Scilab Textbook Companion for

Signals And Systems

by P. R. Rao1

Created by
Satyam Agrawal
[Link]
Instrumentation Engineering
Krishna Institute Of Engineering and Technology
College Teacher
Varun Gupta
Cross-Checked by
Chaitanya

July 31, 2019

1 Funded by a grant from the National Mission on Education through ICT,

[Link] This Textbook Companion and Scilab
codes written in it can be downloaded from the ”Textbook Companion Project”
section at the website [Link]
Book Description

Title: Signals And Systems

Author: P. R. Rao

Publisher: TMH Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

Edition: 5

Year: 2011

ISBN: 978-0-07-066927-7

1
 Scilab numbering policy used in this document and the relation to the
above book.

Exa Example (Solved example)

Eqn Equation (Particular equation of the above book)

AP Appendix to Example(Scilab Code that is an Appednix to a particular

Example of the above book)

For example, Exa 3.51 means solved example 3.51 of this book. Sec 2.3 means
a scilab code whose theory is explained in Section 2.3 of the book.

2
Contents

List of Scilab Codes 4

1 Signals Continuous and Discrete time 5

2 Laplace and Z Transform 26

3 Fourier Series of Continuous Time Signals 41

4 The Continuous Time Fourier Transform 54

5 Fourier Representation of Discrete Time Signals 77

6 Sampling and Reconstruction of Bandlimited Signals 99

7 Systems 112

8 Systems Time and Frequency Domain Analysis 142

9 Convolution and Correlation Continuous Time Signals 157

10 Discrete Time Convolution and Correlation 173

11 Hilbert Transform Continuous and Discrete 183

3
List of Scilab Codes

Exa 1.1 Finding Fundamental Period . . . . . . . . . 5

Exa 1.3.a Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Exa 1.3.b Periodicity and fundamental period . . . . . 8
Exa 1.4 Fundamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exa 1.5 Fundamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Exa 1.6 Fundamental Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Exa 1.7 Even and odd Components . . . . . . . . . 14
Exa 1.11 Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exa 1.12 Time Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Exa 1.13 Plot at a particular sampling frequency . . . 22
Exa 2.1 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Exa 2.2 Inverse Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Exa 2.3 Initial Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Exa 2.4 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exa 2.6 Circuit Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exa 2.7 Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . 28
Exa 2.8 Inverse Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . 29
Exa 2.9 Circuit Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exa 2.10 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Exa 2.15 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Exa 2.16 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Exa 2.17 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Exa 2.19 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Exa 2.21 Unilateral Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Exa 2.29 Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Exa 2.37 Inverse Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Exa 2.38.a Inverse Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Exa 2.38.b Inverse Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4
Exa 2.39 Inverse Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Exa 2.40 Inverse Z Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Exa 3.13 Complex Fourier Exponential Series . . . . . 41
Exa 3.14 Complex Fourier Exponential Series . . . . . 47
Exa 3.16 Complex Fourier Exponential Series . . . . . 48
Exa 3.17 Complex Fourier Exponential Series . . . . . 52
Exa 3.18 Trignometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Exa 4.1 Magnitude and Phase Spectra . . . . . . . . 54
Exa 4.2 Magnitude and Phase Spectra . . . . . . . . 58
Exa 4.3 Magnitude and Phase Spectra . . . . . . . . 63
Exa 4.4 Energy at output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Exa 4.5 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Exa 4.6 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Exa 4.7 Energy in Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Exa 4.11 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Exa 4.14 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Exa 4.17 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Exa 5.1 DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Exa 5.2 DTFT and Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Exa 5.3 Inverse Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Exa 5.4 Inverse Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Exa 5.5 Fourier series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Exa 5.9.i DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Exa [Link] DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Exa [Link] DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Exa 5.11 Inverse Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Exa 5.13 Circular Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Exa 5.14 Circular Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Exa 5.16 DTFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Exa 5.18 DFT coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Exa 6.1 Sampling and Reconstruction . . . . . . . . 99
Exa 6.2 Sampling and Reconstruction . . . . . . . . 100
Exa 6.3 Minimum Number of samples . . . . . . . . 104
Exa 6.4 Minimum Sampling Frequency . . . . . . . . 107
Exa 6.5 LPF output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Exa 6.6 Sampling Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Exa 6.8 Minimum Sampling Frequency . . . . . . . . 111
Exa 7.1 Properties of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

5
Exa 7.3 System Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Exa 7.4 System Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Exa 7.5 System Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Exa 7.6 System Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Exa 7.7 Properties of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Exa 7.8 Properties of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Exa 7.9 Properties of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Exa 7.10 Output of an LTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Exa 7.11 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Exa 7.14 Impulse and Step response . . . . . . . . . . 122
Exa 7.15 Impulse and Step Response . . . . . . . . . 124
Exa 7.19 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Exa 7.22 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Exa 7.23 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Exa 7.24 Step Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Exa 7.25 Step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Exa 7.33 Magnitude and Phase Response . . . . . . . 138
Exa 8.1 Magnitude and Phase Responses . . . . . . 142
Exa 8.2 Transfer Function of system . . . . . . . . . 145
Exa 8.3 Magnitude and Phase Responses . . . . . . 145
Exa 8.4 system response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Exa 8.5 System function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Exa 8.8 Transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Exa 8.9 Transfer function by block diagram reduction 154
Exa 8.10 Realization Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Exa 8.12 Transfer function Realization . . . . . . . . 155
Exa 8.13 Parallel form realization . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Exa 9.1 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Exa 9.3 Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Exa 9.4 Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Exa 9.5 Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Exa 9.6 Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Exa 9.7 Autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Exa 9.10 Autocorrelation Function . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Exa 9.11 PSD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Exa 10.1 Cross Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Exa 10.2 Cross Correlation Sequence . . . . . . . . . 175
Exa 10.4 Auto Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

6
Exa 10.5 Auto Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Exa 10.8 Auto Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Exa 10.11 System response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Exa 11.1 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Exa 11.2 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Exa 11.3 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Exa 11.6 Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

7
 Chapter 1

Signals Continuous and

Discrete time

Scilab code Exa 1.1 Finding Fundamental Period

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r
not
4 // x ( t ) =10∗( c o s ( 1 0 ∗ p i ∗ t ) ) ˆ2
5 clc ;
6 clear ;
7 syms t ;
8 x =10*( cos (10* %pi * t ) ) ^2;
9 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
10 t =0:0.01:1;
11 x =10*( cos (10* %pi * t ) ) ^2;
12 t =0:0.01:1;
13 plot (t ,x , ’ r ’ )
14 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
15 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
16 disp ( ’ t h e s i g n a l i s p l o t t e d and i t shows i t i s
p e r i o d i c ’ );

8
 Figure 1.1: Finding Fundamental Period

Scilab code Exa 1.3.a Periodicity

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 3 ( a ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r
not
4 // x ( t ) =3∗ c o s ( 0 . 4 ∗ p i ∗ t ) +2∗ s i n ( 0 . 6 6 ∗ t )

9
Figure 1.2: Finding Fundamental Period

10
 5 clc ;
6 clear ;
7 syms t ;
8 x =3* cos (0.4* %pi * t ) +2* sin (0.66* t ) ;
9 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
10 t =0:1/50:50;
11 x =3* cos (0.4* %pi * t ) +2* sin (0.66* t ) ;
12 t =0:1/50:50;
13 plot (t , x ) ;
14 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
15 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
16 disp ( ’ p l o t t e d t h e s i g n a l and shown t h a t i t i s not
p e r i o d i c and i s i n c r e a s i n g ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 1.3.b Periodicity and fundamental period

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 3 ( b ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r
not
4 // x ( t ) =5∗ c o s ( ( 4 / 3 ) ∗ t ) +3∗ s i n ( t )
5 clc ;
6 clear ;
7 syms t ;
8 x =5* cos ((4/3) * t ) +3* sin ( t ) ;
9 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
10 t =0:1/80:80;
11 x =5* cos ((4/3) * t ) +3* sin ( t ) ;
12 t =0:1/80:80;
13 plot (t , x ) ;
14 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
15 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;

11
Figure 1.3: Periodicity

12
 Figure 1.4: Periodicity and fundamental period

16 disp ( ’ p l o t t e d t h e s i g n a l and shown t h a t i t i s

p e r i o d i c w i t h a p e r i o d o f LCM o f 2 p i and ( 2 p i
/ ( 4 / 3 ) ’ );

Scilab code Exa 1.4 Fundamental Period

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r
not

13
 4 // x ( t )=c o s ( 7 ∗ t )+s i n ( 4 ∗ t )
5 clc ;
6 clear ;
7 syms t ;
8 x = sin (4* t ) + cos (7* t ) ;
9 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
10 t =0:1/12:12
11 x = sin (4* t ) + cos (7* t ) ;
12 t =0:1/12:12;
13 plot (t , x ) ;
14 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
15 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
16 disp ( ’ p l o t t e d t h e s i g n a l and shown t h a t i t is
p e r i o d i c with p e r i o d o f 2 p i ’ );

Scilab code Exa 1.5 Fundamental Period

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r
not
4 // x ( t )=c o s ( t )+s i n ( s q r t ( 2 ) ∗ t )
5 clc ;
6 clear ;
7 syms t ;
8 x = cos ( t ) + sin ( sqrt (2) * t ) ;
9 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
10 for t =0:1:100;
11 x ( t +1) = cos ( t ) + sin ( sqrt (2) * t ) ;
12 end
13 t =0:1:100;
14 plot (t , x ) ;

14
Figure 1.5: Fundamental Period

15
 Figure 1.6: Fundamental Period

15 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
16 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
17 disp ( ’ p l o t t e d t h e s i g n a l and shown t h a t i t i s not
p e r i o d i c ’ );

Scilab code Exa 1.6 Fundamental Period

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 6 ( i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l i s p e r i o d i c o r

16
 not
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6
7 n =0:1:10;
8 x ( n +1) =2* sin (0.8* %pi * n ) ;
9 a = gca () ;
10 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
11 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
12 n =0:1:10;
13 plot2d3 (n ,x ,9) ;
14 title ( ’ x ( n ) ’ ) ;
15 disp ( ’ p l o t i n g t h e s i g n a l and s h o w i n g t h a t i t is
p e r i o d i c with p e r i o d o f 5 ’ );

Scilab code Exa 1.7 Even and odd Components

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 7 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 function [ y ]= u ( t )
6 if t >=0
7 y =1
8 else y =0
9 end
10 endfunction
11 n =1;
12 for t = -10:0.1:10;
13 // F u n c t i o n f o r Even s i g n a l
14 y1 ( n ) =0.5*( exp ( - t ) * u ( t ) + exp ( t ) * u ( - t ) ) ;
15 n = n +1;

17
Figure 1.7: Fundamental Period

18
16 end
17 a = gca () ;
18 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 t = -10:0.1:10;
21 // P l o t o f Even S i g n a l
22 plot (t , y1 ) ;
23 title ( ’ y1 ( t ) ’ ) ;
24 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
25 n =1;
26 for t = -1:0.01:1;
27 // F u n c t i o n f o r Odd s i g n a l
28 y2 ( n ) =0.5*( exp ( - t ) * u ( t ) - exp ( t ) * u ( - t ) ) ;
29 n = n +1;
30 end
31 figure (1) ;
32 a = gca () ;
33 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
34 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
35 t = -1:0.01:1;
36 // P l o t o f Odd S i g n a l
37 plot (t , y2 )
38 disp ( ’ p l o t t e d t h e s i g n a l b o t h i n e v e n and odd f o r m s ’
);
39 title ( ’ y2 ( t ) ’ ) ;
40 xlabel ( ’ Time i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 1.11 Waveforms

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by

19
Figure 1.8: Even and odd Components

20
Figure 1.9: Even and odd Components

21
 2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // d i s p l a y i n g p l o t s f o r t h e g i v e n s i g n a l s
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t >=0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 for t = -3:1:3
13 y ( t +4) = abs ( t +3) * u ( t +3) - abs ( t +1) * u ( t +1) - abs (t -1) * u (t
-1) + abs (t -3) * u (t -3) ;
14 end
15 t = -3:1:3;
16 // f o r t h e main g i v e n s i g n a l
17 a = gca () ;
18 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 plot (t , y ) ;
21 title ( ’ Main S i g n a l ) ’ ) ;
22 dy =0* y ;
23 for i =1:6
24 dy ( i ) =( y ( i +1) -y ( i ) ) /1;
25 end
26 // f o r t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e g i v e n s i g n a l
27 figure (1) ;
28 a = gca () ;
29 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
31 plot2d2 (t , dy ) ;
32 title ( ’ D e r i v a t i v e o f S i g n a l ’ ) ;
33 dy2 =0* dy ;
34 dy2 (1) = dy (1) -0;
35 for i =1:6
36 dy2 ( i +1) =( dy ( i +1) - dy ( i ) ) /1;
37 end
38 // f o r t h e i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r s e c o n d

22
 Figure 1.10: Waveforms

derivative
39 figure (2) ;
40 a = gca () ;
41 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
42 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
43 plot2d3 (t , dy2 , -5) ;
44 title ( ’ I m p u l s e r e s p o n s e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 1.12 Time Scaling

23
Figure 1.11: Waveforms

24
1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 1 2 o f S i g n a l s and
s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 x = -2:1:3;
6 y =[ -1.5 ,2 ,2 ,1 , -1.5 ,2.5];
7 // P l o t o f x ( n )
8 plot2d3 (x ,y ,5) ;
9 xtitle ( ’ Time S c a l i n g x ( n ) ’ ) ;
10 a = gca () ; // g e t t h e c u r r e n t a x e s
11 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
12 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
13 x = -2:1:3;
14 y =[0 , -1.5 ,2 , -1.5 ,0 ,0];
15 figure (1) ;
16 // P l o t o f x ( 2 n )
17 plot2d3 (x ,y ,5) ;
18 a = gca () ; // g e t t h e c u r r e n t a x e s
19 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
21 xtitle ( ’ Time S c a l i n g x ( 2 n ) ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 1.13 Plot at a particular sampling frequency

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 . 1 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 // D i s c r e t e −t i m e s e q u e n c e p l o t

