Lesson 1 - Introduction to TEACHING COMPUTER

NETWORKING
INTRODUCTION
Networks are everywhere—or so it seems. You can hardly do anything with data that does not involve a
network. Like the human networks that we are all part of, computer networks let us share information
and resources. In business, the reliance on networks is even more pervasive than in homes or schools.
Networks help individuals and businesses alike save money, but they also help create income. Without
a doubt, networking within the home will catch on over the next few years as it has in business. Soon,
nearly all individuals in even moderately developed nations will have networked components throughout
their homes. Those that don’t will be netologically disadvantaged because they will not be able to learn
or to function at the same level as those who are networked.

In this chapter, you’ll begin by relating networks to situations and concepts you already know. Once you
have a basic understanding of what networks are and what they can do, it helps if you can actually
begin working with them. In fact, it is so helpful to learn the ropes of networking through hands-on
guided practice that that’s what is planned for you here. You will play the role of an employee in a
fictional company, and you’ll have to learn on the job. The more you become the person, the more you
will learn about the need for and operation of computer networks.

UNDERSTANDING NETWORKS
Human Networks
In its broadest sense, a network consists of two or more entities, or objects, sharing resources and
information. Although this book is about computer networks, there are networks that don’t involve
computers, and those networks are everywhere. You have grown accustomed to working with them,
possibly without even knowing it.

It may not matter to you that, in a basic sense, sharing (giving or getting) is a fundamental aspect of
networking. You just know that you do it.

Family Network
Most people belong to a family network in which related people share their resources and information.
This sharing is bi-directional because even the youngest family members share information of some
sort. As the family grows, so does the network.
 A network connects members of a family together.

Peer Network
Outside the family, there is a community that offers a wider array of re- sources than the typical family
can provide. Naturally, it makes sense to connect the family to this community to take advantage of the
wealth of re- sources available around town. This type of information/resource sharing can be as simple
as loaning a hammer to a neighbor, car-pooling with work associates, or helping a friend with his or her
homework. All of these activi- ties involve sharing, or trading, resources. This kind of network is
represented by a two-way relationship, a give and take among equals or peers.

The family network connects with the greater community.

Restaurant Network: The Client and the Server
So, in any type of human network, there’s a lot of giving and taking. You’re already more accustomed to
the client/server perspective in networking than you realize. For instance, when you go to dinner at a
restaurant, you be- come a customer, or client, enjoying the food and drink prepared and served to you
by the restaurant. On the other hand, the waiter works as a server, controlling and providing his
customers with access to resources in the form of placing orders for and delivering food items. The
server knows that re- quests will be made of him (access is sought when an order is placed) and that he
will service those making the requests (access is granted when the order is delivered).

In a dining situation, it is easy to know whether you are supposed to be serving or being served.

Contact Network
Anyone who has looked for a job knows that one of the best ways to find a job is to network. That is,
create a list of friends and associates who will help you find the perfect job. The more people you meet
and get to know, the better your chances of obtaining work. As you
develop and nurture your ca- reer, this contact network will serve you best because your role in it will
change as you gain more experience. Soon, you may be able to help the people who helped you. And
as your personal and professional networks grow, so do your opportunities.

These examples of human networks should help you under- stand that networking is common between
people and is not just an activity restricted to computers. However, this book will focus on computer
networks—connecting computers and having them communicate with each other.
 The more people in your network, the better your chances of finding that perfect job.

Computer Networks
A computer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected in order to share
the components of your network (its resources) and the information you store there, as shown in Figure
1.1. The most basic computer network (which consists of just two connected computers) can expand
and become more usable when additional computers join and add their resources to those being
shared.

A computer network can be as simple as two or more computers communicating.

The first computer, yours, is commonly referred to as your local computer. It is more likely to be used
as a location where you do work, a workstation, than as a storage or controlling location, a server. As
more and more computers are connected to a network and share their resources, the net- work
becomes a more powerful tool, because employees using a network with more information and more
capability are able to accomplish more through those added computers or additional resources.

The real power of networking computers becomes apparent if you envi- sion your own network growing
and then connecting it with other distinct networks, enabling communication and resource sharing
across both net- works. That is, one network can be connected to another network and be- come a more
powerful tool because of the greater resources. For example, you could connect the network you and
your classmates develop for this course to similarly con- structed networks from other intro- ductory
networking classes if you wanted them to share your infor- mation and networked resources. Those
classes could be within your own school, or they could be anywhere in the world. Wherever that newly
joined network is, the communication and resource shar- ing activities in that new network could then be
shared with anyone connected to your network. All you have to do is join that new network’s community
or allow its members to join yours.

In addition, a company’s cost of doing business can be reduced as a result of sharing data (defined as a
piece or pieces of information) and re- sources. Instead of having individual copies of the data at several
locations around the company, and needing to keep all of them similarly updated, a company using a
network can have just one shared copy of that data and share it, needing to keep only that one set of
data updated. Furthermore, sharing networked resources (like printers) means that more people can
use a particular resource and a wider variety of resources (like different printers) can be used by each
network user. Any time a company can do more with less, or buy fewer items to do the same job, its
total costs are reduced, and it is able to make more money per dollar spent.

Network Plan
Networking computers first and tracking the connections later can quickly become confusing and
unmanageable as you try to find which computer communicates with and shares resources with which
other computers. In your human network, do you share everything with your friends? In your family
network, would you want your parents or guardians to know your every thought? You have your
information-sharing plan in your head, and it is important to keep track of it so you don’t make a mistake
and share something where it was not intended.

Similar concerns must be considered while designing a computer network. Before you even connect
your first computers together, you should have a plan. A network plan, therefore, is a formally created
product that shows all the network’s components and the planned connections between them. Such a
plan is also used to manage the various types of information. Your plan should show what types of
information are stored where, and who is allowed to use each type.

Information Management
Your network plan should help you manage the information gathered, stored, and shared between your
users. If you were given an empty three-drawer filing cabinet and told to use it to organize your
company’s in- formation, you would have an excellent (although manual) example of a fil- ing system
that needs a plan. Having an overall guide that tells you who will be allowed access to the three drawers
will help determine what you store in each one. Once you have that part of the plan, you could put the
least-used information in the bottom drawer, the more-used in the middle drawer, and the most-used in
the top drawer so that it is easier for your users to access their information. Knowing who needs to know
what, and its corollary— who does not need to know what—lets you determine whether to lock a par-
ticular drawer, too.

Even when we discuss implementing a three-drawer manual filing sys- tem, the importance of having a
network plan ahead of time becomes evi- dent. If you put the limited-access material in a drawer open to
all employees, how do you keep it secure? Additional security measures (like adding a lock to a drawer,
or moving the secure information somewhere else) may be required later.
A networking plan could tell you that as specific types of sensitive data (like medical, personal, or payroll
information) are gathered or grouped, they should be stored higher in the hierarchical structure (ranked
from most sensitive to least sensitive), and this can save you time in the end. That plan should specify
that the access requirements are stricter for sensitive data and reduce the number of people able to use
specific types of information.

The distribution side of the networking plan, as opposed to the accumu- lation side of the plan discussed
above, should spell out that the more an in- dividual has access to the data in storage, the less they
should be able to share groups of information entrusted to them. For example, you may not mind
sharing your first name, but you would probably object to an instruc- tor openly distributing all
information in your school records to anyone re- questing it.

Information’s Importance

If you think about the manual filing system we discussed using a filing cabi- net, an important computing
concept is easy to recognize. Some informa- tion is more important or more sensitive than the rest. It is
usually obvious in real filing cabinet systems, because the top drawer is usually where the most
sensitive information is stored, and it is locked. Few people in an organization have access to that
information. For example, credit card or Social Security numbers are information that should be given
the highest level of security—access to that information is given only to a limited number of people in a
company. On the other hand, some information, such as Webpages, newsletters, and product
information, is created for everyone to see, even outside a company. Figure 1.2 shows how this kind of
information is organized into a hierarchy of information, where the most detailed infor- mation is found at
the top and the more general, less secure information is located at the bottom. How much information
would you be willing to pro- vide about yourself to a perfect stranger? Coun- try of birth? Sure. State of
residence? Why not? But you might have second thoughts about advertising your street address or
phone number to a stranger.

The collection and proper manipulation of many seemingly unimportant pieces of information, and the
effective tracking of them, makes information management on networks so important, just as when you
are maintaining a man- ual filing system. A single piece of information in a data field, such as your first
name, can seem unim- portant. However, by combining your first name with other pieces of related
information, like your last name, address, age, gender, and phone number (stored in other data fields),
the pieces can be put together to create a data re- cord, which can accurately de- scribe something (or
someone) that is important—like you. Finally, combining similar records (such as records describing all
your class- mates) creates a file that, because it contains sensitive information from more than one
source, is more sensitive than a single record.

Information sharing, therefore, has serious security issues to be considered, and network access to data
must be evaluated carefully so that only those who need it can access it.
 The hierarchy of information
The more specific the information becomes, the more restricted it should be.
What kind of data would you be willing to give to a stranger?

