Chapter 2

Electronic Fundamentals for Communications T.. understand communication eloctorcs as presented inthis book you need a knowledge of certain basic principles of electronics, including the fundamentals of alternating-current (ac) and direct-current (de) circuits, semiconductor operation and characteristics, and basic electronic circuit, ‘operation (amplifiers, oscillators, power supplies, and digital logic circuits) Some of the basics are particularly critical to understanding the chapters that follow. These include the expression of gain and loss in decibels, LC tuned circuits, resonance and filters, and Fourier theory. The purpose of this chapter Is to briefly review all these subjects. If you have studied the material before, it will simply serve as a review and reference. , because ‘of your own schedule or the school’s curriculum, you have not previously covered this material, use this chapter to learn the necessary information before you continue, Objectives After completing this chapter, you will be able to: = Calculate voltage, current, gain, and attenuation in decibels and apply these formulas in applications involving cascaded circuits. = Explain the relationship between Q, resonant frequency, and bandwidth. = Describe the basic configuration of the different types of filters that are used in communication networks and compare and contrast active filters with passive filters, = Explain how using switched capacitor filters enhances selectivity. = Explain the benefits and operation of crystal, ceramic, and SAW filters. = Calculate bandwidth by using Fourier analysis.2-1 Gain, Attenuation, and Decibels ‘Most electronic circuits in communication are used to process signals, ie, to manipulate signals (0 produce a desired result. All signal processing circuits involve either gain or attenuation, Gain Gain means amplification, Ifa signal is applied to a circuit such as the amplifier shown Gain in Fig. 2-1 and the output of the circuit has « greater amplitude than the input signal, the circuit has gain, Gain is simply the ratio of the output to the input, For input (V.,) ‘and output (Vax) voltages, voltage gain Ay is expressed as follows: Figure 24 An enpier hes ‘output Vax, gan input Vig motes The number obtained by dividing the output by the input shows how much larger x ve the output is than the input, For example, if the input is 150 Vand the output is Ey oad 75 maV, the gain is Ay = (75 107')/(150 x 10°) = 500. ‘The formula can be rearranged to obtain the input or the output, given the other two Ao sain = variables: Vag = Vig X Av and Vig = VoalAy: If the output is 0.6 V and the gain is 240, the input is Vj, = 0.6/240 = Example 2-1 ‘What is the voltage gain of an amplifier that produces an output of 750 mV for a 30-nV input? Voy, _ 750 X 107? Vg 30 10% = 25,000 Since most amplifiers are also power amplifies caleulate power gain Ap the same procedure can be used to Pow ?, Ar = where P, is the power inpul and Pay is the power output Example 2-2 “The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts (W). The power gain is 80. What is the input power? Ap os therefore S = 007s. w = 75 mw s- = 15m Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications 3132 Figure 2-2 Total gain of cascaded circurts is the product of individual stage gains, sev temy NX tyson When two or mote stages of amplification or other forms of signal processing are cascaded, the overall gain of the combination is the product of the individual cizcuit ‘gains. Fig. 2-2 shows three amplifiers connected one after the other so that the output ‘of one is the input to the next. The voltage gains of the individual cizcuits are marked, Fo find the total gain of this ciscuit, simply multiply the individual cizcuit gains: Ap =A, XA, X Ay = 5X3 X4 = 60. If an input signal of 1 mV is applied to the first amplifier, the output of the third amplifier will be 60 mV. The outputs of the individual amplifiers depend upon their individual gains. The output voltage from each amplifier is shown in Fig. 2-2. Example 2-3 ‘Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input power is 40 mW. What is the output power? Ap = AL XA, XA, 5X2X1T= 170 Pow Pow = = 68W Example 2-4 A owo-stage amplifier has an input power of 25 pW and