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Endocrine System

BSPT (Cebu Doctors' University)

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Overview of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System ENDOCRINE NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Composed of glands that secrete chemical SYSTEM
signals into the circulatory system.
- glands have ducts that carry their secretions amplitude-modulated Frequency-modulated
to sur- faces

Hormones
- secretory products of endocrine glands Functional Classification of Intercellular
- Chemical substances secreted by cells into Chemical Signals
the interstitial fluid and diffuse into the
blood Autocrine Secreted by cells in a local area and
influences the activity of the same cell
- Are chemically categorized as belonging to type from which it was secreted
the
o Protein group
Paracrine Produced by a wide variety of tissues
 Proteins, glycoproteins,
and secreted into tissue spaces;
polypeptides, and amino acid usually has a localized effect on other
derivatives tissues
o Lipid group
Hormone Secreted into the blood by specialized
 Steroids and fatty acid cells; travels some distance to target
derivatives tissues; influences specific activities

produced in minute Neurohormone Produced by neurons and functions

amounts by cells like hormones

secreted into interstitial Neurotransmitteror Produced by neurons and secreted

spaces neuromodulator into extracellular spaces by
presynaptic nerve terminals; travels
short distances; influences
postsynaptic cells
enters circulatory system

Pheromone Secreted into the environment;

modifies physiology and behavior of
acts on target tissues other individuals

Function of the Endocrine System

1. Metabolism and tissue maturation. Endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus
2. Ion regulation.
The pancreas and gonads produce both
3. Water balance. hormones and exocrine products
The hypothalamus has both neural
4. Immune system regulation. functions and releases hormones
Other tissues and organs that produce
5. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation. hormones: adipose cells, pockets of cells
in the walls of the small intestine, stomach,
6. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients. kidneys, and heart

7. Control of reproductive functions. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ORGANS

8. Uterine contractions and milk release PITUITARY GLAND / HYPOPHYSIS

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Pituitary gland → rests in a depression of the sphenoid COMMON DISORDERS THAT AFFECT THE
bone inferior to the thalamus; lies posterior to the optic ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
● Gigantism
chiasm; attached to the hypothalamus; pea-sized,
○ Occurs when excess hormone is
reddish-gray body that stores hormones from the
secreted before bones finish growing in
hypothalamus and releases them into the bloodstream. length causing exaggerated bone
growth
● Infundibulum → stalk that connects pituitary ○ Symptoms:
gland to hypothalamus ■ Being abnormally tall
■ People who’ve had abnormal
Hypothalamus → integral part of the brain; Small cone- growth before adolescence
shaped structure that projects downward from the brain. ■ Hoarse & deep voice
■ Visible spaces between the
Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is teeth splayed fingers and toes
regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. ■ swollen and painful joints that
By secreting hormones from the hypothalamus, it could limit movement
increase or decrease the secretion of a specified ■ weight gain
hormone by the anterior pituitary. ■ enlarged sebaceous glands,
which are glands that produce
HYPOTHALAMO HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM oils in the skin
■ thickened skin
→ made up of epithelial cells derived from the embryonic
■ skin tags, which are
oral cavity.
noncancerous growths
2 hormones secreted by hypothalamus:
● Releasing hormone → stimulates the ● Dwarfism
production and secretion of a specified hormone ○ a young person suffering from a
by the anterior pituitary. deficiency of growth hormone remains
● Inhibiting hormone → decreases the secretion small although normally proportioned
○ Occurs when there is too little growth
of a specific anterior pituitary hormone.
hormone secretion resulting from an
REGULATION OF HORMONES AND GLANDS IN THE
abnormal development of the pituitary
ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
gland
○ Symptoms:
1. Stimuli within the Nervous System regulate the
■ a normal-length body with short
secretion of releasing hormones and inhibiting
arms and legs
hormones from neurons of the hypothalamus.
■ a large head with a prominent
2. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
forehead and flat nasal bridge
pass through the hypothalamohypophysial portal
■ short and wide hands and feet
system to the anterior pituitary.
■ short fingers and toes
3. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones
leave capillaries and stimulate or inhibit the
● Acromegaly
release of hormone from anterior pituitary cells.
○ having abnormally large facial features
4. In response to releasing hormones, anterior
and hands;
pituitary hormones travel in the blood to their
○ Occurs when excess hormone is
target tissues, which in some cases, are other
secreted after growth in bone length is
endocrine glands.
complete causing the bones to grow in
diameter
HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL TRACT → extension
○ Symptoms:
of the brain and composed of nerve cells; when ■ enlarged bones in the face, feet,
stimulated, action potentials from the hypothalamus and hands
travel along the axons to the posterior pituitary, causes ■ an enlarged jaw or tongue
the release of hormones from the axon endings ■ a prominent brow
■ excessive growth spurts, which
are more common in

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are filled with protein thyroglobulin, to which

COMMON DISORDERS THAT AFFECT THE thyroid proteins are attached.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
● Hypothalamus & Pitutary → regulates thyroid

➢ Diabetes Insipidus or DI hormone secretion.