Lesson 2 - Identifying the Benefits of Networks

In the early days of the personal computer (PC), during the late ’70s and early ’80s, often a PC was
used as a stand-alone computer and operated inde- pendently from other computers, as shown in
Figure 1.3. When, over the span of just those few years, their use proliferated and more PCs were found
relatively close to each other, users began sharing information. The information was either printed out or
copied from one computer to another using backup or storage devices, such as tapes, disks, or other
digital storage media.
 Figure 1.3
Stand-alone computers are operated independently.

The printout or the storage device was then physically carried to another computer where the
information was reentered or copied from the portable media into the next computer. This process was
referred to as a sneakernet because users actually had to walk from computer to computer. It
was probably the cheapest type of network—unless the computers were large distances apart or the
information needed to be shared among many com- puters. Other drawbacks to sneakernets were that
printouts were often bulky, and the storage devices could hold a relatively small amount of data
compared to the large amount of output users produced.

One sneakernet alternative was the floppy disk,

which was used to transfer data between computers that were not networked.

Once computers were connected by networks, information sharing in- creased dramatically. People
found that more data helped them make better decisions, and companies started saving money. Many
original networks were designed to facilitate communication, but they were quickly expanded as
businesses noticed increased productivity and reduced costs.

Sharing Information

Computers increase your ability to communicate. Once you begin working with a computer, you are
likely to become more productive. However, what do you do with that increased productivity if you are
not connected to any- one? Communication requires not only someone with information to share but
also someone on the other end with whom to share it. Companies don’t benefit by creating sheer
volumes of output—they benefit when the in- creased output helps them make better decisions or
increases the likelihood of increased income. Having your computers networked allows you to do both
with your newfound increases.

The initial reason for developing most computer networks was to assist users with sharing their
increased output, especially between computers in the same general vicinity, as shown in Figure 1.4.
However, users wanted not only to share information with others, they wanted to communicate about
that information after someone else had it, too. In addition to trans- mitting the user’s original
information, computer networks enabled those users to discuss what was being transmitted, and this
resulted in even more communication. Additional network communications techniques thus came into
being, such as e-mail and video conferencing. Furthermore, with the increases in the sizes of networks,
sharing no longer had to be concerned with proximity. The use of networks has effectively erased
distance and time constraints. You can communicate almost instantly to anywhere in the world that is
connected to your network.

Figure 1.4
Computer communication—
Two computers in the same general vicinity should be able to communicate.

Networks are an effective way to communicate. Using networks, companies can send the same
information to large numbers of employees or customers quickly and efficiently. Examples include
company newsletters and announcements for employees, as well as advertisements and purchase in-
formation for customers. Also, individual employees are more likely to communicate with larger numbers
of individuals both inside and outside the company using e-mail, an electronic means of communicating
that is similar to mail but done on computers, usually over the Internet, over net- works. E-mail is the
most commonly used feature of the Internet, and its use is growing dramatically. In fact, e-mail is fast
becoming the primary choice for much of our daily communication.

Sharing Resources

In the sneakernet era, users spent huge amounts of time attempting to share their resources. They had
to physically distribute files that others needed. Expenditures for printers and other attached computer
components rose apidly while the individual components themselves were not being used to their full
capacity. On top of that, the hard disk storage on each local computer began filling up, partly because
everyone had a copy of every document. One copy of that data, and even the applications that
produced it, could more efficiently be stored in a single location and shared over a network.

The ability to share resources was another reason networks were created, and it is still one of the main
purposes for using networks. The inevitable technology creep (the continuing need for additional
investment in technology that is required to stay current) extends the computer user’s involvement in
technology because companies expect employees to learn new systems as they are installed.
Companies also look for ways to make the best use of their investments by sharing the purchased
resources among multiple de- partments. Let’s look at some of the resources that are commonly shared
over computer networks.

Peripherals

Many companies start with multiple stand-alone computers. Not too long after the initial computer
purchase, however, additional components that attach to a computer, called peripherals, like printers,
scanners, and speak- ers, are purchased and are connected to that computer to expand its use (see
Figure 1.5). When there are multiple users and computers, it soon becomes ap- parent that the
peripheral devices are seldom fully utilized. Money can be saved if some of these peripherals are
shared, instead of having to purchase a separate set for each computer. Networking enables the
sharing of peripherals.

The ability to share printers was very often enough of a cost savings for companies to invest in
implementing and supporting a simple network. The company could then also realize additional cost
savings as it shared additional peripheral devices, such as faxes, modems, scanners, plotters, and
virtually any other device that connects to computers. Sharing peripherals often ends up producing
significant cost savings and more than justifies the expense of adding a network.

Figure 1.5 Common network peripherals

Storage

Data was being loaded on the computers of every fledgling network user as they expanded their
network use. Users quickly ran out of space on their own local computers, so the people in charge of the
networks began devis- ing ways to store data centrally so that it was accessible to any user who needed
it. Large amounts of storage capacity, usually in fast, very powerful computers, were set up to act as
storage locations for this data where access to it could be controlled by the person storing the data.

Applications

Cost and space savings are achieved when computer users can centrally store their software
applications—the computer programs (organized sets of computer instructions) that make a user’s
computer do what needs to be done. Applications, such as those used for preparing taxes, creating text
documents, or playing computer games, have grown in complexity and size and often take up
considerable local storage. Installing an application once on a network and then sharing it cuts down on
the storage space required when multiple users need the same application.

Unfortunately, there are still several problems with this type of arrange- ment. Some applications work
fine with different setups for each user (dif- ferent choices for screen settings and other custom
features), but normally all such settings must be the same for all users. Sometimes, applications still
function better when installed on a user’s local computer.
Assisting Collaboration

Once you have digital information and the ability to share it instantly with oth- ers over networks, you
can have multiple people working on the same process collectively. Much of the initial communication
about computer-produced products that occurred during and immediately after the sneakernet era dealt
with coworker collaboration, with coworkers discussing each other’s work or possibly even exchanging
opinions about what other users had created. Those early computer users found that once they created
something and sent it out for review, the comments returned often led to important adjust- ments that
would improve the original product. Such collaboration assisted the widespread use of computers
because it provided a tangible benefit that businesses could associate with the increased costs of
installing computers in the first place.

Many software makers took this early form of collaboration into consid- eration and added that feature to
the capabilities of their software. The new- est versions of the applications included in Microsoft’s Office
suite (such as Word, Access, Excel, and PowerPoint) allow multiple users to access and make changes
to the same document at the same time. That way, all users can work together on the original
document, and changes made by any col- laborating member are immediately posted within the
document. A more powerful implementation of this concept can be found in an application designed to
facilitate collaboration, such as Microsoft’s Terminal Server
(see [Link] terminal/[Link] for more information).

Facilitating Centralized Management

Just connecting computers to a network meant that some sort of similarity existed among them (or else
the computers would not be able to communicate), and a maintenance capability may have been
available in the early networks. However, it wasn’t until much later (in the mid ’90s) that maintenance
per- sonnel started using networks to assist with the management tasks associated with the network’s
operation and maintenance.

It came about as a direct result of standardization and interoperability, which meant computers worked
the same way and could work with each other. This was a drastic change to the original networks,
where all the dif- ferent networked components had different computer programs, or soft- ware (a set of
instructions that control the operation of a computer) running them. Having more similarities meant lower
support costs. These savings were usually due to economies of scale brought about by buying more
simi- lar computers and obtaining a lower per-unit cost. Companies soon began directing technicians to
purchase similar equipment to obtain the benefit of those savings. Once that happened, the network
could be used to help main- tain those similar components, and this further increased efficiency and re-
duced the total amount companies would spend on a particular component over that equipment’s usable
lifetime, called total cost of ownership (TCO).

Managing Software

Using the network helped reduce software costs. Savings occurred when all users on a network used
the same software and when software was bought in bulk quantities for a discount. Centralizing the
installation of that soft- ware also reduced operation costs because the installations could be accom-
plished remotely—over the network. The computer programs that were needed to perform the
installations were stored on servers and made accessible over the network. The maintenance personnel
 would then simply log on to the network from a client computer and install the needed applications us-
ing the installation software stored on the server.

Within the past few years, even more savings have been achieved by having the centralized server
initiate the software installations or updates on the client computers without the need for maintenance
personnel to actually visit any of the clients.

Maintaining the Network

Purchasing similar equipment for use on the network meant that network maintenance costs were
reduced because there were fewer dissimilar components. Maintenance workers no longer had to
attend numerous training sessions on many different components, which meant they could spend more
time maintaining the actual components.

Backing Up Data

Along those same lines, a network minimizes the time spent backing up (saving extra copies, called
backups) of necessary files. In the event of a hardware or software failure that causes information or
applications to be lost, vital information and necessary applications can be restored if sufficient backups
exist. The backup process is normally a regular activity in a company, and all transactions between
scheduled backups are recorded so that the files can be restored as completely as possible.
Technicians can access the backup files and recorded transactions from a central location without
having to physically visit the source computers.