an output power of 1.5 mW. One stage has a gain of 3. What is the gain of the second stage? P. 5x10 Ap = Tit = ISX OT 8 6g Py 25X10 Ap = A,X Ap IE A, = 3, then 60 = 3 A, and A, = 60/3 = 20. Chapter 2Figure 2:3 A voltage divider introduces attenuation A= 2008 Attenuation Attenuation refers to a loss introduced by a circuit or component. Many electronic circuits, sometimes called stages, reduce the amplitude of a signal rather than increase it, If the ‘output signal is lower in amplitude than the input, the cizeuit has loss, o attenuation. Like gain, attenuation is simply the ratio of the output to the input. The letter A is used to represent attenuation as well as gain: output Vou input Vin Attenuation A= Circuits that introduce attenuation have a gain that is less than 1. In other words, the output is some fraction of the input, ‘An example of a simple circuit with attenuation is a vollage divider such as that shown in Fig, 2-3. The oulput vollage is the input voltage multiplied by a ratio based ‘on the resistor values. With the resistor values shown, the gain or attenuation factor of the circuit is A= R/(R, + R) = 100/(200 + 100) = 100/300 = 0.3333. Ifa signal of 10 V is applied (o the attenuator, the output is Vig) = Vg = 10(0,3333) = 3.333 V. When several circuits with attenuation are cascaded, the total attenuation is, again, the product of the individual attenuations. The circuit in attenuation factors for each cireuit are shown, The overall attenuation is ig. 2-4 is an example. The r= AL XA, X Ay With the values shown in Fig. 2-4, the overall attensation is Ar = 0.2 X 09 X 0.05 = 0.0108 Given an input of 3 V, the ouput vollage is = ArVq = 0.0108(3) = 0.0324 = 32.4 mV Figure 2-4 Total attenuation is the product of individual attenuations of each cascaded circut Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Atenuation 3334 Figure 2.5 Gain exactly offsets the attenuation, Ik is common in communication systems and equipment to cascade cizeuits and ‘components that have gain and attenuation. For example, loss introduced by a circuit can >be compensated for by adding a stage of amplification that offsets it. An example of this is shown in Fig. 2-5, Here the voltage divider inuoduces a 4-to-1 voltage loss, or an attenuation of 0.25. To offset this, itis followed with an amplifier whose gain is 4. The ‘overall gain or attenuation of the cixcuit is simply the product of the attenuation and gain factors. In this case, the overall gain is Ay = AvA; = 0.25(4) = 1 Another example is shown in Fig. 2-6, which shows two attenuation cixcuits and ‘wo amplifier circuits. The individual gain and attenuation factors are given. The overall citeuit gain is Ap = A, A Ay Ay = (0.1)(10)(0.3)(15) = 45. For an input voltage of 1.5 V, the output voltage at each cirouit is shown in Fig. 2-6, In this example, the overall circuit has a net gain. But in some instances, the overall circuit or system may have a net loss. In any case, the overall gain or loss is obtained ‘by multiplying the individual gain and attenuation factors Example 2-5 A voltage divider such as that shown in Fig. 2-5 has values of Ry = 10kQ and R, = 470.0. a. What is the attenuation? 470. RFR 10470 A= Ay = 0.045 bb, What amplifier gain would you need to offset the loss for an overall gain of 1? Ar= Ardy where A, is the attenuation and A, is the amplifier gain, os o0as Note: To find the gain that will offset the loss for unity gain, just take the reciprocal of attenuation: A; = 1/Ay 1=0085A, Ay 23 Chapter 2Figure 2-6 The total gain is the product of the individual stage gains and attenuations. Wyn t8¥ sv 15V oe ; Y= 88 10 Anos A Azo A Ar AAAAG= 010403495) Example 2-6 ‘An amplifier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the application, With an input voltage of 20 4V, what atenuation factor is needed to keep the output vollage from exceeding 100 mV? Let Ay = amplifier gain = 45,000; Ay = atlenvaton factor: ‘Ar = total goin, ‘Ay = Vt = 100. 107 TV 20 10" 5000 Ax _ 5000 ‘A, 45,000 Ar= Ay, therefore A, = = 01111 Decibels ‘The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (AB), a unit of measurement that was originally created as a way of expressing the hearing response of the human ‘ear to various sound levels. