2
tween points 1 and 2 is the difference be- base has input Vof -1 mV, of opposite polarity
tween the collector voltages for Ql and from \1i. This amplified signal output from Q2
Q2. at B then is + 100 mV.
2. Differential input. Two signal voltages of Each stage operates as a CE amplifier. The
opposite polarities are connected to the emitter voltage is constant for both Ql and Q2,
base input terminals. This example of op- as the opposite base signals cancel in the com-
posite voltages is also called a push-pull mon-emitter branch.
signal. The differential output is the difference
3. Single-ended input. Either input terminal between the signal voltages at 1 and 2. This
can be used alone for input signal, with the difference in the output is 100 mV -
other input terminal grounded. (-100 mV) = 200 mV. The difference voltage
4. Single-ended output. Signal voltage is for input signal is 2 mV. Therefore, the voltage
taken from the collector of either Ql or Q2 gain of the differential amplifier is 20 % = 100,
alone, at point 1 or 2. With differential the same as for a single stage. The reason for
input, the single-ended outputs at 1 or 2 the gain with differential operation is the fact
have opposite polarities. that the collector voltages vary in opposite di-
rections.
Amplification of a Differential Signal. We
can take an example of differential input and Common-mode Rejection. The advantage of
output voltages, assuming a gain of 100 for the differential amplifier is that it has no gain for
each stage. Suppose the input \1i to the Ql base input signals applied to Ql and Q2 in the same
is + 1 mV. This signal is amplified and inverted phase, which is the common mode. The reason
is that the difference voltage between 1 and 2
equals zero when they are at the same potential.
As an example, any variations in the supply
voltage would be applied in the common mode
and, therefore, rejected. In short, the circuit
amplifies differential signals but rejects com-
5k.Q
mon-mode signals. The degree of common-
mode rejection depends on the balance of the
Differential
output ® two stages.

Offset Voltage. This is the amount of differen-

tial voltage output with no input. Ideally, the
offset should be zero, but the stages are not
© perfectly balanced either in 10 or in input sig-
v, V2
nals. Temperature variations and pickup of
input input

J_ J_ stray signals may cause offset.

FIGURE 31-10 Operational Amplifiers. In its fundamental

Basic circuit of differential amplifier. form, the operational amplifier uses a pair of
 Chapter 31
Integrated Circuits 681

de-coupled stages, with differential input but Voltage regulators. To stabilize a de supply volt-
single-ended output. However, many combina- age.
tions of feedback can be used to provide a Choppers. To chop a de waveform into ac seg-
circuit with the advantages of high gain, wide ments for easier amplification, and then
bandwidth for af or rf signals, high input imped- convert back into the de form. The chop-
ance, and low output impedance. The applica- per is used for amplifying steady de or very
tions include amplifier, comparator, follower, low frequency variations.
differentiator, integrator, adder, subtractor, or Diode and transistor arrays. Have separate
phase shifter. connections, but the integrated unit pro-
vides matched characteristics.
Practice Problems 314
(answers on page 684) In addition, specialized IC chips are avail-
able for electronic calculators, electronic
Refer to Fig. 31-10.
watches, the video games units for television
(a) Which terminals are used for differential
output? receivers, and the frequency synthesizer used in
CB radios instead of separate crystals.
(b) Which terminals are used for differential
input? An example of a linear IC unit containing
dual audio amplifiers is shown in Fig. 31-11 on
the next page. Digital IC applications are ex-
31-5 plained in Chap. 32, Digital Electronics.
LINEAR IC APPLICATIONS In Fig. 31-11 a, the DIP unit has 14 pins,
In general, linear IC units are for linear ampli- numbered from the notch, top view. The unit
fiers and analog circuits. An analog signal has cap deliver up to 2 W per audio channel into
continuous variations, as in a sine wave, corre- 8-Q or 16-Q loudspeakers. Supply voltage is 10
sponding to the desired information. Pulse or to 26 V. The total supply current is 15 mA with-
digital circuits operate between the two discrete out signal up to a maximum load current of
states of on or off. 500 mA.
A listing of linear IC applications includes In Fig. 31-11 b note the triangle symbol for
the following: the IC amplifiers. Each half is for one audio
channel. The numbers on the amplifier refer to
the pin numbers in (a). Components outside the
Audio amplifiers. Usually in pairs, for stereo. dashed box are external parts that must be
Rf amplifiers and oscillators. For AM and FM added to the IC unit. Note the 100-kQ feedback
radio or television receivers. resistor between the output and pin 7 or 8 for
IF amplifiers. For AM, FM, or television receiv- each amplifier.
ers, usually with envelope detector. IF is
the intermediate frequency of the carrier
signal before it is detected. Practice Problems 31-5
3.58-MHz color circuits. Subcarrier regenera- (answers on page 684)
tor, amplifiers, and demodulators for color (a) In Fig. 31-11 a, which two pins are used for
television receivers. the audio output signals?
Operational amplifiers. For wide-band amplifi- (b) In Fig. 31-llb, what size C is used for
cation. coupling to the loudspeakers?
 Chapter 31
682 Integrated Circuits

100kn

an
Input 1 o---l....,_______
-o--t

14 v+ 0.01 µF
Bias
2 Top view 13 TAB GND
Output 1 Output 2
3 12
GND GND
4 11
GND GND
5 10
GND GND
Input 1
6 9
Input 2
an
Feedback 1
7 a
Feedback 2

100kn
5µF~

(a) (b)
FIGURE 31-11
IC unit for stereo audio amplifier. (a) Dual
in line package. (b) Typical circuit application.
Components outside dotted box are not in IC
amplifier. (National Semiconductor LM377)

Summary

The following terms and definitions summarize the main features of

integrated circuits.

Bipolar. NPN and PNP transistors.

Chip. Tiny semiconductor containing integrated circuits.
Common mode. Signals in the same phase.
Complementary symmetry. Symmetry between P channel and N channel
or PNP and NPN transistors.
COS! MOS or Cl MOS. Complementary symmetry with MOSFET devices.
Dicing. Breaking the semiconductor slice into chips.
Differential amplifier. High-gain amplifier with provision for differential
input and output.
Differential input. An input with opposite polarities, or input in push-pull.
Differential output. Difference between two outputs.
Digital IC. Circuit which uses gate circuits for digital logic with pulse
signals.
 Chapter 31
Integrated Circuits 683

DIP. Double inline pins for IC package.

Gate. On-off circuit for digital applications.
Hybrid IC. Circuit which combines monolithic construction and separate
transistors.
IC. Integrated circuit with semiconductors, R, and C on one chip.
Inverter. Digital circuit used to reverse high or low condition of pulse.
Linear IC. IC unit with linear amplifiers for af and rf applications.
LSI. Large-scale integration for digital IC chips with 100 or more gates.
Microelectronics. Type of electronics in which integrated circuits are used
to miniaturize electronic equipment.
Monolithic IC. IC units with all semiconductor components formed on one
substrate.
MOS. Metal-oxide semiconductor type of FET. Same as IGFET.
MS!. Medium-scale integration for digital IC chips with less than 100
gates.
Offset. Output of differential amplifier without any input.
Operational amplifier. High-gain amplifier with feedback network that
determines the characteristics.
Substrate. Platform on which the IC components are formed.
Thick-film IC. Circuit in which Rand Care formed on glass or ceramic
substrate, but transistors are added as discrete chips.
Thin-film IC. Circuit in which R, C, and transistors are deposited on glass
or ceramic substrate.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

Answer true or false.

1. Figure 32-2 illustrates construction of a monolithic linear IC.

2. Typical values of L integrated on a chip are 10 to 100 mH.
3. Typical values of C integrated on a chip are 3 to 30 pF.
4. An NPN transistor can be used as a diode by connecting collector to
base or emitter.
5. A typical de supply voltage for IC units is 3 to 40 V.
6. Transistors on a monolithic linear IC unit are generally NPN on a
silicon substrate.
7. Linear and digital IC units usually have similar applications.
8. In the differential amplifier in Fig. 31-10, RL1 and RL 2 are the collector
load resistors.
9. In Fig. 31-10, the voltage across RL 2 provides differential output.
10. For the stereo audio amplifiers in Fig. 31-11 b, the input coupling
capacitors are 0.01 µF.
 Chapter 31
684 Integrated Circuits

Essay Questions
1. Compare the applications of linear and digital IC units.
2. Compare the construction for monolithic, thin-film, and hybrid IC
units.
3. From a manual of integrated circuits, list the circuits on two types of
linear IC units and two digital IC units.
4. Compare the packaging and pin connections for T0-5 and DIP IC
units.
5. For the differential amplifier in Fig. 31-10, give three ways to supply
input signal and three ways to take output signal.
6. For a differential amplifier, what is meant by common-mode rejection
and by offset voltage?
7. Give five types of components that are usually integrated in mono-
lithic construction.
8. What is meant by complementary symmetry?

Answers to Practice Problems

31-1 (a) T 31-3 (b) T
(b) T 31-4 (a) 1 and 2
(c) F (b) 3 and 4
31-2 (a) T 31-5 (a) 2 and 13
(b) T (b) 200 µF
31-3 (a) F
...
BINARY fU II IRI

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.. . . ... .. • ....., llllllL
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of
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 Chapter 32
686 Digital Electronics

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5 V ON
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I
E_v_..,.. : OFF :
I : I :
I I I I
+ + t t
1 0 0
FIGURE 32-2
Specifying binary digits 1 and 0 for oN and OFF

conditions of voltage pulses.

the left of the decimal point is for the count of

the digits alone, from 0 to 9. The second place
FIGURE 32-1
is for counts of tens. Next is the place for counts
Digital frequency meter. (Hewlett Packard)
of 10 2 , or hundreds, and then for 10 3 , or thou-
sands. The counts for successive places in-
ple, binary numbers use base two, as only the crease in multiples of 10.
two digits 0 and 1 are used. The base can be For decimal fractions less than 1, the
indicated by a subscript, as in (111 )2 . places are to the right of the decimal point.
Our conventional decimal system for These values decrease in multiples of 1/io or 0.1.
counting uses all ten digits from 0 to 9. There- The same method is used with binary
fore, the base or radix is ten for decimal num- numbers. However, the first place to the left of
bers. the point can be only 0 or 1. As usual, higher
The highest digit for any place is one less counts are carried over to the next place. The
than the base. In decimal numbers, 9 is the second place is in counts of two. Successive
highest digit, while 1 is the highest digit in binary places to the left are for counts of 2 2 , or fours;
numbers, for counting in successive places. 2 3 , or eights; etc.
Places to the right of the binary point can
be used for fractions less than 1, as in decimal
How Each Place Is Used for Different numbers. However, the values decrease in mul-
Counts. To count numbers more than the base tiples of 1lz instead of 1/i 0 .
itself, the complete number must have an order For the binary example in Fig. 32-4, (111 )2
of places for larger counts. The order is indi- is 4 + 2 + 1 = (7) 10 • The binary number 111
cated by the decimal point in decimal numbers is actually 111.0, but the point is usually omit-
or the binary point in binary numbers. ted, as in decimal numbers.
Figure 32-3 illustrates the decimal orders. As another example, (1100) 2 is
For numbers greater than 1, the first place to 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = (12 )10 . Binary numbers

103 = 102 = 10 1 = DIGITS

THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS 0 T09 QUANTITY

0 1 1 1
FIGURE 32-3
Order of places in a decimal number.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 687

23 = 22 = 21 = DIGITS
EIGHTS FOURS TWOS 0OR1 QUANTITY

0 1 1 1
FIGURE 32-4
Order of places in a binary number.

need more places for counting because the base The places of the digits 0 or 1 in the binary
is smaller. number are to the left of the binary point, in the
The general method of counting in number same order as the divisions. Continue the divi-
systems with a different base or radix is illus- sions until the last quotient is zero.
trated in Fig. 32-5. Included with 10 and 2 is the As an example, to convert (13) 10 to binary
octal radix of 8, which is also used in digital form:
circuits.
13-:- 2 = 6 with remainder of 1
6 -:-2 = 3 with remainder of 0
Converting Binary to Decimal. Just make the
3+2=1 with remainder of 1
count for each place and add the values. As an
1 -:-2 =0 with .remainder of 1
example, the seven places in (1010101 )2 show
the count
The remainders, in the order of the divisions,
are 1, 0, 1, and 1. In the correct places starting
64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = (85)10.
from the binary point, they form (1101 )2 . As a
check on this example, (1101 )2 equals
Converting Decimal to Binary. There are 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13.
several methods, but a common system is as
follows: Shifting the Place Point. In decimal numbers
moving the point one place to the right multi-
1. Divide the decimal number successively by plies the number by 10. For instance,
2, until the quotient is zero. 10 X 53.7 and 537.0 are equal. Moving the
2. Note whether each remainder is 0 or 1. point one place to the left divides by 10.
3. The remainders of 0 and 1 are the digits in In binary numbers, shifting the point one
the binary number. place multiplies or divides by 2. For instance,

BASE OR
(BASE)3 (BASE) 2 BASE DIGITS RADIX

1000 100 Ten 0 to 9 10

8 4 Two 0 or 1 2
512 64 Eight 0 to 7 8
FIGURE 32-5
Order of places for numbers with base 10, 2,
or 8.
 Chapter 32
688 Digital Electronics

(111.0) 2 is (7) 10 , but (1110.0) 2 is (14) 10 . The 7 is In the third column from the point, the
doubled to 14 by moving the binary point one binary addition of 1 + 1 + carry of 1 results in
place to the right. the sum of 1 in this column and carry of 1 to the
For division by 2, the point is moved one fourth column.
place to the left. For instance, (111.0) 2 is (7) 10 , As a check on the answer, this problem in
but (11.10) 2 is (3.5) 10 . The binary places in 11.1 decimal numbers is 6 + 7 = 13.
have the values of 2 + 1 + %which equals 31/z The only two possible combinations with a
or 3.5. The 3.5 is one-half of 7. carry are

Practice Problems 32-1 (a) 1 + 1 =sum of 0 with carry of 1. This is

(answers on page 709) binary 10, which equals decimal two.
(a) Convert (1111 )2 to decimal form. (b) 1 + 1 +carry of 1 =sum of 1 with carry
(b) Convert 10 in decimal form to a binary of 1. This is binary 11, which equals deci-
number. mal three.
(c) How much is (000 )2 as a decimal number?
For binary multiplication, all possible
32-2 products of 0 and 1 are
BINARY ARITHMETIC
Only the digits 0 and 1 can be used in each lxO=O
place. For binary addition, all possible sums of 0 1x1=1
and 1 are
These values are the same as in decimal multi-
0+0=0 1+0=1 plication. For long hand multiplication with
O+l=l 1 + 1 = (10)2 more digits, the partial products are added.
More details on binary numbers for com-
The last sum is not decimal number ten but puter mathematics can be found in the books
has 0 and 1 in the two binary places because of listed in the bibliography at the end of this
the carry of 1. chapter. Binary addition is probably the most
important operation for digital counting circuits.
We cannot have the digit 2 as a bit. How-
Actually, multiplication is a short cut method
ever, 1 in the second binary place has a weight
for adding large quantities. Furthermore, sub-
of two. The first binary place is 0, so that the
sum will not be three. The general rule is that traction can be done by methods of adding
complements of the numbers and dropping the
for binary 1 + 1 the sum is 0 with a carry of 1 to
the next higher order. highest place. Finally, division can be reduced
To add numbers with more than one digit, to a system of subtraction.
start next to the binary point. As an example,
Practice Problems 32-2
(110)2 (answers on page 709)
+(111)2 (a) Add (101 )2 + (010) 2.
1101 (b) Add (111) 2 + (111) 2.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 689

32-3
SYMBOLIC LOGIC FOR
SWITCHING CIRCUITS
This system specifies the results for different
combinations of two conditions: oN or OFF, open
or closed, and 1 or 0. For instance, when two
switches are in series to light a bulb, it is rea- (a)
sonable to expect that both switches must be on
for the bulb to be on. The relationship between
the input and output is a logic function. The ;~(A)(B)=AB
system is symbolic logic because symbols such
as A or B and 0 or 1 are used to represent the (b)
switch conditions. FIGURE 32-6
As a historical note, symbolic logic is also The AND gate. (a) Equivalent circuit. (b) Symbol
called Boolean algebra, named after George as a logic function.
Boole, an English mathematician (1815-1864).
He started the system of putting ordinary state-
ments into symbols so that they could be ana- Only when both inputs are at the 1 position can
lyzed mathematically. These concepts were not the light go on.
applied to electronics until Claude Shannon of The symbol in Fig. 32-6b indicates that the
Bell Telephone Laboratories used logic func- AND gate performs a logic multiplication. With
tions to simplify switching circuits for the tele- inputs of A and B, the output is (A)(B), A x B,
phone system. Today, all digital electronic cir- or AB. In symbolic logic or Boolean algebra, the
cuits make use of symbolic logic. The basic logic AND function does not mean addition in the
functions are AND and oR, with their inverted or sense of arithmetic. Instead, we can think of
negative functions NANO and NOR. multiplication signs as indicating the AND func-
tion.
The AND Function. This is demonstrated by
The logic block symbol represents the
the two switches in series in Fig. 32-6a. Only if
switching circuits. Actually, diodes and transis-
both switches are closed will the bulb be able to
tors are used, pulsed to conduct maximum cur-
light. If either 5 1 or 5 2 or both switches are off,
rent in the ON position. The shape of the symbol
the light cannot go on.
indicates the AND function. This means all the
Consider both switches as one gate circuit.
inputs must be ON to have output. More than
This AND gate has two inputs, one for each
two inputs may be required for the one output,
switch. The output is current for the bulb. Using
but still all the inputs must be ON.
the symbol 1 for the ON position and 0 for the
OFF position of each switch, the possible combi-
The OR Function. This is demonstrated by the
nations are as follows:
two switches in parallel in Fig. 32-7 a. Now ei-
s1 0 1 0 1 ther 5 1 or 5 2 can be closed to light the bulb.
0 0 1 1 Also, the bulb lights with both 5 1 and 5 2 ON. The
Sz
only condition to turn the bulb off is with both 5 1
LIGHT OFF OFF OFF ON
and 5 2 OFF.
 Chapter 32
690 Digital Electronics

s,
FIGURE 32-8
Symbol for exclusive OR gate with output func-
tion circled to show exclusive operation.

exclusive OR function. Figure 32-7 is an inclu-

(a) sive OR function. The difference is that the ex-
clusive oR function has the output OFF when the
inputs are either all oFF or all ON. Note that the
output of A + B is circled in Fig. 32-8 to indi-
(b) cate the exclusive oR function. An OR function is
FIGURE 32-7 inclusive, however, unless it is specified as ex-
The OR gate. (a) Equivalent circuit. ( b) Symbol clusive.
as a logic function.
Inversion or Negation. An inverter circuit has
Using 1 for ON and 0 for OFF, the possible its output signal of opposite polarity from the
switch combinations are: input. For instance, with positive input voltage
to the base of an NPN transistor in a CE ampli-
s1 0 1 0 1 fier, the amplified collector output voltage is
negative.
S2 0 0 1 1
The inversion function is also called nega-
LIGHT OFF ON ON ON tion. As an example, assume input A can be 0
or 1. When A is at 0, its inversion is 1, or 1 can
The symbol in Fig. 32-7 b indicates that the be inverted to 0. The inversion also applies to
OR gate performs a logic addition. With inputs of the oN and OFF states.
A and B, the output is A + B. However, the + The logic symbol for inversion or negation
sign does not mean addition as in arithmetic. In is a bar over the function to indicate the oppo-
symbolic logic we can think of the + sign as site state. For instance, A means "not A." The
indicating the OR function. This means all inputs schematic symbol generally used for negation is
must be OFF to turn off the output. a small circle. In Fig. 32-9a, the A input to the
The symbol in Fig. 32-8 represents the amplifier with a circle is A in the output.

