THE SOUTH AFRICAN DEATH SENTENCE

UNDER A NEW CONSTITUTION

by

ROBERT PAUL RUDOLF KRAUTKRaMER

submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF LAWS

in the

DEPARTMENT OF CRIMINAL PROCEDURE

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR J H VAN ROOYEN

JUNE 1994
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the following persons:

My supervisor, Professor J.H. van Rooyen from the Criminal

Procedure Department, University of South Africa, tor his expert
guidance and advice;
Mr. Dawid Brits from the Department of Justice, tor his professional
and prompt assistance in providing me with the necessary statistics;

my dear friend, Mr. Steven Le Raux, tor his contribution in editing this
dissertation;

Mrs. Henriette Jonat, tor her untiring patience and the countless
reprints;
and last but not least, my family tor their encouragement and
(financial) support!

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 INDEX
PAGE

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 1

DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIONALITY

OF THE DEATH SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
a} The Death Sentence per se ~.- . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 4

a} Proportionality . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
b) Method of Execution • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
c) The Period on Death Row . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

DUE PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
a) Sentencing Discretion . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . 9
b) Other Standards
Providing Procedural Fairness . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CURRENT APPLICATION OF THE DEATH SENTENCE

IN SOUTH AFRICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
a) Judicial Interpretation of the
Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
b) Comparing Current Procedure with
International Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 17

THE FUTURE OF THE DEATH SENTENCE UNDER

A NEW CONSTITUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
a) Equal Justice . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
b) Legal Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER ISSUES OF CONSTITUTIONAL CONCERN • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-V
 SUMMARY

Although s 9 of the new Constitution 1 guarantees the right to life, there is no express
provision which abolishes the death sentence.

Whereas in the past the death sentence could only be avoided by the exercise of
judicial discretion or political and public pressure, its imposition will now have to be
entirely re-evaluated. Not only are all the laws of the country subject to the new
Constitution, 2 but so too a Constitutional Court will be operational which will have
the power to test the constitutionality of any such laws.

By looking at the standards and relevant issues which are considered to define the
constitutionality of the death sentence internationally, reviewing current application
of the death sentence in South Africa, drawing comparisons, and by studying the
problems unique to the South African situation, it will be the aim of this dissertation
to determine how the death sentence will fare under a Constitutional Court.

Ten key words:

Death Sentence; Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977; South African Constitution;

Constitutional Court; Sentencing Discretion; Equal Justice and Due Process; Death
Row Phenomenon; Legal Representation; Aggravating and Mitigating Factors; Cruel
and Unusual Punishment.

Act 200 of 1993, which came into operation on 27 April, 1994.

2
By virtue of s 4(1}, which reads, "This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the Republic
and any law or act inconsistent with its provisions shall, unless otherwise provided expressly or by
necessary implication in this Constitution, be of no force and effect to the extent of the inconsistency".
 INTRODUCTION

Before being able to consider the constitutionality of the South African death
sentence, it will be of primary importance for the Constitutional Court firstly to
consider, how the constitutionality of the death sentence has been defined
internationally. No Supreme Court in South Africa has ever had the power to
question the validity of a South African act according to a constitution which
entrenches a chapter of Fundamental Rights - as such it is imperative that the
Constitutional Court seeks guidance elsewhere.

DEFINING THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE DEATH SENTENCE

From a comparative point of view, the first step in defining the constitutionality of
the death sentence would be to determine what foreign superior courts have said
with regard to the constitutionality of the death sentence per se. This would be
the most logical step, for it would be pointless to continue unless it can be
established that there is at least some primary indication as to when and why it
can be said that the death sentence is not unconstitutional. Once it has been
established what international support exists for this contention, it will be
necessary to go further and determine what standards have been set for procedural
constitutionality.

a) The Death Sentence per se

The first question one must then ask is whether the death sentence can be
considered to be constitutional per se. In Gregg v Georgia1 the American
Supreme Court held that the death sentence was not unconstitutional per
se.

In coming to its conclusion, the court firstly considers whether such

punishment comports with the basic concept of human dignity, which lies
at the core of the Eighth Amendment. 2 Th~ first guideline whiGb_ the court
ideQ!ille§l_s the fact that the death sentence is meant to serve_two prioGiple
s~cial QUrQo_s_es,_J1amely retribution_and deterreoce. 3 Regarding retribution,
the court states that it is essential in any ordered society that expects its
citizen to rely on the law, rather than on self - help, to vindicate their
wrongs. 4 After all, the decision that the death sentence may be the

1
428 us 153 (1976).

2
As stated in Trop v Dulles 356 US 86 (1958) at 100.

3
Bedau HA (ed) The death penalty in America (Oxford 3rd Edition, 1982) at 276.

4
At 308, "The instinct for retribution is part of the nature of man, and channelling that instinct
in the administration of criminal justice serves an important purpose in promoting stability in a
society governed by law. When people begin to believe that orga_nized society is unwilling or unable
 -2-

appropriate sanction in extreme cases is an expression of the community's

belief that certain crimes are in themselves so grievous that the only
adequate response may be the sentence of death. 5

Regarding the deterrence value of the death sentence, the court points out
that statistical attempts to evaluate its worth have been inconclusive. 6 The
reason for this is that there are many cases where murder (for instance) is
committed in the heat of the moment or under severe mental stress, in
which case the threat of death will have little or no deterrent effect. On the
other hand, there are premeditated murders where the threat of death may
very well play a significant role in deterring the crime. Statistics however
fail to elaborate and differentiate between these two situations. 7

This being the case, neither the death sentence's alleged effectiveness, or
ineffectiveness, can be given determinative consideration.

The third and decisive consideration in Gregg v Georgia was whether the
sentence of death was disproportionate in relation to the crime for which it
was imposed. The court states that where the sentence of death is imposed
for the crime of murder, where a life has been deliberately taken, it cannot
be said that the punishment was invariably disproportionate to the crime. 8
Consequently, the death sentence was not regarded unconstitutional per se.

Closer to home, in S v Chabalala, 9 the Bophuthatswana Appellate Division

held the death sentence not to be unconstitutional per se by reason of the
following arguments: 10

to impose upon criminal offenders the punishment they "deserve", then there are sown the seeds
of anarchy - of self help, vigilant justice, and lynch law".

6
At the same time it is important to remember that merely because the majority of a society
supports the death sentence, it does not mean that the death sentence should be maintained. With
an issue such as this, one cannot place too much reliance on the opinion of the majority. It is
submitted that the average South African has had very little exposure to literature concerning the
death sentence and therefore has very little knowledge about its implications. As such, it is
doubtful whether the average South African can make an informed decision about the death
sentence.

6
Bedau supra at 277.

7
Op cit 278.
8
Ibid.

9
1986 (3) 619 (BA); see also Luiz S "A bill of rights: Is it worth the paper it's written on?"
1987 3 SAJHR 105-116 and also Mihalik J "The death sentence in Bophuthatswana: A new deal
for condemned prisoners?" 1990 SALJ 465-489.