Lesson 3 - USE OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

COMMUNICATIONS

Computer communications describes a process in which two or more computers or devices transfer
data, instructions, and information. Figure 8-1 shows a sample communications system. Some
communications involve cables and wires; others are sent wirelessly through the air. As illustrated in
this figure, communications systems contain all types of computers and computing devices. For
successful communications, you need the following:

 A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instructions, or information.

 A communications device that connects the sending device to a communications channel.
 A communications channel, or transmission media on which the data, instructions, or

information travel.

 A communications device that connects the communications channel to a receiving device.

 A receiving device that accepts the transmission of data, instructions, or information.
All types of computers and mobile devices serve as sending and receiving devices in a
communications system. This includes mainframe computers, servers, desktop
computers, notebook computers, Tablet PCs, smart phones, portable media players, and
GPS receivers. One type of communications device that connects a communications
channel to a sending or receiving device such as a computer is a modem. Two examples of
communications channels are cable television lines and telephone lines.
USES OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

Computer communications are everywhere. Many require that users subscribe to an Internet access
provider. With other computer communications, an organization such as a business or school
provides communications services to employees, students, or customers.

Internet — Worldwide
Wireless Messaging Services collection of networks that
links millions of businesses,
government agencies,
Users can send and receive wireless messages to educational institutions, and
individuals
and from smart phones, cell phones, handheld game con- soles, and other personal
mobile devices using three tech- niques: text messaging, wireless instant Web — Worldwide collection
messaging, and picture/video messaging (Figure 8-3). of electronic documents on
the Internet that users
access through a Web
browser
TEXT MESSAGING A mobile device with text messaging, also called SMS (short
message service), capability allows users to send and receive short text messages E-Mail — Transmission of
messages and files via a
on a phone or other mobile device. Text mes- saging services typically provide computer network
users with several options for sending and receiving messages:
Instant Messaging — Real-
time one-on-one
 Mobile to Mobile: send a message from your mobile device to another communications service on
the Internet that notifies you
mobile device when one or more people
 Mobile to E-Mail: send a message from your mobile device to an e-mail are online and then allows
you to exchange messages,
address anywhere in the world pictures, files, audio, and
video
 Web to Mobile: send a message from a text messaging Web site to a mobile device,
or request that a Web site alert a mobile device with breaking news and other Chat Rooms — Real-time
updates, such as sports scores, stock prices, and weather forecasts typed conversation among
two or more people that
takes place on a computer
connected to a network that
 Mobile to Provider: send a message by entering a four- or five-digit number assigned also may allow the exchange
to a specific content or wireless service provider, followed by the message, such as of messages, pictures, files,
audio, and video
a vote for a television program contestant
Newsgroups — Online
WIRELESS INSTANT MESSAGING Wireless instant messaging (IM) is a real-time areas in which users have
written discussions about a
Internet communications service that allows wireless mobile devices to exchange particular subject

messages with one or more mobile devices or online users. Some wireless Internet Blogs — Time-stamped
service providers partner with IM services so that you can use your smart phone or articles on a network that
reflect the author’s interests,
other mobile device to send and receive wireless instant messages. With a opinions, and personality
compatible IM service, users have these IM options:
Wikis — Collaborative Web
sites that allow users to
 Mobile to Mobile: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between two mobile create, add to, modify, or
delete Web site content
devices
 Mobile to Personal Computer: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between RSS — Specification that
a mobile device and a personal computer enables Web content to be
distributed to subscribers
 Web to Mobile: send or forward messages from a personal computer’s instant messenger
to a mobile device VoIP — Conversation that
takes place over the Internet
using a telephone connected
to a computer or mobile
device or telephone adapter
 FTP — Internet standard that
permits users to upload and
download files to and from
FTP servers on the Internet

Web Folders — Location on

a Web server (also known as
an HTTP server) to which
users publish documents
and other files

Video
Conferencing — Real-time
meeting between two or
more geographically
separated people who use a
network to transmit audio
and video data

Fax Machine or Computer

Fax/Modem — Transmits
and receives documents
over telephone lines

PICTURE/VIDEO MESSAGING With picture messaging, users can send pictures and sound files, as
well as short text messages, to a phone or other personal mobile device, or a computer. With video
messaging, users can send short video clips, usually about 30 seconds in length, in addition to all
picture messaging services. Picture/video messaging service, also called MMS (multimedia message
service), typically provides users these options for sending and receiving messages:

 Mobile to Mobile: send the picture/video from your mobile device to another
mobile device
 Mobile to E-Mail: send the picture/video from your mobile device to an e-mail
address anywhere in the world

Users can send and receive text messages, wireless instant messages, and picture/video messages to

and from their smart phones and other computers and devices.
Wireless Internet Access Points

At home, work, school, and in many public locations, people connect wirelessly to the Internet
through a wireless Internet access point using mobile computers, smart phones, handheld game
consoles, or other devices. Users access wireless Internet access points with computers or devices that
have the necessary built-in wireless capability or the appropriate wireless network card, PC Card,
ExpressCard module, or USB network adapter (Figure 8-4). Two types of wireless Internet access
points are hot spots and mobile wireless networks.

A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile computers and other
devices. Through the hot spot, mobile users check e-mail, browse the Web, and access any service on
the Internet. Three hot spot technologies are Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth. Wi-Fi hot spots pro- vide
wireless network connections to users in public locations such as airports, train stations, hotels,
convention centers, schools, campgrounds, shopping malls, bookstores, libraries, restaurants, and
coffee shops. The coverage range for WiMAX hot spots, can be much wider than Wi-Fi; for example,
they can cover an entire city. Bluetooth hot spots provide location-based services, such as sending
coupons or menus, to users whose enabled devices enter the coverage range. Sections later in this
chapter discuss Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth in more detail.

Some hot spots provide free Internet access, some charge a per-use fee, and others require users to
subscribe to a wireless Internet service provider, to which they pay per access fees, daily fees, or a
monthly fee. Per access fees average Php100, daily fees range from Php20 to Php150, and monthly
fees range from Php1,000 to Php5,000 for unlimited access, with the higher monthly fee providing
greater coverage areas.

A mobile wireless network provides users with high-speed Internet connections, as long as they are
in the network’s range. A mobile wireless network usually includes most major cities and air- ports.
Subscription fees for unlimited monthly Internet access to a mobile wireless network through a cell
phone range from Php1,000 to Php3,000. Fees for notebook computer access are higher, ranging from
Php1,500 to Php3,500 per month.
Cybercafés

When mobile users travel without their notebook computer or Internet-enabled mobile device, they
can visit a cybercafé to access e-mail, the Web, and other Internet services. A cybercafé, or Internet
cafe, is a coffeehouse, restaurant, or other location that provides personal computers with Internet
access to its customers. Cybercafés exist in cities around the world. Although some provide free
Internet access, most charge a per-hour or per-minute fee. Some cybercafés also are hot spots.

Global Positioning Systems

A global positioning system (GPS) is a navigation system that consists of one or more earth-based
receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by satellites in order to determine the receiver’s
geographic location (Figure 8-5). A GPS receiver is a handheld, mountable, or embedded device that
contains an antenna, a radio receiver, and a processor. Many include a screen display that shows an
individual’s location on a map. Some also function as a portable media player.

Many mobile devices such as smart phones have GPS capability built into the device or as an add-on
feature. Some users carry a handheld GPS receiver; others mount a receiver to an object such as an
automobile, boat, airplane, farm and construction equipment, or computer.

The first and most used application of GPS technology is to assist people with determining where
they are located. The data obtained from a GPS, however, can be applied to a variety of other uses:
creating a map, ascertaining the best route between two points, locating a lost person or stolen object,
monitoring the movement of a person or object, determining altitude, and calculating speed. Many
vehicles use GPSs to provide drivers with directions or other information.

Collaboration

Many software products provide a means to collaborate, or work online, with other users connected
to a server. Two methods of collaboration include collaborative software and document management
systems. Collaborative software includes tools that enable users to share documents via online
meetings and communicate with other connected users. An online meeting allows users to share
documents with others in real time (Figure 8-6). When the online meeting takes place on the Web, it is
called a Web conference. In an online meeting, all participants see a document(s) at the

same time. As someone changes the document, everyone in the meeting sees the changes being made.
Collaborative software often has chat, white- board, and video/audio conferencing capabilities.

Some companies use document management systems to make collaboration possible among

employees. A document management system provides for storage and manage- ment of a
company’s documents, such as word processing documents, presentations, and spreadsheets. Users
then access these documents, depending on their needs. A document management system can track
all changes made to a document. It also can

store additional information such as the docu- ment’s creation date, the user who created the
document, a summary of the document, and any keywords associated with the document. Google
Docs is a Web-based document management system that provides basic services to its subscribers at
no cost.

Groupware

Groupware is software that helps groups of people work together on projects and share information
over a network. Groupware is a component of a broad concept called workgroup computing, which
includes network hardware and software that enables group members to communicate, manage
projects, schedule meetings, and make group decisions. To assist with these activities, most
groupware provides personal information manager (PIM) functions, such as an elec- tronic
appointment calendar, an address book, and a notepad. A major feature of groupware is group
scheduling, in which a group calendar can track the schedules of multiple users and help coordinate
appointments and meeting times.