A:=[)--
B
AB
A~­
B~A+B

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 32-9
Use of small circle in symbol to show inverting
or negating function. (a) Input A is not A in
output. Triangle is symbol for amplifier. ( b)
NAND gate. ( c) NOR gate, inclusive.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 691

TABLE 32-1.
GATE INPUTS OUTPUT BOOLEAN FUNCTION
AND All ON (HIGH) ON (HIGH) x =AB
OR All OFF (ww) OFF (ww) x=A+B
-
NAND All ON (HIGH) OFF (ww) x =AB
NOR All OFF (ww) ON (HIGH) x=A+B

The NAND Function. This is an AND gate but A is high and input B is high. At all other times,
with inverted output. In Fig. 32-9b, the circle in when only one input is high, the output is low.
the output of the AND symbol shows inversion.
The NAND output function is AB, or not AB, Practice Problems 32-3
instead of AB. In terms of the circuit, the NAND (answers on page 709)
gate must have both inputs oN to have the out-
Answer true or false.
put in the OFF state.
(a) The AND gate corresponds to two switches
in series.
The NOR Function. As shown in Fig. 32-9c,
(b) The oR gate corresponds to two switches in
this is an inclusive OR gate but with inverted
parallel.
output. The NOR output function A + B is not
(c) The NAND gate is an inverted oR gate.
(A or B), instead of having A or B. In terms of
the circuit, the NOR gate must have all inputs OFF
to have the output in the ON state. These func- 32-4
tions are summarized in Table 32-1 for the AND, TRUTH TABLES
OR, NAND, and NOR gates. These are listings of all possible combinations of
variables, such as input signals to a logic gate,
Application of AND Gate. Figure 32-10 shows with the resulting output for each combination.
two groups of input pulses to an AND gate, with As an example, Table 32-2 shows the truth table
the output signal. The AND gate has output only for an AND function with two inputs. The table is
when all inputs are ON, or at the high level. generally in binary notation, with 1 for oN or
Therefore, the output is high only at the time HIGH and 0 for OFF or ww. The third vertical
intervals marked 1 and 5. At these times, input column here lists the truth for the combinations

Aputput
Inputs

Pulse output of AND gate is at high level only

when both inputs are high.
 Chapter 32
692 Digital Electronics

TABLE32-2. Truth Table TABLE 32-3. Truth Table for

for AND Function ORFunction
INPUTS OUTPUT INPUTS OUTPUT
A B (A)(B) c D C+D
0 0 0 x 0 =0 0 0 0 OR 0 = 0
0 1 Oxl=O 0 1 0 OR 1 = 1
1 0 1x0 = 0 1 0 1 OR Q = 1
1 1 1 x 1 = 1 1 1 1 OR 1 = 1

in each horizontal row. The AND function has and N the inverted forms for A with B are
the output of 1 only when both inputs are 1. shown by changing 1 to 0 or 0 to 1. Column V
All possible combinations must be listed in lists the results of multiplying (ANoing) A by B.
the truth table. For two variables with two input Column VI goes bac_k to the original values
symbols, the combinations are 2 2 or 4. With to add (oR) A + B. Then this is negated in
three variables there are 23 = 8 combinations. column VIL
In general, the combinations equal 2N, where N If we compare this last column for A + B
is the number of inputs. with column V for (A)( B), the values in corre-
The truth table for a two-input oR function sponding rows are the same. This result of
is shown in Table 32-3. When either input is 1, (A)(.B) =A+ B is known as De Morgan's
or both are 1, the output is 1. identity, which is one of the laws of Boolean
One application of truth tables is to show algebra.
that certain logic functions are identical. This
means the same results can be produced with a Practice Problems 324
different circuit. Table 32-4 shows that the logic (answers on page 709)
function (A)( B) is identical to A + B. (a) What is the negation of binary 1?
As a start for the proof, the vertical col- (b) What is the negation of binary O?
umns I and II list the four possible binary com- (c) The truth table for an OR function with four
binations of the inputs A and B. In columns III inputs has how many binary combinations?

TABLE 32-4. Truth Table for Identity (A)(B) =A + B

I II III IV v VI VII
- - - - --
A B A B (A)(B) A+B A+B
0 0 1 1 1x1 = 1 Q OR Q = 0 1
0 1 1 0 1x0 = 0 0 OR 1 = 1 0
1 0 0 1 Oxl=O 1 OR 0 = 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 x 0 =0 1 OR 1 = 1 0
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 693

32-5 state. The amount of supply voltage is generally

BASIC LOGIC CIRCUITS 5, 6, or 12 V.
The circuit components are resistors, diodes,
and transistors, including the junction type and Types of Logic Circuits. Based on the com-
the FET. A diode is switched on by applying ponents, the following abbreviations are com-
forward voltage. The conducting diode is prac- mon:
tically a short circuit. It has little resistance and
an internal voltage drop of less than 1 V. TTL is transistor-transistor logic.
Applying reverse voltage to a conducting DTL is diode-transistor logic.
diode cuts it off. Then the diode is an open RTL is resistor-transistor logic.
circuit with very high resistance.
Similarly, a transistor is switched on by In addition, diode circuits are used for the AND
applying enough forward bias to produce satu- gate and OR gate. Followed by a CE stage these
ration. Then the transistor output voltage is very functions become inverted to the NAND gate and
low, with the collector saturation yoltage less NOR gate.
than 1 V.
When the transistor is cut off, without any
Fan-in and Fan-out. The number of inputs
output current, the output voltage is high. This
that can be connected to the logic circuit is its
value is equal to the supply voltage, as there is
fan-in factor. The maximum number of circuits
no IR drop across RL.
that can be driven by the output is the fan-out
A transistor in the CE circuit is also an factor. This effectively specifies how many par-
inverter. It negates a logic function from the allel loads can be connected without too much
input at the base to the collector output. current in the driver circuit.
Logic circuits generally combine all these
components in integrated circuits. Complete IC
Practice Problems 32-5
chips are available for most logic functions.
(answers on page 709)
(a) In positive logic is ground potential 0 or 1
with respect to -5 V?
Positive and Negative Logic. It is necessary to
(b) Is the collector voltage high or low with
define the binary 1 and 0 with respect to posi-
saturation current?
tive and negative voltage polarities. In positive
logic the 1 represents the presence of a positive
+ V = 1 state
voltage with respect to chassis ground (Fig.

___In ~-------~
32-lla). In general, the 1 state is high, with
OV=1state
voltage more positive than the 0 state.
Note that with negative voltages, ground
level can be the 1 state. Then ground is more
positive than a negative potential (Fig. 32-llb). -V
Negative logic uses the opposite polarity of (a) (b)

voltage for the 1 state. Since positive logic is FIGURE 32-11

more common, however, all the logic circuits Positive logic with binary 1 for more positive
here are shown with 1 for the more positive voltage. (a) + Vto ground. (b) Ground to -V
 Chapter 32
694 Digital Electronics

32-6 across R 2 • The +2 Vin the output is the HIGH

DIODE GATE CIRCUITS level or 1 state.
The two main types of diode logic circuits are Using positive logic for the binary notation:
the AND gate illustrated in Fig. 32-12 and the oR
gate in Fig. 32-13. A fan-in of only two inputs is VI "2 vout

illustrated here, but more can be used with a 0 0 0

diode for each input. 0 1 0
1 0 0
Diode AND Gate. In Fig. 32-12, Dl and D2 are 1 1 1
normally conducting to be oN. Note the R1 R 2
voltage divider from the 5-V supply. The posi- The inputs are at binary 1 for + 3 V. In the
tive voltage across R 2 is applied to the anode for output, binary 1 corresponds to approximately
both diodes. Dl and D2 are conducting, there- + 2 V. The output is at 1 only when both inputs
fore, without any input voltage at the cathode. are at 1. This is the AND function.
Then Vout is at the 0 level. Point C is effectively
shorted to ground by the conducting diodes. •
Diode OR Gate. The opposite of the AND gate is
However, input of +3 Vat the cathode of an inclusive oR gate, which needs all inputs to
Dl or D2 cuts off the diode. Remember that be LOW to have the output LOW. Figure 32-13
positive voltage at the cathode is equivalent to shows an oR gate using diodes. Note that Dl
negative voltage at the anode. and D2 are inverted here, and negative supply
This circuit is an AND gate because both voltage is used, opposite from the AND gate in
inputs must be HIGH to have the output HIGH. Fig. 32-12. These two changes convert the AND
Input to either Dl or D2 cuts off one diode, but gate to an oR gate using positive logic for both.
the other conducting diode keeps ~ut LOW. In Fig. 32-13, the negative voltage across
Only when +3 Vis applied to the cathode R2 from the -5 V of the supply is applied to the
for Dl and D2 can both diodes be cut off. Then cathode for Dl and D2. Since this corresponds
the diode circuit is open and point C has + 2 V to positive voltage at the anode, both diodes are

+ 5 V supply

R1 =
3k.Q
D1

V1 = 0 or+ 3 V
R2 =
2k.Q
D2

V2 = 0 or+ 3 V

FIGURE 32-12
Circuit for AND gate, using diodes.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 695

-5 V supply

R1 =
3 kn
D1

V 1 =0or+3 V
R2 =
2 kn
D2

V2 = 0 or+ 3 V

FIGURE 32-13
Circuit for OR gate, using diodes.

conducting, with zero input voltage at the (b) For an OR gate, when the output is 0, what
anodes. Then point C in the output is close to are both inputs?
ground potential at the 0 state.
When +3 V is applied to the anode for
either Dl or D2, this voltage is passed to point 32-7
C by a conducting diode. Then Crises to +3 V, DIODE-TRANSISTOR LOGIC (DTL)
approximately, for the 1 state. This positive These circuits use diode gates with a CE tran-
voltage at both cathodes cuts off the other diode sistor amplifier as an inverter stage. The DTL
that has 0 V input at the anode. combination then is a NANO or NOR circuit.
When +3 Vis applied to both Dl and D2,
NANO Gate. In Fig. 32-14, Dl and D2 with RA
both diodes conduct. Then the output at C is
form an AND gate. The diodes are biased on by
also at approximately 3 V for the 1 state.
positive anode voltage from RA to the supply~·
The binary combinations are:
Then point C is close to ground potential. Both
inputs Vi and ~ must be high with positive
"1 "2 vout
voltage at the cathode to cut off the diodes to
0 0 0 allow point C to rise to ~. When only one diode
0 1 1 is cut off, the other conducting diode keeps the
1 0 1
gate output low, close to ground potential.
1 1 1
R1 in the coupling circuit to Ql isolates the
loading effect of the low vin from base to emit-
Only when both inputs are at 0 is the output at
ter. C1 is a speed-up capacitor across R1 . Fast
0. When either input is 1 or both inputs are 1,
variations in gate voltage can be coupled
the output is 1. This is the OR function.
through C1 .
Practice Problems 32-6 The output voltage of the diode AND gate is
(answers on page 709) the input voltage VB to the base of the NPN
(a) For the AND gate, when the output is 1, transistor Ql. Without any input voltage from
what are both inputs? the gate, Ql is cut off by negative base voltage,
 Chapter 32
696 Digital Electronics

+Vee

C1

D1

V 1 =0 or+ 3V c D3

-!- D2

V2 = 0 or+ 3 V

-!-
AND gate Coupling Inverter

FIGURE 32-14
NAND gate, using diodes and transistors in DTL
circuit.

from -VBB through R2 • Then the collector volt- Ql. However, these conditions are negated for
age is high at +Vee without any collector cur- ~ut· When the input of Ql is low, the output is
rent. ~ut' therefore, is high at the 1 state. high. Only when the gate output is high does
However, positive drive at the base makes the Ql output become low.
Ql conduct. Then the collector voltage is low
because of the voltage drop across RL. As a NOR Gate. In Fig. 32-15, the diodes of the oR
result, ~ut drops to the 0 state. gate are reversed from the AND gate in Fig.
D3 in the collector circuit is a diode clamp. 32-14, and Ql is a PNP transistor instead of
It holds the high state of Ve at a value no greater NPN. Both diodes are biased on by negative
than the clamping level VH. Any Ve greater than voltage at the cathode, from RA to the supply
VH makes D3 conduct. Then the collector is - ~. Without any input, therefore, the diodes
effectively connected to VH. are conducting to make point C close to ground
The truth table for the NANO gate in Fig. potential. RA and - ~have the values needed
32-14 shows the following conditions: to keep the diodes on at all times in this circuit.
The inputs Vi and \.'z in Fig. 32-15 are
\'i \'z VB vout negative pulses of -3 V. With both diodes
0 0 0 1 passing the input voltage to point C, the output
0 1 0 1 voltage becomes close to -3 V.
1 0 0 1 Note that with positive logic ground poten-
1 1 1 0 tial is the 1 state, compared with -3 V for the 0
state. Without any input voltage to the diodes,
Note that VB is the output of the diode AND gate. point C is at ground potential through the con-
Both inputs must be at 1 for 1 at the input to ducting diodes. This is the 1 state. When both
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 697

D1

V1 = - 3 Vor 0 V c DJ

-:!- D2

V2 = - 3 Vor 0 V

-!-
OR gate Coupling Inverter

FIGURE 32-15
NOR gate, using diodes and transistors in DTL
circuit.

diodes pass -3 V to point C, it is at the 0 state.

Vi \'2 '1aut
This -3 Vis the negative base drive VB for Q3.
When only one diode has -3 V input, the short 0 0 1
0 1 0
circuit through the other conducting diode
1 ·O 0
without input can ground point C for the 1 state. 1 0
1
The PNP transistor is held cut off by posi-
tive base voltage through R2 from VBB· When
the diode gate supplies negative drive of -3 V
for VB, then Ql conducts. The \{,ut at the col- , ......
lector is low when Ql conducts but high when it
is cut off.
A tabulation of the input voltages to the
v,
-3VOb D I
I
I
: Time
I
I
I
diodes and \{,ut from Ql is as follows: I
0 ......
Time
V2
Vi \'2 '1aut -3V
-3 -3 0
-3
0 -3
0 -3
-3
vout
0 ......
Time
0 0 -3 T,
-3V

The corresponding truth table in binary notation FIGURE 32-16

is as follows: Pulse waveforms for NOR circuit in Fig. 32-15.
 Chapter 32
698 Digital Electronics

~ut for the NOR gate is inverted from an (b) In Fig. 32-15, is point Cat 1or0 when ~ut
inclusive OR gate. The output is at 1 only when is at 1?
both inputs are at 0.
These results are shown by the pulse 32-8
waveforms in Fig. 32-16. All the pulses are TRANSISTOR-TRANSISTOR
negative to -3 V, which is the 0 state. Note that LOGIC (TTL)
Vz has double the pulse width of Vi. See the circuit with four NPN transistors in Fig.
Only when Vi and Vz are both at -3 V for 32-17. Note that Ql has two emitter connec-
the 0 state is ~ut at the 1 state. This occurs tions for inputs 1 and 2. Each emitter-base
during the time marked T1 . junction serves as a diode. All the transistors
are de-coupled from the dual inputs for Ql to
Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL). These cir-
the output terminal between Q3 and Q4.
cuits are similar to DTL gates. However, the
We consider just the inputs and outputs for
diodes are replaced by resistors. In a voltage
the NAND gate in Fig. 32-1 7. If either or both
divider circuit, the values of R determine what
inputs are grounded at the 0 state, the output is
part of the applied voltage and input pulses are
3.3 V for the 1 state. For the opposite case, both
passed to the transistor inverter stage. The RTL
inputs at 1 make the output 0. Remember that
circuits can be used for NANO and NOR gates.
the NAND function is the negation of the AND
Practice Problems 32-7 function.
(answers on page 709) These circuits are generally on an IC chip.
(a) In Fig. 32-14, is point Cat 1or0 when ~ut The required supply voltage is +5 V for the
is at 07 NPN stages. The output voltage, when it is high
+5V

R2=
1.6kQ

D1

Input 1 Q2
Output

-!- -!-
R3 =
Input 2 1 kn

-!-
FIGURE 32-17
Circuit for NAND gate, using transistor-transistor
logic (TIL). Note multiple emitters in Ql. De
coupling is used for the complete circuit on an
IC chip.
 Cha ter 32
Digital Electronics 699