10
At 625H-629E. Section 10(1) of the Bophuthatswana Constitution Act 18 of 1977 states
that, "lelveryone's life shall be protected by law and no one shall be deprived of his life
intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of a court following his conviction of a crime for
which this penalty is provided by law"; s 11 states that, "lnlo one shall be subjected to inhuman
 -3 -

Firstly, as the Bophuthatswana legislator had expressly envisaged the

possibility of the death sentence in s 10( 1) of the Constitution, it is as such
clearly not inhuman or degrading punishment. Secondly, the Court states
that just because certain foreign courts and academics 11 have declared the
d_!![Link] sentence to be inhuman and degrading treatment, this does not
necessarily make it so. If one accepts that degrading punishment includes
all punishment that is cruel then all imprisonment would be
unconstitutional. 12

The only relevant question, therefore, is whether the sentence is "out of

proportion to the offence" .13 As the defence was unable to put forward
any evidence that the death sentence had ever "been imposed in
Bophuthatswana on an arbitrary, discriminatory, capricious, inappropriate,
cruel, wanton, erroneous or like basis" 14 (and therefore disproportionately),
the court held the death sentence not to be unconstitutional per se. 15

By way of summary, the following are issues which have been considered
/to ~etermine the constitutionality of the death sentence per se:
(~

i) The punishment must be such that it still "comports with the basic
concept of human dignity";

ii) the punishment may not be disproportionate to the crime;

iii) if the Constitution makes express provision for its imposition, it

cannot be labelled as unconstitutional per se; and

iv) the court should not rely on evidence of the death sentence having
been applied disproportionately in other countries, but rather on

and degrading treatment or punishment".

11
To which counsel for the defence refers at 6261-6298.

12
At 628C-F. "I will accept for present purposes Mr van der Vyfer's submission that
"degrading ... punishment" would include all forms of punitive action that would bring dishonour or
contempt to bear on the accused and that "inhuman punishment" would include all forms of
punitive action that would be cruel or brutal. [If these definitions were to be applied to the Bill of
Rights] the imprisonment would not be permissible ... lmprisonment is, however, specifically
authorised by s 12(3)(a)".

13
At 627C.

14
At 630.

16
See infra "Equal Justice" where sentencing discretion and similar issues are dealt with in
greater detail.
 - 4-

evidence which reveals disproportionate application locally. 16

Should the Constitutional Court decide upon these, or like factors, that the
death sentence is indeed not unconstitutional per se, it will be necessary to
determine which procedural standards and issues are pertinent to the
question of the constitutionality of the death sentence.

CRUEL AND UNUSUAL PUNISHMENT.

Section 11{2) of the new South African Constitution provides that "[n]o person
shall be subject to torture of any kind, whether physical, mental or emotional, nor
shall any person be subject to cruel, inhuman or- degrading treatment or
punishment".

Is the death sentence "crueLand-unusuaLp_uois~br:n_gnt", 17 or can it be said that

notwithstanding its severity, it is a form of punishment which should cause no
greater concern than life long imprisonment for example? How is one to interpret
"cruel and unusual"? 18

a) Proportionality

Aside from being useful to determine constitutionality per se, the question
of proportionality is also important to determine whether the death sentence
is applied in a "cruel and unusual" manner. What does it mean to say that
th!-J!~ath sente_n~~_ls. _<:I_is proportionate to the__ crime __aod-be_o_ce,
UJl€2QOSlituttonal?

In the leading Canadian case on this point, R v Smith, 19 the Supreme Court
of Canada interpreted s 1220 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and
Freedoms to mean the following: 21

16
See infra "Cruel and Unusual Punishment" where it is argued that the court's method of
interpretation is too narrow and positivistic.
17
To use the language of the Eighth Amendment to the American Constitution.
18
"Cruel and unusual" is something which cannot be viewed in isolation. It is an expression
which has found resonance {at least in similar wording) in constitutions and precedence all over the
world. Its interpretation has shown that it must be viewed as an "umbrella concept", including
issues such as proportionality, the period on death row and the method of execution. Each of the
issues are of such a nature however, that they will be dealt with separately infra.

19
[19871 5 wwR 1 sec.
20
Section 12 reads, "Everyone has the right not to be subjected to any cruel and unusual
treatment or punishment. n

21
At 43.
 -5-

"The criterion which must be applied ... i~~~{~het~_~r the pun_ishmeo..t

prescribed is so excesshte as to outrage standards of decency' ... [and] the
-effect-of that punishment must not- be grossly disproportionate to what
would have been appropriate."

According to Whitley,2 2 this means that the judge must consider the
circumstances of the case, the gravity of the offence, personal
characteristics of the accused and the particular circumstances of the
offence. Punishment, rehabilitation and specific deterrence are relevant at
this stage of the process.

Justice Mcintyre summarises the situation as follows, holding that "cruel

and unusual" will be attracted where: 23

i) The punishment is of such a character and duration as to outrage the

public conscience, or be degrading to human dignity.

ii) The punishment goes beyond what is necessary for the achievement
of a valid social aim, having regard to the legitimate purposes of
punishment and the adequacy of alternatives.

iii) The punishment is arbitrarily imposed in the sense that it is not

imposed for a rational purpose in accordance with ascertained or
ascertainable standards. 24

In India, Art 21 of the Constitution provides that "[n]o person shall be

deprived of his life ... except according to procedure established by law". In
Attorney- General of India v Lachma Devi 25 the Supreme Court held this
to mean that public executions would be unconstitutional as being in
violation of Art 21 as "[a] barbaric crime does not have to be visited with a
barbaric penalty".

This could also be interpreted to mean that although the Supreme Court of
India has not struck the death sentence down as unconstitutional, a public
execution would cause disproportionate and unnecessary harm to the
person's dignity as well as that of his family, and as such, be considered as
unconstitutional.

22
Whitley SJ Criminal justice and the constitution (Carswell) 1989 at 261.
23
R v Smith supra at 19-20.

24
Although these standards are set in a system where the death sentence does not exist, it is
submitted that they are of value in determining criteria for the term "cruel and unusual"
nonetheless.
25
AIR 1986 SC 467.
 - 6-

In S v Chabalala 26 the Court refers to s 11 of the Bophuthatswana

Constitution which prohibits inhuman and degrading treatment or
punishment. Having dealt with the issue of proportionality in determining
constitutionality per se, the court states that the "other aspects [of
proportionality can only] have reference to torture under interrogation with
the object of breaking the resistance of the subject, or to cruelty for its own
sake". The court held that because s 277 27 of South African Criminal
Procedure Act 51 of 1977 had been incorporated into the Bophuthatswana
Constitution in its entirety, it was, as such, constitutional. 28 With respect,
such an approach is far too narrow and positivistic. It is disappointing that
the court failed to consider even the possibility, that where the crime did not
involve loss of life, the death sentence could very well be disproportionate.
Rather than merely relying on the incorporation of the South African Criminal
Procedure Act, 29 the court would have done well to consider aspects such
as those listed above by Justice Mcintyre.

Also in the United States of America, as already stated 30 the Supreme

Court has held that the death sentence is not disproportionate where it is
imposed for the deliberate taking of a life. Although this may create the
impression that the death sentence is unconstitutional when passed for
"lesser" crimes (such as rape where no loss of life occurs), the American
Supreme Court31 has upheld the criminal codes of various states to be
constitutional, notwithstanding the death sentence being passed for such
"lesser crimes". 32

b) Method of Execution

Aside from proportionality being relevant to the question of "cruel and

unusual", another is the method of execution used.

Most would probably agree that any sentence which draws out agony for
any extended period of time is undoubtedly cruel. The very real possibility

26
Supra at 625J.
27
Section 277 (prior to amendment on 27 July 19911 allowed the death sentence for murder,
rape, robbery or attempted robbery and housebreaking with the intention of committing a crime
(both with aggravating circumstances), treason, child stealing, kidnapping and terrorism.
28
At 6328.
29
Supra.