○ Results when there is lack of ADH
secretion REGULATION OF THE HORMONES INVOLVED
○ The production of large amount of dilute
urine created by excess water loss from
the blood ● The thyroid hormones binds to nuclear receptors
○ Increases the concentration of body in cells and creates action that keeps our
fluids and causes loss of electrolytes, metabolism under control.
such as Ca, Na, and K ● The 2 main thyroid hormones are:
○ Symptoms:
Triiodothyronine(T3) & Thyroxine(T4).
■ Extreme thirst that can't be
quenched (polydipsia) ● Thyroxine (T4) - contains 4 iodine [Link] is the
■ Excretion of an excessive main hormone secreted since it plays vital roles
amount of urine (polyuria) in digestion, heart, etc.
■ Colourless urine instead of pale ● Triiodothyronine (T3)- contains 3 iodine atoms
yellow (Diluted urine)
and mostly binds to protein in our body.

● Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic

Hormone or SIADH ● Thyroid glands also secrete a hormone called
○ Results when there excessive secretion calcitonin.
of ADH
○ Causes the body to retain water and
COMMON DISORDERS THAT AFFECT THE THYROID
certain levels of electrolytes in the blood
GLAND
to fall
● Goiter
○ Commonly prescribed treatment: fluid
○ Abnormal enlargement of the thyroid
and water restriction
gland due to excess TSH(Thyroid
○ Symptoms:
Stimulating Hormones)
■ Nausea or vomiting
● Hypothyroidism
■ Cramps or tremors
○ Deficient secretion of Thyroid Hormone,
■ Depressed mood
can cause cretinism in infants and
■ memory impairment
myxedema.
■ Irritability
○ Classified into 3:
■ Personality changes, such as
■ Primary Hypothyroidism
combativeness, confusion, and
■ Central/ Secondary
hallucinations
Hypothyroidism
■ Seizure
■ Transient Hypothyroidism
■ Stupor or coma
● Cretinism
○ characterized by mental retardation,
short stature and and abnormally
THYROID GLAND
formed skeletal structures
- Located at each sides of the Trachea inferior to the ● Myxedema
larynx below the Adam’s apple, along the front of the ○ accumulation of liquid and other
windpipe. molecules in the subcutaneous tissue of
● Isthmus → a narrow band connecting the two the skin
● Grave’s Disease
lobes of the Thyroid gland.
○ is an autoimmune system disorder that
● Thyroid follicles → small spheres with walls results in the overproduction of thyroid
composed of simple cuboidal epitheliums which hormones (hyperthyroidism). Although a
number of disorders may result in

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hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease is a 3. The parafollicular cells and the parathyroid gland
common cause cells detect elevated blood calcium ion. The
● Hyperthyroidism
parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin; the
○ Excessive secretion of Thyroid
parathyroid gland cells decrease PTH secretion
Hormones, causes accelerated
metabolism, extreme nervousness, and 4. There is less bone reabsorption and less uptake
chronic fatigue of calcium ion from both kidney and the
○ Classification of Hyperparathyroidism: intestine.
■ Primary Hyperthyroidism
5. Blood calcium ion level drops back to its normal
■ Secondary Hyperthyroidism
range
6. Homeostasis is restored.