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel, ‘When gain and attenuation are both converted to decibels, the overall gain or atten- uation of an electronic circuit can be computed by simply adding the individual gains or attenuations, expressed in decibels It is common for electronic circuits and systems to have extremely high gains or attenuations, often in excess of 1 million, Converting these factors to decibels and using logarithms result in smaller gain and attenuation figures, which are easier to use. Decibel Calculations. The formulas for computing the decibel gain or loss of a circuit are Vou ab = 20108 7 a L 4B = 20 log = @ P, aB = totes 8 Formula (1) is used for expressing the voltage gain or attenuation of a ciscuit; for ‘mula 2), for current gain or attenuation. The ratio of the output voltage or current to the input voltage or current is determined as usual. The base-10 or common log of the input/output ratio is then obtained and multiplied by 20. The resulting mumber is the ‘gain or attenuation in decibels. Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications Decibel (48) 35Antilog 36 Formula (3) is used (© compute power gain or attenuation. The ratio of the power ‘output to the power input is computed, and then its logarithm is multiplied by 10. Example 2-7 ‘a. An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V, What is the gain in decibels? dB = 10 log —— = 20 log 1666.67 = 20(3.22) = 64.4 0,003 b. A filter has a power input of $0 mW and an output of 2 mW, What is the gain or attenuation? Note that when the circuit has gain, the decibel figute is positive. If the gain is less than 1, which means that there is an attenuation, the decibel figure is negative Now, to calculate the overall gain or attenuation of circuit or system, you simply add the decibel gain and attenuation factors of each circuit. An example is shown in Fig. 2-7, ‘where there are two gain stages and an attenuation block, The overall gain of this ctcuit is Ap= A, +A, + Ay = 15 — 20435 = 30aB Decibels are widely used in the expression of gain and attenuation in communication circuits. The table on the next page shows some common gain and attenuation factors and their corresponding decibel figures. Ratios less than 1 give negative decibel values, indicating attenuation. Note that a 2:1 ratio represents a 3-dB power gain or a 6-dB voltage gain, Antilogs. To calculate the input or output voltage or power, given the decibel gain fr attenuation and the output or input, the antilog is used. The antilog is the number ‘obtained when the base is raised to the logarithm, which is the exponent: aoa a oe = 10 ‘The antilog is simply the base 10 raised to the dB/10 power. Figure 2-7 Total gain or attenuation is the algebraic sum of the individual stage gains in decibels. a Aa n208 = as A At Athy 15-20 + 352008 Chapter 2dB GAIN OR ATTENUATION Ratio (Power or Voltage) Power Veltage 0.000001 60 120 0.00001 50 100 0.0001 40 80 0.001 -30 60 0.01 20 49 oa 10 20 0s -3 -6 1 ° ° 2 3 6 10 10 20 100 20 40 1000 30 60 10,000 40 80 100,000 50 100 Remember that the logarithm y of a number N is the power to which the base 10 ‘must be raised to get the number. N= 10? and y= log Since dB = 10 log Pow Pia ‘Therefore ‘The ang is realy calculated on a seen calculator. To find the ang fr common oF base-10 logarithm, you normally press the (ax) or (2) function key on the ‘calculator and then the (og) key. Sometimes the log key is marked with 10°, which is tnulog, The antlog With base « is lound ina similar way, by using he ‘or @*) function on the Qa) ey. I is sometimes marked e", which is the sane as the antilog Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 37Example 2-8 ‘A power amplifier with a 40-dB gain has an output power of 100 W. What is the input power? Pow - B= 1010p" antilog = Jo BEE anilog = lor B 10 TO antlog 4 log" 4 Pow Ps Pou _ _ 100 _ Pa = Than 7 Togng 7 OOtW = 10m Example 2-9 ‘An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. Ifthe input voltage is SO pV, what is the output voltage? Since 4B = 2010) "Va By Vow 20 Vig Therefore }000V., = 1000(50 x 107%) = 0.05 V s0mv 38 Chapter 2Bm. When the gain or attenuation of a circuit is expressed in decibels, implicit is a ‘comparison between two values, the output and the