30
In Gregg v Georgia supra.
31
See Proffitt v Florida 428 US 242 (1976) and Jurek v Texas 428 US 262 (1976).
32
See infra "Sentencing Discretion" with regard to aggravating factors being a statutory
requirement before the death sentence may be imposed in these states.
 -7-

exists however, that methods which are meant to be quick and painless can
actually malfunction, with the result that the criminal has to endure
/ prolonged agony and suffering 1_ Ther.e...is_no guarantee that m~~hods SUC?!l
' a_s banging,_executi_oo_by firing_squad,.Jill:!_ctrocution or even lethal injections-
/ . are infallible. It can therefore be stated that although some methods are less
/ ··< cruel than others, the only ones which can be considered not to be "cruel
' and unusual" are those which can guarantee immediate and painless death
without any possibility of malfunctioning.

c) The Period on Death Row

As Joachim Herrmann 33 points out, "The European Court of Human Rights

recently held in the Soering case that the "death row phenomenon" ... must
be considered an important factor that contributes to inhuman and degrading
punishment which is outlawed by the European Convention on Human
Rights." Of importance to note here, is the fact that s 11 (2) of the new
South African Constitution also prohibits torture which is "mental or
emotional" and as such the Constitutional Court will have to take the period
on death row into account.

The "death row phenomenon" is a term used to denote the mental anguish
which every death row prisoner and his family endures in anticipation of his
execution. This anguish is further exacerbated by delayed executions which
are the result of last minute petitions for clemency and appeals. As an
example, one can quote the case of S v Chabalala. 34 In that case the
accused was sentenced to death on 31 March 1982. His execution was
scheduled for 3 April 1984. Due to an application for a stay of execution
the day prior to his execution, the execution was again rescheduled for the
14 March 1985. After obtaining leave to appeal, which was heard and
dismissed during June 1985, he was finally executed on 15 April 1986 -
more than four years after being sentenced.

The court criticised those responsible for the two previous stays of
execution, as nothing was done by them during that time to actually assist
the appellant. "The appellant would have been spared the experience of
twice having to prepare himself for his imminent execution". However,
immediately thereafter, the court admits that "[t]here will obviously be
occasions when applications of this nature can only be brought at the last
moment, but these do not fall into [this] category [of cases where
applications for stay of execution are made solely for the purposes of
delay]" . 35

33
"Capital punishment- why it needs to be abolished" 1993 De lure 384-393 at 392.

34
Supra.

36
Op cit 625E.
 -8-

Yet it is exactly these "last moment" attempts which cause so many delays
and extended periods on death row. Recently the issue of prolonged periods
on death row fell directly under the spotlight in the Zimbabwean case of
Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe v Attorney-General,
Zimbabwe, and Others. 36 In this case an application was brought by a
human rights organisation, to prevent the execution of four prisoners who
had been on death row for periods ranging between 52 and 72 months.
Section 15(1) of the Zimbabwe Constitution states that no one shall be
subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading punishment or other such
treatment. In coming to a decision of whether the detainment has in fact
breached this constitutional protection, the court mentions the following
factors: 37

i) The court must have regard to the likely effect of the entire extent of
the delay and not the cause thereof, the cause being irrelevant since
it fails to Jessen the degree of suffering. In this regard it would be
wrong to differentiate between strong and weak personalities, hence
the assessment of the likely, and not the actual, effect of the delay
upon the person.

ii) In this instance, where the delays were between 52 and 72 months,
it was necessary to consider how those specific periods of delay
differed from the average delay since 1978 when executions were
carried out in Zimbabwe. Taking into account that the average delay
was only 17,2 months, the court held that, even where extra time
was added to include appeal and all other necessary procedures, a
period of 52 to 72 months, together with the harsh conditions of
incarceration, provided a degree of seriousness sufficient enough to
entitle the applicant to invoke on behalf of the condemned prisoners,
the protection afforded in s 15(1) of the Constitution.

Accordingly the court ordered that the death sentence be set aside.

DUE PROCESS:

Undoubtedly, the most important and extensive issue to be considered is that of

"Due Process", which, in short, means the right of every person to a fair trial. 38

36
1993 (2) SACR 432 (ZS).

37
At 435a-435d.

38
"Due Process" can be termed an "umbrella concept". Although there are various issues
pertaining thereto, only those of "Sentencing Discretion" and "Other Standards Providing
Procedural Fairness" will be dealt with at this stage. The issues of "legal Representation" and
"Equal Justice" will be dealt with under "Comparing Current Pocedure with International
Standards". Due to the inherent difficulties these issues present to the South African situation, it
will be more practical to discuss those issues there.
 -9-

a) Sentencing Discretion

It would be unconstitutional for any court to have a free reign on discretion,

as this would undoubtedly allow the imposition of the death sentence, quite
literally, at will. Thus it is necessary to identify the standards which other
countries have set to guide their courts when exercising a sentencing
discretion. Especially due to the finality of the death sentence, it is

r/! I
imperative that the court's discretion be guided, so as to avoid arbitrariness
as far as possible.

In McGautha v California, 39 the Supreme Court of America held that where

.I a jury exercised an unstructured discretion in deciding when to impose the
!I
'
,
I
I . death sentence, it was not a denial of due process, i.e., the court held an
I' I' arbitrary decision in this regard to be constitutional. The following year,
however, in Furman v Georgia40 the same court ruled that in deciding upon
the imposition of the death sentence, an unstructured discretion was a
denial of the Fourteenth Amendment. Furthermore, the court held that
where the death penalty was imposed under such conditions, it also denied
the Eighth Amendment. 41 This case had far reaching effects in the
American judiciary and legislature. As Bedau points out, 42 this left
legislators with two options:

to introduce either a mandatory death sentence; or

a process whereby the death sentence could only be imposed after
a guided discretion had been exercised .

.In Woodson v North Carolina43 and Roberts v Louisiana44 the Supreme

~ourt ruled a mandatory death sentence to be unconstitutional, being a
denial of due process. 45

In Gregg v Georgia, 46 Proffitt v Florida, 47 and Jurek v Texas 48 the Supreme

39
402 US 183 (19711 at 196.
40
408 US 238 (1972) at 248n.
41
Op cit 309-310.
42
Supra at 250.
43
428 us 280 (1976).
44
420 us 325 (1976).

46
See also S v Chabalala supra where the court held the mandatory imposition of the death
sentence not to be unconstitutional.
48
Supra.

47
428 us 242 (1976).
 - 10-

Court held that the manner in which the statutes of those three States had
made provision for the structuring and guidance of the judge and jury's
discretion, was constitutional in that they met the demands made in the
Furman case.

In all three these States, aggravating factors are to be determined before the
death sentence must (in Texas) or may (in Florida and Georgia) be
imposed. 49 The death sentence is only mandatory in Texas, and then only
for five types of aggravated murder. Justice White, in the Roberts v
Louisiana case, criticises the Texas statute for allowing the mandatory
imposition of the death sentence, 5° as it denies the right to due process.

In the Jurek case, Justice Stevens defends the Texas statute by stating that
when considering the possibility of whether the accused might continue to
commit acts of violence and being a threat to society, the accused has the
opportunity to point out all mitigating factors and to "bring to the jury's
attention whatever mitigating circumstances he may be able to show. " 51
He is therefore granted a fair opportunity to maintain his right to due
process. 52

48
428 us 262 (1976).

49
In Texas, once a verdict of guilty has been reached on any one of five specified aggravated
forms of murder (Texas Code of Criminal Procedure 37.071) the jury has to go further and ask
three questions, namely:

1. Was the conduct which caused the death deliberate with the reasonable expectation of
death;
2. would it seem that the offender might be a continued threat to society; and
3. was the conduct of the offender still unreasonable, even if provoked?

If the answer to each question is affirmative, then the death sentence must be imposed, and
neither judge nor jury has a discretion to impose another sentence.
The Georgia statute provides (at s 26-3108 Supp. 1975) that, where a capital felony has been
committed, (except in the case of treason or hijacking a plane), at least one of the ten statutorily
defined aggravating factors must be found to have existed before the death sentence may be
imposed (s 27-2534 Supp. 1975). Although the death sentence is not mandatory, the judge is
obliged to follow the jury's decision (ss 26-3102, 27-2514 Supp. 1975).