25
Figure 1.12: Time Scaling

26
Figure 1.13: Time Scaling

27
 Figure 1.14: Plot at a particular sampling frequency

6 clc
7 A =10;
8 t =0:1/1000:1;
9 x = A * sin (2* %pi *100* t ) ;
10 q = plot2d3 (t , x ) ;
11 disp ( ’ d i s p l a y i n g a f u n c t i o n p l o t on d i s c r e t e t i m e
s c a l e t h a t has a sampling f r e q u e n c y o f 1000
samples ps ’ );

28
 Chapter 2

Laplace and Z Transform

Scilab code Exa 2.1 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms t s X
7 X = laplace ( exp ( -3* t ) * cos (2* %pi *100* t ) ,t , s )
8 disp ( ’On S i m p l i f i c a t i o n ’ )
9 // A f t e r S i m p l i f y i n g t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n
10 X =( s +3) /(( s +3) ^2 + (200* %pi ) ^2) ;
11 disp ( ”Re ( s )>−3” ,X , ”X( s ) ” ) ;
12 // Re ( s )>−3

Scilab code Exa 2.2 Inverse Laplace

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by

29
 2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // I n v e r s e L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms t s
7 X =( s +2) /( s ^2+8* s +25)
8 f4 = ilaplace ( X ) ;
9 disp ( f4 * ’ u ( t ) ’ ,” x ( t )=” ) ;
10 // t >=0

Scilab code Exa 2.3 Initial Value Theorem

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms s0 ;
6 s = %s ;
7 I =( s +8) /( s ^2+6* s +13)
8 i = pfss ( s * I )
9 disp ( i (1) ,” sF ( s ) ( 1 )=” )
10 disp ( i (2) ,” sF ( s ) ( 2 )=” )
11 I1 =(2* s0 -13) /( s0 ^2+6* s0 +13) ;
12 I2 =1;
13 Io1 = limit ( I1 , s0 ,10^8) ;
14 Io2 = limit ( I2 , s0 ,10^8) ;
15 Ix =2 -((25* s0 +26) /( s0 ^2+6* s0 +13) ) ;
16 f0 =( Io1 ) +( Io2 ) ;
17 f0_dash = limit ( Ix , s0 ,10^8) ;
18 disp ( f0 , ’ INITIAL VALUE OF f ( t ) i . e . f ( 0 )= ’ ) ;
19 disp ( abs ( f0_dash ) , ’ INITIAL VALUE OF f ( t ) i . e . f ’ ’ ( 0 )
= ’ );

30
 Scilab code Exa 2.4 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 // Time s h i f t e d l a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m
6 syms t y s a0 ;
7 y = laplace ( ’ t ∗ exp (− s ∗ a0 ) ’ ,t , s ) ;
8 disp ( ”Re ( s ) >0” ,y , ”X( s ) ” ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.6 Circuit Current

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna R a o c l e a r ;
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 syms s X x t R C V Vo ;
6 // A f t e r s o l v i n g f o r I ( s )
7 // I ( s ) =(V−Vo ) /R . 1 / ( s +1/RC)
8 X =( V - Vo ) /(( s +1/( R * C ) ) * R ) ;
9 disp (X , ” I ( s )=” ) ;
10 x = ilaplace ( X ) ;
11 disp (x , ” i ( t )=” ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.7 Inverse Laplace Transform

31
 1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 7 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s
by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // U n i l a t e r a l L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m u s i n g p a r t i a l
fraction
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms t s ;
7 s = %s ;
8 a1 = pfss (( s +3) /( s ^2+3* s +2) )
9 f1 = ilaplace ( a1 (1) )
10 f2 = ilaplace ( a1 (2) )
11 fy = f1 + f2
12 disp ( fy * ’ u ( t ) ’ ,” i ) f ( t )=” )
13 a2 = pfss ((2* s -1) /( s ^2+2* s +1) )
14 a2 (1) =2/( s +1)
15 a2 (2) = -3/( s +1) ^2
16 f1 = ilaplace ( a2 (1) )
17 f2 = ilaplace ( a2 (2) )
18 fz = f1 + f2
19 disp ( fz * ’ u ( t ) ’ ,” i i ) f ( t )=” )

Scilab code Exa 2.8 Inverse Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 8 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // U n i l a t e r a l L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms t s
7 s = %s ;
8 a = ilaplace (1/( s ^3+ s ^2) )
9 b =a -3;
10 disp ( a * ’ u ( t ) ’ + b * ’ u ( t −3) ’ ,” x ( t )=” )

32
 Scilab code Exa 2.9 Circuit Current

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms s X ;
6 // A f t e r s o l v i n g f o r I ( s )
7 // I ( s ) =2/( s +1)
8 X =2/( s +1)
9 x = ilaplace ( X ) ;
10 disp (x , ” i ( t )=” )

Scilab code Exa 2.10 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 0 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // The v a l u e o f X( s ) i s f o u n d by s o l v i n g t h e
d i f f e r e n t i a l equation
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms t s ;
7 s = %s ;
8 X = pfss (( s ^2+8* s +6) /(( s +2) *( s +3) * s ) ) ;
9 X (1) =1/ s ;
10 f1 = ilaplace ( X (1) )
11 f2 = ilaplace ( X (2) )
12 f3 = ilaplace ( X (3) )
13 fz = f1 + f2 + f3 ;
14 disp ( fz * ’ u ( t ) ’ ,” c ) x ( t )=” ) ;

33
 Figure 2.1: Laplace Transform

Scilab code Exa 2.15 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 5 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms t y ;
6 s = %s ;
7 y = laplace (5* exp ( -3* t ) ,t , s ) ;

34
 8 disp (y , ”X( s )=” ) ;
9 disp ( ”Re ( s )>−3” ) ;
10 y =5/( s +3) ;
11 plzr ( y ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.16 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 6 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms t y ;
6 s = %s ;
7 y = laplace (2* exp ( -2* t ) +3* exp ( -3* t ) ,t , s ) ;
8 disp (y , ”X( s )=” ) ;
9 y =(2/( s +2) ) +(3/( s +3) ) ;
10 plzr ( y ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.17 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 7 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms t y ;
6 s = %s ;
7 y = laplace ( -2* exp (2* t ) -3* exp (3* t ) ,t , s ) ;
8 disp (y , ”X( s )=” ) ;
9 disp ( ”Re ( s ) <2” ) ;

35
Figure 2.2: Laplace Transform

36
 Figure 2.3: Laplace Transform

10 y =( -2/( s -2) ) +( -3/( s -3) ) ;

11 plzr ( y ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.19 Laplace Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 1 9 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms t y ;

37
 Figure 2.4: Laplace Transform

6 s = %s ;
7 y = laplace ( exp ( - t ) - exp (2* t ) ,t , s ) ;
8 disp (y , ”X( s )=” ) ;
9 y =(1/( s +1) ) -(1/( s -2) ) ;
10 plzr ( y ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.21 Unilateral Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 2 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao

38
 3 //Z− t r a n s f o r m o f a ˆn u ( n )
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 close ;
7 syms a n z ;
8 x1 =1/2;
9 x2 =1/3;
10 X1 = symsum ( x1 *( z ^( - n ) ) ,n ,0 , %inf ) ;
11 X2 = symsum ( x2 *( z ^( - n ) ) ,n ,0 , %inf ) ;
12 X = X1 + X2 ;
13 // D i s p l a y t h e r e s u l t
14 disp (X , ”Z−t r a n s f o r m o f u ( n ) i s : ” ) ;
15 disp ( ’ROC i s t h e R e g i o n | z |> 1/2 ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 2.29 Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 2 9 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //Z− t r a n s f o r m o f a ˆn u ( n )
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 close ;
7 syms a n z ;
8 x =1;
9 X = symsum ( x *( z ^( - n ) ) ,n ,0 , %inf ) ;
10 // D i s p l a y t h e r e s u l t
11 disp (X , ”Z−t r a n s f o r m o f u ( n ) i s : ” ) ;
12 disp ( ’ROC i s t h e R e g i o n | z |> 1 ’ )

Scilab code Exa 2.37 Inverse Z Transform

39
1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 3 7 o f S i g n a l s and
s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // I n v e r s e Z T r a n s f o r m :ROC 1 <| z | <2
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 //To f i n d o u t I n v e r s e z t r a n s f o r m z must be l i n e a r z
= z1
9 X =( z *( z ^2 - z +1) ) /(( z -0.5) *( z -2) *( z -1) )
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 ) ;
12 X1 = ( z1 *( z1 ^2 - z1 +1) ) /(( z1 -0.5) *( z1 -2) *( z1 -1) )
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (1) )
14 F2 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (2) )
15 F3 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (3) )
16 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) ) ;
17 disp ( h1 * ’ u(−n −1) ’ , ’ h1 [ n ]= ’ )
18 h2 = limit ( F2 , z1 , zp (2) ) ;
19 disp (( h2 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h2 [ n ]= ’ )
20 h3 = limit ( F3 , z1 , zp (3) ) ;
21 disp (( h3 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h3 [ n ]= ’ )
22 disp (( h3 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ +( h2 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ -( h1 ) * ’ u(−n −1) ’ , ’ h [ n ]= ’ )
23 // // R e s u l t
24 // h [ n ]=1∗ 0 . 5 ˆ n ∗u ( n ) − 2∗ u ( n ) − 2∗ 2ˆ n ∗u(− n −
1)

Scilab code Exa 2.38.a Inverse Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 3 8 ( i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // I n v e r s e Z T r a n s f o r m :ROC | z | >2
4 clear ;

40
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 //To f i n d o u t I n v e r s e z t r a n s f o r m z must be l i n e a r z
= z1
9 X = z ^2/( z ^2+3* z +2) ;
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 )
12 X1 = z1 ^2/( z1 ^2+3* z1 +2) ;
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (1) ) ;
14 F2 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (2) ) ;
15 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) ) ;
16 disp ( h1 * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h1 [ n ]= ’ )
17 h2 = limit ( F2 , z1 , zp (2) ) ;
18 disp (( h2 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h2 [ n ]= ’ ) ;
19 disp (( h1 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ +( h2 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
20 // // R e s u l t
21 // h [ n ]= (2( − 2 ) ˆ n+1 − (− 1 ) ˆ n ) ∗u ( n )

Scilab code Exa 2.38.b Inverse Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 3 8 ( i i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // I n v e r s e Z T r a n s f o r m :ROC | z | >2
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 //To f i n d o u t I n v e r s e z t r a n s f o r m z must be l i n e a r z
= z1
9 X =( z +1) /( z ^2+5* z +4)
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 )
12 X1 = 1/( z1 +4) ;

41
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n ) ) *( z1 - zp (1) ) ;
14 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) )
15 disp ( -( h1 ) * ’ u(−n −1) ’ , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
16 // // R e s u l t
17 // h [ n ]= (− (− 4 ) ˆ n ) ∗u(−n −1)

Scilab code Exa 2.39 Inverse Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 3 9 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // I n v e r s e Z T r a n s f o r m :ROC | z | >2
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 //To f i n d o u t I n v e r s e z t r a n s f o r m z must be l i n e a r z
= z1
9 X =2/( z ^ -1+2) ;
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 )
12 X1 = z1 /( z1 +0.5) ;
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (1) ) ;
14 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) )
15 disp ( -( h1 ) * ’ u(−n −1) ’ , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
16 // // R e s u l t
17 // h [ n ]= (− (− 0 . 5 ) ˆ n ) ∗u(−n −1)

Scilab code Exa 2.40 Inverse Z Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 2 . 4 0 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao

42
3 // I n v e r s e Z T r a n s f o r m :ROC | z | >2
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 //To f i n d o u t I n v e r s e z t r a n s f o r m z must be l i n e a r z
= z1
9 X = z ^2/(( z -0.5) *( z -1) ) ;
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 )
12 X1 = z1 ^2/(( z1 -0.5) *( z1 -1) ) ;
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (1) ) ;
14 F2 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (2) ) ;
15 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) ) ;
16 disp ( h1 * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h1 [ n ]= ’ )
17 h2 = limit ( F2 , z1 , zp (2) ) ;
18 disp (( h2 ) * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ h2 [ n ]= ’ ) ;
19 disp ( -( h1 ) * ’ u(−n −1) ’ -( h2 ) * ’ u(−n −1) ’ , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
20 // // R e s u l t
21 // h [ n ]= ( ( 0 . 5 ) ˆ n − 2 ) ∗u(−n −1)

43
 Chapter 3

Fourier Series of Continuous

Time Signals

Scilab code Exa 3.13 Complex Fourier Exponential Series

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 3 . 1 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Complex E x p o n e n t i a l F o u r i e r E x p a n s i o n
4 //A=3.14 o r p i
5 clear ;
6 close ;
7 clc ;
8 T0 =4;
9 t = -5.99:0.01:6;
10 t_temp =0.01:0.01: T0 /2;
11 s = length ( t ) / length ( t_temp ) ;
12 x =[];
13 for i =1: s
14 if modulo (i ,2) ==1 then

44
Figure 3.1: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

45
Figure 3.2: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

46
15 x =[ x - ones (1 , length ( t_temp ) ) * %pi ];
16 else
17 x =[ x ones (1 , length ( t_temp ) ) * %pi ];
18 end
19 end
20 figure (1) ;
21 title ( ’ S i g n a l ’ ) ;
22 ylabel ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
23 xlabel ( ’ t ’ ) ;
24 plot (t ,x , ’ r ’ )
25 w0 = %pi /2;
26 for k = -10:10
27 cc ( k +11 ,:) = exp ( - %i * k * w0 * t ) ;
28 ck ( k +11) = x * cc ( k +11 ,:) ’/ length ( t ) ;
29 if abs ( ck ( k +11) ) <0.01 then
30 ck ( k +11) =0;
31 else if real ( ck ( k +11) ) <0.1 then
32 ck ( k +11) = %i * imag ( ck ( k +11) ) ;
33 end
34 end
35 if k ==0 then
36 c0 = ck ( k +11) ;
37 end
38 end
39 q = abs ( ck ) ;
40 figure (2) ;
41 title ( ’ Magnitude Spectrum ’ ) ;
42 ylabel ( ’ | cn | ’ ) ;
43 xlabel ( ’ f o ’ ) ;
44 f = -10:1:10;
45 plot2d3 (f , q )