+ 5-V supply be used for an oR gate. The NANO gates Nl and

N2 are used as inverters for each input. Both
14 13 12 11 10 9 8
outputs are connected as dual inputs to N3,
which serves as a standard NANO gate.
Tracing the signals as logic fu~ctions, the
input to Nl is A, and the output is_A. Also, the
input to N2 is B, and the output is B. With these
two inputs to the NANO gate N3, its output is the
negation of (A)( B·). The negation twice in the
7 AND function makes the result identical to the OR
function. This identity can be proven from Table
FIGURE 32-18
32-4 , where the. negation of AB is the same as
A quad IC chip with four NAND gates, using TTL A +B.
circuits. Each gate has two inputs. Top view of
14 pins, numbered counterclockwise from
notch at left.
COS/MOS Digital IC Units. For TTL logic
circuits, the IGFET or MOSFET construction
at the 1 state, is 3.3 V. The low output, or 0
can be used instead of bipolar transistors. A
state, is approximately 0 V. At the low-voltage
common application uses complementary sym-
state, which has high current, the unit can de-
rretry, with P-channel and N-channel field-
liver or sink 16 mA as load current. The re-
effect transistors. Series and parallel combina-
sponse time is rated at 10 ns or 0.01 µs for
tions provide the NANO and NOR functions. This
switching from one state to the other.
arrangement is COS/MOS, which is comple-
A typical IC chip with four (QUAD) NANO
mentary symmetry with MOSFET units having
units is shown in Fig. 32-18. Each NANO gate is
an insulated gate.
an independent unit with two inputs and one
Figure 32-20 illustrates the logic diagram ·
output. However, all use the +5-V supply that
for a COS/MOS integrated circuit for two pairs
must be connected to pin 14 and the common
of NOR gates. The IC chip has terminals for two
ground at pin 7. These gates can be intercon-
inputs and one output for each gate, the drain
nected to perform almost any logic function.
supply voltage VDD of 3 to 15 V, and the com-
mon source terminal, usually connected to
Combining NANO Gates for the OR Function. chassis ground. All P-unit substrates are con-
Figure 32-19 shows how three NANO gates can
Inputs
A

: :=D---output
= (A)(B) Vnn=1state
+5V X3
Inputs O V = 0 state
=A +B

B
: :=D---output
FIGURE 32-19 FIGURE 32-20
NAND gates Nl, N2 and N3 combined to pro- Logic diagram for COS/MOS IC chip with a
vide OR function for output. pair of two-input NOR gates.
 Cha ter 32
700 Digital Electronics

nected internally to Vnn; all N-unit substrates the output of one stage driving the input of the
are connected to Vss· When the output goes other stage.
high at the 1 level, it is connected to Vnn· The 0 In Fig. 32-21, the collector of Ql drives
level is 0 V. the base of Q2 through the R1 C1 coupling cir-
For each NOR gate, the output is ww, or cuit. Also, the collector output of Q2 has feed-
not HIGH, when either or both inputs are at the 1 back to the base of Q2, through R2 C2 .
state. Also, both inputs must be at 0, for output Since each stage inverts the polarity of its
at the 1 level. This is the negation of the OR input signal, the feedback is positive, in the
function, which has the output at 1 when either same polarity as the original input. Therefore,
or both inputs are at 1. oscillations can be produced.
The oscillations are in the ON-OFF condi-
Practice Problems 32-8 tions for each stage. When the circuit is first
(answers on page 709) turned on, one stage must conduct slightly
(a) For the NAND gate in Fig. 32-17 with inputs more than the other. This unbalance is ampli-
of A and B, what is the logic function in the fied in the two stages to produce maximum
output? current in the conducting stage.
(b) Using the IC chip in Fig. 32-18 for the The sharp rise in /0 produces a sharp drop
circuit in Fig. 32-19, which pin of N3 has in V0 . As a result, this negative-going voltage in
the output of A + B? the conducting stage cuts off the other stage.
How long it remains cut off depends on the RC
32-9 time constant in the coupling circuit. When the
MULTIVIBRATOR (MV) CIRCUITS cutoff stage starts conducting, it cuts off the
The multivibrator is a pulse generator, produc- other stage.
ing square-wave or rectangular-wave output. The rate at which the stages are cut off is
The free-running MV produces output without the oscillator frequency. One cycle includes the
any signal input. Two amplifiers are used, with cutoff time for both stages.

Feedback

Output

RL," -!- n_=r12V

son

12 v
FIGURE 32-21
Basic multivibrator (MV) circuit. This type is
collector-coupled, free-running, or astable, and
has symmetrical pulses in the output. Fre-
quency is approximately 70 kHz.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 701

RL 1 and RL 2 are the collector load resistors. circuit, which is commonly used for logic func-
cl with RI couples Ve of Ql to the base of Q2. tions. In addition, the Schmitt trigger is a bi-
The opposite coupling circuit is R2 Cz. In addi- stable MV used to square off sine waves to pro-
tion, R1 and R2 provide forward bias from the duce pulse signals.
12-V supply.
In the output, the voltage is a train of sym- Clock Generator. This circuit is a free-running
metrical square waves, or unsymmetrical rec- MV to generate pulses accurately at a specific
tangular waves. The output voltage can be frequency. The clock generator controls the
taken from the collector of either Ql or Q2 but timing of the logic-gates, to synchronize all the
with inverted polarities, as one collector voltage operations in a digital system. A frequency di-
is high when the other is low. The symmetry vider circuit can be used with the clock to divide
depends on equal values for the components in the output in multiples of Yz.
the two stages.
Practice Problems 32-9
Types of MV Circuits. Based on the method (answers on page 709)
of feedback, we can have: Refer to Fig. 32-21.
(a) Which coupling circuit determines the
Collector-coupled MV. The Ql collector drives cutoff time for Q2?
the Q2 base, and the Q2 collector drives (b) When Ve for Q2 is high at 12 V, how much
the Ql base, as in Fig. 32-21. is Ve for Ql?
Emitter-coupled MV. The Ql collector drives
the Q2 base, but Q2 has feedback to Ql 32-10
only through a common emitter-resistor FLIP-FLOP CIRCUITS
for both stages. In terms of multivibrators, the bistable trigger
circuits are flip-flops.· This means each stage
Multivibrators are also classified accordi~g can change abruptly between cutoff and con- ·
to stability. A stable stage will remain in the OFF duction. The circuit can stay in either state in-
condition until it is triggered into conduction by definitely in the absence of a trigger pulse.
external pulses. The three classes are:
The Bistable Characteristic. When the .flip-
Astable MV. Neither stage is stable. One cuts off flop is in either state, it remains that way until
the other at the MV repetition rate. This the next input pulse arrives. This condition is
type is simply a free-running multiuibrator. one stable state. Then an input pulse makes the
It is an oscillator circuit to generate pulses circuit flip to the opposite condition. This is also
at the MV frequency. a stable state. It remains that way until another
Bistable MV. This circuit has both stages in the pulse makes the circuit flop back to its original
stable condition, with one ON and the other state. Each change from the previous state is
OFF. An input pulse can reverse the states. like the operation of a toggle switch. Further-
Monostable MV. This circuit has one stage more, the flip-flop has memory, as it remains in
stable. It can be used as a circuit to delay one state until toggled to the opposite state.
pulses.
SET and RESET. We can define the flipped
Specifically, the bistable MV is a flip-flop state with an input pulse as the SET position. The
 Chapter 32
702 Digital Electronics

Inputs Outputs Flip-flop

Q I
r--------...,I
Set (S)
s I
Q
Flip-flop
(FF)
Reset (R)

FIGURE 32-22
General form of basic flip-flop (FF) circuit with
reset-set (RS) inputs. I Q
R IL _________ _JI

SET pulse reverses the states from the condition FIGURE 32-23
without any input. Then a RESET pulse flops the Using two NANO gates for basic reset-set FF.
states to put the flip-flop back into its original
condition. inputs and two outputs is a basic RS flip-flop. It
is a bistable device that can be in either the SET
General Form of a Flip-flop. In Fig. 32-22,
or RESET condition. A limition on the RS flip-flop
the flip-flop is illustrated just as a bistable device
is that both inputs should not be the same. Also,
with input and output terminals. The input ter-
it has no input terminal for clock pulses.
minals are labeled S and R for set and reset
pulses. These are two different input connec-
Using Logic Gates for RS Aip-Aop. Note
tions used for the bistable device. The outp~t
that the truth table for the flip-flop is similar to a
terminals are labelled Q and its negation Q.
logic function. Therefore, a combination of logic
These are two different output connections,
gates can provide the same results. Figure
arranged to make Q always the opposite of Q.
32-23 illustrates how two NANO gates are inter-
As an example, if the voltage at Q is high, the
connected to form an RS flip-flop. The gates
voltage at Q must be low.
are cross-coupled, with the output of one feed-
To make the states more general, if Q is at ing the input of the other. Two NOR gates can be
binary 1, then Q must be at 0. Or, when Q is at
used the same way to·form a flip-flop.
0, then Q is at 1. These states for a reset-set
The basic requirement is that the outputs
(RS) flip-flop can be summarized as follows:
Q and Q be opposite. In Fig. 32-23 with NANO
gates, Q is high when Sis low. However, with
INPUT OUTPUT
two NOR gates, Q is high when S is high.
s R Q Q
1 0 1 0 Clocked RS Flip-Flop. Figure 32-24 shows a
reset-set FF with an additional input terminal for
0 1 0 1
clock pulses. This flip-flop cannot change states
In short, a SET pulse makes the Q ~tput high for unless a clock pulse is present. It is often neces-
binary 1. A RESET pulse puts the Q output at 1, sary to clock the FF for counting circuits. The
which is the opposite state. Different circuits can clocked type is a synchronous FF, as the opera-
be used, but such a binary table specifies the tion is timed by the clock pulses.
bistable characteristics of any flip-flop as a logic
element. D-type FF. In Fig. 32-25, only one input ter-
minal is used, in addition to the clock terminal.
Reset-Set Flip-flop. This fype with just two The purpose is to avoid the indeterminate con-
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 703

s-=-- - - - -..
_Q ----..
:Q
-_ ----11
Clock (C)• FF FF

R •:----11 --·=Q Ce--_--4 --·~Q

FIGURE 32-24 FIGURE 32-25

Clocked RS flip-flop. D-type flip-flop. D input is for both S and R.
Clock input is C.
dition of both R and S at the same level in the 4. For the specific case of both Sand C high,
basic RS flip-flop. The D input is passed directly the state of the flip-flop depends on the
to one of the inputs but inverted internally for clock and the level of the J and K inputs.
the opposite gate. 5. When the clock input is low, the J and K
inputs can toggle the output.
JK-type FF. This is the most common type
because it has no ambiguous states and can be For the specific conditions of S and R high
clocked. One form is illustrated in Fig. 32-26a, and the clock low, the J and K inputs have the
with a photo in (b). Some of the main features following effects:
in the operation of the type 74 76 are:

1. Information in the form of a high or low 1. The state of J and K both low or both high
voltage can be taken from either the Q or does not toggle the output.
Q terminal in the output. 2. J high and K low makes the Q output high
2. A high or low pulse can be fed into any of and Q low.
the following inputs: S, R, J, K, and clock. 3. J low and K high makes the Q output low
3. When either S or R, but not both, goes and Q high.
either high or low, this input reverses the
outputs. This action is independent of the In summary, either the S or R input can
other inputs. toggle the output, as long as both are not the
s +5 v

2 5
J 4 15 Q

Clock FF 1

K 16 14 Q
3

R
-
FIGURE 32-26 (a) (b)
JK-type flip-flop. (a) Input and output terminals
for one FF on type 7476. (b) Photo of IC unit
with two separate JK flip-flops. Length is %in.
 Chapter 32
704 Digital Electronics

same. The condition of both S and R low is not of 16 can be modified to 10 for a decade
permitted. The condition of both S and R high counter, by skipping six counts.
allows the J, K, or clock inputs to toggle the The counter is also a register. A counting
outputs. register makes the count for each order of
In terms of the clock pulses, every two places. A shift register can shift the count be-
c'·ianges result in one cycle of change in the FF tween chains of flip-flops for each binary place
[Link]. Therefore, the circuit is a divide-by-two in the count.
or binary flip-flop. Figure 32-27 shows a divide-by-eight
counter. This is a ripple counter because the
flip-flops are in cascade. The J and K inputs of
Practice Problems 32-10
all the flip-flops are tied together and connected
(answers on page 709)
to +5 V. This input makes each FF ready to
Answer true or false, for flip-flops.
toggle. When the set and clear are both high,
(a) It is a bistable circuit.
the FF will toggle each time the clock input goes
(b) Either a set or clear pulse input can toggle
low.
the output.
Note that the clock pulses are fed to the
(c) The Q and Q outputs cannot both be high
clock input of the first flip-flop FF-A. However,
at the same time.
the clock input of FF-B is from the Q output of
(d) The JK type has an input terminal for clock
FF-A. Also, the Q output of FF-B feeds the
pulses.
clock input of FF-C. The divide-by-eight output
of the counter is taken from the Q output of
FF-C, as the final flip-flop.
32-11 This circuit is a binary counter that di-
COUNTERS vides by two in three successive steps. For every
The basic binary counter is a chain of flip-flops. eight changes of the clock, the Q output of
Each divides by two. Successive flip-flops divide FF-A changes four times, the Q output of
in multiples of two. The division is in the fre- FF-B changes two times, and the Q output
quency of the clock-pulse input. This frequency of FF-C changes only one time. This final
division is equivalent to counting the clock output, then, is the clock input divided by
pulses in multiples of 2, 4, 8, 16, etc. The count eight.

Reset~---------------..,...------------.
FF-A FF-B FF-C

J Q J Q J Q
Clock
input 0----+---1 Clock ...._---+--t Clock ....__.,---1 Clock

K K K

+5Vo-_....----------------------
Seto-----......_--------L--------~

FIGURE 32-27
A divide-by-eight ripple-type counter, using
three flip-flops.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 705

High
- 1-
- --- - - -
Clock
Low

High
1-
- 1- 1- 1-
-
Reset
Low

High
-
Set
Low

High
FF-A
Q output
Low i - -

FF-B High
Q output
Low

FF-C High
Q output
Low
FIGURE 32-28
Pulse waveforms for the counter in Fig. 32-27.

Figure 32-28 shows waveforms for the ever, a NANO gate and NOR gate are added. The
divide-by-eight ripple counter. Note that each NANO gate is connected in such a way that six of
successive flip-flop changes only when the pre- the counts will not be used. The AND gate is
ceding Q output goes from a high to a low. used for steering the reset pulses for the flip-
A disadvantage of the cascade counter is flops.
its relatively slow speed. The reason is that each
FF must wait for the previous FF to change Practice Problems 32-11
state. When a faster counter is desired, the (answers on page 709)
synchronous type is used. In a synchronous (a) In Fig. 32-27 how much is the division
counter, the clock pulses are fed directly to factor at the Q output of FF-B?
each FF. (b) In Fig. 32-28, how many pulses, both high
For a decade counter, four flip-flops are and low, are shown for the Q output of
used to obtain the maximum count of 16. How- FF-C, for the 16 clock pulses?

Summary
Table 32-5 on the next page shows the basic building blocks for digital
circuits. In addition, the terminology in digital electronics is summarized in
the following alphabetical list:

AND gate. Logic function comparable to series switches.

Baud. Unit of frequency in bits or bytes per second, in transmission of
digital signals.
 Chapter 32
706 Digital Electronics

TABLE 32-5. Symbols for Digital Circuits

FUNCTION SYMBOL

AND ;==[)-AB
OR ;=D-A+B
Exclusive oR ;=jD-8
Inverter A-{>--A
NANO AD-_
B AB

NOR ;=L>--A+B
Set-reset, flip-flop R=l3=Q
s
FF -
Q

Binary. Based on a scale of 2, using the two digits 1 and 0.

BCD. Binary-coded decimal. Each digit in a decimal number is processed
in its binary equivalent.
Bit. Abbreviation for binary digit.
Byte. A sequence of binary digits used as a unit, but usually shorter than a
word.
CLEAR INPUT. Same as RESET for flip-flop circuits.
Clock. Usually a multivibrator to generate pulses at an exact frequency to
synchronize the logic circuits.
Cl MOS. Complementary symmetry in terms of P channel and N channel.
Complement. A binary opposite, changing between 0 and 1.
Counter circuit. Usually a group of flip-flops. The output has one pulse for
a predetermined number of input pulses.
CTL. Complementary transistor logic with NPN and PNP transistors.
DCTL. Direct-coupled transistor logic.
Decimal. Based on a scale of 10.
DTL. Diode-transistor logic.
D-type flip-flop. Has a D input terminal for clock pulses.
Digit. One character in a number. Binary numbers have the two digits 0
and 1. Decimal numbers have ten digits from 0 to 9.
ECL. Emitter-coupled logic.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 707

Exclusive OR Gate. A logic function in which the output is oN only when the
two inputs are not in the same state.
Fan-in. The number of inputs connected to a logic gate.
Fan-out. The maximum number of output circuits that can be used as a
load.
FET fo~ld-effect transistor.
Flip-flop (FF). Bistable circuit that can store one bit of information. The
outputs at the Q and Q terminals must be opposite.
Gate. Logic circuit with two or more inputs designed to give one output
only for specific combinations of input pulsg_s.
Inverter. Negates input to provide complement in output. For example, 1
becomes inverted or negated to 0, and 0 becomes 1. Also a NOT
function.
JK flip-flop. Has two control inputs at J and K terminals, with clock input,
for Q and Q output.
Logic. A form of mathematics based on two-state truth tables. Electronic
logic circuits use gates and flip-flops to perform logic functions.
Memory. Also called storage. The bistable FF is an example of temporary
memory. Magnetic tapes or discs and punched cards are examples of
permanent storage.
Microprocessor. IC unit with digital circuits forming subsystem of a
computer.
MOSFET Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor. Has insu-
lated-gate electrode.
NAND gate. Logic function in which both inputs must be high for output to
be low. Is negation of AND gate.
NOR gate. Logic function in which output is low when either of the inputs,
but not both, is high. Is negation of inclusive OR gate.
Octal. Based on a scale of eight.
OR gate. Logic function comparable to parallel switches.
Radix. The base for a number system. Radix is 2 for binary numbers and
10 for decimal numbers.
RAM. Random access memory.
RCTL. Resistor-capacitor transistor logic.
Read. Acquire information for use or storage.
ROM. Read or write memory.
RTL. Resistor-transistor logic.
Readout. Visual display of information.
RESET INPUT. Same as CLEAR for flip-flop circuits. Flops the bistable circuit
back to its initial stage.
RS flip-flop. Has set and reset input terminals for Q and Q output.
SET INPUT. For flip-flop circuits. Flips the bistable circuit to the opposite
condition from its initial state.
Shift register. Can shift the count by one order of places.
 Chapter 32
708 Digital Electronics

Storage. Also called memory. Holds data to be retrieved at a later time.