In Florida, eight aggravating and seven extenuating circumstances are listed (see Bedau supra at
207). If one aggravating circumstance exists, then the death sentence is presumed to be the
proper one, unless any extenuating circumstances are found to outweigh the aggravating ones.
The judge is not bound to the jury's decision to impose the death sentence, but he may not impose
it unless at least one aggravating factor has been found to exist. See Bedau supra at 272, note 1,
and at 273.

60
Bedau supra at 100.

61
At 272-3.

62
The onus is thus on the accused to indicate mitigating factors. A similar approach was
followed in the Chabala/a case supra.
 - 11 -

The focus is thus on aggrav~ti~g "and mitigating fa~t~-~;) the form~r being
statutorily defined and the latter being interpreted to inc"iude''any as'pect of
·· a defendant's chara~ter or record and any of the circumstances of the·
offence that the defendant prefers as a basis for a sentence less than
death" .53

In a general comment on Article 654 of the International Covenant of Civil

and Political Rights 55 issued in 1982, the Human Rights Committee set up
under the Covenant declared that states parties to the Covenant which have
not abolished the death sentence "are obliged to limit its use and, in
particular, to abolish it for other than the 'most serious crimes"'. 56

So too in Bachan Singh v State of Punjab, 57 The Indian Supreme Court held
that the death sentence for murder should not be used "save in the rarest
of rare cases". 58

b) Other Standards Providing Procedural Fairness

Amnesty lnternational 59 states that "[d]efendants on trial for their lives

must obviously be afforded scrupulously fair trials. When accepted
standards for a fair trial are ignored or set aside the death penalty becomes
open to political abuse and the risk of executing the innocent is increased".

Article 14 of the ICCPR sets certain standards for a fair trial: The right to
a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal;
the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty; the right to have
adequate time and facilities to prepare for a hearing; the right to counsel of
one's own choice; the right to free legal assistance for those who cannot
afford their own counsel; the right to call and examine one's own witnesses
and to cross examine state witnesses and very importantly, the right to have
the conviction and sentence reviewed by a higher tribunal.

53
Lockett v Ohio 438 US 586 (1976) at 604.
64
Which reads, "Anyone sentenced to death shall have the right to seek pardon or commutation
of the sentence. Amnesty, pardon or commutation of the sentence of death may be granted in all
cases".
55
Hereafter the ICCPR.

58
See the reference in Amnesty International When the state kills 1989 (Amnesty International
Publishers, london) at 35.

67
AIR 1980 SC 898.

58
See the reference in Cottrell J "Wrestling with the death penalty in India" 1991 SAJHR
185-198 at 186.

68
When the state kills supra at 42.
 - 12 -

It is conceded that this is not at all a comprehensive list 60 but in addition

to those standards mentioned above, these can at least be considered as the
minimum requirements for a fair trial and thus also "due process".

CURRENT APPLICATION OF THE DEATH SENTENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA 61

In 1986, 1 21 hangings took place and in 1987 a record high of 1 67. This caused
renewed calls for an investigation into the death sentence. In 1988 Mr Dave
Dalling, opposition spokesman for Justice, called for an enquiry. The Minister of
Justice rejected the call however, stating that nothing had happened to justify such
an enquiry .62 In 1989 a proposal was made that the Law Commission, in the
construction of a new Constitution, re-examine legislation dealing with the death
sentence, as the majority of the population "feel that they are put on trial by a
court in terms of an act into which they had no input". 63 Other members went
further and called for an abolition of the death sentence. 64

With the opening of Parliament on 02 February 1990, the then State President FW
de Klerk announced a moratorium on executions, pending the passage of a new
bill. On 27 July 1990 the Criminal Law Amendment Act 107 of 1990 was passed.
Notwithstanding the fact that the act lifted the moratorium, no executions took
place thereafter. After pressure from various corners65 the moratorium was re-
instated in late March 1992. 66

The Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 regulates the application of the death
sentence as follows:

60
There are also rules of Evidence which are equally important - but those are beyond the scope
of this dissertation.

61
As will be seen, the manner in which the death sentence is applied in South Africa does not
differ substantially from the manner of its application by international standards. However, this is
not to say that, as such, it is to be considered constitutional. The following only concentrates on
the application of the death sentence in South Africa according to statutory prescriptions and their
interpretation by the Supreme Court of South Africa - it does not discuss those other important
issues, such as "Due Process" and "Legal Representation" which, due to the difficulties they
present, may outweigh any merits which similar procedural standards may have.
62
Debates of Parliament (Hansard) 11 May 1988 cols 9654-5.
63
Debates of Parliament (Hansard) 27 April 1989 col 6969.

64
Op cit cols 6986 and 7016.
66
See the reference in Van Rooyen JH "Toward a new South Africa without the death sentence
-struggles, strategies and hopes" 1993 Florida State University Law Review Vol. 20:xxx 1-50 at
40-46.
66
See Mihalik J "The moratorium on executions: Its background and implications" 1991 SALJ
119-142.
 - 13-

Firstly, the crimes for which the death sentence may be imposed include the
following: 67

Murder;
treason when the Republic is in a state of war;
rape;
kidnapping;
child stealing;
robbery or attempted robbery, with aggravating circumstances; and
terrorism. 68

The death sentence is no longer mandatory for murder without extenuating

circumstances. 69 Whether to impose the death sentence or not, is left in the
discretion of the presiding judge, who, after consultation with his assessors (if
any), will make a finding of all the mitigating and extenuating factors, and
thereafter decide whether or not the death sentence is the proper sentence. 70
The ~fact that the death sentence is no longer mandatory also allows for a wider
, operation of s 274 of the CPA. This section allows a court to consider any
,' relevant evidence in considering a proper sentence and also allows the accused,
as well as the prosecution, to address the court regarding such evidence. Whereas
this section was previously inapplicable to murder without extenuation (seeing that
the death sentence was mandatory in that case), it can now be used in all cases
in deciding upon a proper sentence.

Housebreaking with the intention of committing an offence has been deleted and
treason and terrorism are now only punishable by death if committed when the
Republic is in a state of war.

Of great importance is the fact that s 277(2) of the CPA no longer speaks of
extenuating "circumstances", but of mitigating and aggravating "factors". 71 As
is explained infra, this allows the Supreme Court much greater freedom in deciding

57
Section 277 of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 as amended - hereafter the CPA,
unless otherwise indicated.
68
S v Mncubi 1991 3 SA 132 (A) pointed out that as terrorism was subject to the same
punishment as treason (s 54 of the Internal Security Act of 1982), it can be assumed that terrorism
will also only qualify when the Republic is in a state of war.
59
As it was under the "old" CPA. The death sentence was only discretionary if there were
extenuating circumstances, if the accused was under the age of 18 at the time of the offence or
if she was a woman accused of killing her newly born child. (Section 277(2) of the "old" CPA).
The amended s 277(3)(a) also provides that the death sentence may no longer be imposed on an
accused who was under 18 years of age at the time of the offence. The onus is on the state to
prove that the accused was 18 or older if there is uncertainty in this regard.

70
Section 277(2)(a) of the CPA.

71
Ibid.
 - 14-

on a proper sentence. 72 Section 276(1 )(b) of the CPA now also makes provision
for a term of life long imprisonment, providing a valuable alternative to the death
sentence.

Other important changes are the fact that the accused now has an automatic right
of appeal 73 and no longer has to apply for leave to appeal as was previously the
case. So too, s 279(1 )(b)(ii) of the CPA provides that every death sentence must
be reviewed by the State President. A novel approach has also been followed, in
that the Appellate Division is no longer bound by the procedure followed in other
appeal cases, 74 but that in the case of an appeal against the death sentence, it
may set aside the death sentence and "impose such punishment as it considers to
be proper if it is of the opinion that it would not itself have imposed the death
sentence". 75 It may therefore replace the trial court's discretion with its own.