Voice Mail

Voice mail, which functions much like an answering machine, allows someone to leave a voice
message for one or more people. Unlike answering machines, however, a computer in the voice mail
system converts an analog voice message into digital form. Once digitized, the message is stored in a
voice mailbox. A voice mailbox is a storage location on a hard disk in the voice mail system. Some
voice mail systems can send digital voice mail files to e-mail addresses. Others can convert a voice
mail message to a text message for display on a computer or mobile device.

Web Services

Web services describe standardized software that enables programmers to create applications that
communicate with other remote computers over the Internet or over an internal business network.
Businesses are the primary users of Web services because this technology provides a means for
departments to communicate with each other, suppliers, vendors, and with clients. For example,
third-party vendors can use Web services to communicate with their online retailer’s Web site to
manage their inventory levels.
Lesson 4 - NETWORKS
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together via communications devices and
transmission media. Many businesses network their computers together to facilitate communications,
share hardware, share data and information, share software, and transfer funds.

A network can be internal to an organization or span the world by connecting to the Internet. Instead of
using the Internet or an internal network, some companies hire a value-added network provider for
network functions. A value-added network (VAN) is a third-party business that provides networking
services for a fee.

Networks facilitate communications among users and allow users to share resources with other users.
Some examples of resources are data, information, hardware, and software.

LANs, MANs, and WANs

Networks usually are classified as a local area network, metropolitan area network, or wide area
network. The main differentiation among these classifications is their area of coverage, as described in
the following paragraphs.

LAN A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area such as a home, school computer labora- tory, office building, or closely positioned
group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network, called a node, often shares resources such
as printers, large hard disks, and programs. Often, the nodes are connected via cables. A wireless
LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses no physical wires. Very often, a WLAN com- municates with a wired
LAN for access to its resources.

MAN A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high-speed network that connects local area networks in
a metropolitan area such as a city or town and handles the bulk of communications activity across that
region. A MAN typically includes one or more LANs, but covers a smaller geographic area than a
WAN.

A MAN usually is managed by a consortium of users or by a single network provider that sells the
service to the users. Local and state governments, for example, regulate some MANs. Telephone
companies, cable television operators, and other organizations provide users with connections to the
MAN.

WAN A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area (such as a city,
country, or the world) using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as
telephone lines, cables, and radio waves (Figure 8-8). A WAN can be one large network or can consist of
two or more LANs connected together. The Internet is the world’s largest WAN.

Network Architectures

The design of computers, devices, and media in a network, sometimes called the network architecture,
is categorized as either client/server or peer-to-peer.

CLIENT/SERVER On a client/server network, one or more computers act as a server; the other
computers on the network request services from the server (Figure 8-9). A server controls access to the
hardware, software, and other resources on the net- work and provides a centralized storage area for
programs, data, and information. Theclients are other computers and mobile devices on the network
that rely on the server for its resources. For example, a server might store a database of customers.
Clients on the network (company employ- ees) access the customer database on the server.
Some servers, called dedicated servers, perform a specific task and can be placed with other dedicated
servers to perform multiple tasks. For example, a file server stores and manages files. A print server
manages printers and documents being printed. A database server stores and provides access to a
database. A network server manages network traffic (activity).

A client/server network typically provides an efficient means to connect 10 or more com- puters. Most
client/server networks require a person to serve as a network administrator because of the large size of
the network.

PEER-TO-PEER One type of peer-to-peer network is a simple, inexpensive network that typically
connects fewer than 10 com- puters. Each computer, called a peer, has equal responsibilities and
capabilities, shar- ing hardware (such as a printer), data, or information with other computers on the
peer-to-peer network. Each computer stores files on its own storage devices. Thus, each computer on the
network contains both the network operating system and application software. All computers on the
network share any peripheral device(s) attached to any computer. For example, one computer may have
a laser printer and a scanner, while another has an ink-jet printer and an external hard disk. Peer-to-peer
net- works are ideal for very small businesses and home users.
INTERNET PEER-TO-PEER Another type of peer-to-peer, called P2P, describes an Internet network, on
which users access each other’s hard disks and exchange files directly (Figure 8-11). This type of peer-to-
peer network sometimes is called a file sharing network because users with compatible soft- ware and
an Internet connection copy files from someone else’s hard disk to their hard disks. As more users
connect to the network, each user has access to shared files on other users’ hard disks. When users log
off, others no longer have access to their hard disks.

Examples of networking software that support P2P are BitTorrent, Gnutella, Kazaa, and LimeWire
which allow users to swap music and other files via the Web.
Network Topologies

A network topology refers to the layout of the computers and devices in a communica- tions network.
Three commonly used network topologies are bus, ring, and star. Networks usually use combinations of
these topologies.

BUS NETWORK A bus network consists of a single central cable, to which all computers and other
devices connect. The bus is the physical cable that connects the computers and other devices. The bus in
a bus network transmits data, instructions, and information in both directions. When a sending device
trans- mits data, the address of the receiving device is included with the transmission so that the data is
routed to the appropriate receiving device.

Bus networks are popular on LANs because they are inexpensive and easy to install. One advantage of
the bus network is that comput- ers and other devices can be attached and detached at any point on the
bus without dis- turbing the rest of the network. Another advantage is that failure of one device usually
does not affect the rest of the bus network. The greatest risk to a bus network is that the bus itself might
become inoperable. If that hap- pens, the network remains inoperative until the bus is back in working
order.
RING NETWORK On a ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with all computers and devices
arranged along the ring. Data transmitted on a ring net- work travels from device to device around the
entire ring, in one direction. When a computer or device sends data, the data travels to each computer
on the ring until it reaches its destination.

If a computer or device on a ring network fails, all devices before the failed device are unaffected, but
those after the failed device cannot function. A ring network can span a larger distance than a bus
network, but it is more difficult to install. The ring topology primarily is used for LANs, but also is used
in WANs.

STAR NETWORK On a star network, all of the computers and devices (nodes) on the network connect to a
central device, thus forming a star. Two types of devices that provide a common central connection point for
nodes on the network are a hub and a switch. All data that transfers from one node to another passes through the
hub/switch.
Star networks are fairly easy to install and maintain. Nodes can be added to and removed from the
network with little or no disruption to the network.

On a star network, if one node fails, only that node is affected. The other nodes continue to operate
normally. If the hub/switch fails, however, the entire network is inoperable until the device is repaired.

Intranets

Recognizing the efficiency and power of the Internet, many organizations apply Internet and Web
technologies to their own internal networks. An intranet (intra means within) is an internal network
that uses Internet technolo- gies. Intranets generally make company information accessible to employees
and facilitate working in groups.

Simple intranet applications include electronic publishing of organizational materials such as telephone
directories, event calendars, procedure manuals, employee benefits information, and job postings.
Additionally, an intranet typically includes a connection to the Internet. More sophis- ticated uses of
intranets include groupware applications such as project management, chat rooms, newsgroups, group
scheduling, and video conferencing.

An intranet essentially is a small version of the Internet that exists within an organization. Users update
informa- tion on the intranet by creating and posting a Web page, using a method similar to that used
on the Internet.
Sometimes a company uses an extranet, which allows customers or suppliers to access part of its
intranet. Package shipping companies, for example, allow customers to access their intranet to print air
bills, schedule pickups, and even track shipped packages as the packages travel to their destinations.

Network Communications Standards

Today’s networks connect terminals, devices, and computers from many different manufacturers across
many types of networks, such as wide area, local area, and wireless. For the different devices on various
types of networks to be able to communicate, the network must use similar techniques of moving data
through the network from one application to another.

To alleviate the problems of incompatibility and ensure that hardware and software components can be
integrated into any network, various organizations such as ANSI and IEEE (pronounced I triple E)
propose, develop, and approve network standards. A network standard defines guidelines that specify
the way computers access the medium to which they are attached, the type(s) of medium used, the
speeds used on different types of networks, and the type(s) of physical cable and/or the wireless tech-
nology used. A standard that outlines characteristics of how two network devices communicate is called
a protocol. Hardware and software manufacturers design their products to meet the guidelines
specified in a particular standard, so that their devices can communicate with the network.

The following sections discuss some of the more widely used network communications standards for
both wired and wireless networks including Ethernet, token ring, TCP/IP, 802.11 (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth,
UWB, IrDA, RFID, WiMAX, and WAP.

ETHERNET Ethernet is a network standard that specifies no central computer or device on the network
(nodes) should control when data can be transmitted; that is, each node attempts to trans- mit data
when it determines the network is able to receive communications. If two computers on an Ethernet
network attempt to send data at the same time, a collision occurs, and the computers must attempt to
send their messages again.

Ethernet is based on a bus topology, but Ethernet networks can be wired in a star pattern. The Ethernet
standard defines guidelines for the physical configuration of the network, e.g., cabling, network cards,
and nodes. Today, Ethernet is the most popular LAN standard because it is relatively inexpensive and
easy to install and maintain. Ethernet networks often use cables to transmit data.