PARATHYROID GLAND
COMMON DISORDERS THAT AFFECT THE
- 4 Parathyroid glands are embedded in the posterior PARATHYROID GLAND
wall of the thyroid gland ● Hyperparathyroidism
- secrete PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) which is ○ a.k.a. Hypercalcemia
essential for regulating blood calcium levels. ○ Abnormally high rate of PTH secretion.
● PTH - more important than calcitonin in ○ cause of tumor in the parathyroid gland
regulating Ca2+ levels ○ Symptoms:
-fragile bones that easily fracture
EFFECTS OF PTH (osteoporosis)
1. Increase active Vitamin D formation -kidney stones
2. PTH secretion increases blood Ca2+levels -excessive urination
-abdominal pain
3. Decreases loss of Ca2+
-tiring easily or weakness
-depression or forgetfulness
1. Vit. D is produced from precursors in the skin -bone and joint pain
that are modified by the liver and kidneys. -nausea, vomiting or loss of appetite
2. Ultraviolet light acting on the skin is required for
● Hypoparathyroidism
the 1st stage of Vit D synthesis, and the final
○ a.k.a. Hypocalcemia
stage of the synthesis in the kidney is stimulated
○ abnormally low rate of PTH secretion
by PTH.
○ can result from injury to or the surgical
3. Decreasing blood Ca2+ levels stimulate an
removal of the thyroid and parathyroid
increase of PTH secretion
glands
4. increased PTH increases the rate of bone
○ Symptoms:
reabsorption
-tingling or burning in your fingertips,
5. Increasing blood Ca2+ levels causes a
toes and lips
decrease in PTH secretion. -muscle aches or cramps in your legs,
6. Increase in blood Ca2+levels stimulate calcitonin feet, abdomen or face
secretion which causes blood Ca2+ to decline. -twitching or spasms of your muscles,
7. Decrease PTH secretion leads to reduced blood particularly around your mouth
-fatigue
Ca2+ levels
-painful menstruation
-patchy hair loss
REGULATION OF Ca2+ BLOOD VESSELS -dry, coarse skin
1. Blood calcium ion is within its normal range -brittle nails
2. Blood calcium ion level increases outside the -depression/ anxiety
● Rickets
normal range

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○ a condition in children where there is

abnormal softening of the bones due to 2. Zona Faciculata (middle layer of the
lack of minerals to strengthen it.
cortex)
○ also known as osteomalacia in adults.
○ Symptoms: - Produces and secretes glucocorticoids
-bowing of the legs - Glucocorticoids – helps regulate blood
-the chest wall appearing to stick out nutrient levels; Target tissue → all
-soft skull bones tissues
-curvature of the spine - Cortisol – major hormone of this class;
-short stature increases breakdown of proteins and
-delayed formation of teeth
lipids and increases their conversion to
● Osteomalacia
forms of energy; thus, its aids the body
○ is a weakening of the bones
○ caused by lack of vitamin D in the body by providing energy sources for the
○ Symptoms: tissues.
-bone pain (occurs most often in the 3. Zone reticulosa (innermost layer of the
hips) cortex)
-bone tenderness in arms, legs and - Produces and secretes androgens;
spine target tissue → Gonads, skin muscles
-muscle spasm
and bones
-numbness around the mouth or in the
hands and feet. - Androgens – stimulate the
development of male secondary sex
characteristics
ADRENAL GLAND - Male: secreted by testes ; Female:
- are two small glands located superior to each kidney; influence the sex drive
also called suprarenal glands (above/anterior kidney) - If secretion of this hormone is
abnormally high, exaggerated male
Has 2 parts: characteristics develops in both male
1. Adrenal Medulla → inner part (marrow or and female; most apparent in female
middle) and before puberty for males (when
2. Adrenal Cortex → outer part (back or outer) effects are not masked by the secretion
of androgens by the testes)
*The adrenal medulla and cortex function as separate
endocrine glands*
REGULATION OF THE ALDOSTERONE SECRETION
A. Blood levels of K+ and Na+ - directly affect
Adrenal Cortex
the adrenal cortex to influence aldosterone
- Hormones supplied by adrenal cortex supply
secretion.
long term responses to stress
- Elevated blood of K+ levels and
- Secretes 3 main types of hormones:
decreased blood Na+ levels = stimulate
mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and
aldosterone secretion.
androgens.
B. Changes in blood pressure - indirectly affect the
rate of aldosterone secretion.
3 DISTINCT PARTS: - Low Blood pressure → release of protein renin
1. Zona Glomerulosa (outer layer of cortex) (acts an enzyme) from kidney → Converts
- produces and secretes angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (a
mineralocorticoid; Target tissue → hormone system that regulates blood pressure
Kidneys and fluid balance) → angiotensin –
- Mineralocorticoid (a class hormones) converting enzyme, a protein converts
- helps regulate blood volume and the angiotensin I to angiotensin II → smooth
blood levels of K+ and Na+ muscles in blood vessels constricts and acts on
- Aldosterone → major hormone of this adrenal cortex → Increase aldosterone secretion
class → Increase in blood pressure

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4. Secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the