47
Figure 3.3: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

48
Figure 3.4: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

49
 Scilab code Exa 3.14 Complex Fourier Exponential Series

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 3 . 1 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //CTFS c o e f f i c i e n t s o f a p e r i o d i c s i g n a l
4 // x ( wt ) = A s i n wt , 0<wt<p i , and 0 , p i <| t | <2∗ p i
5 clear ;
6 clc ;
7 A =6;
8 T =2* %pi ;
9 T1 = T /2;
10 t = 0:0.01: T1 ;
11 Wo = 2* %pi / T ;
12 xt = A * sin ( Wo * t ) ;
13 for k =0:6
14 C ( k +1 ,:) = exp ( - sqrt ( -1) * Wo * t .* k ) ;
15 c ( k +1) = xt * C ( k +1 ,:) ’/ length ( t ) ;
16 if ( abs ( c ( k +1) ) <=0.01)
17 c ( k +1) =0;
18 end
19 end
20 c =c ’;
21 c_conj = real ( c (:) ) - sqrt ( -1) * imag ( c (:) ) ;
22 ck = [ c_conj ( $ : -1:1) ’,c (2: $ ) ];
23 k = 0:6;
24 k = [ - k ( $ : -1:1) ,k (2: $ ) ];
25 figure (1) ;
26 c = gca () ;
27 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 // c . d a t a b o u n d s = [ − 2 , 0 ; 2 , 2 ] ;
30 plot2d (t , xt ,5)
31 poly1 = c . children (1) . children (1) ;
32 poly1 . thickness = 3;
33 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ )
34 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )
35 figure (2) ;

50
 Figure 3.5: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

36 c = gca () ;
37 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
38 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
39 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,k , abs ( ck ) ,9)
40 poly1 = c . children (1) . children (1) ;
41 poly1 . thickness = 3;
42 title ( ’ | ck | ’ )
43 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )

Scilab code Exa 3.16 Complex Fourier Exponential Series

51
 1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 3 . 1 6 o f S i g n a l s and
s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //A=%pi o r 3 . 1 4
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 // T r i g n o m e t r i c F o u r i e r C o e f f i c i e n t s
7 for n =0:5
8 a ( n +1) = integrate ( ’ t ∗ c o s ( 2 ∗ %pi ∗n∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,0 ,1) ;
9 end
10 for n =0:5
11 b ( n +1) = integrate ( ’ t ∗ s i n ( 2 ∗ %pi ∗n∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,0 ,1) ;
12 end
13 disp ( %pi * a (1) ,” an ( a0 ) ” )
14 disp ( ” an ( a1−−>a5 ) ” )
15 for n =1:5
16 disp (2* a ( n +1) * %pi )
17 end
18 disp ( ” bn ( b1−−>b5 ) ” )
19 for n =1:5
20 disp (2* %pi * b ( n +1) )
21 end
22 //CTFS c o e f f i c i e n t s o f a p e r i o d i c s i g n a l
23 // x ( t ) =t
24 t = 0:0.01:1;
25 xt =2* %pi * t ;
26 //
27 for k =0:6
28 C ( k +1 ,:) = exp ( - sqrt ( -1) *2* %pi * t * k ) ;
29 c ( k +1) = xt * C ( k +1 ,:) ’/ length ( t ) ;
30 if ( abs ( c ( k +1) ) <=0.01)
31 c ( k +1) =0;
32 end
33 end
34 c =c ’;
35 c_conj = real ( c (:) ) - sqrt ( -1) * imag ( c (:) ) ;
36 ck = [ c_conj ( $ : -1:1) ’,c (2: $ ) ];
37 k = 0:6;

52
 Figure 3.6: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

38 k = [ - k ( $ : -1:1) ,k (2: $ ) ];
39 c = gca () ;
40 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
41 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
42 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,k , abs ( ck ) )
43 poly1 = c . children (1) . children (1) ;
44 poly1 . thickness = 3;
45 title ( ’ | ck | ’ )
46 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )

53
Figure 3.7: Complex Fourier Exponential Series

54
 Scilab code Exa 3.17 Complex Fourier Exponential Series

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 3 . 1 7 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //CTFS c o e f f i c i e n t s o f a p e r i o d i c s i g n a l
4 // x ( wt ) = A s i n wt , 0<wt<p i
5 clear ;
6 close ;
7 clc ;
8 A =3.14;
9 T = %pi ;
10 T1 = T /2;
11 t = 0:0.01: T1 ;
12 Wo = 2* %pi / T ;
13 xt = A * sin ( Wo * t ) ;
14 //
15 for k =0:6
16 C ( k +1 ,:) = exp ( - sqrt ( -1) * Wo * t .* k ) ;
17 c ( k +1) = xt * C ( k +1 ,:) ’/ length ( t ) ;
18 if ( abs ( c ( k +1) ) <=0.01)
19 c ( k +1) =0;
20 end
21 end
22 c =c ’;
23 c_conj = real ( c (:) ) - sqrt ( -1) * imag ( c (:) ) ;
24 ck = [ c_conj ( $ : -1:1) ’,c (2: $ ) ];
25 k = 0:6;
26 k = [ - k ( $ : -1:1) ,k (2: $ ) ];
27 c = gca () ;
28 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 // c . d a t a b o u n d s = [ − 2 , 0 ; 2 , 2 ] ;
31 plot2d (t , xt ,5)
32 poly1 = c . children (1) . children (1) ;
33 poly1 . thickness = 3;
34 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ )
35 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )

55
36 figure (1) ;
37 c = gca () ;
38 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
39 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
40 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,k , abs ( ck ) )
41 poly1 = c . children (1) . children (1) ;
42 poly1 . thickness = 3;
43 title ( ’ | ck | ’ )
44 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )

Scilab code Exa 3.18 Trignometric Series

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 3 . 1 8 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //A=%pi o r 3 . 1 4
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 // T r i g n o m e t r i c F o u r i e r C o e f f i c i e n t s
7 a (1) = integrate ( ’ s i n (w) ’ , ’w ’ ,0 , %pi ) ;
8 for n =1:8
9 a (2* n +1) = integrate ( ’ s i n (w+2∗n∗w) ’ , ’w ’ ,0 , %pi ) +
integrate ( ’ s i n (w−2∗w∗n ) ’ , ’w ’ ,0 , %pi ) ;
10 end
11 for n =0:8
12 b ( n +1) =0;
13 end
14 disp ( abs ( a (1) ) ,” an ( a0 ) ” ) ;
15 disp ( ” an ( a1−−>a8 ) ” ) ;
16 n =1:8;
17 disp (2* a ( n +1) ) ;
18 disp ( ” bn ( b1−−>b8 ) ” ) ;
19 n =1:8;
20 disp ( b ( n ) ) ;

56
 Chapter 4

The Continuous Time Fourier

Transform

Scilab code Exa 4.1 Magnitude and Phase Spectra

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // P l o t t i n g Magnitude and Phase s p e c t r u m
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 A =8;
7 Dt =0.005;
8 T1 =4;
9 t = - T1 /2: Dt : T1 /2;
10 q = length ( t )
11 for i = -( q /2) +1: q /2
12 if i > - q /4 & i < q /4 then
13 xt ( i +( q /2) ) = A ;
14 else xt ( i +( q /2) ) =0;

57
Figure 4.1: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

58
Figure 4.2: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

59
15 end
16 end
17 Wmax = 2* %pi *1; // Analog F r e q u e n c y = 1Hz
18 K = 4;
19 k = 0:( K /1000) : K ;
20 W = k * Wmax / K ;
21 xt = xt ’;
22 XW = xt * exp ( - sqrt ( -1) *t ’* W ) * Dt ;
23 XW_Mag = real ( XW ) ;
24 W = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( W ) , W (2:1001) ]; // Omega from −
Wmax t o Wmax
25 XW_Mag = [ mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Mag ) , XW_Mag (2:1001) ];
26 [ XW_Phase , db ] = phasemag ( XW ) ;
27 XW_Phase =[ - mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Phase ) , XW_Phase (2:1001) ];
28 // P l o t t i n g t h e F u n c t i o n
29 subplot (2 ,1 ,1) ;
30 a = gca () ;
31 a . data_bounds =[ -4 ,0;4 ,2];
32 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
33 plot (t , xt ) ;
34 xlabel ( ’ t i n s e c . ’ ) ;
35 title ( ’ C o n t i n o u s Time S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
36 // P l o t t i n g Magnitude Reponse o f CTS
37 subplot (2 ,1 ,2) ;
38 a = gca () ;
39 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
40 plot ( W /(2* %pi ) , XW_Mag ) ;
41 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n Hz ’ ) ;
42 title ( ’ C o n t i n u o u s t i m e F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m X(jW) ’ ) ;
43 // P l o t t i n g Phase Reponse o f CTS
44 figure (1) ;
45 a = gca () ;
46 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
47 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
48 plot ( W /(2* %pi ) ,- XW_Phase * %pi /180) ;
49 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n Hz ’ ) ;
50 ylabel ( ’<X(jW) ’ )
51 title ( ’ Phase R e s p o n s e (CTFT) i n R a d i a n s ’ )

60
 Figure 4.3: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

Scilab code Exa 4.2 Magnitude and Phase Spectra

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n t i n u o u s Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f a
4 // C o n t i n u o u s Time S i g n a l x ( t )= exp (−A∗ t ) u ( t ) , t >0
5 clear ;

61
Figure 4.4: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

62
 6 clc ;
7 close ;
8 // Analog S i g n a l
9 A =1; // A m p l i t u d e
10 T =1;
11 Dt = 0.005;
12 t = 0: Dt :10;
13 xt = A * exp ( - t / T ) ;
14 // C o n t i n u o u s −t i m e F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m
15 Wmax = 2* %pi *1; // Analog F r e q u e n c y = 1Hz
16 K = 4;
17 k = 0:( K /1000) : K ;
18 W = k * Wmax / K ;
19 XW = xt * exp ( - sqrt ( -1) *t ’* W ) * Dt ;
20 XW_Mag = abs ( XW ) ;
21 W = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( W ) , W (2:1001) ]; // Omega from −
Wmax t o Wmax
22 XW_Mag = [ mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Mag ) , XW_Mag (2:1001) ];
23 [ XW_Phase , db ] = phasemag ( XW ) ;
24 XW_Phase = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Phase ) , XW_Phase (2:1001)
];
25 // P l o t t i n g C o n t i n u o u s Time S i g n a l
26 a = gca () ;
27 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 plot (t , xt ) ;
29 xlabel ( ’ t i n s e c . ’ ) ;
30 ylabel ( ’ x ( t ) ’ )
31 title ( ’ C o n t i n u o u s Time S i g n a l ’ )
32 figure
33 // P l o t t i n g Magnitude R e s p o n s e o f CTS
34 subplot (2 ,1 ,1) ;
35 a = gca () ;
36 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
37 plot (W , XW_Mag ) ;
38 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n R a d i a n s / S e c o n d s −−−> W’ ) ;
39 ylabel ( ’ a b s (X(jW) ) ’ )
40 title ( ’ Magnitude R e s p o n s e (CTFT) ’ )
41 // P l o t t i n g Phase Reponse o f CTS

63
 Figure 4.5: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

42 subplot (2 ,1 ,2) ;
43 a = gca () ;
44 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
45 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
46 plot (W , XW_Phase * %pi /180) ;
47 xlabel ( ’ Frequency in
R a d i a n s / S e c o n d s −−−> W’ ) ;
48 ylabel ( ’
<X
(jW) ’ )
49 title ( ’ Phase R e s p o n s e (CTFT) i n R a d i a n s ’ )

64
Figure 4.6: Magnitude and Phase Spectra

65
 Scilab code Exa 4.3 Magnitude and Phase Spectra

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // x ( t )=A∗ c o s w0∗ t ∗ g a t e ( t /T)
4 //T=1/2∗ f o
5 // f o =0.5 Hz
6 clear ;
7 clc ;
8 // F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m
9 A =1;
10 T =0.5;
11 fo =1/(2* T ) ;
12 Wo =2* %pi * fo ;
13 for f = -20:1:20;
14 X ( f +21) = A * integrate ( ’ c o s (Wo∗ t ) ∗ c o s ( 2 ∗ %pi ∗ f ∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’
, -0.25 ,0.25) ;
15 end
16 disp (X , ’X( 0 )−−>X( 2 0 ) ’ ) ;
17 t = -0.25:0.01:0.25;
18 q = cos ( Wo * t ) ;
19 a = gca () ;
20 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
21 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
22 plot (t , q ) ;
23 xlabel ( ’ Time i n S e c o n d s ’ ) ;
24 title ( ’ S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
25 figure (1) ;
26 a = gca () ;
27 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 f = -20:1:20;
30 plot (f , X ) ;

66
31 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n Hz ’ ) ;
32 title ( ’ C o n t i n u o u s Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m X(jW) ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 4.4 Energy at output

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 //X( f )=A∗T/1+ j ∗2∗ p i ∗ f ∗T
6 syms f w ;
7 A =1;
8 T =1;
9 X =( A ^2* T ^2) /(1+4* %pi ^2* f ^2* T ^2)
10 disp ( ’ P u t t i n g f = t a n @ ’ ) ;
11 disp ( ’ T o t a l Energy : ’ ) ;
12 Ex = integrate ( ’ (Aˆ2∗T) / ( 2 ∗ %pi ) ’ , ’w ’ ,- %pi /2 , %pi /2)
13 disp ( ’ Energy C o n t a i n e d i n t h e Output S i g n a l ’ ) ;
14 Ey = integrate ( ’ (Aˆ2∗T) / ( 2 ∗ %pi ) ’ , ’w ’ ,- %pi /4 , %pi /4)
15 e = Ey *100/ Ex ;
16 disp (e , ’ P e r c e n t a g e Energy C o n t a i n e d i n t h e Output : ’ )
;

Scilab code Exa 4.5 Fourier Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao

67
Figure 4.7: Fourier Transform

68
Figure 4.8: Fourier Transform

69
3 // x ( t )=c o s p i ∗ t , | t | > 0 . 5 , z e r o o t h e r w i s e
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 // F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m
7 for f = -20:1:20;
8 X ( f +21) = integrate ( ’ c o s ( %pi ∗ t ) ∗ c o s ( 2 ∗ %pi ∗ f ∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’
, -0.5 ,0.5) ;
9 end
10 disp (X , ’X( 0 )−−>X( 2 0 ) ’ ) ;
11 t = -0.5:0.01:0.5;
12 q = cos ( %pi * t ) ;
13 a = gca () ;
14 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
15 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
16 plot (t , q ) ;
17 xlabel ( ’ Time i n S e c o n d s ’ ) ;
18 title ( ’ S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
19 figure (1) ;
20 a = gca () ;
21 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
22 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
23 f = -20:1:20;
24 plot (f , X ) ;
25 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n Hz ’ ) ;
26 title ( ’ C o n t i n u o u s Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m X(jW) ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 4.6 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;

70
Figure 4.9: Convolution

71
 5 close ;
6 disp ( ”X(w) =1/( a+jw ) ˆ2=1/( a+jw ) ∗ 1 / ( a+jw ) ” ) ;
7 disp ( ” exp (−a ∗ t ) ∗u ( t ) <−−> 1 / ( a+jw ) ” ) ;
8 disp ( ” t h e r e f o r e x ( t )=c o n v o l u t i o n ( 2 ∗ s i n c ( 2 ∗ t ) , ( s i n c t
) ˆ2 ” ) ;
9 a =2;
10 n =1;
11 for t = -10:0.1:10
12 y1 (1 , n ) =( sinc ( t ) ) ^2;
13 y2 (1 , n ) =2* sinc (2* t ) ;
14 n = n +1;
15 z = conv ( y1 , y2 ) ;
16 end
17 t = -20:0.1:20;
18 a = gca () ;
19 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
21 plot (t , z ) ;
22 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t i o n o f x ( t ) and y ( t ) ’ )

Scilab code Exa 4.7 Energy in Signal

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 7 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms t ;
6 A =2;
7 // x ( t ) =20∗ s i n c ( 1 0 ∗ t ) ;
8 disp ( ” T o t a l Energy o f t h e s i g n a l : ” ) ;
9 q = integrate ( ’Aˆ2 ’ , ’w ’ , -5 ,5) ;
10 disp (q , ’ Ex ’ ) ;

72
 Scilab code Exa 4.11 Fourier Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Find s y s t e m f u n c t i o n and o u t p u t o f t h e s y s t e m
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms a t ;
7 for n =1:10;
8 h = t ^( n -1) * %e ^( - a * t ) ;
9 H = laplace (h ,t , ’ jw ’ ) ;
10 disp (H , ’SYSTEM FUNCTION X( f )= ’ ,h , ’ For x ( t )= ’ ) ;
11 end

Scilab code Exa 4.14 Fourier Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 1 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 close ;
6 a =.5;
7 A =1/( sqrt (2) * %pi ) ;
8 t = -10:0.1:10;
9 x = A * exp ( - a * t .* t ) ;

73
Figure 4.10: Fourier Transform

74
Figure 4.11: Fourier Transform

75
10 disp ( ” G u a s s i a n p u l s e s i g n a l x ( t ) =(1/ s q r t ( 2 ) ∗ %pi ) ∗ exp
(−a ∗ t ˆ 2 ) ” ) ;
11 disp ( ”X(w)= i n t e g r a l ( exp (−a ∗ t ˆ 2 ) ∗ exp (−%i ∗w∗ t ) ) w . r . t
dt ”);
12 disp ( ” d (X(w) ) /dw=−%i ∗w/ ( 2 ∗ a ) ∗ i n t e g r a l ( exp (−a ∗ t ˆ 2 ) ∗
exp (−%i ∗w∗ t ) ) ” ) ;
13 disp ( ” d (X(w) ) /dw=−w∗X(w) /2 a ” ) ;
14 disp ( ” s o l v i n g t h i s we g e t X(w)=A∗ exp (−wˆ 2 / 4 a ) ” )
15 disp ( ”A=s q r t ( %pi / a ) ” ) ;
16 d = gca ()
17 plot (t , x ) ;
18 poly1 = d . children . children ;
19 poly1 . thickness =3;
20 poly1 . foreground =2;
21 xtitle ( ’ x ( t ) ’ , ’ t ’ )
22 A =1;
23 f=t;
24 Xf = A * exp ( -2* %pi ^2* f ^2) ;
25 figure (1) ;
26 d = gca ()
27 plot (f , Xf ) ;
28 poly1 = d . children . children ;
29 poly1 . thickness =3;
30 poly1 . foreground =2;
31 xtitle ( ’X( f ) ’ , ’ f ’ )

Scilab code Exa 4.17 Fourier Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 4 . 1 7 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao

76
Figure 4.12: Fourier Transform

77
Figure 4.13: Fourier Transform

78
 3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 // F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f x ( t )
6 n =1;
7 for t = -10:0.1:10;
8 x (1 , n ) =1/(1+ t ^2) ;
9 n = n +1;
10 end
11 a = gca () ;
12 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
13 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
14 t = -10:0.1:10;
15 plot (t , x ) ;
16 xlabel ( ’ Time i n S e c o n d ’ ) ;
17 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
18 disp ( ”By D u a l i t y Theorem F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f x ( t )
i s : ”);
19 disp ( ” %pi ∗ exp ( −|w | ) ” ) ;
20 n =1;
21 for w = -10:0.1:10;
22 X (1 , n ) = %pi * exp ( - abs ( w ) ) ;
23 n = n +1;
24 end
25 figure (1) ;
26 a = gca () ;
27 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 w = -10:0.1:10;
30 plot (w , X ) ;
31 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n R a d i a n s / S e c o n d ’ ) ;
32 title ( ’X(w) ’ ) ;

79
 Chapter 5

Fourier Representation of
Discrete Time Signals

Scilab code Exa 5.1 DTFT

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D i s c r e t e Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f
4 // x [ n ]= ( a ˆ a b s ( n ) ) 0<a<1
5 clear ;
6 clc ;
7 close ;
8 // DTS S i g n a l
9 a = 0.5; //0<a<1
10 max_limit = 10;
11 n = - max_limit +1: max_limit -1;
12 x = a ^ abs ( n ) ;
13 // D i s c r e t e −t i m e F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m
14 Wmax = 2* %pi ;
15 K = 4;
16 k = 0:( K /1000) : K ;
17 W = k * Wmax / K ;
18 XW = x * exp ( - sqrt ( -1) *n ’* W ) ;

80
19 XW_Mag = real ( XW ) ;
20 W = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( W ) , W (2:1001) ]; // Omega from −
Wmax t o Wmax
21 XW_Mag = [ mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Mag ) , XW_Mag (2:1001) ];
22 a = gca () ;
23 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
24 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
25 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,n , x ) ;
26 xtitle ( ’ D i s c r e t e Time S e q u e n c e x [ n ] f o r a>0 ’ )
27 figure (1) ;
28 a = gca () ;
29 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
31 plot2d (W , XW_Mag ) ;
32 title ( ’ D i s c r e t e Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m X( exp (jW) ) ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.2 DTFT and Spectra

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D i s c r e t e Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f
4 // x [ n ]= 1 , 0=<n<=3
5 clear ;
6 clc ;
7 close ;
8 // DTS S i g n a l
9 N1 = 3;
10 n = 0: N1 ;
11 x = ones (1 , length ( n ) ) ;
12 // D i s c r e t e −t i m e F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m

81
Figure 5.1: DTFT

82
Figure 5.2: DTFT

83
13 Wmax = 2* %pi ;
14 K = 4;
15 k = 0:( K /1000) : K ;
16 W = k * Wmax / K ;
17 XW = x * exp ( - sqrt ( -1) *n ’* W ) ;
18 XW_Mag = real ( XW ) ;
19 [ XW_Phase , db ] = phasemag ( XW ) ;
20 W = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( W ) , W (2:1001) ]; // Omega from −
Wmax t o Wmax
21 XW_Mag = [ mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Mag ) , XW_Mag (2:1001) ];
22 XW_Phase = [ - mtlb_fliplr ( XW_Phase ) , XW_Phase (2:1001)
];
23 a = gca () ;
24 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
25 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
26 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,n , x ) ;
27 xtitle ( ’ D i s c r e t e Time S e q u e n c e x [ n ] ’ )
28 figure (1) ;
29 a = gca () ;
30 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
31 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
32 plot2d (W , abs ( XW_Mag ) ) ;
33 title ( ’ D i s c r e t e Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m X( exp (jW) ) ’ )
34 figure (2) ;
35 a = gca () ;
36 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
37 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
38 plot2d (W , XW_Phase ) ;
39 title ( ’ Phase R e s p o n s e <(X(jW) ) ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.3 Inverse Fourier

84
Figure 5.3: DTFT and Spectra

85
Figure 5.4: DTFT and Spectra

86
 1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s
by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 // I n v e r s e F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m
6 w = -20:20;
7 X =4*( cos ( w ) ) ^2;
8 a = gca () ;
9 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
10 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
11 plot (w , X ) ;
12 title ( ”X( e ˆ jw ) ” ) ;
13 xlabel ( ” F r e q u e n c y i n R a d i a n s / s e c ” ) ;
14 figure (1) ;
15 n = -50:50;
16 x =2* sinc ( n ) + sinc ( n +2) + sinc (n -2) ;
17 a = gca () ;
18 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 plot2d3 (n , x ) ;
21 title ( ” x ( n ) ” ) ;
22 xlabel ( ” Time i n s e c ” ) ;

Scilab code Exa 5.4 Inverse Fourier

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // D i s c r e t e Time F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m o f
4 // X( e ˆ j ∗w) =2∗%pi ∗ d e l t a (w)

87
Figure 5.5: Inverse Fourier

88
Figure 5.6: Inverse Fourier

89
 5 clear ;
6 clc ;
7 close ;
8 N = 1;
9 N1 = -3* N :3* N ;
10 xn = [ zeros (1 ,N -1) ,1];
11 x = [1 xn xn xn xn xn xn ];
12 ak = 1/ N ;
13 XW = 2* %pi * ak * ones (1 ,2* N ) ;
14 Wo = 2* %pi / N ;
15 n = -N :N -1;
16 W = Wo * n ;
17 a = gca () ;
18 a . y_location = ” m i d d l e ” ;
19 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,W , XW ,2) ;
21 poly1 = a . children (1) . children (1) ;
22 poly1 . thickness = 3;
23 xlabel ( ’W’ ) ;
24 title ( ’DTFT o f P e r i o d i c I m p u l s e T r a i n ’ )
25 figure (1) ;
26 a = gca () ;
27 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 plot2d3 ( ’ gnn ’ ,N1 ,x ,2) ;
30 poly1 = a . children (1) . children (1) ;
31 poly1 . thickness = 3;
32 xlabel ( ’ n ’ ) ;
33 title ( ’ P e r i o d i c I m p u l s e T r a i n x ( n ) ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.5 Fourier series

90
Figure 5.7: Inverse Fourier

91
Figure 5.8: Inverse Fourier

92
1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s
by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 x =[1 ,2 ,3 ,2 ,1];
6 q =0;
7 for n =1:5
8 q=x(n)+q;
9 end
10 disp (q , ’ ( a ) X( e ˆ j ∗ 0 ) ’ ) ;
11 q =0;
12 for n = -2:2
13 q =(( -1) ^ n ) * x ( n +3) + q ;
14 end
15 disp (q , ’ ( c ) X( e ˆ j ∗ p i ) ’ ) ;
16 disp ( ’ ( d ) X( e ˆ j ∗ p i ) =2∗ p i ∗ x ( 0 ) ’ ) ;
17 disp (2* %pi * x (3) ) ;
18 q =0;
19 for n = -2:2
20 q =( x ( n +3) ) ^2+ q ;
21 end
22 disp ( q *2* %pi , ’ ( e ) | X( e ˆ j ∗w) | ˆ 2 ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 5.9.i DTFT

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 9 ( i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 q =0;
6 a1 =0.5
7 a2 = -0.5;
8 n =1:101;

93
 9 x1 = a1 ^ n ;
10 x2 = a2 ^ n ;
11 w =2;
12 n =0:100;
13 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
14 for n =0:33;
15 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x1 (3* n +1) ;
16 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
17 end
18 disp (q , ’ Y1 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =0.5 ’ ) ;
19 for n =0:33;
20 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x2 (3* n +1) ;
21 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ Y1 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =−0.5 ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa [Link] DTFT

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 9 ( i i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 q =0;
6 a1 =0.5
7 a2 = -0.5;
8 n =1:101;
9 x1 = a1 ^ n ;
10 x2 = a2 ^ n ;
11 w =2;
12 n =0:100;
13 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
14 for n =0:33;
15 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x1 ( n +1) ;
16 q = X ( n +1) + q ;

94
17 end
18 disp (q , ’ Y2 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =0.5 ’ ) ;
19 for n =0:33;
20 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x2 ( n +1) ;
21 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ Y2 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =−0.5 ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa [Link] DTFT

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 9 ( i i i ) o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 q =0;
6 a1 =0.5
7 a2 = -0.5;
8 n =1:101;
9 x1 = a1 ^ n ;
10 x2 = a2 ^ n ;
11 w =2;
12 n =0:100;
13 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
14 for n =0:33;
15 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x1 ( n +1) * cos (0.4* %pi * n ) ;
16 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
17 end
18 disp (q , ’ Y3 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =0.5 ’ ) ;
19 for n =0:33;
20 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x2 ( n +1) * cos (0.4* %pi * n ) ;
21 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ Y3 ( e ˆ2 j ) a t a =−0.5 ’ ) ;

95
 Scilab code Exa 5.11 Inverse Fourier

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 wc =1;
6 y =1;
7 for n = - %pi : %pi /80: %pi
8 if n < - wc | n > wc then
9 X (1 , y ) =1;
10 y = y +1;
11 else X (1 , y ) =0;
12 y = y +1;
13 end
14 end
15 n = - %pi : %pi /80: %pi ;
16 a = gca () ;
17 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
18 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 plot (n , X ) ;
20 xlabel ( ’ F r e q u e n c y i n R a d i a n s / S e c o n d s ’ ) ;
21 title ( ’X( e ˆ jw ) ) at Wc=1 ’ ) ;
22 A =1/ %pi ;
23 for k = -10:10
24 x ( k +11) = A * integrate ( ’ c o s (w∗ k ) ’ , ’w ’ ,wc , %pi ) ;
25 end
26 figure (1) ;
27 k = -10:10;
28 a = gca () ;
29 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
31 plot2d3 (k , x ) ;