Furthermore, whereas the Appellate Division was previously empowered to replace

trial court's punishment with an even more severe one (i.e., being able to replace
a prison term even with the death sentence), s 322(6) of the CPA was amended
by including the rider "excluding the sentence of death". Thus the Appellate
Division may only confirm or set the death sentence aside.

On this point it is important to consider that s 101 (5) of the new Constitution
which expressly provides that "[t]he Appellate Division shall have no jurisdiction
to adjudicate any matter within the jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court". From
this, the logical conclusion is that the Appellate Division is - at least until the
Constitutional Court has decided on the issue of the death sentence - no longer
able to confirm death sentences, but only deal with them according to s 322(1) of

72
Under the "old" act, s 1 of the CPA defined "aggravating circumstances" as wielding a
firearm or any other dangerous weapon and the infliction of serious bodily harm or the threat to do
so by the offender or an accomplice on the occasion when the offence was committed whether
before, during or after the commission of the offence. As the boundaries within which the courts
could move had been statutorily laid down, it could hardly be said that the courts had a discretion
as to what was aggravating and what was not. It was a question of fact. The courts could only
exercise their discretion by deciding whether the aggravating circumstances were of such a nature
that the crime should warrant the death sentence. As far as "extenuating circumstances" were
concerned, these were limited to "circumstances ... connected with or ... relat[ing] to the conduct
of the accused in the commission of the crime" (R v Mfoni 1935 OPD 191) and also those "facts
associated with the crime which serve in the minds of reasonable men to diminish morally, albeit
not legally, the degree of the prisoner's guilt" (R v Biysns 1938 EDL 310). Clearly these
interpretations inhibited the courts from taking into account factors such as character, background
or lack of previous convictions. In Olmesdahl's words," it may well be that they were in fact good
candidates for rehabilitation and might possibly not have been sentenced to death had the ambit
of the court's enquiry ... been wider in scope" (Ohler:nsdahl MCJ "Predicting the death sentence"
mimeographed paper presented at the Conference on Discretion in Criminal Justice held at the
University of Natal 10-11 August 1 981).

73
Section 316A of the CPA.

74
Section 322(1) of the CPA.

76
Section 322(2A) of the CPA.
 - 15 -

the CPA. 76

The reason for this is simply that until the Constitutional Court has decided on the
issue of the death sentence, it will serve no purpose to confirm a sentence which
may be found to be unconstitutional. The practical solution would therefore be to
either deal with the sentence according to s 322(1) or to refer the case to the
Constitutional Court for a final decision. 77

a) Judicial Interpretation of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977

Having dealt with the statutory prescriptions existing in South Africa, it is

necessary to examine how the South African Supreme Court, which includes
the Appellaii!""'tJiJVision, has interpreted and applied the "new" Criminal
Pro'cedure Act. 78

In S v Masina 79 the court points out that "factors" 80 has a much wider
connotation than "circumstances" and as such it includes any relevant
factors when deciding upon the proper sentence. It can therefore even
include factors unrelated to the crime or to the moral blameworthiness of
the accused, 81 such as the youthfulness of the accused, 82 his
background 83 and even the fact that he was employed at the time of the
offence. 84 Also, the fact that aggravating circumstances are no longer

76
a) Allow the appeal; b) replace it with such punishment as ought to have been imposed by
the trial court; or c) any other order that justice requires.

77
For a more in depth discussion of these changes and ancillary as well as post appeal
measures available, see Du Toit E; de Jager F; Paizes AS; Skeen A and van der Merwe S
Commentary on the Criminal Procedure Act (Jutal 1991 at 28-106 to 28-16 and 31-1 to 31-28.

78
See in this regard Angus L "How are we to treat the sentence of death since the Criminal
Law Amendment Act 107 of 1990?" 1992 (1) SACJ 51-71.
79
1990 (4) SA 709 (A) at 713.

80
At s 277(2)(a) of the CPA.

81
R v Biyana supra.

82
See S v Lehnberg en 'n ander 1975 (4) SA 553 (A) at 560-561; S v Mzinyane and others
1988 (2) SA 151 (A); S v Cotton 1992 (1) SACR 531 (A) and also Du Toit E supra at 28-14F for
further references.

83
S v Tsankobeb 1981 (4) SA 614 (A).

84
S v Ramba 1990 (2) SACR 334 (A).
 - 16-

defined further indicates a wider sentencing discretion of the court. 85

"[W]ith due regard" to the presence or absence of aggravating or mitigating

factors. 86 has been interpreted to mean "consideration in a degree
appropriate to [the] demands of the particular case". 87 Thus, the presence
or absence of mitigating and aggravating factors are not to be considered
decisive88 because even if aggravating factors, when considered on their
own, outweigh the mitigating factors, there may still be other considerations
which will be decisive.89

In S v Senonohi 90 the court points out that moral reprehendsibility is no

longer the overriding factor but one which must be weighed up together
with other factors which are relevant to all the purposes of punishment. 91
Only after all these factors have been considered, may the court impose the
death sentence. Furthermore, the court states that the death sentence
should only be imposed if it is regarded as "the", not merely "a", proper
sentence. Although attempting to avoid generalising when such a sentence
will be the proper one, the court states that it must have been the
legislator's intention (by scrapping the mandatory imposition of the death
penalty) to limit it to only those cases of extreme seriousness. 92

In S v Mdau93 the court states that merely because there is an absence of

mitigating factors, this does not imply that the death sentence should be
imposed. Conversely, the presence of mitigating factors does not mean that
the death sentence should not be imposed. And where both mitigating and
aggravating factors are present, these will have to be weighed against one
another to determine whether the death sentence is the proper one. In so
doing, regard must be given to the purpose of punishment, namely
rehabilitation, deterrence, retribution and prevention. In considering the

86
For an extensive list of what the courts have considered as mitigating and aggravating, see
Du Toit E supra at 28-14F to 28-14M and Bekker PM "Die doodvonnis: Voor en na 27 Julie 1990"
("The death sentence: Before and after 27 July 1990") 1993 (6) SALJ 57-71 at 62-66.
86
As per s 277(2)(b) of the CPA as amended.
87
S v Nkwanyana 1990 (4) SA 735 (A) at 745B-C.

88
Op cit 745A-B.
89
S v Ntuli 1991 (1) SACR 137 (A) at 142f-h and S v Cele 1991 (1) SACR 627 at 632i-j.

90
1990 (4) SA 727 (A).

91
At 734E-F.

92
At 734H-I.

93
1990 (4) SA 735 (A) at 736F-I.
 - 17-

:death sentence, one must also look at whether these objectives cannot be
'achieved by a sentence other than the death sentence.

If they can, then the death sentence is not the proper one- this is because
"the" proper sentence must be interpreted to mean the "only" proper
1,, ,' sentence. An especially important issue to be considered is also that of the
/ deterrent effect of the death sentence., As statistical attempts to prove (or
disprove) the deterrence effect of the death sentence have been
( inconclusive, the court must also consider whether a prison sentence would
be regarded as an adequate deterrent to others.

If it cannot be said that the death sentence has a greater deterrence effect
than say, life long imprisonment, then its propriety as a sentence should be
seriously questioned.