TOKEN RING The token ring standard specifies that computers and devices on the network share or
pass a special signal, called a token, in a unidirectional manner and in a preset order. A token is a
special series of bits that function like a ticket. The device with the token can transmit data over the
network. Only one token exists per network. This ensures that only one computer transmits data at a
time. Token ring is based on a ring topology (although it can use a star topology). The token ring
standard defines guidelines for the physical configuration of a network. Some token ring networks
connect up to 72 devices. Others use a special type of wiring that allows up to 260 connections.

TCP/IP Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP is a network standard,
specifically a protocol, that defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a network to the
other. TCP/IP describes rules for dividing messages into small pieces, called packets; providing
addresses for each packet; checking for and detecting errors; sequencing packets; and regulating the
flow of messages along the network.

TCP/IP has been adopted as a network standard for Internet communications. Thus, all hosts on the
Internet follow the rules defined in this standard. Internet communications also use other standards,
such as the Ethernet standard, as data is routed to its destination.

When a computer sends data over the Internet, the data is divided into packets. Each packet contains
the data, as well as the recipient (destination), the origin (sender), and the sequence information used to
reassemble the data at the destination. Each packet travels along the fastest individual available path to
the recipient’s computer via communications devices called routers.

802.11 (WI-FI) Developed by IEEE, 802.11 also known as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) and wireless
Ethernet, is a series of network standards that specifies how two wireless devices communicate over the
air with each other. Using Wi-Fi, computers or devices that have the appropriate wireless capa- bility
communicate via radio waves with other computers or devices. The Wi-Fi standard uses tech- niques
similar to the Ethernet standard to specify how physically to configure a wireless network. Most of
today’s computers and many personal mobile devices, such as smart phones and handheld game
consoles, are Wi-Fi enabled.

One popular use of the Wi-Fi standard is in hot spots that offer mobile users the ability to connect to the
Internet with their Wi-Fi enabled wireless computers and devices. Many homes and small businesses
also use Wi-Fi to network computers and devices together wirelessly.

BLUETOOTH Bluetooth is a standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how two Bluetooth devices
use short-range radio waves to transmit data. To communicate with each other, Bluetooth devices often
must be within about 10 meters (about 33 feet) but can be extended to 100 meters with additional equip-
ment. Examples of Bluetooth devices can include desktop computers, notebook computers, handheld
computers, smart phones, PDAs, headsets, microphones, digital cameras, and printers.

UWB UWB, which stands for ultra-wideband, is a network standard that specifies how two UWB
devices use short-range radio waves to communicate at high speeds with each other. For optimal com-
munications, the devices should be within 2 to 10 meters (about 6.5 to 33 feet) of each other. Examples of
UWB uses include wirelessly transferring video from a digital video camera, printing pictures from a
digital camera, downloading media to a portable media player, or displaying a slide show on a
projector.

IRDA Some computers and devices use the IrDA specification to transmit data wirelessly to each other
via infrared (IR) light waves. Infrared requires a line-of-sight transmission; that is, the sending device
and the receiving device must be in line with each other so that nothing obstructs the path of the
infrared light wave.

RFID RFID (radio frequency identification) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that defines how a
network uses radio signals to communicate with a tag placed in or attached to an object, an animal, or a
person. The tag consists of an antenna and a memory chip that contains the information to be
transmitted via radio waves. Through an antenna, an RFID reader reads the radio signals and trans- fers
the information to a computer or computing device. Readers can be handheld or embedded in an object
such as a doorway or tollbooth.

WIMAX WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), also known as 802.16, is a newer
network standard developed by IEEE that specifies how wireless devices communicate over the air in a
wide area. Using the WiMAX standard, computers or devices with the appropriate WiMAX wireless
capability communicate via radio waves with other computers or devices via a WiMAX tower. The
WiMAX tower, which can cover up to a 30-mile radius, connects to the Internet or to another WiMAX
tower.

Two types of WiMAX specifications are fixed wireless and mobile wireless. With fixed wire- less
WiMAX, a customer accesses the Internet from a desktop computer at home or other permanent
location. Mobile wireless WiMAX, by contrast, enables users to access the WiMAX network with mobile
computers and mobile devices such as smart phones.

The WiMAX standard provides wireless broadband Internet access at a reasonable cost over long
distances to business and home users. The WiMAX standard, similar to the Wi-Fi stan- dard, connects
mobile users to the Internet via hot spots. The next generation of game consoles also plans to support
the WiMAX standard.

WAP The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard, specifically a protocol, that specifies how
some mobile devices such as smart phones can display the content of Internet services such as the Web,
e-mail, and chat rooms. For example, users can check weather, sports scores, and headline news from
their WAP-enabled smart phone. To display a Web page on a smart phone, the phone should contain a
microbrowser. WAP uses a client/server network. The wireless device contains the client software,
which connects to the Internet access provider’s server.

Lesson 5 - COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE

NETWORK
Communications software consists of programs that

(1) help users establish a connection to another computer or network;

(2) manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information; and

(3) provide an interface for users to communicate with one another.

The first two are system software and the third is application software. Examples of application
software for communications: e-mail, FTP, Web browser, newsgroup/message boards, chat rooms,
instant messaging, video conferencing, and VoIP.

Some communications devices are preprogrammed to accomplish communications tasks. Other

communications devices require separate communications software to ensure proper transmission of
data. Communications software works with the network standards and protocols defined earlier to
ensure data moves correctly through a network. Communications software usually is bundled with the
operating system or purchased network devices.

Often, a computer has various types of communications software, each serving a different purpose. One
type of communications software helps users establish a connection to the Internet using wizards,
dialog boxes, and other on-screen messages. Communications software also allows home and small
office users to configure wired and wireless networks and connect devices to an existing network.

COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the worldwide telephone system that handles voice-
oriented telephone calls (Figure 8-15). Nearly the entire telephone network today uses digital
technology, with the exception of the final link from the local telephone company to a home, which
often is analog.

The telephone network is an integral part of computer communications. Data, instructions, and
information are transmitted over the telephone network using dial-up lines or dedicated lines. The
following sections discuss dial-up lines and the various types of dedicated lines that use the telephone
network for data communications.
Dial-Up Lines

A dial-up line is a temporary connection that uses one or more analog telephone lines for
communications. A dial-up connection is not permanent. Using a dial-up line to transmit data is similar
to using the telephone to make a call. A modem at the sending end dials the telephone number of a
modem at the receiving end. When the modem at the receiving end answers the call, a connection is
established and data can be transmitted. When either modem hangs up, the communications end.

Using a dial-up line to connect computers costs no more than making a regular telephone call.
Computers at any two locations establish an Internet or network connection using modems and the
telephone network.

Dedicated Lines

A dedicated line is a type of always-on connection that is established between two communications
devices (unlike a dial-up line where the connection is reestablished each time it is used). The quality and
consistency of the connection on a dedicated line are better than a dial-up line because dedicated lines
provide a constant connection.

Businesses often use dedicated lines to connect geographically distant offices. Dedicated lines can be
either analog or digital. Digital lines increasingly are connecting home and business users to networks
around the globe because they transmit data and information at faster rates than analog lines.

Five types of digital dedicated lines are ISDN lines, DSL, FTTP, T-carrier lines, and ATM. Although
cable television (CATV) lines and fixed wireless are not a type of standard telephone line, they are very
popular ways for the home user to connect to the Internet. Fixed wireless Internet connections use an
antenna on your house or business to communicate with a tower location via radio signals. Later
sections in this chapter discuss the use of CATV lines and radio signals to connect to the Internet.

The table in Figure 8-16 lists the approximate monthly costs of various types of Internet connections and
transfer rates (speeds), as compared with dial-up lines. The following sections discuss ISDN lines, DSL,
FTTP, T-carrier lines, and ATM.

ISDN LINES For the small business and home user, an ISDN line provides faster transfer rates than dial-
up telephone lines. Not as widely used today as in the past, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
is a set of standards for digital transmission of data over standard copper telephone lines. ISDN requires
that both ends of the connection have an ISDN modem. The ISDN modem at your loca- tion must be
within about 3.5 miles of the telephone company’s ISDN modem. Thus, ISDN may not be an option for
rural residents.

DSL DSL is a popular digital line alternative for the small business or home user. DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line) transmits at fast speeds on existing standard copper telephone wiring. Some DSL
installa- tions include a dial tone, providing users with both voice and data communications.

To connect to DSL, a customer must have a special network card and a DSL modem. Not all areas offer
DSL service because the local telephone company or the lines in the area may not be capable of
supporting DSL technology. As with ISDN, DSL may not be an option for rural residents because the
user’s location (and DSL modem) and the telephone company’s DSL modem must be located within
about 3.5 miles of each other.

ADSL is one of the more popular types of DSLs. ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) is a type of
DSL that supports faster transfer rates when receiving data (the downstream rate) than when sending
data (the upstream rate). ADSL is ideal for Internet access because most users download more
information from the Internet than they upload.

