Power Law for Stress/Strain Data

σ(K,n) = K·εn ε = 0, 0.01...1.5 K = 180 n=2

1000
304 Stainless Steel
800
σ(180,0.2) Mo
σ(315,0.54) 600 1020 Steel
σ(530,0.26)
σ(1275,0.45) 400 Cu
σ(725,0.13)
1100 Al
200

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
ε

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

 Power Law Material Behavior
MATERIAL K (MPa) n
Aluminum, 1100-O 180 0.20
2024-T4 690 0.16
5052-O 210 0.13
6061-O 205 0.20
6061-T6 410 0.05
7075-O 400 0.17
Brass, 70-30, annealed 895 0.49
n
85-15, cold-rolled
Bronze (phosphor), annealed
Cobalt-base alloy, heat treated
580
720
2070
0.34
0.46
0.50
s = Ke
Copper, annealed 315 0.54
Molybdenum, annealed 725 0.13
Steel, low-carbon, annealed 530 0.26
1045 hot-rolled 965 0.14
1112 annealed 760 0.19
1112 cold-rolled 760 0.08
4135 annealed 1015 0.17
4135 cold-rolled 1100 0.14
4340 annealed
17-4 P-H annealed
52100 annealed
640
1200
1450
0.15
0.05
0.07
Table 2.3 Typical values†
304 stainless, annealed 1275 0.45 of K and n in Eq. (2.11) at
410 stainless, annealed 960 0.10
Note: 100 MPa = 14,500 psi.
room temperature.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Stress State in
Metalworking
Processes

FIGURE 2.35 The state of stress in various

metal working processes. (a) Expansion of a
thin-walled spherical shell under internal
pressure. (b) Drawing of round rod or wire
though a conical die to reduce its diameter;
see Section 6.5 (c) deep drawing of sheet
metal with a punch and die to make a metal
cup; see Section 7.12.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 FIGURE 2.37 Examples of states of
States of Stress stress: (a) Plane stress in sheet stretching;
there are no stresses acting on the surfaces
of the sheet. (b) Plane stress in
compression; there are no stresses acting on
the sides of the specimen being
compressed. (c) Plane strain in tension; the
width of the sheet remains constant while
being stretched. (d) Plane strain in
compression (see also Fig. 2.16); the width
of the specimen remains constant, due to
the restraint by the groove. (e) Triaxial
tensile stresses acting on an element. (f)
Hydrostatic compression of an element.
Note also that an element on the cylindrical
portion of a thin-walled tube in torsion is in
the condition of both plane stress and plane
strain. (See also Section 2.11.7.)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Principal Stresses: Mohr's Circle
2D: σxx+σyy
(σyy,−τxy) σavg = ––––––
2
(σavg,0)
σ 2τxy
(σ2,0) 2θ (σ1,0) tan(2θ) = –––––
σxx-σyy
(σxx,τxy)
σ1-σ2 σxx-σyy 2
(σavg,τmax) τmax = ––––– = ––––– + τxy2
τ 2 2
σxx+σyy σxx-σyy 2
σ1,σ2 = –––––– ± ––––– + τxy2
2 2
3D:

(σ3,0) (σ2,0) (σ1,0)

σ

attainable stress states

τ τmax

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

 Dislocations
motion analogy:

edge:

screw:

W.D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1991.

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

cold worked brass early recrystallization partial recrystallization

(3 s at 580°C) (4 s at 580°C)

full recrystallization grain growth grain growth

(8 s at 580°C) (15 min at 580°C) (10 min at 700°C)
AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

W.D. Callister, Jr., Materials Science and Engineering, 2nd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1991.
AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)
 Slip-Line Analysis

Slip-line field for indentation when h/L = 1.

Appropriate slip-line field for indentation when h/L = 5.43.

W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming, 2nd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., Edgewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)
 Upper Bound Analysis

energy dissipation = work done

Y’Vxdx = 2Y’Vo(x/h)dx

pavg = Y’(1 + a/2h) L = 2a

This is the same result as using the slab method

for plane strain compression with sticking friction.