REGULATION OF THE CORTISOL SECRETION circulatory system occurs.
5. The hormones act on target tissues to produce
1. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) is response.
released from the hypothatlatic neuron in
response to stress and or low blood glucose and *Adrenal medulla and the nervous system (sympathetic
passes division of the autonomic nervous system) function
2. In anterior pituitary gland) CHR binds to and together to prepare the body for physical activity and to
stimulate stimulates cells that secretes produce the flight-or-fight response.*
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
3. ACTH binds to the membrane-bound receptors The Difference between Adrenal Medulla and
on cells of the adrenal cortex and stimulates the Adrenal Cortex:
secretion of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol 1. The adrenal cortex is the outermost part that
4. Cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in covers the adrenal medulla, while the adrenal
increased lipid and protein breakdown, medulla is the centermost or middle portion of
increased glucose levels and anti-inflammatory the adrenal gland.
effects. 2. The adrenal cortex releases various hormones
5. Cortisol has a negative feedback effect because (glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and
it inhibits CRH release from the anterior pituitary androgens) while adrenal medulla releases
gland. epinephrine and norepinephrine.
3. The hormones of the adrenal cortex are
Adrenal medulla released by virtue of ACTH stimulation from the
- inner part of the adrenal gland; Stimulated by anterior pituitary gland while the hormones of
sympathetic nervous system, and is most active the adrenal medulla are released because of
when a person is excited or physically active. various nerve signals for stress reaction
Other times, stress and low blood glucose also (response).
activates it.
COMMON DISORDERS
HORMONES:(fight-or-flight hormones) ● Cushing’s disease
- Epinephrine – also known as ADRENALINE - there is too much cortisol production
- Norepinephrine – also known as (hypercortisolism):
NORADRENALINE - A pituitary gland tumor can cause this
FUNCTION condition.
- Release of stored energy to support increased ○ Occurs when the A benign tumor of the
physical activity (glucose and fatty acids). pituitary gland, located at the base of
- Increased heart rate. the brain, secretes an excess amount of
- Vasoconstriction (increased smooth muscle ACTH, which in turn stimulates the
contraction in internal organ and skin blood vessels) adrenal cortex to make more cortisol or
- Increased blood flow to skeletal muscle the stress hormone
Increased metabolic rate for nervous tissue, skeletal, ● Addison’s disease
and cardiac muscle. ○ occurs when the body produces
insufficient amounts of the cortisol
- Sustains the fight-or-flight response (sympathetic)
hormones produced by the adrenal
glands (hypocortisolism)
REGULATION OF THE ADRENAL MEDULLARY
- This disorder happens when the adrenal
HORMONE
glands don’t make enough of the
1. Stress, physical activity and low blood glucose levels
hormones it secretes
act as stimuli to the hypothalamus.
- A problem with your immune system
2. Increased sympathetic nervous system activity occurs.
usually causes addison’s disease, where
3. An increased frequency of action potentials conducted
your immune system mistakenly attacks
through the sympathetic division of the autonomic
your own tissues, damaging your
nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla.
adrenal glands.

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functioning of key organs including the brain, liver and