FTTP FTTP, which stands for Fiber to the Premises, uses fiber-optic cable to provide extremely high-
speed Internet access to a user's physical permanent location. Two specific types of FTTP are FTTH
(Fiber to the Home) and FTTB (Fiber to the Building). With FTTP service, an optical terminal at your
premises receives the signals and transfers them to a router connected to your computer. As the cost of
installing fiber decreases, increasingly more homes and businesses will opt for this high-speed Internet
access.

T-CARRIER LINES A T-carrier line is any of several types of long-distance digital telephone lines that
carry multiple signals over a single communications line. T-carrier lines provide very fast data transfer
rates. Only medium to large companies usually can afford the investment in T-carrier lines because
these lines are so expensive.

The most popular T-carrier line is the T1 line. Businesses often use T1 lines to connect to the Internet.
Many Internet access providers use T1 lines to connect to the Internet backbone. Home and small
business users purchase fractional T1, in which they share a connection to the T1 line with other users.
Fractional T1 is slower than a dedicated T1 line, but it also is less expensive.

A T3 line is equal in speed to 28 T1 lines. T3 lines are quite expensive. Main users of T3 lines include
large companies, telephone companies, and Internet access providers connecting to the Internet
backbone. The Internet backbone itself also uses T3 lines.

ATM ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a service that carries voice, data, video, and multimedia at
extremely high speeds. Telephone networks, the Internet, and other networks with large amounts of
traffic use ATM. Some experts predict that ATM eventually will become the Internet standard for data
transmission, replacing T3 lines.

LESSON 6 - COMMUNICATION DEVICES

A communications device is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instructions, and
information between a sending device and a receiving device. One type of communications device that
connects a communications channel to a sending or receiving device such as a com- puter is a modem.
Computers process data as digital signals. Data, instructions, and information travel along a
communications channel in either analog or digital form, depending on the com- munications channel.
An analog signal consists of a continuous electrical wave. A digital signal consists of individual
electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes.

For communications channels that use digital signals (such as cable television lines), the modem
transfers the digital signals between the computer and the communications channel. If a
communications channel uses analog signals (such as some telephone lines), however, the modem first
converts between analog and digital signals.

The following pages describe the following types of communications devices: dial-up modems, ISDN
and DSL modems, cable modems, wireless modems, network cards, wireless access points, and
routers.

Dial-Up Modems

As previously discussed, a computer’s digital signals must be converted to analog signals before they
are transmitted over standard telephone lines. The communications device that performs this
conversion is a modem, sometimes called a dial-up modem. The word, modem, is derived from the
combination of the words, modulate, to change into an analog signal, and demodulate, to convert an
analog signal into a digital signal.
A modem usually is in the form of an adapter card that you insert in an expansion slot on a com- puter’s
motherboard. One end of a standard telephone cord attaches to a port on the modem card and the other
end plugs into a telephone outlet.

ISDN and DSL Modems

If you access the Internet using ISDN or DSL, you need a communications device to send and receive
the digital ISDN or DSL signals. An ISDN modem sends digital data and information from a computer
to an ISDN line and receives digital data and information from an ISDN line. A DSL modem sends
digital data and information from a computer to a DSL line and receives digital data and information
from a DSL line. ISDN and DSL modems usually are external devices, in which one end connects to the
telephone line and the other end connects to a port on the system unit.

Cable Modems

A cable modem is a digital modem that sends and receives digital data over the cable television (CATV)
network (Figure 8-18). With more than 110 million homes wired for cable television, cable modems
provide a faster Internet access alternative to dial-up for the home user and have speeds similar to DSL.
Cable modems currently can transmit data at speeds that are much faster than either a dial-up modem
or ISDN.
Wireless Modems

Some mobile users have a wireless modem that uses the cell phone network to connect to the Internet
wirelessly from a notebook computer, a smart phone, or other mobile device (Figure 8-19). Wireless
modems, which have an external or built-in antenna, are available as PC Cards, ExpressCard modules,
and flash cards.

Network Cards

A network card is an adapter card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, USB network adapter, or flash card
that enables a computer or device that does not have networking capability to access a network. The
network card coordinates the transmission and receipt of data, instructions, and information to and
from the computer or device containing the network card.
Network cards are available in a variety of styles (Figure 8-20). A network card for a desktop computer
is an adapter card that has a port to which a cable connects. A network card for mobile computers and
devices is in the form of a PC Card, ExpressCard module, USB network adapter, or a flash card.
Network cards that provide wireless data transmission also are available. This type of card, sometimes
called a wireless network card, often has an antenna.

A network card follows the guidelines of a particular network communications standard, such as
Ethernet or token ring. An Ethernet card is the most common type of network card.

Wireless Access Points

A wireless access point is a central communications device that allows com- puters and devices to
transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to transfer data wire- lessly to a wired network (Figure 8-7
on page 303). Wireless access points have high-quality antennas for optimal signals.

Routers

A router is a communications device that connects multiple computers or other routers together and
transmits data to its correct desti- nation on the network. A router can be used on any size of network.
On the largest scale, routers along the Internet backbone forward data packets to their destination using
the fastest available path. For smaller business and home networks, a router allows multiple computers
to share a single high-speed Internet connection such as a cable modem or DSL modem (Figure 8-21).
These routers connect from 2 to 250 computers.
To prevent unauthorized users from accessing files and computers, many routers are protected by a
built-in firewall, called a hardware firewall. Some also have built-in antivirus protection. Today’s
routers or combination wireless access point/routers are easy to configure and secure against
unauthorized access.

LESSON 7 - HOME NETWORKS

HOME NETWORKS

Many home users are connecting multiple computers and devices together in a home network. Each
networked computer in the house has the following capabilities:

 Connect to the Internet at the same time

 Share a single high-speed Internet connection
 Access files and programs on the other computers in the house
 Share peripherals such as a printer, scanner, external hard disk, or DVD drive
  Play multiplayer games with players on other computers in the house
 Connect game consoles to the Internet
 Subscribe to and use VoIP

Many vendors offer home networking packages that include all the necessary hardware and software to
network your home using wired or wireless techniques. Some of these packages also offer intelligent
networking capabilities. An intelligent home network extends the basic home network to include
features such as lighting control, thermostat adjustment, and a security system.

Wired Home Networks

As with other networks, a home network can use wires, be wireless, or use a combination of wired and
wireless. Three types of wired home networks are Ethernet, powerline cable, and phoneline.

ETHERNET Some home users have an Ethernet network. As discussed earlier in this chapter,
traditional Ethernet networks require that each computer have built-in networking capabilities or
contain a network card, which connects to a central network hub or similar device with a physical cable.
This may involve running cable through walls, ceilings, and floors in the house. For the average home
user, the hardware and software of an Ethernet network can be difficult to configure.

POWERLINE CABLE NETWORK A home powerline cable network is a network that uses the same
lines that bring electricity into the house. This network requires no additional wiring. One end of a cable
plugs in the computer’s parallel or USB port and the other end of the cable plugs in a wall outlet. The
data transmits through the existing power lines in the house.

PHONELINE NETWORK A phoneline network is an easy-to-install and inexpensive network that uses
existing telephone lines in the home. With this network, one end of a cable connects to an adapter card
or PC Card in the computer and the other end plugs in a wall telephone jack. The phoneline net- work
does not interfere with voice and data transmissions on the telephone lines. That is, you can talk on the
telephone and use the same line to connect to the Internet.

Wireless Home Networks

To network computers and devices that span multiple rooms or floors in a home, it may be more
convenient to use a wireless strategy. One advantage of wireless networks is that you can take a mobile
computer outside, for example in the backyard, and connect to the Internet through the home network
as long as you are in the network’s range.

Most home networks use a Wi-Fi network, which sends signals through the air at distances of up to
1,500 feet in some configurations. Home users set up Wi-Fi networks in their homes because Wi-Fi
networks are fairly easy to configure. Each computer that accesses the network must have the appro-
priate built-in wireless networking capabilities or a wireless network card, which communicates with a
wireless access point or a combination router/wireless access point (Figure 8-22).
COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL

As described at the beginning of the chapter, a communications channel is the transmission media on
which data, instructions, or information travel in a communications system. The amount of data,
instructions, and information that can travel over a communications channel sometimes is called
the bandwidth. The higher the bandwidth, the more the channel transmits. For example, a cable modem
has more bandwidth than a dial-up modem.

For transmission of text only, a lower bandwidth is acceptable. For transmission of music, graphics,
photos, virtual reality images, or 3-D games, however, you need a higher bandwidth. When the
bandwidth is too low for the application, you will notice a considerable slow-down in system
performance.

A communications channel consists of one or more transmission media. Transmission media consist of
materials or substances capable of carrying one or more signals. When you send data from a computer,
the signal that carries the data may travel over various transmission media. This is especially true when
the transmission spans a long distance.
Figure 8-23 illustrates a typical communications channel and shows the variety of transmission media
used to complete the connection.