W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming, 2nd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., Edgewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

 Upper Bound Analysis
plane strain compression with sticking friction
upper bound fields
hodographs

pavg = Y’(h/2L + L/2h) pavg = Y’(3h/L + L/2h + w2/2hL - w/2h) pavg = Y’(5h/2L + L/3h)
solutions

pavg = Y’(3h/2L + 3L/8h) where w = L/3

where w = L/2

W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming, 2nd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., Edgewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)
Combined Upper Bound & Slab Analysis
plane strain compression with sticking friction

upper bound field

hodograph
solution

pavg = Y’(1 + L/4h - h/4L)

W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming, 2nd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., Edgewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

 Comparison of Analyses
pavg/Y’
pavg/Y’ - (1 + a/2h)

2a/h

W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell, Metal Forming, 2nd Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., Edgewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

 Finite Element Analysis

S. Kalpakjian and S.R. Schmid, Manufacturing Processes

for Engineering Materials, 3rd Ed., Addison Wesley, 1997.

AME 50542: Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials (R.K. Roeder)

Pressures in Frictionless Plane-Strain

FIGURE 6.12 Die

pressures required in
frictionless plane-strain
conditions for a variety
of metalworking
operations. The
geometric relationship
between contact area of
the dies and workpiece
dimensions is an
important factor in
predicting forces in
plastic deformation of
materials. Source: After
W. A. Backofen.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Plastic Deformation in Plane Strain
FIGURE 6.13 Examples of plastic
deformation processes in plane strain,
showing the h/L ratio. (a) Indenting with
flat dies. This operation is similar to
cogging, shown in Fig. 6.19. (b)
Drawing or extrusion of strip with a
wedge-shaped die, described in Sections
6.4 and 6.5. (c) Ironing; see also Fig.
7.54. (d) Rolling, described in Section
6.3. As shown in Fig. 6.12, the larger the
h/L ratio, the higher the die pressure
becomes. In actual processing, however,
the smaller this ratio, the greater is the
effect of friction at the die-workpiece
interfaces. The reason is that contact
area, and hence friction, increases with a
decreasing h/L ratio.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Outline of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

Figure 16.1

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 16-2
 Laser Welding

Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding and stamping.
Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 16-9
 Localized Necking in Sheet Metal

FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized

necking in a sheet specimen
under tension. (b) Determination
of the angle of neck from the
Mohr’s circle for strain. (c)
Schematic illustration for diffuse
and localized necking. (d)
Localized necking in an
aluminum strip stretched in
tension. Note the double neck.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Yield Point Elongation

FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield point elongation and Lueder’s bands in tension testing. (b) Lueder’s
bands in annealed low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for
household products. Source: (b) Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Punch-Stretch Test

FIGURE 7.64 (a) Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with
different widths, clamped at the edges. The narrower the specimen, the more uniaxial is the
stretching. (b) A large square specimen stretches biaxially under the hemispherical punch.
(See also Fig. 7.65.)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Bulge Test Results

FIGURE 7.65 Bulge tests results on steel sheets of various widths. The first specimen
(farthest left) stretched farther before cracking than the last specimen. From left to right, the
state of stress changes from uniaxial to biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of R. W.
Thompson, Inland Steel Research Laboratories.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Forming-Limit
Diagram

FIGURE 7.66 (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. The major strain is
always positive. The region above the curves is the failure zone; hence, the state of strain in
forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a particular material; R is the normal
anisotropy. (b) Note the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area of the
deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is thinner than the original,
because the volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S. S. Hecker and
A. K. Ghosh.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Strains In Sheet-Metal Forming

FIGURE 7.67 An example of the use of grid marks (circular and square) to determine the
magnitude and direction of surface strains in sheet-metal forming. Note that the crack (tear)
is generally perpendicular to the major (positive) strain. Source: After S. P. Keeler.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003
 Major and Minor Strains In a Vehicle

FIGURE 7.68 Major and

minor strains in various
regions of an automobile
body.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003