kidneys.
PANCREAS
- lies inferior to the stomach, in a bend of the duodenum; REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
both an endocrine and an exocrine gland; surrounded by Ketones → produced by the liver from the fatty acids
other organs including the small intestine, liver and
released by the breakdown of lipids
spleen.
Acidosis → a condition wherein pH of the body fluids is
Pancreas → elongated 12-15 cm long organ consisting below normal
of head, body and tail. Insulin → secreted by beta cells when blood glucose
● body and tail → extend laterally level elevates; major target tissues are liver, adipose
● tail → touches the spleen tissue, muscles and the area of the hypothalamus that
Endocrine part of the pancreas = Islet of Langerhans controls appetite (satiety center)
● Two signals that inhibit insulin secretion: low
→ consists of the pancreatic islets which are dispersed or
blood glucose levels and stimulation of the
spread throughout the exocrine part
sympathetic nervous system
● Pancreatic islets → consist of three cells which Glucagon → is released from the alpha cells to increase
each secrete a different hormone. blood glucose level when blood glucose level is low and
○ Alpha Cells → secrete the hormone stops when it has elevated.
glucagon Somatostatin → is released by the delta cells in
○ Beta Cells → secrete insulin; the most response to food intake. Inhibits the secretion of insulin
abundant of the islet cells and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract.
○ Delta Cells → secrete the hormone
somatostatin, which is also produced by Blood glucose level increase:
a number of other endocrine cells in the ↑ insulin secretion; ↓ glucagon secretion
Blood glucose decrease:
body.
↓ rate of insulin secretion; ↑ rate of glucagon secretion
ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE FUNCTION
Exocrine function → produces enzymes important for Process of regulation of blood glucose level:
1. Blood glucose level is within it normal range.
digestion.
2. Blood glucose level increases outside its normal
● Pancreatic duct → where a system of ducts range.
culminates and where pancreatic juices are 3. Pancreatic islets secrete insulin in direct
released response to elevated blood glucose.
● Ampulla of Vater → formed from the joining of 4. Most tissues take up glucose when insulin binds
the pancreatic duct and the common bile duct; to its receptor on the tissues.
5. Blood glucose level drops back to its normal
located at the duodenum
range.
● Common bile duct → originates in the liver and 6. Homeostasis is restored, blood glucose level
the gallbladder and produces another important increases
digestive juice called bile
● Pancreatic juices and bile → are released into COMMON DISORDERS THAT AFFECT THE
the duodenum, help the body to digest fats, PANCREAS
● DIABETES MELLITUS
carbohydrates and proteins.
○ Type I - Occurs when too little insulin is
secreted from the pancreas. Signs and
Enzymes produced by the exocrine of the pancreas:
symptoms include but not limited to
● trypsin and chymotrypsin (digest protein)
increased thirst, frequent urination,
● amylase (digestion of carbohydrates)
fatigue and blurred vision.
● lipase (break down fats)
■ Hyperglycemia - A condition
when blood glucose levels
Endocrine function → regulates blood sugar. become very high because
Maintaining proper blood sugar levels is crucial to the

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tissues cannot take up glucose and function, external genitalia structure, and are
effectively responsible for secondary sex characteristics, sexual
○ Type II - Caused by either too few behavior and the menstrual cycle.
insulin receptors on target cells or
Gastrointestinal tract → when food is present in the
defective receptors on target cells.
Results in a lack of energy and insulin digestive system; cells in the linings secrete hormones
must be injected regularly to adequately that stimulate the production of digestive juices from the
control blood glucose levels. stomach, pancreas and liver; helps regulate the rate of
*defective receptors do not respond normally to the food passage from the stomach to the small
insulin
intestine.
● PANCREATITIS Kidneys → secretes erythropoietin, a hormone that acts
○ Acute pancreatitis - Inflammation of on bone marrow to increase the production of red blood
the pancreas and is usually associated
cells when oxygen levels decrease.
with severe upper abdominal pain.
Placenta → a source of hormones such as estrogen,
○ Chronic pancreatitis - A progressive
disorder most common in men that is progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin which
associated with the destruction of the helps maintain pregnancy and helps stimulate breast
pancreas. Symptoms include pain in the development.
upper abdomen, diarrhea, shortness of Prostaglandins → widely distributed in the tissues of the
breath and excessive thirst and fatigue.
body; function as an intercellular signal; function mainly
As the disorder progresses, patients
as autocrine or paracrine chemical signals; help relax
develop malnutrition and weight loss.
Therapies center on pain management and contract smooth muscle, it also plays a role in
and nutritional support inflammation.
○ Hereditary pancreatitis - pancreatitis
related to inherited abnormalities of the
pancreas or intestine. Symptoms EFFECTS OF AGING TO THE ENDOCRINE
include nausea, vomiting and abdominal SYSTEMS:
pain. 1. GRADUAL DECREASE IN SOME
○ Pancreatic Cancer - the fourth most ENDOCRINE GLANDS
common cause of cancer death in men
and the fifth in women. This grows
insidiously and initially does not cause ● GROWTH HORMONE SECRETION
symptoms and is resistant to - Regular exercise offsets decline
chemotherapy and radiation therapy. - GH level decrease explain gradual bone &
Signs and symptoms include but not muscle mass & increase of adipose tissue in the
limited to abdominal pain, nausea, elderly
weight loss and blood clots. ● MELATONIN SECRETION
- Influence changes in sleep patterns, and also
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS decreased secretion of some hormones (ex: GH
and testosterone)
- the male reproductive organ, Testes, is located ● THYROID HORMONE SECRETION
outside the pelvic cavity and inside the scrotal - Only slightly; however damage to thyroid gland
sac.
can still occur
- The female reproductive organ, Ovary, is
- Less common in men, w/ approx. 10% of elderly
located within the pelvic cavity.
women affected
● RENIN SECRETION IN KIDNEYS
Testes - secretes TESTOSTERONE, which aids in
- Reduces ability to respond to blood pressure
sperm cell production,maintain functional reproductive
decrease
organs, and are responsible for secondary sex
● REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE SECRETION
characteristics and sexual behavior.
- Gradually declines in men
Ovary - secretes ESTROGENS and PROGESTERONE, - Women experience menopause
which aid in uterine and mammary gland development ● THYMOSIN SECRETION IN THYMUS