Truth table. Lists all possible states of input and output for a logic function.
Word. An ordered set of characters that is the normal unit of information
for a computer operation.
Write. Introduce information into storage.

Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.)

1. What is the radix for binary numbers?

2. The digit 0 with carry of 1 is the sum for what binary addition?
3. Which logic gate is similar to the function of two series switches?
4. Which logic gate is similar to the function of two parallel switches?
5. Which logic function has the output low only when both inputs are
high?
6. In any flip-flop, when the Qoutput is at 1, what is the state of the Q
terminal?
7. In positive logic, is a pulse at -3 V to chassis ground the 0 or 1 level?
8. How many inputs can be supplied to a logic gate with a fan-in factor
of four?
9. Which circuit is used for a clock generator, a free-running MV or JK
flip-flop?
10. What type of circuit is used for counters?
11. What are the possible binary states for the Q and Q output terminals
of a flip-flop?
12. How many FF circuits are needed to divide by 16?

Essay Questions
1. Define base, radix, and carry for number systems.
2. Define bistable, astable, and free-running for multivibrators.
3. Define fan-in and fan-out factors for a logic gate.
4. Give one advantage and one disadvantage in comparing binary and
decimal numbers.
5. Give one advantage and one disadvantage in comparing analog and
digital circuits.
6. What is meant by negation or inversion?
7. Compare the following pairs of logic gates: (a) AND with oR; (b) AND
with NAND; (c) OR with NOR.
 Chapter 32
Digital Electronics 709

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
FIGURE 32-29
For Prob. 5.

8. Show the truth table for the NOR gate in Fig. 32-15.
9. Use a truth table to show that (A)( B) = A + B.
10. Show the logic symbols for AND, OR, NANO, and NOR gates.
11. Describe briefly two types of multivibrator circuits.
12. Describe briefly two types of flip-flop circuits.

Problems (Answers to odd-numbered problems at back of

book.)

1. Convert the following decimal numbers to their binary equivalents:

(a) 39; (b) 62.
2. Convert (187 )10 to binary form.
3. Convert (1110) 2 to a decimal number.
4. Add (16) 10 and (9) 10 in binary form and check that the sum equals
(25)10.
5. Give the output equation for each of the logic symbols in Fig. 32-29.

Answers to Practice Problems

32-1 (a) 15 32-4 (a) 0
(b) 1010 (b) 1
(c) Zero (c) 16
32-2 (a) (111 )2 32-5 (a) 1
(b) (1110)2 (b) Low
32-3 (a) T 32-6 (a) 1
(b) T (b) 0
(c) F 32-7 (a) 1
 Cha ter 32
710 Digital Electronics

32-7 (b) 0 32-10 (b) T

32-8 (a) AB (c) T
(b) pin 8 (d) T
32-9 (a) C1 and R1 32-11 (a) 4
(b) ov (b) 1
32-10 (a) T
 Review of
Chapters
a1anda2
Summary
1. Integrated circuits combine semiconductor devices R and Con one
silicon chip. The advantages are small space and reliability.
2. Linear IC units are commonly used for af and rf amplifiers.
3. Pigital IC units are commonly used for gates, flipwflops, and addi-
tional types of logic circuits.
4. The terminology of IC units is described in the Summary for
Chap. 31.
5. Digital electronics uses binary. numbers with only the digits 0 and 1
to represent the two states of a pulse signal.
6. The basic gates for digital logic are AND, NAND, oR, and NOR, as listed
in Table 32-5.
7. The flip~flop is a bistable circuit that can be changed from one state to
the opposite by input pulses.
8. The terminology for digital electronics is described in the Summary
for Chap. 32.

Review Self-Examination (Answers at back of book.,)

1. Is a typical capacitance on an ·IC unit 20 pF or 20 µ,F?

2. Is anN channel ora P channel used for an FET or bipolar transistor?
3. Does a typical DIP package have 18 or 4 pins?
4. Is a unit with quad audio amplifiers a linear or digital IC?
5. What is the binary· equivalent of decimal 7?
6. How much is 1 + 1 in the binary system?
7. What logic gate has an output of AB with an input of A and B?
712 Review of Chapters 31 and 32

8. In the flip-flop, when Q output is at the HIGH level, what is the level of
Q?
9. Which flip-flop uses clock pulses: RS or JK?
10. Can a clock generator use a bistable MV or the astable MV circuit?

References (Additional references at back of book.)

Deboo, G. J. and C. N. Burrous: "Integrated Circuits and Semiconductor
Devices," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Ilardi, F.: "Computer Circuit Analysis-Theory and Applications,'' Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
RCA Solid-State Devices Manual, RCA Solid-State Division, Sommerville,
N.J.
 Mathematics
Cooke, N. M. and H. Adams: ''Basic Mathematics for Electronics,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Heineman, E. R.: "Plane Trigonometry with Tables," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Lippin, G.: "Circuit Problems and Solutions," Hayden Book Company,
Inc., New York.
Rice, H. S., and R. M. Knight: "Technical Mathematics," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Roberts and Stockton: "Elements of Mathematics," Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Mass.
Stein, P.: "Graphical Analysis," Hayden Book Company, Inc., New York.

Radio Communications and Electronics

Chute, G. M.: "Electronics in Industry," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.
Defrance, J. J.: "General E1ectronic Circuits," Holt, Rinehart and Win-
ston, Inc., New York.
Grob, B.: "Basic Television," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Hayt, W., and J. Kemmerly: "Engineering Circuit Analysis," McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Kaufman, M.: "Radio Operator's License Q and A Manual," Hayden
Book Company, Inc., New York.
Lurch, E. N.: "Fundamentals of Electronics," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York.
Prensky, S. D.: "Electronic Instrumentation," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.
"Radio Amateur's Handbook," American Radio Relay League, Newing-
ton, Conn.
Richter, H.: "Practical Electrical Wiring," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York
Shrader, R. L.: ''Electronic Communication,'' McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York.
714 Bibliography

Slurzberg, M., and W. Osterheld: "Essentials of Radio-Electronics,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Wilson, J. A. and Glass, D.: "Study Guide for CET Examinations,''
Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.
Zbar, P. B.: "Electronic Instruments and Measurements,'' McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.

Transistors and Tubes

Bell, D. A.: "Fundamentals of Electronics Devices," Reston Publishing
Co., Reston, Virginia.
Cutler, P.: "Semiconductor Circuit Analysis," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, New York.
GE Transistor Manual, General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products,
Syracuse, N.Y.
HEP (Hobbyist- Experimenter) Semiconductor Cross-Reference Guide,
Motorola Semiconductors, Phoenix, Ariz.
Kiver, M. S.: "Transistors," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Millman, J., and C. Halkias: "Electronic Devices and Circuits," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York.
RCA Receiving Tube Manual, RCA Electronic Components and Devices,
Harrison, N.J.
RCA Silicon Power Circuits Manual, RCA Electronic Components and
Devices, Harrison, N.J.
RCA Solid-State Devices Manual, RCA Solid-State Division, Sommerville,
N.J.
Tomer, R. B.: "Semiconductor Handbook," Howard W. Sams & Co.,
Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.

Digital Electronics and Integrated Circuits

Deboe, G. J. and C. N. Burrous: "Integrated Circuits and Semiconductor
Devices," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Ilardi, F.: "Computer Circuit Analysis-Theory and Applications," Pren-
tice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Jung, W. G.: "IC Op-Amp Cookbook,'' Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc.,
Indianapolis, Ind.
 Bibliography 715

Malvina, A P., and D. Leach: "Digital Principles and Applications,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Millman, J., and C. Halkias: "Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Rosenthal, M. P.: "Understanding Integrated Circuits," Hayden Book
Company, Inc., New York.

Manufacturers' Periodical Publications

Aerovox Research Worker, Aerovox Corp., New Bedford, Mass.
Amphenol Engineering News, Amphenol Corp., Broadview, Ill.
Capacitor, Cornell-Dubilier Electric Corp., Newark, N.J.
International Rectifier News, International Rectifier Corp., El Segundo,
Calif.
RCA Service News, RCA Service Co., Camden, N.J.
Sylvania News, GTE Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., Batavia, N.Y.
Tekscope, Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, Oreg.

Magazines
Electronics, McGraw-Hill Publications, New York.
Electronic Service Dealer, Ledger Publishing Co., Waltham, Mass.
Electronic Servicing, Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., Indianapolis, Ind.
Electronic Technician/ Dealer, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publications,
New York.
QST, American Radio Relay League, West Hartford, Conn.
Radio-Electronics, Gernsback Publications, Inc., New York.
Spectrum, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York.

Sources for Films and Filmstrips

McGraw-Hill Films, New York.
National Audiovisual Center, General Services Administration, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20409.
716 Bibliography

Public relations departments of electronics companies, including:

Fairchild Semiconductor Division, Mountain View, Calif.
New York Telephone Company, New York.
Tektronix, Inc., Beaverton, Oreg.
Western Electric Company, New York.

Industry Standards
Electronic Industries Association (EIA), Washington, D.C.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), New York.
International Society of Certified Electronic Technicians (ISCET), Indian-
apolis, Ind.
 Electronic
Prequency
Spectrum

FREQUENCY OR
WAVELENGTH* NAME APPLICATIONS
A
OHz Steady direct. current De motors, solenoids, relays, electrode voltages for
or voltage tubes and transistors
16-16,000 Hz Audio frequencies 60·Hz power, ac motors, audio amplifiers, micro-
phones, loudspeakers, phonographs, tape recorders,
high-fidelity equipment, public address systems, and
intercoms
16-30 kHz Ultrasonic frequencies Sound waves for ultrasonic cleaning, vibration testing,
or very low radio thickness gaging, flow detection, and sonar; electro-
frequencies magnetic waves for induction heating
30 kHz-30,000 MHz Radio frequencies Radio communications and broadcasting, including
(see Appendix B) television, radio navigation, radio astronomy, in-
dustrial, medical, scientific, and military radio
30,000-300,000 MHz Extra-high frequencies Experimental, weather radar, amateur, government
or 1-0.1 cm
300,000-7600 A Infrared light rays Heating, infrared photography
7600-3900A Visible light rays Color, illumination, photography
3900-320A Ultraviolet rays Sterilizing, deodorizing, medical
320-0.1 A X-rays Thickness gages, inspection, medical
0.1-0.006 A Gamma rays Radiation detection; more penetrating than hardest
x-rays
Shortest of all electro· Cosmic rays Exist in outer space; can penetrate 70 m of water or
magnetic waves 1 m of lead
*Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional frequencies are so high. Light waves, x-rays, and
to each other. The higher the frequency, the shorter gamma rays are also generally considered in wave-
the wavelength, and vice .versa. Af and rf waves are length because their frequencies are so high. The units
generally considered in terms of frequency because the of wavelength are the micrometer, equal to 10-6 m; the
wavelength· is so·long. The <:!xception is microwaves, nanometer, equal to 10-9 m; and the angstrom A,
which are often designated by wavelength because their equal to 10-10 m.
 Appendix A
718 Electronic Frequency Spectrum

The four main categories of electromagnetic radiation and their

frequencies can be summarized as follows:

1. Radio frequency waves from 30 kHz to 300,000 MHz.

2. Heat waves or infrared rays from 1 X 10 13 to 2.5 X 10 14 Hz. Infra-
red means below the frequency of visible red light.
3. Visible light frequencies from about 2.5 X 10 14 Hz for red up to
8 X 10 14 Hz for blue and violet.
4. Ionizing radiation such as ultraviolet rays, x-rays, gamma rays, and
cosmic rays from about 8 X 10 14 Hz for ultraviolet light to above
5 X 10 20 Hz for cosmic rays. Ultraviolet means above the frequen-
cies of blue and violet visible light.
PCC
 Appendix B
720 FCC Frequency Allocations from 30 kHz to 300,000 MHz

BAND ALLOCATION REMARKS

30-535 kHz Includes maritime communications and Low and medium radio frequencies
navigation, aeronautical radio naviga-
tion
535-1605 kHz Standard radio broadcast band AM broadcasting
1605 kHz- Includes amateur radio, loran, govern- Amateur bands 3.5-4.0 MHz and 28-
30 MHz ment radio, international shortwave 29.7 MHz; industrial, scientific, and
broadcast, fixed and mobile communi- medical band 26.95-27.54 MHz; citi-
cations, radio navigation, industrial, zen's band class D for voice is
scientific and medical, and the CB 26.965-27.405 MHz in forty 10-kHz
radio band channels
30-50 MHz Government and nongovernment, fixed Includes police, fire, forestry, highway,
and mobile and railroad services; VHF band starts
at 30 MHz
50-54 MHz Amateur 6-m band
54-72 MHz Television broadcast channels 2 to 4 Also fixed and mobile services
72-76 MHz Government and nongovernment ser- Aeronautical marker beacon on 75 MHz
vices
76-88 MHz Television broadcast channels 5 and 6 Also fixed and mobile services
88-108 MHz FM broadcast Also available for facsimile broadcast;
88-92 MHz educational FM broadcast
108-122 MHz Aeronautical navigation Localizers, radio range, and airport con-
trol
122-174 MHz Government and nongovernment, fixed 144-148 MHz amateur band
and mobile, amateur broadcast
174-216 MHz Television broadcast channels 7 to 13 Also fixed and mobile services
216-470 MHz Amateur, government and nongovern- Radio altimeter, glide path, and meteor-
ment, fixed and mobile, aeronautical ological equipment; citizens' radio band
navigation, citizens' radio 462.5-465 MHz; civil aviation 225-
400 MHz; UHF band starts at 300 MHz
470-890 MHz Television proadcasting UHF television broadcast channels 14 to
83
890-3000 MHz Aeronautical radio navigation, amateur Radar bands 1300-1600 MHz
broadcast, studio-transmitter relay,
government and nongovernment, fixed
and mobile
3000- Government and nongovernment, fixed Super-high frequencies (SHF); 8400-
30, 000 MHz and mobile, amateur broadcast, radio 8500 MHz satellite communications
navigation
30,000- Experimental, government, amateur Extra-high frequencies (EHF)
300,000 MHz
 Alphabetical
ListiDI
of the
Cbemlcal
Blements
ATOMIC YEAR OF
ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER DISCOVERY REMARKS*

Actinium Ac 89 1899
Aluminum Al 13 1825 Metal conductor
Antimony Sb 51 Ancient
Argon Ar 18 1894 Inert gas
Arsenic As 33 1649
Barium Ba 56 1808 Ends 8-electron 0 shell
Beryllium Be 4 1798
Bismuth Bi 83 1753
Boron B 5 1808
Bromine Br 35 1826
Cadmium Cd 48 1817
Calcium Ca 20 1808 Ends 8-electron M shell
Carbon c 6 Ancient Semiconductor
Cerium Ce 58 1803 Starts rare-earth series
58 to 71
Cesium Cs 55 1860 Photosensitive
Chlorine Cl 17 1774 Active gas
Chromium Cr 24 1798
Cobalt Co 27 1735
Copper Cu 29 Ancient Metal conductor
Fluorine F 9 1771 Active gas
Gallium Ga 31 1875
Germanium Ge . 32 1886 Semiconductor
*Rare-earth elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71
and 90 to 103 are omitted.
 Appendix C
722 Alphabetical Listing of the Chemical Elements

ATOMIC YEAR OF
ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER DISCOVERY REMARKS

Gold Au 79 Ancient Metal conductor

Hafnium Hf 72 1923 Starts 32-electron
N shell
Helium He 2 1895 Inert gas
Hydrogen H 1 1766 Active gas
Indium In 49 1863
Iodine I 53 1811
Iridium Ir 77 1804
Iron Fe 26 Ancient Magnetic
Krypton Kr 36 1898 Inert gas
Lanthanum La 57 1839
Lead Pb 82 Ancient
Lithium Li 3 1817
Magnesium Mg 12 1755
Manganese Mn 25 1774
Mercury Hg 80 Ancient
Molybdenum Mo 42 1781
Neon Ne 10 1898 Inert gas
Nickel Ni 28 1751
Niobium Nb 41 1801
Nitrogen N 7 1772
Osmium Os 76 1804
Oxygen 0 8 1774
Palladium Pd 46 1803 N shell has 18 electrons
Phosphorus p 15 1669
Platinum Pt 78 1735
Polonium Po 84 1898
Potassium K 19 1807
Radium Ra 88 1898
Radon Rn 86 1900 Inert gas
Rhenium Re 75 1925
Rhodium Rh 45 1803
Rubidium Rb 37 1861
Ruthenium Ru 44 1844
Scandium Sc 21 1879
Selenium Se 34 1818 Photosensitive
Silicon Si 14 1823 Semiconductor
Silver Ag 47 Ancient Metal conductor
Sodium Na 11 1807
Strontium Sr 38 1790 Ends 8-electron N shell
Sulfur s 16 Ancient
Tantalum Ta 73 1802
Technetium Tc 43 1937
Tellurium Te 52 1783
 Appendix C
Alphabetical Listing of the Chemical Elements 723

ATOMIC YEAR OF
ELEMENT SYMBOL NUMBER DISCOVERY REMARKS

Thallium Tl 81 1861
Thorium Th 90 1829 Starts rare-earth series
90 to 103
Tin Sn 50 Ancient
Titanium Ti 22 1791
Tungsten w 74 1783
Uranium u 92 1789
Vanadium v 23 1831
Xenon Xe 54 1898 Inert gas
Yttrium y 39 1843
Zinc Zn 30 1746
Zirconium Zr 40 1789
All the units are based on the fundamental dimensions of length, mass,
and time. These are considered basic quantities, compared with derived
quantities such as area, force, velocity, and acceleration, which are only
different combinations of length, mass, and time. Each of the basic
dimensions has units in the English system and in the decimal or metric
system, as listed in Table D·l.