96
 Figure 5.9: Inverse Fourier

32 xlabel ( ’ Time i n S e c o n d s ’ ) ;
33 title ( ’ x ( n ) at Wc=1 ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 5.13 Circular Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C i r c u l a r C o n v o l u t i o n

97
Figure 5.10: Inverse Fourier

98
 4 clear ;
5 // F i r s t C a u s a l s e q u e n c e
6 x =[1 ,4 ,3 ,2;2 ,1 ,4 ,3;3 ,2 ,1 ,4;4 ,3 ,2 ,1]
7 // S e c o n d S e q u e n c e
8 y =[4;3;2;1]
9 // C o n o l u t i o n
10 z = x * y ;
11 disp (z , ’ C o n v o l u t i o n Of x & y i s : ’ )

Scilab code Exa 5.14 Circular Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C i r c u l a r C o n v o l u t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 close ;
7 // F i r s t C a u s a l s e q u e n c e
8 x =[1 ,1 ,1 ,1;1 , - %i , -1 , %i ;1 , -1 ,1 , -1;1 , %i , -1 , - %i ]
9 y1 =[1;2;3;4];
10 y2 =[4;3;2;1];
11 X = x * y1 ;
12 disp (X , ’ V e c t o r X( 0 )−−>X( 3 ) ’ )
13 Y = x * y2 ;
14 disp (Y , ’ V e c t o r Y( 0 )−−>Y( 3 ) ’ )
15 for n =1:4;
16 Z (n ,1) = X (n ,1) * Y (n ,1) ;
17 end
18 q =4* x ^ -1;
19 disp (q , ’ IDFT m a t r i x ’ ) ;
20 z =0.25* q * Z ;
21 disp (z , ’ IDFT o f V e c t o r Z ( 0 )−−>Z ( 3 ) ’ )

99
 Scilab code Exa 5.16 DTFT

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 6 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 q =0;
6 x =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4];
7 w =0;
8 n =0:3;
9 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
10 for n =0:3
11 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x ( n +1) ;
12 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
13 end
14 disp (q , ’X( 0 )−>z e r o t h DFT c o e f f i c i e n t ’ ) ;
15 q =0;
16 w = %pi /2;
17 n =0:3;
18 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
19 for n =0:3
20 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x ( n +1) ;
21 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’X( 1 )−> f i r s t DFT c o e f f i c i e n t ’ ) ;
24 q =0;
25 w = %pi ;
26 n =0:3;
27 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
28 for n =0:3
29 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x ( n +1) ;
30 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
31 end

100
32 disp ( ceil ( q ) , ’X( 2 )−>s e c o n d DFT c o e f f i c i e n t ’ ) ;
33 q =0;
34 w =3* %pi /2;
35 n =0:3;
36 z =( exp ( - %i * w * n ) ) ;
37 for n =0:3
38 X ( n +1) = z ( n +1) * x ( n +1) ;
39 q = X ( n +1) + q ;
40 end
41 disp (q , ’X( 3 )−> t h i r d DFT c o e f f i c i e n t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 5.18 DFT coefficients

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 5 . 1 8 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Given s i g n a l x ( n )
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 x =[1 ,2 ,3 ,4];
7 X = fft ( x ) ;
8 disp (X , ’FFT o f g i v e n s i g n a l i s : X( 0 )−−>X( 3 ) ’ )

101
 Chapter 6

Sampling and Reconstruction

of Bandlimited Signals

Scilab code Exa 6.1 Sampling and Reconstruction

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S a m p l i n g o f s i g n a l
4 clc ;
5 clear
6 function [ y ]= delta ( t )
7 if t ==0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 fs =200;
13 for f = -200:200
14 X ( f +201) =5*[ delta (f -75) + delta ( f +75) ];
15 end
16 figure (1) ;
17 f = -200:200;
18 plot2d3 (f ,X , -2) ;

102
19 title ( ’X( f ) ’ ) ;
20 xlabel ( ’−−−&g t ; f ’ );
21 w =1;
22 n = -1;
23 for f = -275:275
24 X_delta1 ( f +276) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
25 end
26 n = n +1;
27 for f = -275:275
28 X_delta2 ( f +276) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
29 end
30 n = n +1;
31 for f = -275:275
32 X_delta3 ( f +276) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
33 end
34 X_delta = X_delta1 + X_delta2 + X_delta3 ;
35 figure (2) ;
36 f = -275:275;
37 plot2d3 (f , X_delta , -2) ;
38 title ( ’ X d e l t a ( f ) a t f s =200 ’ ) ;
39 xlabel ( ’−−−&g t ; f ’ );

Scilab code Exa 6.2 Sampling and Reconstruction

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S a m p l i n g o f s i g n a l and a l i a s i n g due t o low

103
Figure 6.1: Sampling and Reconstruction

104
Figure 6.2: Sampling and Reconstruction

105
 Sampling f r e q u e n c y
4 clc ;
5 clear
6 function [ y ]= delta ( t )
7 if t ==0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 fs =100;
13 for f = -200:200
14 X ( f +201) =5*[ delta (f -75) + delta ( f +75) ];
15 end
16 figure (1) ;
17 f = -200:200;
18 plot2d3 (f ,X , -2) ;
19 title ( ’X( f ) ’ ) ;
20 xlabel ( ’−−−&g t ; f ’ );
21 w =1;
22 n = -2;
23 for f = -175:175
24 X_delta1 ( f +176) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
25 end
26 n = n +1;
27 for f = -175:175
28 X_delta2 ( f +176) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
29 end
30 n = n +1;
31 for f = -175:175
32 X_delta3 ( f +176) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
33 end
34 n = n +1;
35 for f = -175:175
36 X_delta4 ( f +176) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];

106
37 end
38 n = n +1;
39 for f = -175:175
40 X_delta5 ( f +176) = fs *5*[ delta (f - n * fs -75) + delta (f - n
* fs +75) ];
41 end
42 X_delta = X_delta1 + X_delta2 + X_delta3 + X_delta4 + X_delta5
;
43 figure (2) ;
44 f = -175:175;
45
46 plot2d3 (f , X_delta , -2) ;
47 title ( ’ X d e l t a ( f ) a t f s =100 ’ ) ;
48 xlabel ( ’−−−&g t ; f ’ );
49 // The P r e s e n c e o f t h e 25 HZ component i n t h e
spectrum o f x d e l t a ( t )
50 // Due t o e f f e c t o f A l i a s i n g

Scilab code Exa 6.3 Minimum Number of samples

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Minimum no . o f s a m p l e s r e q u i r e d
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms t ;
7 x =10* cos (6* %pi * t ) +4* sin (8* %pi * t ) ;
8 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
9 disp ( ’ Maximum F r e q u e n c y component p r e s e n t : 4 Hz ’ ) ;
10 fs =2*4;

107
Figure 6.3: Sampling and Reconstruction

108
Figure 6.4: Sampling and Reconstruction

109
11 disp ( fs , ’ Minimum S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y t o a v o i d
d i s t o r t i o n i s : ’ );

Scilab code Exa 6.4 Minimum Sampling Frequency

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 // x ( t ) =100∗( s i n c ( 1 0 0 ∗ t ) ) ˆ 2 ;
7 fo =100;
8 fs =2* fo ;
9 disp ( fs , ’ Minimum S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y t o a v o i d
d i s t o r t i o n i s : ’ );

Scilab code Exa 6.5 LPF output

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao // Output o f LPF
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 function [ y ]= delta ( t )
6 if t ==0
7 y =1
8 else y =0
9 end
10 endfunction
11 for f = -100:100
12 X ( f +101) = delta ( f +100) + delta (f -100) +3*[ delta ( f
+90) + delta (f -90) ];

110
13 end
14 f = -100:100;
15 a = gca () ;
16 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
17 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
18 plot2d3 (f ,X , -2) ;
19 title ( ’ Spectrum o f x ( t ) ’ ) ;
20 xlabel ( ’−−&g t ; f ’ );
21 fs =150;
22 n = -1; f - n * fs
23 for f = -275:275
24 X_delta1 ( f +276) = delta (f - n * fs +100) + delta (f - n * fs
-100) +3*[ delta (f - n * fs +90) + delta (f - n * fs -90) ];
25 end
26 n = n +1;
27 for f = -275:275
28 X_delta2 ( f +276) = delta (f - n * fs +100) + delta (f - n * fs
-100) +3*[ delta (f - n * fs +90) + delta (f - n * fs -90) ];
29 end
30 n = n +1;
31 for f = -275:275
32 X_delta3 ( f +276) = delta (f - n * fs +100) + delta (f - n * fs
-100) +3*[ delta (f - n * fs +90) + delta (f - n * fs -90) ];
33 end
34 X_delta = X_delta1 + X_delta2 + X_delta3 ;
35 figure (2) ;
36 f = -275:275;
37 plot2d3 (f , X_delta , -2) ;
38 title ( ’ X d e l t a ( f ) a t f s =150 ’ ) ;
39 xlabel ( ’−−−&g t ; f ’ );

111
Figure 6.5: LPF output

112
Figure 6.6: LPF output

113
 Scilab code Exa 6.6 Sampling Frequency

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y / N y q u i s t Rate
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms t ;
7 x =12* cos (800* %pi * t ) * cos ((1800* %pi * t ) ) ^2;
8 disp (x , ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
9 disp ( ’ Maximum F r e q u e n c y component p r e s e n t : 2 2 0 0 Hz ’ )
;
10 fs =2*2200;
11 disp ( fs , ’ Minimum S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y t o a v o i d
d i s t o r t i o n i s ( Hz ) : ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 6.8 Minimum Sampling Frequency

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 6 . 8 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y o f BPS
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 disp ( ’ Maximum F r e q u e n c y component p r e s e n t : 25 kHz ’ ) ;
7 fs =2*25000;
8 disp ( fs , ’ Minimum S a m p l i n g F r e q u e n c y t o a v o i d
d i s t o r t i o n i s : ( Hz ) ’ ) ;

114
 Chapter 7

Systems

Scilab code Exa 7.1 Properties of System

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 a0 =2;
6 a1 =2;
7 a2 =4;
8 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,7];
9 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,8];
10 for t =1:4
11 y1 (1 , t ) = a0 + a1 * x1 ( t ) + a2 *( x1 ( t ) ) ^2;
12 y2 (1 , t ) = a0 + a1 * x2 ( t ) + a2 *( x2 ( t ) ) ^2;
13 end
14 b1 =2;
15 b2 =3;
16 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
17 disp ( ’ y ( n ) d o e s n o t depend on p a s t i n p u t s ’ ) ;
18 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s S t a t i c ’ ) ;
19 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
20 for t =1:4

115
21 q (1 , t ) = a0 + a1 * x ( t ) + a2 *( x ( t ) ) ^2;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
24 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
25 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s n o t l i n e a r ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.3 System Properties

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( n )=x ( n )−x ( n−1) ;
7 disp ( ’ y ( n ) d e p e n d s upon p a s t i n p u t s a l s o ’ ) ;
8 disp ( ’ Output a t n=2 d e p e n d s upon v a l u e o f x a t n=1 ’ )
;
9 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Dynamic ’ ) ;
10 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,2];
11 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,3];
12 for n =2:5
13 y1 (1 , n ) = x1 ( n ) - x1 (n -1)
14 y2 (1 , n ) = x2 ( n ) - x2 (n -1)
15 end
16 b1 =2;
17 b2 =3;
18 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2
19 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
20 for n =2:5
21 q (1 , n ) = x ( n ) -x (n -1) ;
22 end
23 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;

116
24 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
25 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s l i n e a r ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.4 System Properties

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( t )=x ( 2 ∗ t )
7 disp ( ’ y ( t ) d e p e n d s upon p a s t i n p u t s f o r t <0 ’ ) ;
8 disp ( ’ y ( t ) d e p e n d s upon f u t u r e i n p u t s f o r t >0 ’ ) ;
9 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Dynamic ’ ) ;
10 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,2 ,5 ,3 ,9]; //Random V a r i a b l e
11 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,8 ,2 ,4 ,2 ,1];
12 for t =1:4
13 y1 (1 , t ) = x1 (2* t ) ;
14 y2 (1 , t ) = x2 (2* t ) ;
15 end
16 b1 =2;
17 b2 =3;
18 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
19 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
20 for t =1:4
21 q (1 , t ) = x (2* t ) ;
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
24 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
25 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s l i n e a r ’ ) ;

117
27 disp ( ’ For a d e l a y (T) o f 2 s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
28 disp ( ’ At t =3 s e c o n d s : ’ ) ;
29 t =3;
30 a = x (1 ,2* t -2) ;
31 b = y (1 ,t -2) ;
32 c = x (1 ,2* t -4) ;
33 disp (a , ’ x ( 2 t−T) : ’ ) ;
34 disp (b , ’ i s n o t e q u a l t o y ( 2 t−T) : ’ ) ;
35 disp (c , ’ w h i l e x ( 2 t −2∗T) : ’ ) ;
36 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Time v a r i a n t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.5 System Properties

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( t )=x ( 2 ∗ n )
7 disp ( ’ y ( n ) d e p e n d s upon p a s t i n p u t s f o r n<0 ’ ) ;
8 disp ( ’ y ( n ) d e p e n d s upon f u t u r e i n p u t s f o r n>0 ’ ) ;
9 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Dynamic ’ ) ;
10 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,3 ,2 ,5 ,3 ,9]; // random v a r i a b l e
11 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,4 ,2 ,4 ,2 ,1];
12 for n =1:4
13 y1 (1 , n ) = x1 (2* n ) ;
14 y2 (1 , n ) = x2 (2* n ) ;
15 end
16 b1 =2;
17 b2 =3;
18 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
19 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
20 for n =1:4
21 q (1 , n ) = x (2* n ) ;