~-~ such the [Link] states that life long imprisonment must be considered an
alternative to the death sentence when the objective of the court is the
. protection of the community. 94 It follows then that the death sentence
must be restricted to exceptionally serious cases where it is "imperatively
called for". 95

J1 is therefore not merely to be used as an instrument to "rid society of

unwelcome elements" or to set examples. As the court states in
S v Mazibela, "Where the imposition of an exemplary sentence would result
in a death sentence, whereas a lesser sentence would be the proper
sentence for the particular offender, .t!le i_11jus_tice would never justify the
Jmposition
. .
of an. exemplary
. sentence" .96

Finally, in the Nkwanyana case, 97 the court states that the onus of proof
is on the state to prove beyond a reasonable doubt the existence of
aggravating factors. Furthermore, unless the evidence itself shows
mitigating factors to have been present, the defence will merely have to
raise mitigating factors - provided of course that such factors have been
"genuinely" raised, i.e., based on a proper foundation. 98 Where this is
done, the state will then have to negative beyond a reasonable doubt, the
existence of any such factors. 99 Thus the state will have a heavier burden
than the defence.

94
Mdau supra at 1778-C.

96
Nkwanyana supra at 745F-G.

96
1991 (2) SACR 129 at 134f-g.

97
Supra at 743F-744E.

99
Du Toit E supra at 28-11.
99
Ibid.
 - 18 -

b) Comparing Current Procedure with International Standards

/ If one could compare all of the above to a recipe, the most important
ingredient would be, as Justice Mcintyre stated, that a sentence may not be
\"" ' Jmposed__~[Link], i.e., without ascertained or ascertainable standards.
What then are these standards and how does South Africa compare? By
way of summary, the following can be said in favour of the South African
procedure:

Firstly, the issue of mitigation and aggravation. _ID the U_nited States of
America the death sentence may only be imposed where the requirement Q.f
_the p[esence of statutorily prescribed aggravating factors is met. In South
.Africa~- although -the CPA-does not require ~gg-rav~ing factors, the _courts
requ_ire that !tle death sentence be limited only to tbe most serious of cases ..
That-this-is indeed the case can be confirmed by looking at the following
statistics: 100 Between 27 July 1990 and 25 May 1994, the death
sentence has been imposed 387 times. Over the same period however, the
death sentence has also been reversed on 220 occasions. That leaves one
with quite a high reversal percentage of 56, 7%. When. studying the
OJ.I_rn~erQ_us crimio~[Link] .which haye been decided _since 27 July 1990, one
_wiiLootice that great reliance is pl_aced on _the presence-of-aggravating
-facto.r.s. Secondly and in conforming with the ICCPR, 101 the South African
Supreme Court has on numerous occasion uttered the expression that the
death sentence should be limited to the most serious of crimes. Thirdly, the
South African death sentence also meets the requirements as laid down in
India, that the death sentence may not be carried out in public.

If the positivistic approach of Chabalala is followed, one could perhaps even

go so far as to say that because South Africa has a new Constitution which
does not expressly revoke the death sentence, it_ tc:i'cTdy allows it and is thus,
without more, constitutional. The offences for which the death sentence
may be imposed in South Africa also greatly correlate with those in other
countries where the death sentence has been allowed. Also the method of
execution is no more cruel and unusual than in other countries, for it cannot
be said that one method is more "cruel and unusual" than another, where
both methods are equally efficient and painless, if properly executed.

Furthermore, the onus is on the state to disprove the existence of mitigating

factors, thereby substantially increasing its burden of proof. Finally, South
African procedure also allows for an automatic right of appeal and statutorily
requires presidential review in every case.

100
These statistics were provided by the Department of Justice on 26 May 1994.

101
As at note 56 supra.
 - 19 -

THE FUTURE OF THE DEATH SENTENCE UNDER A NEW CONSTITUTION

Prima facie, South African procedure seems to meet the standards set on an
international scale. However, as already stated, 102 the above is only an indication
of the procedure as currently applied. The South African Supreme Court has not
yet had to interpret any of the standards according to a Constitution which
entrenches a chapter on fundamental rights. There are, therefore, some issues of
special import which due to their uniqueness, pose more of a challenge than any
other, to the constitutionality of the death sentence in South Africa.

These issues are the following:

a) Egual Justice

Section 8(1) of the new Constitution provides that "[e]very person shall
have the right to equality before the law and to equal protection of the law"
and s 8(2) provides that "[n]o person shall be unfairly discriminated against,
directly or indirectly ... on one or more of the following grounds in particular:
race, ... ethnic or social origin, colour, ... [or] culture". It is submitted that for
the reasons postulated below, this is the most important issue upon which
the Constitutional Court will have to make its decision.

Once again the issue of sentencing discretion must be raised. Due to its
extreme severity, the death sentence can only be applied according to the
requirement of "equal justice" if those standards regulating sentencing
discretion are such, that firstly, the possibility of human error is absolutely
nil and secondly that if the death sentence is imposed, it must be certain
that such would have been the case, no matter which judge had presided at
the trial. Human error is not limited to the case of an innocent person being
executed. It must also be understood in the sense that the judge may make
a mistake as to whether the accused truly "deserves" the death sentence or
not - after all, what is to be understood as a "most serious case" is a
relative concept subject to individual perception.

What the Constitutional Court must therefore ask itself, is whether the death
sentence can ever be applied even handedly and if not, it should be
abolished as being unconstitutional.

On several occasions the United States Supreme Court has held that death
sentence proceedings must conform to a higher standard than other criminal
proceedings "[because] the penalty of death is qualitatively different from
a sentence of imprisonment, however long, ... there is a corresponding
difference in the need for reliability in the determination that death is the

102
At note 61 supra.
 - 20-

appropriate punishment in a specific case" 103 and that "[w]hen a

defendant's life is at stake, the court has been particularly sensitive to
ensure that every safeguard is observed" .104

So too the South African legislature has attempted to provide a "better

equipped" death sentence procedure. Yet, there is one problem which will
1 ( always exist, namely sentencing discrepancies.
•i
,;
ln,the Chabalala case 105 Justice Theal Stewart states that :]personally have
never seen the necessity to exclude evidence relating to the lifestyle of the
accused ... " 106 ThtL_word_~'personally" is exactly the flaw which makes the
even handed application of the -death sentence impossible. j:yery judge has
.fl di_fferent perspective, a different [Link] on life. _Tt:1is rnakesT(imj:)ossiole
for any sy~tem, no matter the amount of safeguards, to ensure that the
"death sentence is applied even. handedly, i.e., on an objective and equal
basis._
~-

I
/ Discrepancies will always exist in a penal system - one judge may impose
/r I
a five year sentence, whereas another may have imposed an eight or even
a ten year sentence. Such discrepancies are tolerable however, as there is
always the possibility of "administrative adjustments or corrections at a later
stage" . 107 If a person has been wrongly convicted, he will in all likelihood
at least receive some sort of compensation from the state. At the same
'\
\
time, however, such discrepancies may also lead to one judge imposing the
\
\ death sentence, whereas another may only have imposed a twenty year
sentence.

,r With the death sentence, once the execution has taken place, "adjustments"
or "corrections" are no longer possible. No amount of compensation can
undo the damage done. Death is absolute and irreversible and under such
conditions, lack of uniformity cannot be tolerated.

The death sentence is unconstitutional as long as it is subjected to arbitrary

factors such as individual dispositions of trial judges. In the Chabalala case,
Justice Theal Stewart--boa-sted th-at "it [canrlOt]-be-suggested that any death
sentence ... had been imposed in Bophuthatswana on an arbitrary,
discriminatory ... or like basis" . 108 Studies have however shown that

103
Woodson v North Carolina supra at 305.

104
Powell v Alabama 287 US 45 (1976) at 71; see also Hintze DH nThe cost of retaining the
death penalty: Some lessons from the American experiencen 1994 SALJ 55-64 at 56.
106
Supra at 634C.