SYSTEMS OF UNITS
The cgs system is an abbreviation for its basic units of centimeters, grams,
and seconds. The mks system based on meters, kilograms, and seconds
provides larger units which are closer to practical values, since the
kilogram is 1000 g and the meter is 100 cm. The SI system is based on
and very similar to the mks system.
In many cases, it is necessary to convert between· English and metric
units. Then the following conversions can be used:

LENGTH

1 meter = 39.37 inches

=
1 inch 2.54 centimeters

MASS

=
1 kilogram 2 .2 pounds
1 gram= 0;03527 ounce

The basic [Link] time is the· second. in all systems.

TABLE D-1. Units for Basie Oimensiops

METRIC UNIT
DIMENSION ENGLISH UNIT CGS MKS AND SI
Length (L} foot centimeter meter
Mass.(M) slug* gram kilogram
Time (T) second second second
*1 slug is the mass of a 1-lb weight.
 Appendix D
Physics Units 725

MASS
The dimension of mass is often considered similar to the weight of an
object. However, weight is actually the force due to the acceleration of
gravity. To define mass more specifically, it is necessary to use Newton's
second law of motion: F =Ma. This can be transposed to M =Fla,
which states that the mass is defined by how much force is necessary for a
given amount of acceleration.

DERIVED QUANTITIES
A simple example is velocity, as a combination of the basic dimensions of
length and time. The units can be feet per second, meters per second, or
centimeters per second. Still, basically velocity is just LIT, meaning it is
the time rate of change of length. Sometimes speed and velocity are used
interchangeably. However, velocity is a vector quantity that has direction,
while speed is a scalar quantity without direction. Another derived quan-
tity is acceleration, the time rate of change of velocity. In the mks and SI
systems the unit is meters per second per second, or m/s 2 . The basic
dimensions are LI T2, which results from LIT for velocity, divided by T
Additional derived quantities are force, work or energy, and power.

FORCE
Newton's law of acceleration is used to derive the units of force. With the
formula F = Ma in the cgs system, one dyne is the force needed for an
acceleration of one centimeter per second per second with a mass of one
gram. In the mks and SI systems, one newton is the force needed for an
acceleration of one meter per second per second with a mass of one
kilogram. One newton equals 105 dyne. To convert to English units,
1N=0.225 lb.

WORK AND ENERGY

Work Wis the product of force F times the distance s through which the
force acts. As a formula, W = Fs. For example, if you lift a 20-lb weight
through a distance of 2 ft, the work equals 40 ft· lb.
In the cgs system, Fis in dyne-centimeters, which is an erg. A larger
cgs unit, also used in SI, is the joule, equal to 10 7 ergs.
In the mks system, Fis in newton-meters. This unit is the same as 10 7
ergs. Or 1 N · m equals 1 J. The joule unit of work is named after James
P. Joule (1818-1889), an important English physicist.
Energy is the ability to do work. Kinetic energy is due to the motion of
a mass, as when you throw a ball. Potential energy is stored energy, as in
a coiled spring. The units for both kinetic and potential energy are the
same as for work.
 Appendix D
726 Physics Units

POWER
This is the time rate of doing work, or P = WIT. The practical unit in the
metric system is the joule per second, equal to 1 watt. In the English
system the unit is foot-pounds per second. For a larger unit, 550 ft· Ibis
equal 1 hp.

TEMPERATURE SCALES
The Celsius scale, formerly known as the centigrade scale, invented by
A. Celsius, has 100 divisions between 0 ° for the freezing point of water
and 100 ° for the boiling point. The Fahrenheit scale, invented by G. D.
Fahrenheit, is still used for weather observations and general purposes.
On this scale, the freezing point is 32 ° while the boiling point is 212 °, with
180 divisions between. To convert from one scale to the other,

and

The Kelvin or absolute temperature scale was devised by Lord

Kelvin. On this scale, the zero point is absolute zero, 273 ° below 0 ° C. At
0 K any material loses all its thermal energy. The divisions of the °C scale
and the K scale are the same. (Note: The SI unit for temperature is K for
Kelvin, without the degree symbol.)
To convert from °C to K, just add 273°. Thus, 0°C equals 273 K. To
convert from K to °C, subtract 273°. Then 0 K equals -273°C.
Average room temperature is generally considered about 20 to
25 ° C. This equals 68 to 77 °F. On the absolute scale, the corresponding
temperatures are 293 to 298 K.

UNITS OF HEAT ENERGY

In the cgs system, one calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. In mks units,
the amount of heat to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by
one degree Celsius is equal to one kilocalorie. The SI system uses the
joule as a unit of heat as well as a unit of work. In English units, the British
thermal unit (Btu) is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. The Btu is the larger
unit, as 1 Btu equals 252 calories. The fact that heat is a form of energy
can be seen from the use of the joule; 1 calorie is equivalent to 4.19 J.
One joule equals 0.24 calorie. Table D-2 summarizes all the units de-
scribed here.
 Appendix D
Physics Units 727

TABLE D-2. Summary of Physics Units

ENGLISH (FPS)
QUANTITY UNITS CGS UNITS MKS AND SI UNITS DIMENSIONS

Length foot centimeter meter L

Mass slug gram kilogram M
Time second second second T
Velocity feet per second centimeters per second meters per second LIT
Acceleration feet per second centimeters per second meters per second L!T2
per second per second per second
Force pound dyne newton Ma= ML!T2
Work and foot-pound* erg = dyne-centimeters joule = newton- force XL
energy 10 7 ergs = 1 joule meter
Power foot-pounds ergs per second; watt= joule work!T
per second; 10 7 ergs/s = 1 W per second
1 hp = 500 ft.
Ibis
Heat Btu calorie kilocalorie (mks); 1 calorie=
joule (SI) 4.19 joules
*Foot-pound is a unit of work, while pound-foot is
used for angular torque.

For more details on physics, chemistry, the periodic table, and atomic
structure the following references can be helpful:

Chemical Education Material Study: "Chemistry, and Experimental Sci-

ence," W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Calif.
Dull, Metcalfe, and Williams: "Modern Physics," Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., New York.
Ewing-Meyer: "Chemistry: A Survey of Principles,'' John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York.
Holton and Roller: "Foundations of Modern Physical Science," Addi-
son-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Mass.
"Key to Welch Periodic Chart of the Atoms," Sargent Welch Scientific
Co., Chicago, Ill.
Semat, H.: ''Fundamentals of Physics,'' Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
New York.
White, Manning, and Weber: "Practical Physics," McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
 Trigonometric
PunctIons
The six functions of an angle () are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant. All are numerical ratios, comparing the sides

B
formed by the angle () in a right triangle, as in Fig. E-1. Any one function
specifies the angle.
The values for sin (), cos (), and tan () are listed in Table E-1. These
functions are defined in terms of the right triangle, as follows:

. opposite side a
sm () = hypotenuse
= -c
adjacent side
cos()=
hypotenuse
= -bc
opposite side a
tan() = adjacent side
= b

These trigonometric functions are commonly used in ac circuits.

Tan ()is especially useful for finding the phase angle() because the tangent
function uses only the sides without the hypotenuse.
It may be of interest to note that the other three trigonometric
functions are reciprocals. These are: cot() = 1/tan8; sec 8 = 1 /cos();
csc 8 = l/sin 8.

Opposite side a
for sine

Right angle
A ____,__ _ __...._.
= 90°
Adjacent side b
for cos e
FIGURE E-1
The right triangle.
 •• J

Appendix E
Trigonometric Functions 729

TABLE E-1. Trigonometric Functions

ANGLE SIN cos TAN ANGLE SIN cos TAN
oo 0.0000 1.000 0.0000 45° 0.7071 0.7071 1.0000
1 .0175 .9998 .0175 46 .7193 .6947 1.0355
2 .0349 .9994 .0349 47 .7314 .6820 1.0724
3 .0523 .9986 .0524 48 .7431 .6691 1.1106
4 .0698 .9976 .0699 49 .7547 .6561 1.1504
5 .0872 .9962 .0875 50 .7660 .6428 1.1918
6 .1045 .9945 .1051 51 .7771 .6293 1.2349
7 .1219 .9925 .1228 52 .7880 .6157 1.2799
8 .1392 .9903 .1405 53 .7986 .6018 1.3270
9 .1564 .9877 .1584 54 .8090 .5878 1.3764
10 .1736 .9848 .1763 55 .8192 .5736 l.4281
11 .1908 .9816 .1944 56 .8290 .5592 1.4826
12 .2079 .9781 .2126 57 .8387 .5446 1.5399
13 .2250 .9744 .2309 58 .8480 .5299 1.6003
14 .2419 .9703 .2493 59 .8572 .5150 1.6643
15 .2588 .9659 .2679 60 .8660 .5000 1.7321
16 .2756 .9613 .2867 61 .8746 .4848 1.8040
17 .2924 .9563 .3057 62 .8829 .4695 1.8807
18 .3090 .9511 .3249 63 .8910 .4540 1.9626
19 .3256 .9455 .3443 64 .8988 .4384 2.0503
20 .3420 .9397 .3640 65 .9063 .4226 2.1445
21 .3584 .9336 .3839 66 .9135 .4067 2.2460
22 .3746 .9272 .4040 67 .9205 .3907 2.3559
23 .3907 .9205 .4245 68 .9272 .3746 2.4751
24 .4067 .9135 .4452 69 .9336 .3584 2.6051
25 .4226 .9063 .4663 70 .9397 .3420 2.7475
26 .4384 .8988 .4877 71 .9455 .3256 2.9042
27 .4540 .8910 .5095 72 .9511 .3090 3.0777
28 .4695 .8829 .5317 73 .9563 .2924 3.2709
29 .4848 .8746 .5543 74 .9613 .2756 3.4874
30 .5000 .8660 .5774 75 .9659 .2588 3.7321
31 .5150 .8572 .6009 76 .9703 .2419 4.0108
32 .5299 .8480 .6249 77 .9744 .2250 4.3315
33 .5446 .8387 .6494 78 .9781 .2079 4.7046
34 .5592 .8290 .6745 79 .9816 .1908 5.1446
35 .5736 .8192 .7002 80 .9848 .1736 5.6713
36 .5878 .8090 .7265 81 .9877 .1564 6.3138
37 .6018 .7986 .7536 82 .9903 .1392 7.1154
38 .6157 .7880 .7813 83 .9925 .1219 8.1443
39 .6293 .7771 .8098 84 .9945 .1045 9.5144
40 .6428 .7660 .8391 85 .9962 .0872 11.43
41 .6561 .7547 .8693 86 .9976 .0698 14.30
42 .6691 .7431 .9004 87 .9986 .0523 19.08
43 .6820 .7314 .9325 88 .9994 .0349 28.64
44 .6947 .7~93 .9657 89 .9998 .0175 57.29
90 1.0000 .0000 00
 Appendix E
730 Trigonometric Functions

SINE VALUES
In Table E-1, sin (} increases from 0 for 0 ° to 1 for 90 °. The sine increases
with 8 as the opposite side becomes longer. However, the maximum sine
ratio is 1 because no side of the triangle can be larger than the hypote-
nuse.

COSINE VALUES
The values for cos (} start from 1 as its maximum value for 0 °. Then cos (}
decreases to 0 as (} increases to 90 °. The cosine function becomes smaller
as the adjacent side is shorter for larger angles.

TANGENT VALUES
The values for tan (} increase with (} as the opposite side becomes larger.
However, tan(} values should be considered below and above 45°, as
Tan (} from 0 to 45 ° increases from 0 to 1.
At 45 °, tan (} = 1 because the opposite and adjacent sides are equal.
Above 45 °, tan (} is more than 1 because the opposite side is larger
than the adjacent side.

IMPORTANT VALUES
Some values are worth memorizing, since they summarize the trend of the
entire table of trigonometric functions. These are:

ANGLE sin 8 cos 8 tan 8

oo 0 1 0
30° 0.5 0.866 0.577
45° 0.707 0.707 1
60° 0.866 0.5 1.73
90° 1.0 0 00

ANGLES MORE THAN 90°

The angles considered so far are acute angles, less than 90 °. The 90 °
angle is a right angle. Angles larger than 90 ° are obtuse angles. The
complete circle is 360°. After 360° or any multiple of 360°, the angles just
repeat the values from 0 °.
For angles from 90 to 360 °, the full circle is divided into four
quadrants, as shown in Fig. E-2. To use the table of trigonometric func-
tions for obtuse angles in quadrants II, III, and Iv, convert to equivalent
acute angles in quadrant I by the following rules:
In quadrant II, use 180 ° - (}.
In quadrant III, use (} - 180°.
In quadrant Iv, use 360 ° - (}.
 Appendix E
Trigonometric Functions 731

//go ~
0

100° - e e

j
180°
Quadrant 11
sin+
cos -
tan -
Quadrant I
sin+
cos+
tan+
~

0° and 360°

Quadrant Ill Quadrant IV ~

sin - sin -
cos - cos+
tan+ tan -
e - 100° 360° - e

~270°~
FIGURE E-2
The four quadrants of a circle.

Also, use the appropriate sign or polarity for the trigonometric

functions in different quadrants, as shown in Fig. E-2.
Note that the conversions are only with respect t~ the horizontal axis,
using 180 or 360° as the reference. This way the obtuse angle is always
subtracted from a larger angle.
All the functions are positive in quadrant I. Notice that the tangent
alternates in polarity through quadrants I, II, III, and N.
In all the quadrants, the sine is +when the vertical ordinate is up or
- when the ordinate is down. Similarly, the cosine is + when the
horizontal abscissa is to the right or - to the left. The hypotenuse has no
polarity.
Finally, the tangent is + when the sine and cosine have the same
polarity, either both + in quadrant I or both - in quadrant III. For more
details on trigonometry, selected books are listed in the bibliography.
 Blectrlcal
S)!mbols and
A~brevlatlons
Table F-1 summarizes the letter symbols used as abbreviations for electri·

p
cal characteristics with their basic units. All the metric prefixes are in Table
F-2, for multiple and fractional values. In addition, Table F-3 shows
electronic symbols from the Greek alphabet.

TABLE F-1. Electrical Characteristics

QUANTITY SYMBOL BASIC UNIT
Current I or i ampere
Charge Q or q coulomb
Power p watt
Voltage Vor v volt
Resistance R ohm
Reactance x ohm
Impedance z ohm
Conductance G siemens
Admittance y siemens
Susceptance B siemens
Capacitance c farad
Inductance L henry
Frequency For I hertz
Period T second
Capital letter for I, Q, and V generally used
for peak, rms, or de value; small letter for in·
stantaneous values. Small r and g usually for
internal values such as rP and gm of a tube.
 Appendix F
Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 733

TABLE F-2. Multiples and Submultiples of Units*

VALUE PREFIX SYMBOL EXAMPLE

1000000 000 000 = 10 12 tera T THz = 10 12 Hz

1000000 000 = lQ9 giga G GHz= 10 9 Hz
1 000 000 = 106 mega M MHz= 106 Hz
1000=103 kilo k kV= 10 3 V
100 = 10 2 hecto h hm = 10 2 m
10 = 10 deka da dam= 10 m
0.1 = 10-1 deci d dm = 10-1 m ·
0.01 = 10-2 centi c cm= 10- 2 m
0.001 = 10-3 milli m mA = 10-3 A
0.000 001 = 10-6 micro µ µV = 10-6 V
0.000 000 001 = 10-9 nano n ns = 10-9 s
0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12 pico p pF = 10- 12 F
*Additional prefixes are exa = 10 18 , peta = 10 15 ,
femto = 10-15 , and atto = 10-18 .

TABLE F-3. Greek Letter Symbols

LETTER
NAME CAPITAL SMALL USES

Alpha A a a for angles, transistors, and amplifier

circuits
Beta B f3 (3 for angles., transistors, and amplifier
circuits
Gamma r y
Delta ~ 8 Small change in value
Epsilon E f ffor permittivity, also base of natural
logarithms
Zeta z r
Eta H 1J
Theta e () Phase angle
Iota I l

Kappa K K K for coupling coefficient, dielectric con-

stant
Lambda A /.. /.. for wavelength
Mu M µ µ for prefix micro, permeability, amplifi-
cation factor
Nu N v
Xi
Omicron
-
0
~
0
Pi I1 'TT 'TT is constant of 3.1416 for ratio of cir-
cumference to diameter of a circle
 Appendix F
734 Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations

TABLE F-3. Greek Letter Symbols (Continued)

LETTER
NAME CAPITAL SMALL USES
Rho p p p for resistivity
Sigma ~ (J Summation
Tau T T Time constant
Upsilon T v
Phi <I> <P Magnetic flux, angles
Chi x x
Psi '1' l/; Electric flux
Omega Q w Q for ohms; w for angular velocity
This table includes the complete Greek alphabet,
although some letters are not used for electronic
symbols.
 Appendix G
736 Color Codes

TABLE G-2. Color Codes for Carbon Resistors (see Fig. G-1)
AXIAL LEADS COLOR RADIAL LEADS
Band A First significant figure Body A
Band B Second significant figure End B
Band C Decimal multiplier Dot C
Band D Tolerance End D
Notes: Band A is double width for wirewound resistors
with axial leads. Body-end-dot system with radial leads
is a discontinued standard. For resistors with color
stripes and axial leads, body color is not used for
color-coded value.
Film resistors have five stripes; fourth stripe is multi-
plier, and fifth is tolerance.

A B C D

Axial leads Radial leads

(a) (b)
FIGURE G-1
Resistor color coding. (a) Color stripes on R
with axial leads. (b) Body-end-dot colors on R
with radial leads.