118
22 end
23 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
24 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
25 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s l i n e a r ’ ) ;
27 disp ( ’ For a d e l a y ( n0 ) o f 2 s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
28 disp ( ’ At n=3 s e c o n d s : ’ ) ;
29 t =3;
30 a = x (1 ,2* n -2) ;
31 b = y (1 ,n -2) ;
32 c = x (1 ,2* n -4) ;
33 disp (a , ’ x ( 2 n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
34 disp (b , ’ i s n o t e q u a l t o y ( 2 n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
35 disp (c , ’ w h i l e x ( 2 n−2∗n0 ) : ’ ) ;
36 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Time v a r i a n t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.6 System Properties

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( n )=x ( n )−x ( n−1) ;
7 x =[2 ,4 ,3 ,6 ,7]
8 for n =2:5
9 y (1 , n ) = x ( n ) -x (n -1) ;
10 end
11 disp (y , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
12 disp ( ’ For a s h i f t ( n0 ) o f 2 s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
13 disp ( ’ At n=3 s e c o n d s : ’ ) ;
14 n =5;
15 b = y (n -2) ;

119
16 a = x (n -2) -x (n -2 -1) ;
17 disp (a , ’ x ( n −2) : ’ ) ;
18 disp (b , ’ i s e q u a l t o y ( n−2) : ’ ) ;
19 disp ( ’ Hence t h e s y s t e m i s S h i f t i n v a r i a n t / f i x e d ’ );

Scilab code Exa 7.7 Properties of System

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 7 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( t )=n∗ x ( n )
7 disp ( ’ y ( n ) d e p e n d s o n l y upon p r e s e n t i n p u t s ’ ) ;
8 disp ( ’ ( i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Dynamic ’ ) ;
9 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,3 ,2 ,5 ,3 ,9]; // random v a r i a b l e
10 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,4 ,2 ,4 ,2 ,1];
11 for n =1:4
12 y1 (1 , n ) = n * x1 ( n ) ;
13 y2 (1 , n ) = n * x2 ( n ) ;
14 end
15 b1 =2;
16 b2 =3;
17 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
18 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
19 for n =1:4
20 q (1 , n ) = n * x ( n ) ;
21 end
22 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
23 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
24 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
25 disp ( ’ ( i i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s l i n e a r ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ For a d e l a y ( n0 ) o f 2 s e c o n d s ’ ) ;

120
27 disp ( ’ At n=3 s e c o n d s : ’ ) ;
28 t =3;
29 a = x (1 ,n -2) ;
30 b = y (1 ,n -2) ;
31 c =2* x (1 ,n -2) ;
32 disp (a , ’ x ( n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
33 disp (b , ’ i s n o t e q u a l t o y ( n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
34 disp (c , ’ w h i l e ( n−n0 ) ∗ x ( n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
35 disp ( ’ ( i i i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Time v a r i a n t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.8 Properties of System

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 8 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( t )=sum ( x ( n ) ) , n−2<=n=<n+2
7 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,3 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0]; // random v a r i a b l e
8 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,4 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0 ,0];
9 for n =1:4
10 y1 (1 , n ) = x1 ( n ) + x1 ( n +1) + x1 ( n +2) + x1 ( n +3) + x1 ( n +4) ;
11 y2 (1 , n ) = x2 ( n ) + x2 ( n +1) + x2 ( n +2) + x2 ( n +3) + x2 ( n +4) ;
12 end
13 b1 =2;
14 b2 =3;
15 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
16 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
17 for n =1:4
18 q (1 , n ) = x ( n ) + x ( n +1) + x ( n +2) + x ( n +3) + x ( n +4) ;
19 end
20 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
21 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
22 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t

121
 s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
23 disp ( ’ ( i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s l i n e a r ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.9 Properties of System

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 9 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear x y1 y y2 q t n ;
5 clear ;
6 // y ( t )=exp | x ( n ) |
7 x1 =[1 ,3 ,5 ,3]; // random v a r i a b l e
8 x2 =[2 ,4 ,6 ,4];
9 for n =1:4
10 y1 (1 , n ) = exp ( abs ( x1 ( n ) ) ) ;
11 y2 (1 , n ) = exp ( abs ( x2 ( n ) ) ) ;
12 end
13 b1 =2;
14 b2 =3;
15 x = b1 * x1 + b2 * x2 ;
16 disp (x , ’ The i n p u t t o t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
17 for n =1:4
18 q (1 , n ) = exp ( abs ( b1 *( x1 ( n ) ) + b2 *( x2 ( n ) ) ) ) ;
19 end
20 disp (q , ’ T h i s i n p u t g i v e s t h e o u t p u t : ’ ) ;
21 y = b1 * y1 + b2 * y2 ;
22 disp (y , ’ For t h e s y s t e m t o be l i n e a r t h e o u t p u t
s h o u l d be : ’ ) ;
23 disp ( ’ ( i i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s n o t l i n e a r ’ ) ;
24 disp ( ’ For a d e l a y ( n0 ) o f 2 s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
25 disp ( ’ At n=3 s e c o n d s : ’ ) ;
26 n =4;
27 a = exp ( abs ( x1 (n -2) ) ) ;
28 b = y1 (1 ,n -2) ;

122
29 disp (a , ’ e ˆ x ( n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
30 disp (b , ’ i s e q u a l t o y ( n−n0 ) : ’ ) ;
31 disp ( ’ ( i i i ) Hence t h e s y s t e m i s Time i n v a r i a n t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.10 Output of an LTI

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 0 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 disp ( ’ h ( t )=e ˆ−2∗ t . u ( t ) ’ ) ;
6 for w =1:100
7 y (1 , w ) = integrate ( ’ exp ( −2∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,0 , w ) ;
8 end
9 w =1:100;
10 plot (w , y )
11 title ( ’ Output S i g n a l y ( t ) ’ ) ;
12 xlabel ( ’ Time ’ ) ;
13 ylabel ( ’ A m p l i t u d e ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.11 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 clear x y n ;
6 x =[0 ,0 ,2 ,0 ,0];
7 y =[0 ,0 ,1 ,1 ,0];

123
Figure 7.1: Output of an LTI

124
 8 n = -2:2;
9 c = gca () ;
10 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
11 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
12 plot2d2 (n ,x ,2) ;
13 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ )
14 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )
15 figure (1) ;
16 n = -2:2;
17 c = gca () ;
18 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 plot2d2 (n ,y ,5) ;
21 title ( ’ y ( t ) ’ )
22 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )
23 z = conv (x , y ) ;
24 figure (2) ;
25 n = -3:5;
26 c = gca () ;
27 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
28 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 plot (n ,z ,2) ;
30 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t e d s i g n a l z( t ) ’)
31 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.14 Impulse and Step response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // P l o t t i n g t h e i m p u l s e and s t e p r e s p o n s e s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;

125
Figure 7.2: Convolution

126
6 syms s t R C ;
7 Y1 =(1/( R * C ) ) /( s +1/( R * C ) ) ;
8 disp ( Y1 , ’ L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m Of d i f f e r e n t i a l Equation
is : ’)
9 y11 = ilaplace ( Y1 ,s , t ) ;
10 disp ( y11 , ’ The I m p u l s e R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’ ) ;
11 for k =0:10;
12 y1 ( k +1) = exp ( - k ) ;
13 end
14 k =0:10;
15 plot (k , y1 ) ;
16 title ( ’ System R e s p o n s e t o i m p u l s e i n p u t ’ ) ;
17 Y2 =(1/( R * C ) ) /( s ^2+ s /( R * C ) ) ;
18 disp ( Y2 , ’ L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m Of d i f f e r e n t i a l E q u a t i o n
is : ’)
19 y22 = ilaplace ( Y2 ,s , t ) ;
20 disp ( y22 , ’ The S t e p R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’ ) ;
21 for k =0:10;
22 y2 ( k +1) =1 - exp ( - k ) ;
23 end
24 figure (1) ;
25 k =0:10;
26 plot (k , y2 ) ;
27 title ( ’ System R e s p o n s e t o S t e p i n p u t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.15 Impulse and Step Response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 5 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // P l o t t i n g t h e i m p u l s e and s t e p r e s p o n s e s

127
Figure 7.3: Impulse and Step response

128
Figure 7.4: Impulse and Step response

129
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms s t R L ;
7 Y1 =(1/ s ) -(1/( s +( R / L ) ) ) ;
8 disp ( Y1 , ’ L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m Of d i f f e r e n t i a l Equation
is : ’)
9 y1 = ilaplace ( Y1 ,s , t ) ;
10 disp ( y1 , ’ The S t e p R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’ ) ;
11 // Taking R/L=1;
12 for k =0:10;
13 y1 ( k +1) =1 - exp ( - k ) ;
14 end
15 k =0:10;
16 plot (k , y1 ) ;
17 title ( ’ System R e s p o n s e t o S t e p i n p u t ’ ) ;
18 Y2 =(1/( s +( R / L ) ) ) ;
19 disp ( Y2 , ’ L a p l a c e T r a n s f o r m Of d i f f e r e n t i a l E q u a t i o n
is : ’)
20 y2 = ilaplace ( Y2 ,s , t ) ;
21 disp ( y2 , ’ The I m p u l s e R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’ ) ;
22 for k =0:10;
23 y2 ( k +1) = exp ( - k ) ;
24 end
25 figure (1) ;
26 k =0:10;
27 plot (k , y2 ) ;
28 title ( ’ System R e s p o n s e t o i m p u l s e i n p u t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.19 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 1 9 o f S i g n a l s and

130
Figure 7.5: Impulse and Step Response

131
Figure 7.6: Impulse and Step Response

132
 s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n v o l u t i o n o f two s i g n a l s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 clear x y n ;
7 x =[2 , -1 ,1 ,0 ,2];
8 y =[1 ,0 , -1 ,2];
9 n = -1:3;
10 c = gca () ;
11 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
12 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
13 plot2d3 (n ,x , -5) ;
14 title ( ’ x ( k ) ’ )
15 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )
16 figure (1) ;
17 n =0:3;
18 c = gca () ;
19 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
21 plot2d3 (n ,y , -5) ;
22 title ( ’ y ( k ) ’ )
23 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )
24 z = conv (x , y ) ;
25 figure (2) ;
26 n = -1:6;
27 c = gca () ;
28 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 plot2d3 (n ,z , -5) ;
31 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t e d s i g n a l z( t ) ’)
32 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )

133
Figure 7.7: Convolution

134
 Scilab code Exa 7.22 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 2 2 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n v o l u t i o n o f two s i g n a l s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t >=0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 for n =0:10;
13 x ( n +1) =(3/4) ^ n * u ( n ) ;
14 end
15 c = gca () ;
16 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
17 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
18 n =0:10;
19 plot2d3 (n ,x , -4) ;
20 title ( ’ x ( n ) ’ )
21 xlabel ( ’ n ’ )
22 for n =0:10;
23 y ( n +1) = u ( n ) ;
24 end
25 figure (1) ;
26 n =0:10;
27 c = gca () ;
28 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 plot2d3 (n ,y , -4) ;
31 title ( ’ y ( k ) ’ )
32 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )
33 z = conv (x , y ) ;
34 figure (2) ;
35 n =0:20;

135
 Figure 7.8: Convolution

36 c = gca () ;
37 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
38 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
39 plot2d3 (n ,z , -4) ;
40 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t e d s i g n a l w( t ) ’ ) ;
41 xlabel ( ’ t ’ ) ;
42 disp ( z (1) , ’ z ( 0 ) ’ ,z (4) , ’ z ( 3 ) ’ ,z (6) , ’ z ( 5 ) ’ ,z (11) , ’ z
( 1 0 ) ’ );

Scilab code Exa 7.23 Convolution

136
1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 2 3 o f S i g n a l s and
s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n v o l u t i o n o f two s i g n a l s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t >=0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 for n =0:10;
13 x ( n +1) =(0.5) ^ n * u (n -2) ;
14 end
15 c = gca () ;
16 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
17 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
18 n =0:10;
19 plot2d3 (n ,x , -4) ;
20 title ( ’ x ( n ) ’ )
21 xlabel ( ’ n ’ )
22 for n =0:10;
23 y ( n +1) = u ( n ) ;
24 end
25 figure (1) ;
26 n =0:10;
27 c = gca () ;
28 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 plot2d3 (n ,y , -4) ;
31 title ( ’ y ( k ) ’ )
32 xlabel ( ’ k ’ )
33 z = conv (x , y ) ;
34 figure (2) ;
35 n =0:20;
36 c = gca () ;
37 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;

137
 Figure 7.9: Convolution

38 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
39 plot2d3 (n ,z , -4) ;
40 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t e d s i g n a l z( t ) ’)
41 xlabel ( ’ t ’ )

Scilab code Exa 7.24 Step Response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 2 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // P l o t t i n g t h e s t e p r e s p o n s e

138
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms z n ;
7 y1 =2*(1 -0.5^ n ) ;
8 disp ( y1 * ’ u ( n ) ’ , ’ The s t e p R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’
);
9 for n =0:10;
10 q ( n +1) =2*(1 -0.5^ n ) ;
11 end
12 n =0:10;
13 plot (n , q ) ;
14 title ( ’ S t e p R e s p o n s e g ( n ) ’ );
15 xlabel ( ’ n−−> ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.25 Step response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 2 5 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // P l o t t i n g t h e i m p u l s e and s t e p r e s p o n s e s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 syms z a n ;
7 Y1 =(2* z /( z - a ) ) ;
8 disp ( Y1 , ’ Z T r a n s f o r m Of d i f f e r e n t i a l E q u a t i o n i s : ’ )
9 y12 =2* a ^ n ;
10 disp ( y12 , ’ The U n i t Sample R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s :
’ );
11 y2 =2*( a ^n -1) /( a -1) ;
12 disp ( y2 , ’ The S t e p R e s p o n s e o f t h e System i s : ’ ) ;
13 q =1;
14 a =0.5;
15 for k =0:0.1:5;

139
Figure 7.10: Step Response

140
 Figure 7.11: Step response

16 y2 ( q ) =2*(( a ^k -1) /( a -1) ) ;

17 q = q +1;
18 end
19 k =0:0.1:5;
20 plot (k , y2 ) ;