106
My italics. ,.
I

107 r
Van Rooyen JH ;'Towards a new South Africa without the death sentencen supra at 33.
108
At 6308.
 - 21 -

!·.,, arbitrary factors do play a large role in deciding upon which defendants" will
i live and which will die" .109 Even s 277(2)(b) of the CPA allows for
arbitrariness, stating that "[t]he death sentence shall be imposed - ... b) if
'' the presiding judge or court, ... , with due regard to the finding [of mitigating
•
':
and aggravating factors}, is satisfied that the sentence of death is the proper
i\ sentence" . 110
\

In S V Dlamini111 the court held that in deciding whether the death

sentence is the proper sentence, aggravating and mitigating factors must be
weighed against one another. As there is no guarantee that every judge will
consider the same factors as equally mitigating or aggravating, however,
different judges will attach different "weights" to such factors. As there
can therefore never be consistency with regard to what is considered
mitigating and aggravating, these can be termed infinitives - but how does
one "weigh" infinitives? 112

One can therefore only agree with Justice Curlewis when he states, "Only
'
' /an ignoramus, or a person with little regard for the truth would deny
/ this", 113 i.e., that arbitrariness does play a role in the imposition of the
; death sentence and that ultimately the decision rests on a moral judgement
of the presiding judge.

Of special importance to the Constitutional Court, is s 8(4) of the new

Constitution which states that "Prima facie proof of discrimination on any
grounds specified in subsection (2) shall be presumed to be sufficient proof
of unfair discrimination as contemplated in that subsection, until the
contrary is established". When looking at the studies that have been
made 114 there certainly is, prima facie evidence of discrimination.
Although South Africa is now in a new era, there is no "magic wand" which
will suddenly eradicate the existence of so called "hanging judges" 115 -
either now or in the future. There will always be some judges more prone

109
Hintze D supra at 59. See also the author's references at note 23.
110
My italics.
111
1991 (1) SACR 128 (A).
112
See also Loubser MM "Versagtende omstandighede by moord: Die gradering van skuld"
("Mitigating circumstances in the case of murder: The gradation of guilt") 1977 THRHR 333-342.
113
ln a letter dated 15 Apri11991, "Correspondence" 1991 7 SAJHR 229 at 229; see also Van
Rooyen JH "Toward a new South Africa without the death sentence" supra at 31-37.
114
To mention only a few, Angus Land Grant E "Sentencing in capital cases in the Transvaal
Provincial Division and Witwatersrand Local Division 1987-1989" 1991 7 SAJHR 50;
Van Zyl Smit D "Judicial discretion and the sentence of death for murder" 1982 SALJ 87-98 and
Van Niekerk B "Hanged by the neck until you are dead: Some thoughts on the application of the
death penalty in South Africa" (part 1) 1969 SALJ 457-475.

116
As referred to by Justice Curlewis supra
 - 22-

than others to impose the death sentence and as long as the imposition is
determined by such "chance", there will be prima facie proof of
discrimination.

· Further evidence that the death sentence is imposed arbitrarily is the fact
/'that since 27 July 1990, 56,7% of appeals against the death sentence have
been successful. At the very least this indicates an enormous difference of
"opinion" (to use the language of s 322(2A)(b)of the CPA) between trial and
appellate judges. Arbitrariness is therefore not limited to the trial stage but
is also experienced on appeal as the decision is left to the "opinion" of the
appellate judges. Finally, when the case is referred to the State President
under s 325 of the CPA, he too has to exercise his discretion. Once again
the possibility of human error and fallibility is encountered. It is therefore
submitted that there is ample prima facie evidence, not only on grounds of
discrimination but also due to differing personal dispositions, for a
Constitutional Court to declare the death sentence unconstitutional. 116

b) legal Representation

Another issue which the Constitutional Court will have to consider is that of
legal representation. Section 25(1 )(c) of the new Constitution provides that
every person who is detained, including every sentenced prisoner, shall have
the right "to consult with a legal practitioner of his or her choice, to be
informed of this right promptly and, where substantial injustice would
otherwise result, to be provided with the services of a legal practitioner by
the state".

Where the accused chooses his own counsel, 117 the problem most often
encountered is that he is unable to afford it. Although South Africa has a
Legal Aid Board which will pay for such counsel, the accused has to pass
a "means test". This test requires that the accused only earns a certain
maximum per month. 118 If the accused thus earns "too much", the Legal
Aid Board does not pay. In such a case the court will appoint pro Deo
counsel. The criticism which has often been levelled against this system is
that it is normally young and inexperienced advocates who are appointed.
, ·The recent changes to the CPA have highlighted the extensive scope of
[Link] that might be led in mitigation. 119 The preparation and leading

116
See also Goldfarb A "The dilemma of discretion: A US perspective on the proposal for reform
of the South African death penalty for murder" 1990 SAJHR 266-288 at 272-275.
117
This term is used to denote both an attorney and an advocate.
118
A single person may not earn more than R500-00 per month, or if married, not more than
R1000-00 joint income (after certain necessary deductions). An additional amount of R150-00 per
child is also allowed.

119
See Mihalik J "Articled clerks, legal aid and capital offenders" 1991 SALJ 718·729 at 725.
 - 23-

oJ such evidence requires experienced and skilled coul}$el ~-s well as

~subsiantia-f.:tundi -. esp~c-ially when -expert. witrfe~ses . have to be·-·called
in.12o

Recently a Public Defender scheme was introduced to South Africa, where

defenders are employed by the state and remunerated on the same basis as
prosecutors. 121 However, the scheme is still a far cry from being
implemented country wide and, considering the tens of thousands of capital
offenses committed annually, 122 the workload is such that time simply
does not provide sufficient opportunity for counsel to prepare a proper
defence. 123 Thus, the realities of the practical implications are such that,
as far as capital offenders are concerned, "substantial injustice" will still
occur, notwithstanding their constitutional right to legal representation.

OTHER ISSUES OF CONSTITUTIONAL CONCERN

Aside from these issues, there are still the following:

a) / Section 25(3)(j) of the new Constitution provides that every accused person
shall have the right to a fair trial, which shall include the right "to be
sentenced within a reasonable time after conviction". In South Africa the
last execution took place in November 1989. That means that some
prisoners have been on death row for four and a half years, i.e., 54 months.
If one is to apply the test as was laid down in the Catholic Commission 124
case one must agree that this is a period which may very well be extensive
enough to make the death sentence unconstitutional. However, not all
prisoners have been on death row for such an extended period. Some have
L
only been on death row for a few months. It would be a severe injustice,
however, if any "cut off line" is to be determined. It would mean that
merely because prisoner "A" committed a crime just two years ago, the

120
Pro Deo counsel receive R345-00 per accused per day and R145-00 per consultation to a
maximum of 10 consultations per case - Senior counsel are otherwise able to earn that within an
hour or two! It is therefore hardly surprising that advocates are hesitant to accept such
appointments. Furthermore, the accused's defence is severely hampered by the fact that because
counsel is payed so little, it is unlikely that they will spend much time on preparing for the trial.

I ~ 121
See Jordaan RA "Die openbare verdedigingstelsel as vorm van regshulp" (The public
· defender system as form of legal aid") 1991 THRHR 685, with regard to the problems which legal
(epresentation has presented in the past and the advantages which a Public Defender Scheme has.
See also McOuoid Mason D "Legal representation and the courts" 1992 SAJHR Yearbook 141-165.

122
See in this regard van Rooyen JH "Toward a new South Africa without the death sentence"
supra at 38.

123
The scheme is currently limited to the Witwatersrand due to limited funding.

124
Supra
 - 24-

death sentence would be considered constitutional, whereas if he had

committed it three years ago (for example), it would be unconstitutional.
If the death sentence is to be maintained, the only fair solution would be
either to commute the sentence in all the cases, or non.

b) Section 33( 1 )(a) and (b) of the new Constitution deals with the issue of
limitation of rights. The section provides that the rights entrenched in the
chapter of Fundamental Rights may be limited by law of general application,
provided such limitation "a) shall be permissible only to the extent that it is-
i) reasonable; and ii) justifiable in an open and democratic society based on
freedom and equality; and b) shall not negate the essential content of the
right in question, ... "

Whether the death sentence is "reasonable" will depend greatly on the issue
of proportionality. Although the question of per se constitutionality may
seem to be the overriding factor, the court must not lose sight of the fact
that it must consider the death sentence in its entirety and not limit it to per
se constitutionality.