TABLE G-3. Color Values for Resistor and Capacitor Codes

COLOR SIGNIFICANT DECIMAL TOLERANCE,* VOLTAGE
FIGURE FIGURE MULTIPLIER % RATING*
Black 0 1 20
Brown 1 10 1 100
Red 2 102 2 200
Orange 3 103 3 300
Yellow 4 104 4 400
Green 5 105 5 500
Blue 6 106 6 600
Violet 7 107 7 700
Gray 8 10s 8 800
White 9 109 9 900
Gold 0.1 5 1000
Silver 0.01 10 2000
No color 20 500
*Tolerance colors other than gold and silver are used
for capacitors only. Also, colors for voltage rating
apply just to capacitors.
 Appendix G
Color Codes 737

TABLE G-4. Preferred Values for Resistors and Capacitors

20% TOLERANCE 10% TOLERANCE 5% TOLERANCE
10* 10* 10*
11
12 12
13
15 15 15
16
18 18
20
22 22 22
24
27 27
30
33 33 33
36
39 39
43
47 47 47
51
56 56
62
68 68 68
75
82 82
91
100 100 100
*The columns list numerical values and their decimal
multiples for ohms or picofarads.

tors. Also, only gold or silver is used for carbon-composition resistor

tolerance, but all the colors apply to tolerances for capacitors or film
resistors.
Similarly, the preferred values in Table G-4 are for resistance values
in ohms or capacitor values in picofarads. Only the basic value is listed,
from which multiple values are derived. As an example, a 1500-Q Rora
1500-pF C is a standard component value, with a tolerance of either 20,
10, or 5 percent. However, 2000 is only in 5 percent tolerance.

MICA CAPACITORS
These may be coded with old RMA or new EIA methods, military (MIL),
Joint Army-Navy (JAN) specifications, or American War Standards
(AWS). See Figs. G-2 and G-3.
 Appendix G
738 Color Codes

Silver, EIA
Black, MIL
{ White, AWS paper

1st } significant
2d figure

Multiplier
Tolerance
Tolerance
Working voltage
Classification

Present six-dot code Old six-dot code

FIGURE G-2
Mica capacitators with six-dot color codes. All
rated at 500 WVDC and ±20 percent toler-
ance.

The new EIA six-dot code starts with a white dot. If this dot is black, it
indicates the MIL six-dot code. Or, if this dot is silver, it indicates a paper
capacitor in the AWS code. In all three cases, though, the capacitance in
picofarad units is read from the next three color dots. However, if the first
dot has a color, this indicates the old EIA six-dot code, where the first four
dots are used for the capacitor value.
The characteristics indicated by the last dot in the new EIA six-dot
code specify five classes from A to E, according to leakage resistance,
temperature coefficient, and other factors.

1st } significant
2d figure

2d } significant 2d } significant
Working voltage 1st figure 1st figure

All rated at 500 WVDC

Capacitance tolerance ± 20%
Old six-dot code Old five-dot code Old three-dot code
FIGURE G-3
Mica capacitors with obsolete color codes.
 Appendix G
Color Codes 739

CERAMIC CAPACITORS
These have stripes or dots with three colors or five colors. With five stripes
or dots, the first and last colors indicate temperature coefficient and
tolerance, as listed in Table G-5. The middle three colors give the capaci-
tance in picofarads, with the same color values as for resistors and mica
capacitors. The fifth color is for tolerance, in percent for sizes larger
than 10 pF but in picofarad units for smaller capacitors. See Table G-5
and Fig. G-4 on the next page.
Most ceramic capacitors are long, in the shape of a resistor, or the
disk type. Larger disk capacitors often have the capacitance in picofarads
printed on the unit.

TABLE G-5. Color Code for Ceramic Capacitors

TOLERANCE
DECIMAL TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT,
COLOR MULTIPLIER ABOVE 10 pf, % BELOW 10 pf, pf ppm/°C
Black 1 20 2.0 0
Brown 10 1 -30
Red 100 2 -80
Orange 1000 -150
Yellow -220
Green 5 0.5 -330
Blue -470
Violet -750
Gray 0.01 0.25 30
White 0.1 10 1.0 500
 Appendix G
740 Color Codes

Ceramic capacitors
Temperature
Temperature coefficient
Temperature coefficient
coefficient 1st} significant 1st} significant
2d figure
2d figure

Tolerance Voltage
Tolerance Brown 150
Tolerance Orange 350
Green or none 500
Axial leads Radial leads, five-dot Radial leads, six-dot

1st} significant
Multiplier figure
Multiplier

Temperature Tolerance
Tolerance coefficient
Temperature
coefficient

Five-dot disk Three-dot disk Stand-off Button-head

FIGURE G-4
Ceramic capacitors. Color coding for tubular,
disk, stand-off, and button-head types.
I
 Appendix H
742 Soldering and Tools

SOLDERING
Solder is an alloy of tin and lead used for fusing metals at relatively low
temperatures of about 500 to 600 ° F. The joint where two metal conduc-
tors are to be fused is heated, and then solder is applied so that it can melt
and cover the connection. The reason for soldering connections is that it
makes a good bond between the joined metal, covering the joint com-
pletely to prevent oxidation. The coating of solder provides protection for
practically an indefinite period of time.
The trick in soldering is to heat the joint, not the solder. When the
joint is hot enough to melt the solder, the solder flows smoothly to fill all
the cracks, forming a shiny cover without any air spaces. Do not move the
joint until the solder has set, which takes only a few seconds.
Either a soldering iron or soldering gun can be used, rated at 25 to
100 W. See Fig. H-2. The gun is convenient for intermittent operation,
since it heats almost instantaneously when you press the trigger. The small
pencil iron of 25 to 40 W is helpful for soldering small connections where
excessive heat can cause damage. This precaution is particularly impor-
tant when working on PC boards, where too much heat can soften the
plastic form and loosen the printed wiring. A soldering iron for FET
devices should have the tip grounded to eliminate static charge.

(c)

FIGURE H-2
(a) Soldering gun. (b) Soldering pencil.
(c) Desoldering iron. (d) Soldavac desoldering
tool. (Edysyn Inc.)
 Appendix H
Soldering and Tools 743

The three grades of solder generally used for electronics work are
40-60, 50-50, and 60-40 solder. The first figure is the percentage of tin,
while the other is the percentage of lead. The 60-40 solder costs more, but
it melts at the lowest temperature, flows more freely, takes less time to
harden, and generally makes it easier to do a good soldering job.
In addition to the solder, there must be flux to remove any oxide film
on the metals being joined. Otherwise they cannot fuse. The flux enables
the molten solder to wet the metals so that the solder can stick. The two
types are acid flux and rosin flux. Acid flux is more active in cleaning
metals but is corrosive. Rosin flux is always used for the light soldering
work in making wire connections.
Generally, the rosin is in the hollow core of solder intended for
electronics work, so that a separate flux is unnecessary. Such rosin-core
solder is the type generally used. It should be noted, though, that the flux
is not a substitute for cleaning the metals to be fused. They must be shiny
clean for the solder to stick.

DESOLDERING
On printed-wiring boards, desoldering to remove a defective component
can be more important than the soldering. From the wiring side of the PC
board, desolder at the holes where the component leads go through the
board to join the printed wiring. Three methods are:

1. Soldering gun with vacuum attachment.

2. Soldavac tool with a separate iron. The vacuum plunger pulls the
molten solder out of the connection.
3. Soldawick or similar metal braid with a separate iron. Heat the braid
on the connection, and the molten solder runs up into the braid. This
method is most convenient where there is no room for a vacuum
tool.

Remove enough solder so that you can actually see the hole where the
leads come through. Then the component practically falls off the board. If
you try to force the component out, the board can be damaged.
For more details on soldering and tools, the following references can
be helpful:

Anderson and Tatro: "Shop Theory," McGraw-Hill Book Company, New

York.
"Radio Amateur's Handbook," (chapter on construction practices),
American Radio Relay League, Newington, Conn.
"Solder," Kester Solder Co., Chicago, Ill.
 Schematic
symbols

SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
I
Device Symbol Device Symbol

Ac voltage
6 Coil or inductance, air·core 'TilJ"

T~~
iron-core

Amplifier --[:>- variable

=o-
powdered
iron or ==>
AND gate
ferrite slug
'1rl1r'

Antenna, general
r Conductor, general
connection
'+-'
dipole
II no connection
++
~ ©
loop Current source

Cystal, piezoelectric ---101-

Battery, cell or de voltage --ii- Diodes
long line positive
--111111-- See Table 30-.7
for schematic symbols
Capacitor, general, fixed .
Curved electrode is outside
foil, negative or low-
--11- Fuse -.rv-
potential side Ground, earth or metal frame:
variable :Jr' Chassis or common return
~
,,,tt,,,r
connected to one [Link] of
voltage source
ganged Chassis or·eommon return not
connected to voltage source ~
"---"' Common rfittirn
·.
· "C7
 Appendix I
745

SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS

Device Symbol Device Symbol

~
Spark gap ~~
Hall potential generator
Switch, (SPST) ___/_
Jack o~ (SPOT) o"-o 0
Tip~
plug for jack
Sle~
2-pole (DPDT) 0

0 :J:
~
Key, telegraph _j~ 3-pole,
3-circuit wafer

Loudspeaker, general
r(j
Shielding -------
phones
?9 shielded conductor
,.
...
Magnet, permanent QM]
electromagnet
9
I>-
Thermistor, general
--e-
v
Microphone

Meters, letter or symbol to

indicate range or function 090 Thermocouple

NANO gate
=fJ-- Transformer, air core
]i
NOR gate
=I>-
iron-core
]Iii
OR gate =1)---
autotransformer

~
]o[
-i--
link coupling
Relay, coil

contacts ---
______. Transistors and semiconductors
See Table 30- 7

"""'
Resistor, fixed for schematic symbols

~
tapped
Vacuum tubes
variable See Table 29-3
for schematic symbols
 Answers
to Self~
Bxamlnations
CHAPTER 1
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. T
11. T 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. T 16. T 17. T 18. T 19. F 20. F
CHAPTER 2
1. 2 2. 4 3. 16 4. 0.5 5. 2 6. 25 7. 25 8. 10
9. 0.4 10. 72 11. 8 12. 2 13. 2 14. 4.17 15. 28.8 16. 2
17. 1.2 18. 3 19. 0.2 20. 0.12
CHAPTER 3
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (b) 10. (d)
CHAPTER4
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b)

CHAPTER 5
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (d) 10. (d)

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 1 TO 5
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a)
CHAPTER 6
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. F 10. T
CHAPTER 7
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (d) 10. (c)
 Answers to Self- Examinations 747

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 6 AND 7

1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. F 6. F 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. F

CHAPTER 8
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. T

CHAPTER 9
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. T

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 8 AND 9

1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. F 7. F 8. T 9. T 10. T
11. T 12. T 13. T 14 .. T 15. T
CHAPTER 10
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (c) 10. (c)

CHAPTER 11
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (c)

CHAPTER 12
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c)
9. (a) 10. (d)

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 10 TO 12
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (c) 10. (b)

CHAPTER 13
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. T
11. F 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. F

CHAPTER 14
1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. T

CHAPTER 15
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. T 10. T
11. T 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. T 16. T 17. T 18. T 19. T 20. T
CHAPTER 16
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T
7. F 8. F 9. T 10. T 11. 28.28 v 12. 1.2 A
748 Answers to Self-Examinations

13. 70.7V 14. 3 X 104 cm 15. 0.001 ms 16. 60 Hz 17. 0.01 µs 18. 0.25 MHz
19. 7.07V 20. 40V 21. 1000 Hz 22. 180 Hz 23. 11.1 v 24. 120V

CHAPTER 17
1. 240 Hz 2. Off 3. 120V 4. 240V 5. Cathodes 6. Series
7. De motor 8. White 9. 208V 10. On

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 13 TO 17
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (a)

CHAPTER 18
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (a)

CHAPTER 19
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (d) 10. (c)

CHAPTER 20
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (d)

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 18 TO 20
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a)
9. (b) 10. (c)

CHAPTER 21
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (b)

CHAPTER 22
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (a)

CHAPTER 23
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c)
9. (b) 10. (b)

CHAPTER 24
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c)
9. (d) 10. (c)
 Answers to Self-Examinations 749

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 21 TO 24
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T 9. F 10. T
11. T 12. T 13. F 14. T 15. T 16. T 17. F 18. T 19. T 20. T
21. T 22. T 23. T 24. T 25. T 26. T 27. T 28. T 29. T 30. T
31. F 32. T 33. T 34. T 35. T 36. T 37. F 38. F 39. T 40. T

CHAPTER 25
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c)
9. (c) 10. (a)

CHAPTER 26
1. (d) 2. (m) 3. (n) 4. (j) 5. (h) 6. (/) 7. (o) 8. (k)
9. (e) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (f) 13. (g) 14. (i) 15. (c) 16. (p)

CHAPTER 27
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d)
9. (a) 10. (b)

CHAPTER 28
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b)
9. (a) 10. (d)

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 25 TO 28
1. 300 2. 300 3. 300 4. 250 5. 250 6. 200 7. 200 8. 14.1
9. 14.1 10. 1 11. 45 12. -45 13. 1 14. 1.41 15. 7.07 16. 600
17. 353.5 18. 8 19. 0.8 20. 1.6 21. 0.8 22. 10 23. 10 24. 10
25. 1 26. 5 27. 50 28. 0.08 29. 40 30. 150 31. T 32. T
33. T 34. T 35. T 36. T 37. T 38. T 39. T 40. T

CHAPTER 29
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d)
9. (b) 10. (c)

CHAPTER 30
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. F 9. T 10. F
11. T 12. T 13. F 14. T 15. F 16. T 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. F
21. T 22. F 23. T 24. T 25. T 26. T 27. T 28. T 29. T 30. T
31. T 32. T

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 29 AND 30

1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F 9. T 10. F
11. F 12. T 13. T 14. T 15. F 16. F 17. T 18. T 19. T 20. T
21. T 22. T
750 Answers to Self- Examinations

CHAPTER 31
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T 9. F 10.

CHAPTER 32
1. 2 2. 1 + 1 3. AND 4. OR 5. NANO 6. 0
7. 0 8. Four 9. MV 10. Flip-flops 11. 1 and 0 12. Four

REVIEW OF CHAPTERS 31 AND 32

1. 20 pF 2. FET 3. 18 4. Linear 7. AND
8. ww 9. JK 10. Astable
 Answers to
Odd~numbered
Problems
CHAPTER 1
1. I = 4 A 3. See Prob. 4 values 5. 2.2V 7. 0.2 0

CHAPTER·2
1. (a) See Fig. 2·2 3. (b) R = 21 0 5. (a) V = 12 V 7. 10,000V
(b) I= 3 mA (b) p = 24 w
(c) I= 3 mA (c) P= 24 W
(d)I = 1 mA
9. (a) 1496 V 11. 9.84 v
(b) 108.1 v
(c) 2.84 V

CHAPTER 3
1. 1=1A,R2 =100 3. \'2 = 0.3V 5. VT = 30 V, I= 1 A
7. Rr = 2,552,470 0 9. Each R = 15 kO 11. l=lmA
13. I= 2.5mA 15. R2 = 25 0 17. "2=13 v

CHAPTER 4
1. (b) 45 v 3. (b) 20 v 5. (a) 11= 1A 7. (a) 7.14 0
(c) 11 =3 A, 12 =1 A (c) 12 = 2 A (b) Lr= 1 A (b) 2 kO
(d) Lr= 4 A 13 =4A (c) RT= 10 0 (c) 250 0
(e) Rr = 11.25 0 (d) PT= lOW (d) 54.6 0
(e) 714 0
(/) 5 kp
9. Gr== 0.038 s 11. R3 = 666.7 0
752 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems

CHAPTER 5
1. (a) RT = 25 Q 3. (b) RT= 15 Q 5. (a) R = 6 Q
(b) IT= 4 A (b) R = 24 Q
7. (a) \.'i = 2.23 V 9. R1 = 15 kQ 11. \.'i=\'x=lV
Vz = 0.74 v R2 = 5 kQ Vz=Vs=lOV
\'3 =6.7V
\'4 = 22.3 v 13. RT= 10.45 Q 15. (a) Vz =20V
(b) P1 = 204 mW (b) Vi = Vz =22.5 v
Pz = 69 mV 17. (a) \.1i = Vz = \'3 = 40 V
~ = 620 mW I1 = I2 = 2 mA
~ =2.08mW I3 =IT= 4 mA
(c) R4 (b) ~G = \'iw = +40 V
(d) R4 I is the same as in (a)

CHAPTER 6
1. \1i =4V 3. IB = 0.6 mA 5. I1 = 3 mA 7. Rn= 555.6 Q
Vz = 8V I2 = 6 mA RE= 740.7 Q
\'3 = 40 v I3 = 30 mA RF= 500 Q
9. R1 = 75 Q
R2 = 86.4 Q
R3 = 38.5 Q

CHAPTER 7
1. (a) Rs= 50 Q 3. (a) 300 mA 5. (a) 199 kQ 7. R1 = 78.3 Q
(b) Rs= 5.55 Q (b) 60 v 599 kQ R2 = 7.83 Q
(c) Rs = 0.505 Q 9999 kQ R3 = 0.87 Q
(d) 1 mA, 5 mA, and 50 mA (b) 20,000 Q/V
(c) 10 MQ
9. (a) R1 = 145 Q 11. Vi = 40 v
(b) 150 Q for 5 mA Vz = 80 v

CHAPTER 8
1. I 1 = 1.42 A 3. Ii = 1.42 A, VR1 = 11.36 v
I2 = 0.32 A, VR2 = 0.64 v
I3 = 1.1 A, VR3 = 4 .4 v
I4 = 1.1 A, VR4 = 2 .2 v

CHAPTER 9
1. VTh = 15 v 3. I 1 =5 A 5. RL not open 7. VP= 42 V
Rrh=3Q R1 =4Q
\{ = 6V IL= 3 A
9. VR2 = 19.2 v 11. VR2 = 19.2 v 13. VR3 = 10.6 v 15. See Fig. 9-28
 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems 753

CHAPTER 10
1. (a) 1024 cmil 3. (a) 1-A fuse 5. R =48Q 7. 5000 ft 9. (a) 4.8 Q
(b) Gage No. 20 (b) ov (b) 4000 ft
(c) R = 1.015 Q (c) 120 V
11. 2V 13. l = 30A

CHAPTER 11
1. (a) 1 W 3. (a) 470 kQ, 10 percent (d) 910 Q, 5 percent 5. 50 Q, 1 w
(b) 2W (b) 2.2 MQ, 10 percent (e) 2.2 Q, 5 percent
(c) 33 Q, 5 percent (f) 10 kQ, 20 percent

CHAPTER 12
1. 1.5 mA 3. 600 A 5. 2.88 X 105 C 7. 20 kQ 9. 1 kQ

CHAPTER 13
1. 5 x 103 Mx 3. 0.1 T 5. 24 x 103 Mx 7. 300
5X10-sWb

CHAPTER 14
1. (a) 200 3. (a) 300 G!Oe 5. (a) 126 X 10-6
(b) 1000 (b) 378 x 10-6 T !(Alm) (b) 88.2 10-6 x
(c) 300
7. (b) 40V 9. 14.4
(c) 1000 Alm
(d) 0.378 T
(e) 3.02 X 10-4 Wb
(f) 6 7 x 10 4 A/Wb

CHAPTER 15
1. 9 kV 3. (a) 2 Wb/s 5. (a) 0.2 A (d) 0.252 T
(b) -2 Wb/s (b) 80 ampere-turns (e) 1.512 X 10-4 Wb
(c) 2 Wb/s (c) 400 ampere-turns/m

CHAPTER 16
1. (a) l = 12 A 3. (a) t = 0.25 ms 5. (a) f = 20 Hz
(b) f = 60 Hz (b) t = 0.0625 µs (b) f = 200 Hz
(c) 0° (c) f = 0.2 MHz
(d) 120 v (d) f = 0.2 GHz
7. (a) +10 and -10 V 9. 11 = 40 µA 11. l = 2.5 A
(b) +10 and -10 V 12 = 20 µA f = 60 Hz
(c) +10 and -10 V Vi = Vz = 200 v oo
(d) +15 and -5 V P1 =8 mW
P2 = 4mW
754 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems

CHAPTER 17
No problems.