Scilab code Exa 7.33 Magnitude and Phase Response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 7 . 3 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao

141
 3 // P l o t t i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e and p h a s e r e s p o n s e s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 T =1;
7 n =1;
8 for w =0:0.1:20;
9 hmag ( n ) =2* sin ( w * T /2) ;
10 n = n +1;
11 end
12 n =1;
13 for w =0:0.1:20;
14 hphase ( n ) = %pi /2 -( w * T /2) ;
15 n = n +1;
16 end
17 // Magnitude p l o t
18 w =0:0.1:20;
19 plot (w , hmag ) ;
20 title ( ’ Magnitude P l o t ’ ) ;
21 xlabel ( ’w ’ ) ;
22 ylabel ( ’ | H( e ˆ jw ) | ’ ) ;
23 figure (1) ;
24 // Phase P l o t
25 w =0:0.1:20;
26 plot (w , hphase ) ;
27 title ( ’ Phase P l o t ’ ) ;
28 xlabel ( ’w ’ ) ;
29 ylabel ( ’ t h e t a (wT) ’ ) ;

142
Figure 7.12: Magnitude and Phase Response

143
Figure 7.13: Magnitude and Phase Response

144
 Chapter 8

Systems Time and Frequency

Domain Analysis

Scilab code Exa 8.1 Magnitude and Phase Responses

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // F i r s t Order c a u s a l LTI s y s t e m
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms s t ;
7 Y =1/( s +6) ;
8 h = exp ( -6* t ) ;
9 H = laplace (h ,t , ’ jw ’ ) ;
10 disp (H , ”H(w)=” ) ;
11 n =1;
12 for w = -5*2* %pi :0.01:5*2* %pi
13 Hmag ( n ) =1/ sqrt (36+ w ^2)
14 Hphs ( n ) = - atan ( w /6) ;
15 n = n +1;
16 end
17 w = -5*2* %pi :0.01:5*2* %pi ;
18 plot (w , Hmag ) ;

145
 Figure 8.1: Magnitude and Phase Responses

19 title ( ’ I m p u l s e R e s p o n s e ’ ) ;
20 ylabel ( ’ A m p l i t u d e ’ ) ;
21 xlabel ( ’ t i m e i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
22 figure (1) ;
23 w = -5*2* %pi :0.01:5*2* %pi ;
24 plot (w , Hphs ) ;
25 title ( ’ Phase R e s p o n s e ’ ) ;
26 ylabel ( ’ t h e t a (w) ’ ) ;
27 xlabel ( ’w i n r a d i a n s / s e c o n d ’ ) ;

146
Figure 8.2: Magnitude and Phase Responses

147
 Scilab code Exa 8.2 Transfer Function of system

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S e c o n d o r d e r s y s t e m
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 syms t ;
7 L =1;
8 R =1.2;
9 C =10^ -6;
10 Rcr =2* sqrt ( L / C ) ;
11 eta = R / Rcr ;
12 disp ( eta , ’ Damping R a t i o= ’ ,Rcr , ’ C r i t i c a l R e s i s t a n c e (
ohm ) ’ , ’ ( i ) ’ ) ;
13 Wn =1/ sqrt ( L * C ) ;
14 disp ( Wn , ’ Undamped N a t u r a l F r e q u e n c y ( Hz ) ’ , ’ ( i i ) ’ ) ;
15 n =1;
16 h =(1250* sin (800* t ) ) * exp ( -600* t ) ;
17 H = laplace (h ,t , ’jW ’ ) ;
18 for t =0:0.1:2;
19 h ( n ) =(1250* sin (800* t ) ) * exp ( -600* t ) ; // I m p u l s e
Response
20 n = n +1;
21 end
22 t =0:0.1:2;
23 plot (t , h ) ;
24 title ( ’ I m p u l s e R e s p o n s e ’ ) ;
25 ylabel ( ’ A m p l i t u d e ’ ) ;
26 xlabel ( ’ t i m e i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
27 disp (H , ’ ( i v ) T r a n s f e r F u n c t i o n (H( jw ) ) : ’ ) ;

148
Figure 8.3: Transfer Function of system

149
 Scilab code Exa 8.3 Magnitude and Phase Responses

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms n w ;
6 h =(0.3) ^ n ;
7 disp (h , ’ The i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e o f t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
8 H =1/(1 -(0.3* exp ( - %i * w ) ) ) ;
9 disp (H , ’ The T r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m i s : ’ ) ;
10 n =1;
11 for w = - %pi :0.1: %pi
12 Hmag ( n ) =1/ sqrt (1.09 -(0.6* cos ( w ) ) ) ;
13 Hphs ( n ) = - atan (0.3* sin ( w ) /(1 -0.3* cos ( w ) ) ) ;
14 n = n +1;
15 end
16 w = - %pi :0.1: %pi ;
17 c = gca () ;
18 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
19 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 c . thickness =2;
21 plot (w , Hmag ) ;
22 title ( ’ Magnitude S k e t c h ’ ) ;
23 ylabel ( ’ A m p l i t u d e ’ ) ;
24 xlabel ( ’W i n r a d i a n s ’ ) ;
25 figure (1) ;
26 w = - %pi :0.1: %pi ;
27 c = gca () ;
28 c . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
29 c . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
30 c . thickness =2;
31 plot (w , Hphs ) ;
32 title ( ’ Phase R e s p o n s e ’ ) ;
33 ylabel ( ’ t h e t a (w) ’ ) ;
34 xlabel ( ’W i n r a d i a n s ’ )

150
 Figure 8.4: Magnitude and Phase Responses

Scilab code Exa 8.4 system response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S e c o n d Order System
4 clear ;
5 clc ;

151
Figure 8.5: Magnitude and Phase Responses

152
 6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 X =( z -1) /(( z +(1/2) ) *( z -(1/5) ) )
9 disp (X , ’ ( i ) System F u n c t i o n i s : ’ ) ;
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 ) ;
12 X1 = ( z1 -1) /(( z1 +(1/2) ) *( z1 -(1/5) ) ) ;
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (1) )
14 F2 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 - zp (2) )
15 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) )
16 h2 = limit ( F2 , z1 , zp (2) )
17 h = h1 + h2 ;
18 disp ( ’ ( i v ) U n i t s a m p l e r e s p o n s e s e q u e n c e : ’ )
19 disp ( h * ” u ( n ) ” , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
20 for n =0:10;
21 w ( n +1) =( - 5.714*(0.2) ^n - 4.285*( - 0.5^ n ) ) ;
22 end
23 n =0:10;
24 plot (n , w ) ;
25 title ( ’ ( i i i ) U n i t Sample R e s p o n s e S e q u e n c e ’ ) ;
26 disp ( ’ where z=e ˆ jw ’ ,X , ’ ( i ) T r a n s f e r F u n c t i o n i s : ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 8.5 System function

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S e c o n d Order System
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 z = %z ;
7 syms n z1 ;
8 X = z ^2/( z -0.5) ^2

153
Figure 8.6: system response

154
 9 disp (X , ’ ( i ) System F u n c t i o n i s : ’ ) ;
10 X1 = denom ( X ) ;
11 zp = roots ( X1 ) ;
12 X1 = z1 ^2/( z1 -0.5) ^2;
13 F1 = X1 *( z1 ^( n -1) ) *( z1 -0.5) ^2;
14 h1 = limit ( F1 , z1 , zp (1) ) ;
15 h = h1 ;
16 disp ( ’ ( i i i ) U n i t s t e p r e s p o n s e s e q u e n c e : ’ )
17 disp ( h * ” u ( n ) ” , ’ h [ n ]= ’ ) ;
18 for n =0:20;
19 w1 ( n +1) =1 -(0.5) ^ n ;
20 end
21 n =0:20;
22 plot (n , w1 ) ;
23 title ( ’ ( i i ) U n i t Sample R e s p o n s e S e q u e n c e ’ ) ;
24 disp ( ’ where z=e ˆ jw ’ ,X , ’ ( i v ) T r a n s f e r F u n c t i o n (H( e ˆ
jw ) ) i s : ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 8.8 Transfer function

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 8 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms R L C s I ;
6 X = I *( R +1/( C * s ) ) ;
7 Y=R*I;
8 Z=Y/X;
9 disp (Z , ’ ( a ) RC High p a s s F i l t e r : H( s ) ’ ) ;
10 X = I *( L * s +1/( C * s ) ) ;
11 Y = I /( C * s ) ;
12 Z=Y/X;

155
Figure 8.7: System function

156
13 disp (Z , ’ ( b ) LC Low p a s s F i l t e r : H( s ) ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 8.9 Transfer function by block diagram reduction

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 9 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms G1 G2 G3 G4 H1 H2 s ;
6 G1 = s /( s +5) ;
7 G2 =10/( s +10) ;
8 H1 = s ;
9 H2 =1/ s ;
10 disp ( ’ ( i ) S h i f t i n g t h e t a k e o f f p o i n t ’ ) ;
11 H1 = H1 / G2 ;
12 disp ( ’ ( i i ) S o l v i n g s e c o n d Feedback Loop ’ ) ;
13 G3 = H1 -1;
14 disp ( ’ ( i i i ) S o l v i n g f i r s t Feedbac k Loop ’ ) ;
15 G4 = G2 /(1+ G2 * H2 ) ;
16 Z = G1 * G3 * G4 ;
17 disp (Z , ’ ( i v ) The T r a n s f e r F u n c t i o n i s : ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 8.10 Realization Structure

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 1 0 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms s1 ;
6 s = %s ;
7 H = poly (0 , ’ s ’ ) ;

157
 8 H = s ^3/( s ^3+6* s ^2++11* s +6) ;
9 H1 = denom ( H ) ;
10 a = roots ( H1 ) ;
11 H2 =5*( s1 ^3/( s1 - a (1) ) ) *( s1 /( s1 - a (2) ) ) *( s1 /( s1 - a (3) ) ) ;
12 disp ( H2 , ’ ( i i ) C a s c a d e Form : H( s ) ’ ) ;
13 h1 = s1 ^3*( s1 - a (1) ) /(( s1 +1) *( s1 +2) *( s1 +3) ) ;
14 h2 = s1 ^3*( s1 - a (2) ) /(( s1 +1) *( s1 +2) *( s1 +3) ) ;
15 h3 = s1 ^3*( s1 - a (3) ) /(( s1 +1) *( s1 +2) *( s1 +3) ) ;
16 A = limit ( h1 , s1 , a (1) ) /( s - a (1) ) ;
17 B = limit ( h2 , s1 , a (2) ) /( s - a (2) ) ;
18 C = limit ( h3 , s1 , a (3) ) /( s - a (3) ) ;
19 Z =5*(1+ A + B + C ) ;
20 disp (Z , ’ ( i i i ) P a r a l l e l Form R e a l i z a t i o n : H( s ) ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 8.12 Transfer function Realization

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 1 2 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // S e c o n d Order LSI s y s t e m
4 z = %z ;
5 s = %s ;
6 X = z ^ -1/(0.7* z ^ -2 -3.7* z ^ -1+3) ;
7 [ A ]= pfss ( z ^ -1/(0.7* z ^ -2 -3.7* z ^ -1+3) )
8 x1 = horner ( A (1) ,z )
9 x2 = horner ( A (2) ,z )
10 q = denom ( X ) ;
11 a = roots ( q )
12 H =[ x1 x2 z /3];
13 disp (H , ’ ( a ) H( z )= ’ ) ;
14 clear z ;
15 syms z n ;
16 F1 = ((1/6) *( z /( z -1) ) * z ^( n -1) *( z - a (1) ) )
17 F2 = ((0.7/54) *( z /( z -0.233333) ) * z ^( n -1) *( z - a (2) ) )
18 w1 = limit ( F1 ,z , a (1) )

158
19 w2 = limit ( F2 ,z , a (2) )
20 w = w1 + w2 ;
21 disp (w , ’ ( b ) h ( n ) )= ’ ) ;
22 z = %z ;
23 x11 = z * x1 /3
24 x12 = z * x2 /3
25 disp ( x11 , ” ( c ) P a r a l l e l r e a l i z a t i o n : H1 ( z ) ” ) ;
26 disp ( x12 , ” H2 ( z ) ” )

Scilab code Exa 8.13 Parallel form realization

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 8 . 1 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clear ;
4 clc ;
5 syms z1 ;
6 z = %z ;
7 H = poly (0 , ’ z ’ ) ;
8 H = z *( z +0.5) *( z +0.25) /(( z -0.5) *( z -0.25) *( z -0.125) ) ;
9 H1 = denom ( H ) ;
10 a = roots ( H1 )
11 h1 =( z1 +0.5) *( z1 +0.25) /(( z1 -0.5) *( z1 -0.25) *( z1 -0.125)
) *( z1 - a (1) ) ;
12 h2 =( z1 +0.5) *( z1 +0.25) /(( z1 -0.5) *( z1 -0.25) *( z1 -0.125)
) *( z1 - a (2) ) ;
13 h3 =( z1 +0.5) *( z1 +0.25) /(( z1 -0.5) *( z1 -0.25) *( z1 -0.125)
) *( z1 - a (3) ) ;
14 A = z * limit ( h1 , z1 , a (1) ) /( z - a (1) ) ;
15 B = z * limit ( h2 , z1 , a (2) ) /( z - a (2) ) ;
16 C = z * limit ( h3 , z1 , a (3) ) /( z - a (3) ) ;
17 Z=A+B+C;
18 disp (Z , ’ P a r a l l e l Form R e a l i s a t i o n : H( z ) ’ ) ;

159
 Chapter 9

Convolution and Correlation

Continuous Time Signals

Scilab code Exa 9.1 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n v o l u t i o n o f two s i g n a l s
4 clc ;
5 n =1;
6 for t = -10:0.1:10
7 x ( n ) =5* cos ( t ) ;
8 y ( n ) =2* exp ( - abs ( t ) ) ;
9 n = n +1;
10 end
11 z = conv (x , y ) ;
12 t2 = -20:0.1:20;
13 plot2d ( t2 , z ) ;
14 title ( ’ Output s i g n a l ’ ) ;
15 xlabel ( ’ Time t−−> ’ ) ;