Baseband media transmit only one signal at a time. By contrast, broadband media transmit multiple
signals simultaneously. Broadband media transmit signals at a much faster speed than baseband media.
Home and business users today opt for broadband Internet access because of the much faster transfer
rates. Two previously discussed services that offer broadband transmis- sion are DSL and the cable
television Internet service. Satellites also offer broadband transmission. Read Looking Ahead 8-1 for a
look at the future of communications.

Transmission media are one of two types: physical or wireless. Physical transmission media use wire,
cable, and other tangible materials to send communications signals. Wireless transmission media send
communications signals through the air or space using radio, microwave, and infrared signals. The
following sections discuss these types of media.
LESSON 8 - PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA
PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Physical transmission media used in communications include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-
optic cable. These cables typically are used within or underground between buildings. Ethernet and token
ring LANs often use physical transmission media.

Twisted-Pair Cable

One of the more commonly used transmission media for network cabling and telephone systems is twisted-
pair cable. Twisted-pair cable consists of one or more twisted-pair wires bundled together (Figure 8-24).
Each twisted-pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted together. The wires
are twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an electri- cal disturbance that can degrade communications.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax (pronounced KO-ax), consists of a single copper wire surrounded
by at least three layers: (1) an insulating material, (2) a woven or braided metal, and (3) a plastic outer
coating (Figure 8-25).
Cable television (CATV) network wiring often uses coaxial cable because it can be cabled over longer
distances than twisted-pair cable. Most of today’s computer networks, however, do not use coaxial cable
because other transmission media such as fiber-optic cable transmit signals at faster

rates.

Fiber-Optic Cable

The core of a fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that use
light to transmit signals. Each strand, called an optical fiber, is as thin as a human hair. Inside the fiber-
optic cable, an insu- lating glass cladding and a protective coating surround each optical fiber (Figure 8-26).

Fiber-optic cables have the following advantages over cables that use wire, such as twisted-pair and coaxial
cables:

 Capability of carrying significantly more signals than wire cables

 Faster data transmission
 Less susceptible to noise (interference) from other devices such as a copy machine
 Better security for signals during transmission because they are less susceptible to noise
 Smaller size (much thinner and lighter weight)

Disadvantages of fiber-optic cable are it costs more than twisted-pair or coaxial cable and can be difficult to
install and modify. Despite these limitations, many local and long- distance telephone companies are
replacing existing telephone lines with fiber-optic cables, enabling them to offer fiber Internet access to
home and business users.
LESSON 9 - WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Many users opt for wireless transmission media because it is more convenient than installing cables. In
addition, businesses use wireless transmission media in locations where it is impossible to install cables.
Types of wireless transmission media used in communications include infrared, broadcast radio,
cellular radio, microwaves, and communications satellites.

Infrared

As discussed earlier in the chapter, infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission medium that sends signals
using infrared light waves. Mobile computers and devices, such as a mouse, printer, and smart phone,
often have an IrDA port that enables the transfer of data from one device to another using infrared light
waves.

Broadcast Radio

Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals through the air over
long distances such as between cities, regions, and countries and short distances such as within an office
or home. Bluetooth, UWB, Wi-Fi, and WiMAX communications technologies discussed earlier in this
chapter use broadcast radio signals.

Cellular Radio

Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile communications, specifically
wireless modems and cell phones. A cell phone is a telephone device that uses high-frequency radio
waves to transmit voice and digital data messages.

Some mobile users connect their notebook computer or other mobile computer to a cell phone to access
the Web, send and receive e-mail, enter a chat room, or connect to an office or school network while
away from a standard telephone line. Read Looking Ahead 8-2 for a look at the next generation of
cellular communications.

Personal Communications Services (PCS) is the term used by the United States Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to identify all wireless digital communications. Devices that use
PCS include cell phones, PDAs, pagers, and fax machines.

Microwaves

Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission. Microwave transmission,
often called fixed wireless, involves sending signals from one microwave station to another (shown in
Figure 8-1 on page 296). Microwaves can transmit data at rates up to 4,500 times faster than a dial-up
modem.
A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers, and other
equipment necessary for microwave communications. Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission. To
avoid possible obstructions, such as buildings or mountains, microwave stations often sit on the tops of
buildings, towers, or mountains.

Microwave transmission is used in environments where installing physical transmission media is

difficult or impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is available. For example, microwave
transmission is used in wide-open areas such as deserts or lakes; between buildings in a close geo-
graphic area; or to communicate with a satellite. Current users of microwave transmission include
universities, hospitals, city governments, cable television providers, and telephone companies. Home
and small business users who do not have other high-speed Internet connections available in their area
also opt for lower-cost fixed wireless plans.

Communications Satellite

A communications satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an earth-based
station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back over a wide area to any
number of earth-based stations.

These earth-based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such as smart phones and GPS
receivers, also can function as earth-based stations. Transmission from an earth-based station to a
satellite is an uplink. Transmission from a satellite to an earth-based station is a downlink.

Applications such as air navigation, television and radio broadcasts, weather forecasting, video
conferencing, paging, global positioning systems, and Internet connections use communications
satellites. With the proper satellite dish and a sat- ellite modem card, consumers access the Internet
using satellite technology. With satellite Internet connections, however, uplink transmissions usually are
slower than downlink transmissions. This difference in speeds usually is acceptable to most Internet
satellite users because they download much more data than they upload. Although a satellite Internet
connection is more expensive than cable Internet or DSL connections, sometimes it is the only high-
speed Internet option in remote areas.
IP Addressing
Two most important functions in a data network are:

1. To uniquely identify each host or computer or device participating in network. This is

called addressing.
2. To be able to connect and move data packets between any devices in a network. This is
often called switching and routing by connecting devices to switches and routers
respectively.

An IP address and Subnet Mask are very basic entities of data network.

What is an IP Address?

An IP address is a 32 bit number like 11000000101010000000000100000001 in binary or 3232235777 in

decimal. So it is written in 4 parts like 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001 in binary form and
[Link] in decimal form. This way it is easier to understand.

Now, a unique number is sufficient to identify each host in a network but that alone cannot help in reaching
from one host to another. Imagine if every house in world had a unique number or some name, but no
state, city and country info. Would it be possible to reach a particular house even if its number is known?

So logically, addresses are made up of parts, like state, city, street and finally house number. Most of the
parts of an address are common to many people, like people living at same street or city. Generally only
the house number and name finally differentiates between any two similar addresses.

Similarly in case of IP address, we logically partition an IP address in parts so that we can reach a
computer from anywhere (yes, obviously if the route exists). Also not that logically partitioning an IP
address is different than writing an IP address in 4 parts, that’s just a notation.

So to keep things simple we generally divide an IP address in two logical parts. One is network part and
the other is host part. Network part is like street, city, state which is shared by multiple IP addresses. Host
part is like house number and name of the person. Both parts together uniquely identifies a host or
computer. We can also partition an IP address in more than two parts.

What is a subnet mask?

Subnet mask is a 32 bit number just like an IP address and is written just like it. But subnet mask is not
used as a 32 bit number. It cannot hold just any value like IP address. Subnet mask is something which
draws a line somewhere is an IP address to help logically partition an IP address into logical parts. Now
again, from logical parts I don’t mean writing an IP address as four 8 bit numbers, that’s the notation. I
mean logical parts like Network, Sub-network and host, just like state, city and house number.

A subnet mask should only have continuous 1s starting from MSB (Most Significant Bit). Like
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000. Which means first 16 bits of an IP address belongs to network
part and rest is host part. A subnet mask can also have non-contiguous 1s, but that is strictly discouraged
and not recommended by RFC 950.
Why is it called Subnet Mask, why not Network Mask?

“Subnet” means sub-network. So the purpose of subnet mask was to create another partition (3rd part) in
an IP Address after network part. But then how we defined and identified the network part of an IP
address? Why we required another logical partition of sub-networks when we already had network part?
Now, to understand all this we need to know a little history of how networks worked in its starting days.

History of Subnet Mask

In 1969:

THERE WAS NO SUBNET MASK!!!

THERE WERE NO NETWORK CLASSES (CLASS A, B, C, D and E)

Standard reserved first 8 bits for network part. That meant we could only have 254 distinct networks and
each network can have 16,777,214 IP addresses.

In 1981:

NETWORK CLASSES WERE INTRODUCED!!!

AGAIN, THERE WAS NO SUBNET MASK!!!

24-bits for host address can hold 16,777,214 IP addresses. Not every organization in world requires a
network of thousands of computers. Rather we required more networks of smaller size. Also it was clear
that different organization have different requirement of network size. This meant that we will have to
partition IP addresses in a way so that we can have different sizes of network. The different size of network
bits created different classes of network, which we called Class A, Class B and Class C.

But as there was nothing other than IP address, not even subnet mask, we needed a way to identify what
is the network class of a given IP address. Take [Link] for an example. We cannot identify what part
of it belongs to network and to host without any other information given.