The death sentence can only be "justifiable" if it can be shown that no other
, ,; sentence would have been the proper one. Here issues such as deterrence,
<~){_ retribution, rehabilitation and the option of life long imprisonment must be
/ "\1 cons1'd ere d .

Furthermore it may only be imposed if such limitation still respects values

such as freedom and equality. Especially here, the issues of "equal justice"
and legal representation will have to be considered. As long as the right to
life cannot be limited by the death sentence on an equal, that is, even
handed basis, such limitation cannot be regarded as reasonable and hence
it certainly will "negate the essential content of the right in question".

c) Finally, there is the issue of interpretation. In the Chabalala case, 125 Justice
Thea I Stewart adopted an entirely positivistic approach to his interpretation
of the Bophuthatswana Constitution and the question of whether the "old"
CPA was to be regarded as constitutional or not. As the Constitution
incorporated the CPA126 the judge regarded it to be constitutional 127 and
as a result, the learned judge, even though acknowledging the possibility of
uneven application elsewhere, refused to take into account any such
evidence. He was satisfied that as there was no evidence of this being the
case in Bophuthatswana, the death sentence was not unconstitutional. 128

126
Supra

126
As it was prior to amendment.
127
At 6310-E.
128
At 630A.
 - 25-

Fortunately s 35 of the new South African Constitution expressly provides

that "[i]n interpreting the provisions of this Chapter [of fundamental rights]
a court of law shall ... , where applicable, have regard to public international
law applicable to the protection of the rights entrenched in this Chapter, and
may have regard to comparable foreign case law". As a result, the
Constitutional Court will not be bound to a positivistic approach but be truly
able to have "due regard to the spirit, purport and objects of this
Chapter" . 129

CONCLUSION

South Africa has come a long way to where it stands today and its past is riddled
with strife and violence. Political discord has resulted in countless deaths and a
reinstatement of the death sentence will surely do no more than to add to the
misery which its people have had to endure for so long. At present there are some
450 prisoners on death row 130 and their last hopes for a continued existence lies
solely in the hands of a Constitutional Court. One important factor which the
Constitutional Court must keep in mind is that in the past, the death sentence has
been used as an object of political oppression and there is no guarantee that this
practice will not continue. Due to democracy finally having seen the light, South
Africa will soon have a judiciary which is truly representative of its people - and
just as diverse in opinion. Thus it is more likely than ever that discrepancies which
already exist in the imposition of the death sentence will only be enhanced.

Before South Africa can therefore be considered a country which truly respects the
right to life and equality before the law, the first step it will have to take under a
new Constitution will be the unconditional abolition of the death sentence.

129
Section 35(3) of the new Constitution.

130
Since 01 January 1992 until 25 May 1994 there have been 166 confirmed death sentences
and according to an Editorial "The death penalty once again" April1992 Consultus at 6, there were
295 prisoners on death row as at 31 December 1991.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Amnesty International When the state kills (Amnesty International Publishers,

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Bedau HA (ed) The death penalty in America (Oxford 3rd Edition) 1982.

Du Toit E; de Jager F; Paizes A; Skeen A and van der Merwe S

Commentary on the Criminal Procedure Act (Juta) 1991.

Olmesdahl MCJ and Steytler NC Criminal justice in South Africa (J~ta) 1983.

Whitley SJ Criminal justice and the constitution (Carswell) 1989.

Articles:

Angus L "How are we to treat the sentence of death since the Criminal Law
Amendment Act 107 of 1990?" 1992 (1) SACJ 51-71.

Bekker PM "Die doodvonnis: Voor en na 27 Julie 1990" 1993 (6) SACJ 57-71.

Cottrell J "Wrestling with the death penalty in India" 1991 SAJHR 185-198.

Devenish G "The historical and jurisprudential evolution and background to the

application of the death penalty in South Africa and its relationship
with constitutional and political reform" 1992 (1) SACJ 1-50.

du Plessis LM "Capital punishment: A legal philosophical appraisal" 1989 (2)

SACJ 180-251.
 11

du Toit E "Die doodvonnis- 'n nuwe benadering" April 1992 Consultus

p.18-21.

Editorial "The courts in a new dispensation" April 1992 Consultus 2-5.

"The death penalty once again" April 1992 Consultus 6.

Goldfarb A "The dilemma of discretion: A US perspective on the proposal for

reform of the South African death penalty for murder" 1990 SAJHR
266-288.

Herrmann J "Capital punishment- why it needs to be abolished" 1993 De lure

384-393.

Hintze MD "The cost of retaining the death penalty: Some lessons from the
American experience" 1994 SALJ 55-64.

Jordaan RA "Die openbare verdedigingstelsel as vorm van regshulp" 1991 THRHR

685-704.

Loubser MM "Versagtende omstandighede by moord: Die gradering van skuld"

1977 THRHR 333-342.

Luiz S "A bill of rights: Is it worth the paper it's written on?" 1987 3 SAJHR
105-111.

McOuoid-Mason D "Legal representation and the courts" 1992 SAJHR Yearbook

141-165.

Mihalik J "The death penalty in Bophutatswana: A new deal for condemned

prisoners?" 1990 SALJ 465-489.

Mihalik J "The moratorium on executions: Its background and implications"

1991 SALJ 119-142.

"Articled clerks, legal aid and capital offenders" 1991 SALJ 718-729.
 ill

Van Rooyen JH "South Africa's new death sentence- is the bell tolling for the
hangman ?" 1991 (4) SACJ 79-85.

"Towards a new South Africa without the death sentence -

struggles, strategies and hopes" 1993 Florida State University
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PRECEDENT

SOUTH AFRICAN:

Chidi v Minister of Justice 1992 (2) SACR 135.

R v Biyana 1938 EDL 310.

R v Mfoni 1935 OPD 191.

S v Bape/a 1985 1 SA 236 (A).

S v Diedericks 1981 (3) SA 940 (C).

S v Letsolo 1970 (3) SA 476 (A).

S v Makhubo 1989 (4) SA 356 (A).

S v Masina 1990 (4) SA 709 (A).

S v Makaba 1965 (1) SA 215 (A).

SvMdau 1991 (1)SA169(A).

S v Mncubi 1991 (3) SA 132 (A}.

S v Nkwanyana 1990 (4) SA 735 (A).

S v Senonohi 1990 (1990) SA 727 (A).

S v Shabalala. 1968 (2) SA 286 (A).

S v Witbooi 1 982 1 SA 30 (A).

INTERNATIONAl:

Bophuthatswana:

S v Chabala/a 1986 (3) SA 619 (BA).

Canada:

R v Smith (1987) 5 WWR 1 SCC.

United States of America:

Furman v Georgia 408 US 238 (1972).

Gregg v Georgia 428 US 153 (1976).

Jurek v Texas 428 US 262 (1976).

Lockett v Ohio 438 US 586 (1976).

McGautha v California 402 US 238 (1972).

Proffitt v Florida 428 US 242 (1976).

Roberts v Louisiana 420 US 280 (1976).

Trop v Dulles 356 US 86 (1958).

Woodson v North Carolina 428 US 280 (1976).

Zimbabwe:

Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Zimbabwe v Attorney General of

Zimbabwe and Others 1993 (2) SACR 432 (ZS).