160
Figure 9.1: Convolution

161
 Figure 9.2: Convolution

Scilab code Exa 9.3 Convolution

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C o n v o l u t i o n o f two s i g n a l s
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t >=0

162
 8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 n =1;
13 for t = -5:0.1:5
14 x ( n ) = -2* u (t -0.5) +2* u (t -1.5) ;
15 y ( n ) =( t +1) * u ( t +1) -( t +1) * u (t -2) ;
16 n = n +1;
17 end
18 z = conv (x , y ) ;
19 t = -5:0.1:5;
20 plot2d2 (t ,x ,5) ;
21 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
22 figure (1) ;
23 t = -5:0.1:5;
24 plot2d (t ,y ,2) ;
25 title ( ’ y ( t ) ’ ) ;
26 figure (2) ;
27 t = -10:0.1:10;
28 plot2d (t ,z ,6) ;
29 title ( ’ C o n v o l u t i o n ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 9.4 Autocorrelation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 T =1;
6 n =1;
7 for t = - T /2:0.01: T /2;

163
Figure 9.3: Autocorrelation

164
 Figure 9.4: Autocorrelation

8 x ( n ) =10* cos ( %pi * t / T ) ;

9 n = n +1;
10 end
11 t = - T /2:0.01: T /2;
12 plot (t , x ) ;
13 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
14 disp ( ’ Rxx ( 0 )=Energy o f s i g n a l ’ ) ;
15 Rxx = integrate ( ’ 50∗(1+ c o s ( 2 ∗ %pi ∗ t /T) ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,-T /2 , T /2) ;
16 disp ( Rxx , ’ Rxx ( 0 )= ’ ) ;

165
Figure 9.5: Autocorrelation

166
 Scilab code Exa 9.5 Autocorrelation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 function [ y ]= u ( t )
6 if t >=0
7 y =1
8 else y =0
9 end
10 endfunction
11 n =1;
12 for t = -10:0.01:10;
13 x ( n ) = exp ( - t ) * u ( t ) ;
14 n = n +1;
15 end
16 t = -10:0.01:10;
17 plot (t , x ) ;
18 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
19 n =1;
20 for T = -10:0.1:0;
21 z ( n ) = integrate ( ’ exp (− t ) ∗ exp (T−t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,0 ,1000) ;
22 n = n +1;
23 end
24 n =1;
25 for T =0.1:0.1:10;
26 z ( n +101) = integrate ( ’ exp (− t ) ∗ exp (T−t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,T
,1000) ;
27 n = n +1;
28 end
29 figure (1) ;
30 T = -10:0.1:10;
31 plot (T , z ) ;
32 title ( ’ Rxx (T) ’ ) ;
33 xlabel ( ’ t i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;

167
 Figure 9.6: Autocorrelation

Scilab code Exa 9.6 Autocorrelation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 A =1;

168
Figure 9.7: Autocorrelation

169
 6 n =1;
7 wo =2* %pi ;
8 theta = %pi /2;
9 for t = -5:0.01:5;
10 x ( n ) = A * cos ( wo * t + theta ) ;
11 n = n +1;
12 end
13 t = -5:0.01:5;
14 plot (t , x ) ;
15 title ( ’ x ( t ) ’ ) ;
16 n =1;
17 for T = -5:0.1:5;
18 z ( n ) =( A ^2/2) * cos ( wo * T ) ;
19 n = n +1;
20 end
21 figure (1) ;
22 T = -5:0.1:5;
23 plot (T , z ) ;
24 title ( ’ Rxx (T) ’ ) ;
25 xlabel ( ’ t i n s e c o n d s ’ )

Scilab code Exa 9.7 Autocorrelation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 7 o f S i g n a l s and s y s t e m s

by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 clc ;
4 clear ;
5 clear z x y t T A ;
6 A =4;
7 T0 =2;

170
Figure 9.8: Autocorrelation

171
Figure 9.9: Autocorrelation

172
 8 n =1;
9 for T =0:0.1: T0 ;
10 if T < T0 /2 then
11 x(n)=A;
12 else x ( n ) =0;
13 end
14 n = n +1;
15 end
16 T =0:0.1: T0 ;
17 plot2d2 (T ,x ,6) ;
18 title ( ’ x ( t ) ) ’ ) ;
19 xlabel ( ’ t i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;
20 n =1;
21 for T =0:0.1: T0 ;
22 z ( n ) =(1/ T0 ) * integrate ( ’Aˆ2 ’ , ’ t ’ ,T , T0 /2) ;
23 n = n +1;
24 end
25 T =0:0.1: T0 ;
26 figure (1) ;
27 plot (T , z ) ;
28 title ( ’ Rxx (T) ’ ) ;
29 xlabel ( ’T i n s e c o n d s ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 9.10 Autocorrelation Function

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 1 0 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 //Maximum V a l u e o f Auto−C o r r e l a t i o n F u n c t i o n
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 disp ( ’ Maximum V a l u e o f ACF=Rxx ( 0 ) ’ ) ;
7 x =200* integrate ( ’ exp ( −2∗ t ) ’ , ’ t ’ ,0 ,1000) ;
8 disp (x , ’ Energy i n x ( t )= ’ ) ;

173
 Figure 9.10: PSD

Scilab code Exa 9.11 PSD

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 9 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Power S p e c t r a l D e n s i t y
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 function [ y ]= delta ( t )
7 if t ==0

174
 8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 fo =2;
13 n =1;
14 RC =1/(2* %pi *10^3) ;
15 w =4* %pi *10^3
16 H =1/(1+ %i * w * RC ) ;
17 disp (H , ’H( f ) ’ ) ;
18 X =( abs ( H ) ) ^2;
19 for f = -5:5
20 Pxx ( n ) =25*[ delta (f - fo ) + delta ( f + fo ) ];
21 Pyy ( n ) = X * Pxx ( n ) ;
22 n = n +1;
23 end
24 disp ( Pxx , ’ Pxx= ’ ) ;
25 disp ( Pyy , ’ Pyy= ’ ) ;
26 f = -5:5;
27 plot2d3 (f , Pyy , -2) ;
28 title ( ’ Power S p e c t r a l D e n s i t y ’ ) ;
29 ylabel ( ’ Pyy ( f ) ’ ) ;
30 xlabel ( ’ f i n Hz ’ ) ;

175
 Chapter 10

Discrete Time Convolution and

Correlation

Scilab code Exa 10.1 Cross Correlation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C r o s s C o r r e l a t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 x =[2 , -1 ,1 ,0 ,2];
7 y =[0 ,1 ,0 , -1 ,2];
8 // c o m p u t a t i o n o f c r o s s c o r r e l a t i o n s e q u e n c e ;
9 n1 = max ( size ( y ) ) -1;
10 n2 = max ( size ( x ) ) -1;
11 r = xcorr (x ,y , n1 ) ;
12 n = -4:4;
13 a = gca () ;
14 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
15 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
16 plot2d3 (n ,r , -9) ;

176
Figure 10.1: Cross Correlation

177
 Figure 10.2: Cross Correlation Sequence

17 title ( ’ C r o s s −C o r r e l a t i o n s e g u e n c e o u t p u t ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 10.2 Cross Correlation Sequence

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // C r o s s C o r r e l a t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 x =[4 , -2 ,2 ,0 ,4];

178
 Figure 10.3: Auto Correlation

7 y =[0 ,3 ,0 , -3 ,6];
8 // c o m p u t a t i o n o f c r o s s c o r r e l a t i o n s e q u e n c e ;
9 n1 = max ( size ( y ) ) -1;
10 n2 = max ( size ( x ) ) -1;
11 r = xcorr (x ,y , n1 ) ;
12 n = -4:4;
13 a = gca () ;
14 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
15 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
16 plot2d3 (n ,r , -9) ;
17 title ( ’ r x y c r o s s − c o r r e l a t i o n ’ ) ;

179
 Scilab code Exa 10.4 Auto Correlation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 4 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Auto C o r r e l a t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 x =[ -1 ,1 , -1];
7 // c o m p u t a t i o n o f a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n s e q u e n c e ;
8 r = xcorr ( x ) ;
9 n = -2:2;
10 a = gca () ;
11 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
12 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
13 plot2d3 (n ,r , -9) ;
14 title ( ’ r x x a u t o − c o r r e l a t i o n ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 10.5 Auto Correlation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 5 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Auto C o r r e l a t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t & gt ;=0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 k =1;

180
Figure 10.4: Auto Correlation

181
13 a =0.8;
14 for n = -30:30;
15 x ( k ) = a ^( - n ) * u ( - n ) ;
16 k = k +1;
17 end
18 length ( x )
19 // c o m p u t a t i o n o f a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n s e q u e n c e ;
20 r = xcorr ( x ) ;
21 n = -60:60;
22 a = gca () ;
23 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
24 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
25 plot2d3 (n ,r , -4) ;
26 title ( ’ r x x a u t o − c o r r e l a t i o n ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 10.8 Auto Correlation

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 8 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // Auto C o r r e l a t i o n
4 clear ;
5 clc ;
6 function [ y ]= u ( t )
7 if t & gt ;=0
8 y =1
9 else y =0
10 end
11 endfunction
12 k =1;
13 a =0.8;
14 for n = -30:30;
15 x ( k ) = a ^( n ) * u ( n ) ;

182
Figure 10.5: Auto Correlation

183
 Figure 10.6: System response

16 k = k +1;
17 end
18 length ( x )
19 // c o m p u t a t i o n o f a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n s e q u e n c e ;
20 r = xcorr ( x ) ;
21 n = -60:60;
22 a = gca () ;
23 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
24 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
25 plot2d3 (n ,r , -4) ;
26 title ( ’ r x x a u t o − c o r r e l a t i o n ’ ) ;

184
 Scilab code Exa 10.11 System response

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 0 . 1 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // System I d e n t i f i c a t i o n
4 // C r o s s C o r r e l a t i o n
5 clear ;
6 clc ;
7 x =[1 ,1 ,1 ,1 ,0 ,0];
8 y =[1 ,3 ,6 ,10 ,12 ,12 ,10 ,6 ,3 ,1];
9 h (1) = y (1) / x (1) ;
10 for n =2:7
11 for k =1: n -1
12 z ( k ) =( h ( k ) * x (n - k ) ) ;
13 h ( n ) =( y ( n ) - sum ( z ) ) ;
14 end
15 end
16 disp (h , ’ h ( n ) ’ ) ;
17 n =1:7;
18 a = gca () ;
19 a . x_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
20 a . y_location = ” o r i g i n ” ;
21 plot2d3 (n ,h , -4) ;
22 title ( ’ System R e s p o n s e h ( n ) ’ ) ;

185
 Chapter 11

Hilbert Transform Continuous

and Discrete

Scilab code Exa 11.1 Hilbert Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 1 . 1 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 n =1;
7 for t = -1:0.01:1
8 xr ( n ) = sin (2* %pi * t ) ;
9 n = n +1;
10 end
11 // Computing H i l b e r t b T r a n s f o r m
12 x = hilbert ( xr ) ;
13 plot (t , xr ) ;
14 title ( ’ Given S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;

186
Figure 11.1: Hilbert Transform

187
Figure 11.2: Hilbert Transform

188
 Figure 11.3: Hilbert Transform

15 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−&g t ; ’ ) ;
16 figure (1) ;
17 t = -1:0.1:1;
18 plot (t , imag ( x ) ) ;
19 title ( ’ H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m ’ ) ;
20 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−&g t ; ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 11.2 Hilbert Transform

189
Figure 11.4: Hilbert Transform

190
1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 1 . 2 o f S i g n a l s and
s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m
4 clc ;
5 clear ;
6 n =1;
7 for t = -1:0.01:1
8 xr ( n ) = cos (2* %pi * t ) ;
9 n = n +1;
10 end
11 // Computing H i l b e r t b T r a n s f o r m
12 x = hilbert ( xr ) ;
13 t = -1:0.01:1;
14 plot (t , xr ) ;
15 title ( ’ Given S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
16 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;
17 figure (1) ;
18 t = -1:0.01:1;
19 plot (t , imag ( x ) ) ;
20 title ( ’ H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m ’ ) ;
21 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 11.3 Hilbert Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 1 . 3 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m
4 clc ;
5 clear xr n t x1 x2 ;

191
Figure 11.5: Hilbert Transform

192
Figure 11.6: Hilbert Transform

193
 6 clear ;
7 n =1;
8 for t = -1:0.01:1
9 xr ( n ) = exp ( %i *2* %pi * t ) ;
10 n = n +1;
11 end
12 // Computing H i l b e r t b T r a n s f o r m
13 x1 = hilbert ( real ( xr ) ) ;
14 x2 = hilbert ( imag ( xr ) ) ;
15 x = x1 + x2 ;
16 t = -1:0.01:1;
17 plot (t , xr ) ;
18 title ( ’ Given S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
19 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;
20 figure (1) ;
21 t = -1:0.01:1;
22 plot (t , imag ( x ) ) ;
23 title ( ’ H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m ’ ) ;
24 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;

Scilab code Exa 11.6 Hilbert Transform

1 // S c i l a b Code f o r Example 1 1 . 6 o f S i g n a l s and

s y s t e m s by
2 //P . Ramakrishna Rao
3 // H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m
4 clc ;
5 clear A T t x ;
6 T =2;
7 A =1;
8 n =1;

194
Figure 11.7: Hilbert Transform

195
Figure 11.8: Hilbert Transform

196
 9 for t = -10:0.01:10;
10 if t > - T /2 & t < T /2 then
11 x(n)=A;
12 n = n +1;
13 else x ( n ) =0;
14 n = n +1;
15 end
16 end
17 t = -10:0.01:10;
18 // S i g n a l x ( t )
19 plot (t , x ) ;
20 title ( ’ Given S i g n a l x ( t ) ’ ) ;
21 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;
22 // Computing H i l b e r t T r a n s f o r m
23 xr = hilbert ( x ) ;
24 xr_imag = imag ( xr ) ;
25 figure (1) ;
26 t = -10:0.01:10;
27 plot (t , xr_imag ) ;
28 title ( ’ H i l b e r t t r a n s f o r m and a s s o c i a t e d s i g n a l ’ ) ;
29 xlabel ( ’ t i m e t−−> ’ ) ;

197