input. When the ratio is computed, the units of voltage or power are canceled, making the ratio a dimensionless, or relative, figure. When you see a decibel value, you really do not know the actual voltage or power values. In some cases, this is not a problem; in others, itis useful or necessary to know the actual values involved. When an absolute value is needed, you can use a reference value to compare any other value. ‘An often used reference level in communication is 1 mW. When a decibel value is computed by comparing a power value to 1 mW, the result is a value called the dBm. It is computed with the standard power decibel formula with 1 mW as the denominator of the ratio w dBm = 10 tog P28 W) 0.001(W) ere Py i the output power, or some power value you want to eompate to 1 mW, and 0,001 is | mW expressed in watts ‘The output of a 1-W amplifier expressed in dBm is, eg., dBm = 10 log 10 log 1 10(8) = 30.4Bm Toor 7 10 leg 1000 = 10(3) = 30 4B: Sometimes the output of a circuit or device is given in dBm. For example, if a micro phone has an output of —50 dBm, the actual output power ean be computed as follows: Po 50 dBm = 10log 3 =50 dBm P, 10 ® D001 ‘Therefore Pow 107% — 10-5 = 0.00001 Pog = 0.001 X 0.00001 = 107? X 107% = 10 W = 10 x 10 = 108W Example 2-10 ‘A power amplifier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kA. The output is 78 V across tan 8-0 speaker, What is the power gain, in decibels? You must compute the input and output power levels first. ve pow R (90 x 107)" 7 Py = AX = 81x 107 Ww 10" 3° OS" <7 605w a Pow 7.608 < Ap 9.39 x 10! Pa 1X 107 Ap(dB) = 10 log Ap = 10 log 9.39 X 10° = 69.7 4B Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Reference value 8m GOOD TO KNOW From the standpoint of sound ‘measurement, 0 dB is the least perceptie sound (hearing threshold), and 120 d8 equals the pain threshold of sound. This list hows intensity eves for com- ‘mon sounds. (Tippens, Physics, 6th od, Glencoe/MeSrav Hil, 2001, 497) Intensity Sound level, dB Hearing threshold 0 fusing leaves 10 Whisper 2 ‘uiet radio 40 Normal conversation 65 Busy street comer 80 Subway car 100 Pain threshold 120 Jet engine 140-160 39Bc. ‘This is a decibel gain attenuation figure where the reference is the cartier. The carrier is the base communication signal, a sine wave that is modulated, Often the ampli- tude's sidebands, spurious or interfering signals, are referenced to the carrier. For exam- pile, if the spurious signal is 1 mW compared to the 10-W carrie, the dBe is Peignat Be = 10108 F Example 2-11 An amplifier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW, What is the ‘output power? Pot _ igi80 = ott = Fe = 108 = 10 = 63096 Pox = 630,96 Po, = 630.96(36 X 107") = 22.71 W Example 2-12 [A circuit consists of two amplifiers with gains of 6.8 and 14,3 dB and two filters with attenuations of —16.4 and —2.9 dB. Ifthe output voltage is 800 mV, what is the input voltage? Ap= Ay Ay + Ay + Ag = 68+ 143 - 164-29 = 184B Vou Vou _ ygiai20 = yo 120 = 190° Va Example 2-13 Express Py = 12.3 dBm in watts, P, est yo fBay/10 9123/10 = 49123 = 47 ‘Door Poy = 0.001 X17 = 17 mW Chapter 22-2 Tuned Circuits ‘Virtually all communication equipment contains tuned circuits, circuits made up of inductors and capacitors that resonate at specific frequencies. In this section, you will review how to calculate the reactance, resonant frequency, impedance, Q, and bandwidth of series and parallel resonance circuits, Reactive Components All tuned circuits and many fillers are made up of inductive and capacitive clements, including diserete components such as coils and capacitors and the stray and distributed inductance and capacitance that appear in all clec- tronic circuits. Both coils and capacitors offer an opposition (o alternating- current flow known as reactance, which is expressed in ohms (abbreviated 9), Like resistance, reactance is an opposition that directly affects the amount of current in a circuit. In addition, reactive effects produce a phase shift between the currents and voltages in a citcuil. Capacitance causes the ccarrent to lead the applied voltage, whereas inductance causes the current to lag the applied voltage, Coils and capacitors used together form twned, ‘or resonant, circuits, Tuned circuit Capacitors. A capacitor used in an ac circuit continually charges and dis- Chip capacttors. charges. A capacitor tends to oppose voltage changes across it, This translates to an opposition to alternating current known as capacitive reactance Xe. The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the value of capacitance C and operating frequency f I is given by the familiar expression 1 xe Inge “The reactance of a 100-pF capacitor at 2 MHz is —_ 1 6382. 