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- Fewer functional lymphocytes produced

- Immune system becomes less effective in
protecting body against infections & cancer
2. INCREASE IN PARATHYROID HORMONE
SECRETION
- Happens to maintain blood calcium levels if
dietary Ca2+ and vitamin D levels decrease
- Consequently, a decrease in bone matrix may
occur

3. TENDENCY TO DEVELOP TYPE 2 DIABETES

MELLITUS
- Possibility only for those with familial tendency;
it is correlated with increase in body weight

Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response/Function

Anterior Pituitary Growth Hormone Most Tissues Increase gene expression; Breakdown of
Gland lipids and release fatty acids from cells;
Increase blood glucose levels

Thyroid-Stimulating Thyroid Gland Increase thyroid hormone secretion

Hormone (TSH) (thyroxine and triiodothyronine)

Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal Cortex Increases secretion of glucocorticoid

Hormone (ACTH) hormones (cortisal); Increases skin
pigmentation at high concentration

Melanocyte- Melanocytes in the Increase melanin production in

stimulating Hormone skin melanocytes to make the skin darker in
(MSH) color

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Luteinizing hormone Ovary (females) and Promotes ovulation and progesterone

(LH) or Interstitial Cell- Testis (males) production in ovary; Promotes testosterone
stimulating Hormone synthesis and support sperm cell
(ICSH) production (testis)

Follicle-stimulating Follicles in ovary Promotes follicle maturation and estrogen

Hormone (FSH) (females) and secretion in ovary; Promotes sperm cell
seminiferous tubules production in testis
(males)

Prolactin Ovary and mammary Stimulates milk production and prolongs

glands (females) and progesterone secretion following ovulation
testis (males) and during pregnancy (women); Increases
sensitivity to LH (men)

Posterior pituitary Antidiuretic Kidney Conserves water; Constricts blood vessels

gland hormone (ADH)

Oxytocin Uterus, mammary Stimulates uterine contractions during

glands childbirth; Increase uterine contraction;
Increase milk letdown from mammary
glands

Thyroid Thyroid Hormones Most cells of the Increase metabolic rates, essential for
(Thyroxine, Body normal process of growth and maturation.
Triiodothyronine)

Calcitonin Primarily Bone Decreases rate of bone breakdown;

prevents large increase in blood Ca²+

Parathyroid Parathyroid Bones and Blood Regulate Calcium blood levels

Hormone (PTH) Vessels

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Adrenal Glands Glucocorticoids All tissues Raise blood glucose level, stimulates
(cortisol) - Adrenal breakdown of protein and lipid, inhibit
Cortex inflammation and immune response

Mineralocorticoids Kidneys Reabsorb sodium and excrete potassium;

(aldosterone) - Adrenal water retention
Cortex

Sex Hormones - Gonads, Skin

Stimulates reproductive organs and brings sex
Adrenal Cortex muscles and bones
characteristics

Epinephrine (mostly); Muscles and - Release of stored energy to support

Norepinephrine (some) - increased physical activity (glucose and
Adrenal Medulla Blood vessels fatty acids).
- Increased heart rate.
- Vasoconstriction (increased smooth
muscle contraction in internal organ
and skin blood vessels)
- Increased blood flow to skeletal
muscle
- Increased metabolic rate for nervous
tissue, skeletal, and cardiac muscle.
Sustains the fight-or-flight response
(sympathetic)

Pancreas Insulin Especially liver, Increases uptake and use of glucose and
skeletal muscle, amino acids; The insulin controls the level
adipose tissue of sugar in the blood.

Pancreas Glucagon Primarily liver Increases breakdown of glycogen and

release of glucose into the circulatory
system; Stimulates the liver to convert
glycogen to glucose.

Reproductive Glands Testosterone Most Tissues Aids in sperm cell production; maintenance
of functional reproductive organs;
secondary sex characteristics; sexual
behavior

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Estrogens, Progesterone Most Tissues Aid in uterine and mammary gland

development and function; external
genitalia;secondary sex characteristics;
sexual behavior; menstrual cycle

Prostaglandins Most Tissues Mediate inflammatory responses; increase

uterine contractions and ovulation

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