In 1981, numbers of networks being used were very less and were limited to 6 LSB (Least Significant
Bits) of Network bits (First 8 bits). You can say if 50 networks existed at that time then 50 will take a value
of 00110010. So by standard we fixed the values of MSBs of first octet to identify class of an IP address
which automatically divided the decimal value of first octet in ranges. Also we wanted that new scheme
should not cause to change existing IP addresses in use.

For example Class A’s IP address will always have MSB always 0. Which means any class A address will
always be between 0-127 in its first octet.

Class
Network Bits Host Bits Range First Octet Leading Bits
Class A
8 24 0-127 0XXXXXXX
Class B
16 16 128-191 10XXXXXX
Class C
24 8 192-224 110XXXXX
 Class D
Not Defined Not Defined 225-239 1110XXXX
Class E
Not Defined Not Defined 240-255 1111XXXX

In 1985:

Enough, we require a Subnet Mask now!

Finally in RFC 950 Subnetting was introduced. Soon after classes were introduced, as number of
organizations grew at a very past pace, we realized that we needed some way to further partition a network
into Sub-networks of smaller sizes. Here was the subnet mask introduced. That is why it is called a
“subnet” mask, but not network mask. Use of a subnet mask along with an IP Address also gave the
flexibility to define subnets of various sizes to network administrators.

Network Devices, Operating systems and protocols were updated to accommodate for subnet mask.
Classes still existed. Still we used the MSBs to identify Class of an IP address. Subnet mask always took
value greater than [Link] like [Link]. We used it to further subnet a Classful network. Subnet
mask logically partitioned an IP address into three parts. This methodology of allocating IP addresses is
called Classful Networking.

From 1993 onwards:

Classless Networking was introduced!

Why do we need to divide an IP address in three parts, why not just two? You can just merge subnet part
with network part using a subnet mask or call it a Network Prefix. Why do we need classes anymore?
Nowadays when we enter an IP address [Link] in network card properties, subnet mask
[Link] will be automatically populated in subnet mask field. This does not mean that we cannot
set subnet mask [Link] for an IP address [Link] in case of classless networking. It is just that we
are being compatible with Classful network and respecting private IP range. But technically it will work
with any network prefix. Network devices, operating systems and protocols do not care about classes
anymore.

IP ADDRESS FORMAT
Exclusions
Some address ranges are excluded from the above classes. All addresses of the form [Link] are used for diagnostics.
The following address ranges are designated as "private": meaning thay can only be used on networks which are not
connected to the global Internet:

[Link] - [Link]
[Link].0 - [Link]
[Link] - [Link]

Examples
Find the class, network and host addresses for:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
Subnetting, Supernetting and Network Address Translation

The classfull addressing scheme has proved to be too inflexible to accommodate the demand for IP addresses; specifically,
the convention that the part of the address which identifies a physical network must come on an 8-bit boundary meant that
the address space could not be allocated efficiently and a significant proportion of addresses would be wasted. For
instance, a Class A network can in theory have 16 million host IDs, which is way more than would be possible for a single
physical network (subnet). Many enterprises have been allocated Class B addresses, giving them a theoretical maximum of
65,535 hosts, and may have no more than a few hundred hosts or less: under the classfull scheme the remaining host IDs
for that network ID would be unused.

The lack of inflexibility in the addressing scheme is particulalrly undesirable because according to many authorities there is
a real danger of the Internet running out of addresses, as a result of several factors which were not envisaged when the
Internet protocols were originally designed, such as :

 take-up by business and domestic users

 increasing demand for "always-on" connections requiring a dedicated IP address, so that ISPs have less ability to
share out a limited number of IP addresses by reallocating them as customers disconnect
 convergence of computing, communications and entertainment industries could mean that every TV set, mobile
phone, playstation and DVD player will want to have an IP address.

Subnetting

The basic idea behind subnetting is that we take away some bits from the host portion of the address and use them to
identify the subnet. This will only be visible to hosts and routers on the local network; from the point of view of the Internet
at large only the network ID portion will have any particular meaning. The way this works is that the network administrator
defines a subnet mask, a string of 32 binary digits indicating the boundary between the subnet and host sections of the
"local" portion of an IP address. Some examples should help make this clear:
Take the Class A address [Link], where 9 is the network address and 67.38.1 identifies a particular host on that network.
Suppose the network administrator wants to use bits 8 to 25 to identify the subnet, leaving 26 to 31 for host addresses. This
is done by means of a mask which is all 1's from bits 0 to 25 with the remainder set to 0's:

11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000The subnet can then be indentified by ANDing the complete IP address with the
mask giving the result shown below:

00001001 01000011 00100110 00000001 = class A address [Link]

00001001 01000011 00100110 00000000 = subnet base address [Link]

Suppose a class C network has the subnet mask

11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000This means that the first three bits from the host ID are used to identify the
subnet, and the remaining 5 bits indicate the host itself. Take a host with the IP address

11010100 01110010 00010000 01110001 = 212.114.32.113Applying the subnet mask gives us

11010100 01110010 00010000 01100000 = 212.114.32.96The host ID proper comes out as 00010001 = 17.
For compatibility, routers include masks for unsubnetted addresses:

 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 N/A
 N/A

Supernetting and Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

CIDR is in a sense the converse of subnetting, in that bits are taken from the network ID to identify a cluster of network
addresses which are to be treated as a single entity. The main reasons for this are:

 As a consequence of the address exhaustion problem, Class B addresses are only assigned to organisations that can
show a clear need for them: organisations which do not meet the requirements are instead given a contiguous
block of Class C addresses.
 Having a series fo router table entries for networks which all map onto the same route is wasteful of space and
degrades routing algorithms.

CIDR uses a supernet mask along with the lowest network address in the assigned block to identify the range of assigned
network addresses.

Network Address Translation and IPv6

Network Address Translation is a technique which allows for the composition of a network to be completely hidden from
the outside world, with the entire network identified by a single IP address. Within the network, hosts and routers have
addresses which are unique to that network, typically taked from the ranges designated as "private" (see above). In order
to make sure that responses get back to the right hosts when packets are sent out into the Internet, the router will
construct a table associating outgoing packets with private IP addresses; the address of the relevant table entry will be
stored in the packet itself. This technique is controversial however; for one thing the field in the packet where the index
into the table is stored is part of the TCP header, which violates the principles of modularity and encapsulation on which the
"protocol stack" models are based.

A longer term solution to the address exhaustion problem is offered by IP version 6 (IPv6) which among other innovations
will support 128-bit addresses.
Making Ethernet Cables
HOW TO MAKE
AN ETHERNET
CABLE
Purchasing Ethernet
cables can be quite
expensive and pre-
made lengths are
not always the
length you
need. Making
Ethernet cables is
easy with a box of
bulk Category 5e
Ethernet cable and
RJ-45 connectors
that are attached to
the cut ends of your
preferred cable
length.
Bulk Ethernet Cable -
Category 5e or CAT5e

(You may also use

Category 6 or CAT6
cabling which has higher
performance
specifications and is
about 20% more
expensive than CAT5e.)

Bulk RJ45 Crimpable

Connectors for CAT-5e
or
Bulk RJ45 Crimpable
Connectors for CAT-6
RJ-45 Crimping tool

There are two kinds of

Ethernet cables you can
make, Straight
Through and Crossover.

STRAIGHT
THROUGH Ethernet
cables are the standard
cable used for almost all
purposes, and are often
called "patch cables". It
is highly recommend
you duplicate the color
order as shown on the
left. Note how the green
pair is not side-by-side
as are all the other pairs.
This configuration allows
for longer wire runs.

CROSSOVER CABLES -
The purpose of a
Crossover Ethernet cable
is to directly connect
one computer to
another computer (or
device) without going
through a router, switch
or hub.
Here's how to make
a standard cable:

Cut into the plastic

sheath about 1 inch (2.5
cm) from the end of the
cut cable. The crimping
tool has a razor blade
that will do the trick with
practice.

Unwind and pair the

similar colors.
Pinch the wires between
your fingers and
straighten them out as
shown. The color order
is important to get
correct.

Use scissors to make a

straight cut across the 8
wires to shorten them
to 1/2 Inch (1.3 cm)
from the cut sleeve to
the end of the wires.

Carefully push all 8

unstripped colored wires
into the connector. Note
the position of the blue
plastic sleeve. Also note
how the wires go all the
way to the end.

A view from the top. All

the wires are all the way
in. There are no short
wires.
WRONG WAY -
Note how the blue
plastic sleeve is not
inside the connector
where it can be
locked into place.
The wires are too
long. The wires
should extend only
1/2 inch from the
blue cut sleeve.

WRONG WAY - Note

how the wires do not go
all the way to the end of
the connector.
CRIMPING THE CABLE ...
carefully place the
connector into the
Ethernet Crimper and
cinch down on the
handles tightly. The
copper splicing tabs on
the connector will pierce
into each of the eight
wires. There is also a
locking tab that holds
the blue plastic sleeve in
place for a tight
compression fit. When
you remove the cable
from the crimper, that
end is ready to use.

For a standard "Straight

Through" cable, repeat
all steps and wire color
order on the other end
of cable. For a cross-over
cable, the other end will
have a different color
order as shown by the cr