CHAPTER 18
1. (a) 2 Als 3. (a) 10 mV 5. (a) 60 Hz 7. (a) 300 µH
(b) 10,000 Als (b) 50V (b) 960 v (b) 66.7 µH
(c) 10,000 Als (c) 50V (c) 96 mA (c) 280 µH
(d) -10,000 Als (d) -50mV (d) 0.768 A (d) 0.0707
9. (a) R = 10.52 Q 11. 1.21 x 10-3 J 13. 82.6 mH
(b) R = 0.01 Q

CHAPTER 19
1. At 100 Hz, XL = 314 Q 3. (b) I= 5 mA 5. XL= 1.2 kQ
At 200 Hz, XL = 628 Q (c) \{ =
lOV L = 3.18 H
At 1000 Hz, XL = 3140 Q
7. L = 0.159 H 9. (a) XLr =
5 kQ 11. (a) f-= 0.16 kHz
XL= 10 kQ (b) I= 2 mA (b) f = 1.28 kHz
(c) \{ 1 =
2V (c) f = 0.4 MHz
\{2 = 8 v (d) J = 1.6 MHz
(d) L1 = 2.65 H (e) f = 16 MHz
L 2 = 10.6 H
13. XL = 1628.6 Q 15. XL= 754 Q 17. (d) At 500 Hz, XL = 785 Q
I= 12.8mA

CHAPTER 20
1. (a) Z = 100 Q 3. (b) XL= 377 Q 5. z = 400 Q 7. Re= 94 Q
I=lA (c) Z= 340 Q XL= 400 Q
() = oo (d)I = 250 mA
(b) z = 100 Q (e) I= 40 mA
I=lA
() = 90°
(c) Z = 70.7Q
I= 1.41 A
() = 45°
9. z = 566 Q 11. At 800 Hz, 13. XL= 500 Q 15. ZT = 583 Q
I= 0.177 A IR= 0.25 A L = 15.9 H I= 0.2 A
\{ = 70.7V IL= 0.125 A Bz = 59°
VR = 70.7V ()/ = -26.6°
Bz = 45°
17. vL is a square wave,
v
-+-200 p-p
 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems 755

CHAPTER 21
1. Q = 400 µC 3. Q = 12 µC 5. C = 1062 pF 7. (a) 200 V
6V (b) Q = 200 µC
(c) C = 1 µF
9. (a) 2.5 X 10-2 J 11. (a) 0.06 µF
(b) 12.5 J (b) 74.2 pF
(c) 3.2 J

CHAPTER 22
1. 80 pF at 1 MHz 3. (b) I= 5 mA 5. (b) I= 2 mA
(c) f = 1 kHz (c) V01 =
2V
(d) VC2 8= v
7. f = 1590 Hz 9. (a) X 0 T = 200 g 11. (a) X0 =
300 g
(b) C = 333.3 pF =
C 8.85 µF
CT= 1000 pF =
(b) C 17.7 µF
13. X0 = 169.4 g 15. I= 0.96 mA 17. =
C 422 pF

CHAPTER 23
1. (b) z
= 50 g 3. C = 1590 pF at 100 Hz 5. At 60 Hz, C = 26.59 µF
(c) I= 2 A C = 1.59 pF at 100 kHz At 1 kHz, C = 1.50 µF
(d) VR = 80V At 1 MHz, C = 1590 pF
V0 = 60V
(e) Oz = -37°
7. 10 = 15 mA 9. For de or ac, 11. C = 67 µF
IR= 20 mA Vi = 400 v L = 106 mH
Ir= 25 mA Vz = 200V
Zr= 1.2 kn \'3 = 100 v
01 = 370
VR = V0 = 30V
13. Zr= 583 g 15. i0 is a square wave, -+-2 mA p-p
I= 0.2 A
Oz= -59°

CHAPTER 24
1. (a) 0.05 s 3. (a) 4 s 5. V0 = 86 V 7. v0 = 150V
(b) 0.05 µs (b) 100 v
(c) 1 ms
(d) 20 µs
9. l.4ms 11. 0.05 x 106 Vis
756 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems

CHAPTER 25
1. (a) 100 W 3. (b) I= 10 A, approx. 5. (c)ZT = 500 n
(b) No reactance (c) z = 10 n I= 0.8 Q
(c) 1 (d) (j = 0° Oz= 53°
7. (a) XL= 0, approx. 9. (a) 180° 11. R = 24 Q
Xe= 665 Q
(b) zT = 890 n
I= 135 mA
Oz = -47.9°
13. R = 267 Q 15. C = 7.7 µF 17. IT= 6.9 mA, 81 = -16.9°
ZT = 60.9 n, Oz = 16.9°
19. R = 9704 Q

CHAPTER 26
1. (a) 4 - j3 3. 5/-37°
(a) 5. ZT = 65.36 + j23.48
(b) 4 + j3 (b) 5/37°
(c) 3 + j6 (c) 3.18/18.5°
(d) 3 - j3 (d) 4.24/-45°
7. 4.5/14 °
(a) 9. ZT = 12.65/18.5° 11. ZT = 5.25/-14.7°
(b) 4.5/34°
(c) 100/-84 °
(d) 100/-60°
13. R = 5.08 n 15. R = 21.4 n 17. zT = 50/-37° = 40 - j30 n
Xe= 1.27 Q xL = 10.2 n 1 = 2/37° = 1.6 + jl.2 A
VR = 80/37° = 64 + j48 v
VL = 120/127° = - 72 + j96 v
Ve= 180/-53° = 108 - jl44 V
19. zT = 4.05/7.4° kn 21. zT = 13.29/46.2°
I= 19.75/-7.4° mA

CHAPTER 27
1. fr= 12.6 Hz 3. fr= 1.624 MHz 5. (a) Q = 100
(b) Xe= XL= 1500 n
(c) I= 1 mA
(d) Ve= 1.5 V
 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems 757

7. L = 254 µH at 1 MHz 9. Cmax =32.7 pF 11. (a) At fr of 795 kHz,

L = 15.9 µH at 4 MHz Cmin = 21.7 pF IT= 0
ZT = 00
8 = 0°
(b) At 895 kHz,
IT = 1.25/90° mA
ZT = 4/-90° kQ
(c) At 695 kHz,
IT= 1.3/-90° mA
ZT = 3.85/90° kQ
13. (a) Q = 200 15. (a) At 5 kHz, 1 7. (a) Q = 120
BW = 25 Hz ZT = 5 Q (b) r8 = 78.4 Q
(b) ZT = 200 kQ I= 100 mA (c) C = 56.5 pF
(b) See Fig. 27-3b.

CHAPTER 28
1. (a) C = 0.01 µF 3. C = 0.064 µF 5. De level is -8 V
(b) VR ,_, 0 v Max is -11 V
V0 = 20 V Min is -5 V
(c) VR = 7.07 V rms value Ac voltage is 6 V p-p
V0 ---0V
7. (b) L = 1.53 mH 9. (a) C1 = 0.001 59 µF
(b) C2 = 0.003 18 µF
(c) C3 = 0.007 95 µF

CHAPTER 29
1. (a) V02 = 150 V 3. lb = 0.8 mA, constant value 5. gm= 4000 µS
(b) \{i = 190 v
7. RL = 130 kQ 9. Av= 40 11. (a) Av= 12
(b) 1200 µV
13. \{i = 180 v
'1c2 = 96 v
\{ = 3 v
CHAPTER 30
1. 0.6 v 3. (a) 160 V 5. V0 = 7.5 V 7. /3=21.4
(b) 138 v VOE= 6.7V a= 0.955
VB= 1.4 v
VBE = 0.6 v
VE= 0.8V
758 Answers to Odd-numbered Problems

9. 2W 11. 7500 µS 13. 2.8 mA 15. (a) 50

(b) 20 v
(c) 250
17. le= 5.2 mA p-p A1 = 52 19. All conducting
Ve= 8.32 Vp-p Av= 41.6
AP= 2163.2

CHAPTER 31
No problems.

CHAPTER 32
1. (a) 100111 3. 14 5. (a) x =AB
(b) 111110 (b) x =A+ B
(c) x=AB
(d) x =A+ 13
760 Index

Atomic structure, 12-17 Bias stabilization, 651-652 Capacitive reactance (cont.):

Audio frequencies, 320 Binary numbers, 685-689 frequency. effect, 445
Autotransformer, 364-365 addition, 688 phase angle, 45 7 -458
Average ac value, 318 multiplication, 688 Capacitor action, ohmmeter,
Average de axis, 573-574 Bipolar transistors, 65 7 435-436
Ayrton shunt, 133-135 Bistable circuits, 701 Capacitors, 9, 424-430
Bleeder current, 121 ceramic, 426
(B) Bohr atom, 15 color code, 429-430,
Branch currents, 76-78 737-740
B battery, 240-241 Bridge circuit, 100-101 coupling, 463-464
B voltage, 600, 604 Bridge rectifier, 636 diode, 660
B-H curve, 284-285 Broadcasting, radio, 3-5 electrolytic, 426-428
Ballast, lamp, 341 Brushes, motor, 340 mica, 425
Bandpass filter, 583-586 Brown and Sharpe gage, Mylar, 426
Band-stop filter, 584-585 204-205 paper, 425
Bandwidth, 555-558 Btu, heat unit, 726 parall(21, 430
half-power points, 558 Bulk, FET, 652 series, 430-431
measurement, 558 BX cable, 342 tantalum, 428
Bank, parallel, 79, 94-95 Bypass capacitor, 577-580 testing, 435-436
Barrier potential, 630-631 Byte unit, 706 tolerance, 428
Base, transistor, 626, 637- troubles in, 434-436
638 (C) variable, 426
Bass tone, 320 voltage rating, 428-429
Batteries, 22, 32, 240-252 C battery, 240 Carbon resistors, 226-227,
alkaline, 250-251 C voltage, 600, 604 236
carbon-zinc, 243-244 Calorie, 726 Cascaded amplifiers, 644-
charging, 249-250 Capacitance, 418-441 645
Edison, 251 capacitor types, 424-430 Cathode, thermionic, 600-601
lead-acid, 247-250 charging, 419-421 Cathode-follower, 640
specific gravity, 248-249 discharging, 421 Cathode-ray tube, 616-617
mercury, 250-251 distributed, 433 CB circuit, 639-641
nickel-cadmium, 251-252 energy stored, 434 CC circuit, 642
parallel, 245-247 farad unit, 422 CE circuit, 640-644
primary, 242, 250 stray, 431-434 Celsius scale, 726
secondary, 242-243, 251 time constant, 466-467, Cermet resistors, 227
series, 245-247 476-478 Cgs units, 268, 724-727
shelf life, 244 voltage dividers, 464-465 Channel, FET, 652-653
storage, 242-243 Capacitive coupling, 575-577 Charge, electric, 1 7 -26
types, 250-251 Capacitive diodes, 660 coulomb unit, 17-18
Baud unit, 705 Capacitive reactance, 442- electric field, 20, 289-290
Beam power tubes, 615 464 types of, 25-26
/3 (beta), transistor, 646 applications, 448, 463, Chassis ground, 101-104
Bias, base, 642 575-580 Choke coil, 405-406, 489-
grid, 606 calculations, 444-446 490
 Index 761

Circuit, defined, 28-31 Conductors, wire (cont.): Decade resistance box, 227 -
Circular mil, 205-206 wire sizes, 204-206 228
Clock generator, 701 Constant-current source, Decibel scale, 149
C!MOS IC chips, 678-679 255-256 Degaussing, 286-287
Coaxial cable, 206-207 Constant-k filter, 584 Delta connections, 193-195,
Coercive force, 286 Constant-voltage source, 255 344
Collector, transistor, 626, 637 Continuity testing, 153-154 Demagnetization, 286-287
Collector rings, 339 Core, coil, 366-368 Depletion-type FET, 654
Color codes, 735-740 Corona effect, 220 Depletion zone, 631
capacitors, 429-430, Cosine function, 728-731 Desoldering, 207, 743
736-740 COS/MOS IC chips, 678- Detector, diode, 636
resistors, 230-231, 735- 679 Diac, 656
736 Coulomb unit, 1 7 -20 Diamagnetism, 274
transformers, 365-366 Counting circuits, 703-705 Dielectric constant, 423-424
wiring, 735 Coupling: Dielectric materials, 219-220
Common-base circuit, 639- capacitive, 489, 463-464 Differential amplifier, 679-
641 transformer, 574-575 681
Common-collector circuit, Covalent bonds, 218, 626- Diffusion current, 630
642 627 Digital electronics, 685-712
Common-emitter circuit, CRT, 616-617 AND gate, 689, 694
640-652 Cryogenics, 215 binary numbers, 685-688
bias stabilization, 651-652 Current: clock generator, 701
load line, 64 7 -650 alternating, 31-32, 310- counters, 703-705
Common mode, 680 336 flip-flops, 701-703
Commutator, 339 ampere unit, 24 logic, 689-694
Compensating diodes, 659 conventiOnal, 30-31 NAND gate, 685, 695-696
Complement, binary, 706 direct, 30-31 NOR gate, 686, 696-698
Complementary symmetry, hole, 218-219, 629 oR gate, 689-690, 694-
678-679, 682 ion, 216-217 695
Complex numbers, 519-540 magnetic field, 26-27 symbols, 706
j operator, 520-521 Current dividers, 118-120 Digital meters, 150-151
polar form, 526-528 Cutoff frequency: Diode gate circuits, 694-695
rectangular form, 524-526 filter, 581 Diode rectifier circuits, 633-
Compound winding, field, transistor, 647 636
339 Cutoff voltage, grid, 605 Diodes:
Conductance, 27-28, 82-83, Cycle, defined, 319-321 Esaki, 659
119-120 light-emitting, 660
siemens unit, 27 semiconductor, 633-636,
(D)
Conductors, wire, 203-218 659-660
circular mils, 205-206 symbols, 659, 663
printed, 207 -208 Damping resistance, 563-564 testing, 636
resistance wire, 214 Darlington pair, 642 tubes, 600-604
temperature coefficient, D' Arson val movement, 128 tunnel, 659
214-215 De Morgan's identity, 692 varactor, 660
762 Index

Diodes (cont.): Electron, 11-17 Field winding, 339

varistor, 659 Electron gun, CRT, 616 Filament, tube, 600-601
Zener, 659-660 Electron volt, 46 Filters, analysis of, 570-592
DIP package, 676-677 Electronics: ac bypass, 577-580
Dipole magnet, 27 4 components, 7-10 ac coupling, 574-577
Direct current, defined, defined, 1 bandpass, 583-586
31-32 divisions, 5-7 band-stop, 584-585
Direct-current circuits: Elements, chemical, 14, constant-k, 584
Kirchhoff's laws, 161-174 721-723 high-pass, 582-583
meters, 126-160 Emitter, transistor, 626, 637 interference, 586-587
networks, 175-202 Emitter-follower, 642 L-type, 581-582, 585-586
Ohm's law, 39-53 Energy: low-pass, 581-582
parallel, 74-90 in capacitance, 434 m-derived, 584
series, 54-73 in inductance, 372 7T-type, 581-582
series-parallel, 91-125 units, 46-47, 725 resonant, 584-586
voltage dividers, 116-125 Enhancement-type FET, 654 T-type, 581-582
Discrete components, 597 Epitaxial transistors, 65 7 Flip-flop circuits:
Dissipation, power, 4 7 -49 Erg unit, 725, 727 counters, 703-705
Donor elements, 628 Esaki diode, 659 D-type, 702-703
Doping, semiconductor, 34, Extrinsic semiconductors, JK-type, 703
218, 627-629 627 set-reset, 701-702
DPDT switch, 209 Fluctuating direct current,
Drain, FET, 626, 652 (F) 571-574
Drift current, 630 Fluorescent lighting, 340-341
DTL circuits, 693-698 Fahrenheit scale, 726 Flux:
Dynamometer, 510 Fan-in, 693 electric, 289-290
Dyne unit, 725, 727 Fan-out, 693 magnetic, 267-270
Farad unit, 422 soldering, 743
(E) Faraday's law, 303-306 FM, defined, 3
FCC, 3, 719-720 FM radio band, 5, 321, 720
Eddy currents, 366 Ferrite beads, 275 Form factor, 319
Edison cell, 251 Ferrite core, 368 Forward current, 631-632
Edison wiring system, 342 Ferrites, 275 Forward voltage, 631-632
EDP, defined, 6 Ferromagnetic materials, 274 Frequency:
Effective value, 318-319 FET, 652-655 allocations, 720
Efficiency, 365 Field-effect transistor audio, 320
EHF band, 719 amplifier, 654 defined, 319-321
EIA, 716 Field-effect transistors, 652- harmonic, 331
Electric field, 20, 289-290 655 radio, 320
Electrolyte, 21 7 characteristic curves, 654- Frequency spectrum, 717 -
Electrolytic capacitors, 426- 655 718
428 gm, 654 Full-wave rectifier, 635-636
Electromagnetism, 273, electrodes, 652 Fuses, 210-211
294-309 transconductance, 654 testing, 152
 Index 763

(G) (I) Integrated circuits, 673-684

differential amplifier, 679-
Gain, amplifier, 607 -608, IC chips, 2-3, 673-684 681
644 IEEE, 716 digital, 674, 693-712
Galvanometer, 128 IGFET, 653 hybrid, 674
Gate: Impedance: linear, 674, 681
FET, 626, 652 capacitive, 459-462 monolithic, 6 73
SCR, 655 complex form, 523-524 operational amplifier,
Gate circuits, 689-695 defined, 329 680-681
Gauss unit, 268-269, 277 inductive, 398, 401-402 packages, 676-677
Gaussmeter, 276 matching, 25 7 -258 production, 675-679
Generator, ac, 311-314 parallel, 506 thick-film, 674
three-phase, 338-340 series, 503-505 thin-film, 674
Getter, tube, 601 Induced voltage, 302-306 Interference filters, 586-587
Gilbert unit, 281 nonsinusoidal, 407 -408 Internal resistance:
gm: sine-wave, 386-390 coil, 403-404
FET, 654 Inductance, 352-378 generator, 252-258
tube, 609 chokes, 405-406 Intrinsic semiconductor, 627
Graphs, plotting, 44-45 defined, 354 Ions, 25-26, 33, 216-218
Ground, chassis, 101-104 energy stored, .372 bonds, 217
(H) henry unit, 354 charge, 25-26
mutual, 358-360, 370-371 -current, 216-217
Half-power frequencies, 558 parallel, 369 in semiconductors, 629
Half-wave rectifier, 602-603, self-inductance, 356 IR voltage drops, 58-62
633-634 series, 369-371 Iron-vane meter, 510
Hall effect, 276 stray, 311
Harmonic frequencies, 331 time constant, 408-409, (J)
Heat sink, 658 473-476
Henry unit, 354 transformers, 360-366
j operator, 520-521
Hertz unit, 319-320 troubles, 372-373
JFET, 653
High-pass filters, 582-583 variable, 368-369
Joule unit, 46, 725, 727
High side, circuit, 62, 101 Induction:
Junction (PN), 630-633
High-voltage probe, 150 electrostatic, 419-420
barrier voltage, 630-631
Hole charge, 25-26, 218, magnetic, 270-271, 294-
forward voltage, 631-632
628-629 309
reverse voltage, 632
Hole current, 629 Induction motor, 339
voltampere curve, 632-633
Horsepower unit, 46 Inductive reactance, 379-393
Hot resistance, 215, 617 calculations, 381-384
Hot-wire meter, 510 chokes, 405-406 (K)
Hum, 636 frequency effects, 382
Hybrid IC chip, 674 phase angle, 386-390 K temperature, 726
Hysteresis losses, 285-286, Inductors, 9-10 Keeper, magnet, 272
366-367 Instant-start lamp, 341 Kelvin scale, 726
Hz unit, 319-320 Insulators, 219-220 Kilowatthours, 46-4 7
764 Index

Kirchhoff's laws, 161-174 LI R time constant, 408-409, Monolithic IC, 673

branch-current method, 473-476 Motors:
164-167 LSI chips, 674 action, 298
current law, 161-163 parts of, 338-340
mesh-current method, (M) Multimeters, 14 7-151
169-172 Multiplier, voltmeter, 136-140
node-voltage method, m-derived filter, 584 Multivibrators, 700-701
167-169 Magnetic field, 26, 289-290, MOSFET, 653
voltage law, 163-164 294-296 Mutual inductance, 358-360,
Knife switch, 209 Magnetic units, 277, 280- 370-371
293 coupling coefficient, 359
Magnetism, 265-279 transformers, 360-366
(L)
air gap, 271-272 MV circuits, 700-701
electromagnets, 273
L, inductance, 354-356 ferrites, 275 (N)
L-type filters, 581-582, field lines, 265-266
585-586 flux, 267-270, 277 NANO function, 691, 695-696
Laminations, core, 367-368 Ohm's law, 287-288 Nanosecond, 321
Lead-acid battery, 24 7 -250 permanent magnets, 273- Negation, logic, 690
charging, 249 274 Negative resistance, 659
chemical action, 24 7 -248 permeability, 282-283 Network theorems, 175-202
specific gravity, 248-249 poles, 266-267 conversion of sources,
Leakage current, transistor, shielding, 275-276 187-191
630, 647 types of, 274 delta-wye, 193-195
Leakage flux, 358 units, 277, 280-293 Millman, 191-193
LED, 660 Magnetomotive force, 280, Norton, 184-188
Lenz' law, 301-302, 356 287-288 superposition, 175-177
Light-emitting diode, 660 Maxwell unit, 268, 277 T and 7T, 193-195
Linear IC chips, 674, 681 Mercury cell, 250-251 Thevenin, 177-184, 188
Linear resistance, 45 Mesa transistors, 657 Neutron, 17
Litz wire, 404 Mesh current, 169-172 Nickel-cadmium cell, 251-
Load current, 30, 120-123 Metal-film resistors, 227 252
Load-line analysis, 647-650 Meters: Node, 167-168
Load resistance, 30 ac, 510-511 Noise, tube, 618
Loading, voltmeter, 140-142 de, 126-160 Nonlinear resistance, 45
Logic: digital, 150-151 Nonsinusoidal waveforms,
negative, 693 VOM, 147-150 329-331, 465-466
positive, 693 VTVM, 147-151 NOR function, 691, 696-698
symbols, 689-692, 706 Metric prefixes, 43, 733 Norton's theorem, 184-188
Logic circuits, 693 Millman's theorem, 191-193 NOT function, 690-691
Loose coupling, 359 Mks units, 268, 727 NPN transistors, 625, 636-
Low-pass filters, 581 Mmf, 280, 287-288 639
Low-power ohms, 149 Molecules, 14 Nucleus, in atom, 17
 Index 765

(O) Parallel circuits (cont. ): PNP transistors, 625, 636-

conductances, 82-83, 639
Octave, 331 119-120 Polarity:
current dividers, 118-120 to ground, 102-104
Oersted unit, 282
Ohm unit, 27 inductances, 369-370 of IR drops, 61-63
types of, 511-512 open, 84-85 Poles, magnetic, 266-267
Ohmmeters, 142-147 resistors, 78-82 Positive logic, 693
back-off scale, 143-145 shorted, 85-86 Potential, defined, 20-21
low-power, 149 Paramagnetic materials, 274 Potential difference, 20-22
testing: capacitors, 435- Parameters, tube, 609 Potentiometers, 228-230
436 Passband, filter, 582 Power:
coils, 372-373 PC board, 207 -208 apparent, 509
continuity, 153-154 Peak value, 317-318 calculations, 48-49
diodes, 636 Pentacle tubes, 612-614 real, 507-510
resistors, 234-235 Period, defined, 321-322 VARs, 509
transformers, 373 Permanent magnets, 273- watt, 45-47
transistors, 661-662 274 wattmeter, 510-511
zero adjustment, 146-147 Permeability, 282-283, 291 units, 726-727
Ohm's law, 39-53 Permeance, magnetic, 290- Power factor, 509
magnetic circuits, 287 -288 291 Power line, ac, 337-351
Ohms-per-volt rating, 139- Permittivity, electric, 290- advantages, 338-339
140 291 three-phase, 344-345
Open circuit, 67, 84-85, Phase angle, 323-327, 398- wiring, 341-344
104-106 399, 402, 448-452, Preferred values, 231, 737
capacitance of, 434 457-458 Primary cells, 242, 250
voltage tests, 152-153 Phasor: Printed wiring, 207 -208
Operational amplifier, 680- defined, 325 Probes:
681 types of, 512-513 amp-clamp, 149
OR function, 689-690, 694-
Photoelectricity, 33 high voltage, 150
695, 699 Phototubes, 615-616 Protons, 11-17
exclusive, 690 Physics units, 724-727 PUT, 656
inclusive, 690 cgs system, 724, 727 Pulsating direct current,
Orbital electrons, 15-16 mks system, 724, 727 571-574
Oscillators, 598-599 heat units, 726-727
Oscilloscope, 61 7 SI units, 724, 727
temperature scales, 726
(Q)
'TT-type filter, 581-582
(P) 'TT-type network, 193-195 Q, charge, 17-20
Picofarad, 422 Q factor, coil, 403-404
Parallel circuits, 74-90 Pilot lamps, 212 resonant circuit, 552-555
batteries, 245-247 Plate, tube, 600 bandwidth, 556-558
capacitors, 430 Plate resistance, 609 damped, 563-564
compared with series, 107 PN junction, 630-633 measurement of, 553
766 Index

Q point, amplifier, 649 Resistors (cont.): SCR, 655-656

Quadrature phase, 324 carbon, 226-227, 236 Screen grid, tube, 610-614
cermet, 227 Secondary cell, 242-243,
(R) color code, 230-231, 249
735-736 Secondary emission, 611-
Radian angle, 314 decade box, 227 -228 612
Radio, 1, 3-5 metal-film, 227 Semiconductors, 8, 34,
Radio frequencies, 320, parallel, 78-82 218-219, 624-684
717-720 power rating, 232-233 covalent bonds, 626-629
Radix, 685-686 preferred values, 231, 737 devices, 625-626
RAM, defined, 707 series, 56-58 diac, 656
Ramp voltage, 331 tolerance, 231 diodes, 633-636, 659-660
Rapid-start lamp, 341 troubles, 234-235 doping, 627 -629
RC coupling, 463-464, variable, 227 -230 FETs, 652-655
575-577 wirewound, 225-226, 236 integrated circuits, 673-
RC time constant, 466-467, Resonance, 541-569 684
476-486 bandwidth, 555-558 PN junction, 630-633
Reactance: calculations, 550-552, SCR, 655-656
capacitive, 442-456 564-565 symbols, 663
inductive, 379-393 damping, 563-564 thyristors, 655-656
Real power, 507-510 parallel, 546-549 transistors, 636-655
Reciprocal formula, 78-80 Q, 552-555, 561-562 triac, 656
Rectifier circuits, 599, 633- series, 542-546 UJT, 656
636 tuning, 558-561 Sensitivity, voltmeter, 140
bridge, 636 Resonant filters, 584-586 Series circuits, 54-73
full-wave, 635-636 Retentivity, 286 ac source, 503-505
half-wave, 602-603, 633- Reverse current, 630, 651 batteries, 245-24 7
634 Reverse voltage, 630, 632, capacitances, 430-431
hum, 636 647 compared with parallel,
ripple, 603, 606 Rheostats, 228-230 107
voltage doubler, 636 Ripple, ac, 603, 636 de source, 54-73
Reluctance, magnetic, 287 - Rms value, 318-319 inductances, 369-371
288, 291 ROM, defined, 707 open in, 67-68
Remote cutoff tubes, 613- Romex cable, 342 resistances, 56-58
614 Root-mean-square, 318-319 resonant, 542-546
Reset state, 701-702 Rosin-core solder, 743 voltage dividers, 116-118
Residual induction, 286 RTL, 693, 698 voltage drop, 58-62
Resistance, 8, 27, 56-58, Series-parallel circuits, 91-
78-82 (S) 115
parallel, 78-82 analysis, 97-100
series, 56-58 Saturation: open, 104-106
specific, 212-214 magnetic, 284-285 short, 104-106
Resistance wire, 214 transistor, 642 Series voltages, 64, 245-247
Resistors, 225-239 Sawtooth waveform, 330 Set state, 701-702
 n ex 767

SHF band, 719 Substrate, FET, 652 Thevenin's theorem, 177-

Shielding, 275-276, 366 Superconductivity, 215 184, 188
Shock, electric, 49 Superposition theorem, Three-phase power, 344-345
Short circuit, 85-86, 104-106 175-177 delta, 344
Shot effect, tube, 618 Supersonic frequencies, 6, four-wire, 345
Shunts, meter, 131-135 321 wye, 344-345
SI units, 268, 290-291, Suppressor grid, 612 Thyristors, 656
724-727 Susceptance, 533 Time base, 331
S~mens unit, 27, 290 Switches, 208-210 Time constants, 4 72-497
Signal, defined, 598 three-way, 343-344 long, 483-486
Silicon, 218, 626-627 Switching circuits, logic, L!R, 408-409, 473-476
Silicon-controlled rectifier, 689-693 RC, 466-467, 476-486
655-656 Symbols: short, 483-484
Sine function, 728-731 diode, 659, 663 universal curves, 486-488
Sine wave, 314-316 letter, 606, 650, 732-734 Toggle switch, 209
Single-ended, 680 logic, 706 Toroid magnet, 271-272
Sinusoid, 314-316 schematic, 744-745 Transconductance:
Skin effect, 404 transistors, 663 FET, 654
Slip rings, 339 tubes, 620 tube, 609
Slow-blow fuses, 211 Transformer coupling, 574-
Solar battery, 252 (T)' 575
Soldering, 207, 741-743 Transformers, 360-366,
Solenoid, 297 T networks, 193-195 574-575
Sonic frequencies, 321 T-type filters, 581-582 autotransformers, 364-365
Sound waves, 323 Tangent function, 728-731 color codes, 365-366
Source, FET, 626, 652 Tank circu'it, 549 isolation, 365
Space charge, tube, 602 Taper, resistance, 129 troubles, 373
Spaghetti for wire, 206 Taut-band meters, 129 turns ratio, 361-363
SPOT switch, 209 Television broadcasting, 5 Transistors, 3, 34, 218-219,
Specific gravity, 248-249 Tesla unit, 269, 277, 291 624-672
Specific resistance, 212-214 Testing: alpha (a), 647
SPST switch, 209 capacitors, 435-436 amplifier circuits, 639-645
Square wave, 330 coils, 372-373 analysis of load line, 64 7 -
Stabilization, bias, 651-652 continuity, 153-154 650
Standard broadcast band, 4 diodes, 636 beta ( f3 ), 646
Starter, lamp, 341 fuses, 211 bias stabilization, 651-652
Static charge, 17, 20, 33 resistors, 234-235 common-base (CB), 639-
Stop-band filter, 582 transformers, 373 641
Storage cells, 242-243, 251 transistors, 661-662 common-collector (CC),
Stray capacitance, 431-434 Thermal runaway, 651 642
Stray inductance, 371, 431- Thermionic emission, 33, common-emitter (CE),
434 600-601 640-652
String, series, 57, 93-94 Thermistors, 215 curves, 645-646
heaters, 59-60 Thermocouple, 510 emitter-follower, 642
768 Index

Transistors (cont.): Turns ratio, 361-363 Voltmeters (cont.):

FET, 652-655 Twin-lead cable, 206-207 loading effect, 140-142
forward bias, 631-632 multipliers, 136-140
heat sink, 658 (U) ohms-per-volt, 139-140
reverse voltage, 632 VOM, 147-150
symbols, 663 UHF band, 719 VTVM, 147-151
testing, 661-662 UJT, 656
troubles, 660-662 Ultrasonics, 6 (W)
type numbers, 658-659 Unijunction transistor, 656
Transmission line, 206-207 Unipolar transistor, 657 Watt unit, 45-47
Treble tone, 320 Units: Wattmeter, 510-511
Triac, 656 electrical, 732 Wavelength, 322-323
Trigonometric functions, magnetic, 277, 280-293 Wavetrap filter, 586
728-731 physics, 724-727 Weber unit, 268, 277, 291
table, 729 practical, 42 Weston movement, 128
Triode tubes, 604-610 SL 268, 290-291, 724- Wheatstone bridge, 100-101
Troubles: 727 Wire:
capacitors, 434-436 Universal motor, 339-340 color code, 735
coils, 372-373 Universal shunt, 133-135 gage sizes, 204-206
diodes, 636 Wirewound resistors, 225-
resistors, 234-235 (V) 226, 236
transistors, 660-662 Work, units, 46-47, 725,
tubes, 617-618 Vacuum tubes, 7, 597 -623 727
Truth tables, 691-692 Valence, electron, 16 W;e network, 193-195,
TTL, 693, 698-700 VAR unit, 509 344-345
Tubes, vacuum, 7, 597-623 Varactor diodes, 660
amplifier, 597, 606-608 Variac, 369 (X)
beam power, 615 Variometer, 368
bias, grid, 606 Varistor, 659 X 0 , capacitive reactance,
curves, 608, 610 Vector, 325 442-456
CRT, 616-617 VHF band, 719 Xv inductive reactance,
diodes, 600-604 Volt unit, 20-22 379-393
parameters, 609 Voltage dividers, 116-125,
(Y)
pentodes, 612-614 464-465
photo, 615-616 capacitive, 431, 464-465 Y, admittance, 533
sockets, 614-615 load currents, 122-123 Y connections, 344-345
symbols, 606, 620 Voltage drops, 58-62, 66 Y network, 193-195
tetrodes, 610-612 Voltaic cell, 241-242
thermionic emission, 600- Voltampere, 509 (Z)
601 Voltampere characteristic:
triodes, 604-610 diode, 632-633 Z, impedance, 398, 503-506
troubles, 617-618 resistance, 45 Zener diode, 659-660
Tuning, 558-561 Voltmeters, 135-142 Zero-ohms adjustment, 146-
Tunnel diode, 659 digital, 150-151 147