10100 x 107 “The formula can also be used to calculate either frequency of capacitance de ‘on the application, These formulas are as = and c 1 axe In ‘The wire leads of @ capacitor have resistance and inductance, andthe dielecurc has leakage that appears as a resistance value in parallel with the capacitor. These character- istics, which are illustrated in Fig. 2-8, are sometimes referred to as residuals or parasit- ies. The seties resistance and inductance are very smal, and the leakage resistance is X 7962.0 nding Figure 2-8 What a capacitor looks like at high frequencies. Fasute Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications GOOD TO KNOW Stray and distributed capaci- tances and inductances can ‘greatly ater the operation and performance ofa circuit. Reactance Capacitor Capacitive reactance Residual 41Stay (or distributed) capacitance Inductor (color choke) Inductance Inductive reactance 42 very high, so these factors can be ignored at low frequencies. At radio frequencies, however, these residuals become noticeable, and the capacitor functions as a complex RLC ciscuit. Most of these effects can be greatly minimized by keeping the capacitor leads very short. This problem is mostly eliminated by using the newer chip capacitors, ‘which have no leads as such. Capacitance is generally added to a cixeuit by a capacitor of a specific value, but ‘capacitance can occur between any two conductors separated by an insulator. For exam- ple, there is capacitance between the parallel wires in a cable, between a wire and a ‘metal chassis, and between parallel adjacent copper patterns on a printed-cixcuit board ‘These are known as stray, or distributed, capacitances. Stray capacitances are typically sama, but they cannot be ignored, especially at the high frequencies used in communica- luon. Sway and distibuted capacitances can significantly affect the performance of a Inductors. An inductor, also called a coil or choke, is simply a winding of multiple tums of wire. When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is produced around the coil. If the applied voltage and current are varying, the magnetic field alternately expands and collapses. This causes a voltage to be self-induced into the coil winding, Which has the effect of opposing current changes in the coil. This effect is known as inductance. ‘The basic unit of inductance is the henty (H). Inductance is directly afected by the physical characteristics of the coil, including the number of tums of wire in the induc- tor, the spacing of the turns, the length of the coi, the diameter of the coil, and the type of magnetic core material. Practical inductance values are in the millihenry (nH = 10? H), microhenry (iH = 10°11), and nanobenty (nH = 10° H) regions Fig. 2-9 shows several different types of inductor coils. + Fig. 2-9(a) is an inductor made of a heavy, self-supporting wire coil In Fig. 2-9(6) the inductor is formed of a copper spiral that is etched right onto the board itself In Fig. 2-9(¢) the coil is wound on an insulating form containing « powdered iron or ferrite core in the center, (o increase its inductance. Fig. 29(4) shows another common type of inductor, one using tums of wite on a toroidal or doughnut-shaped frm, Fig. 2-9(e) shows an inductor made by placing a small forte bead aver a wire; the bead elfectively snereases the wire's small inductance Fig. 2-9(f) shows a chip inductor. It is typically no more than ' to % in long. ‘A coil is contained within the body, and the unit is soldered to the circuit hoard with the end connections. These devices look exactly like chip resistors and capacitors In a de circuit, an inductor will have lite or no effect. Only the ohmic resistance of the wire affects current flow. However, when the current changes, such as during the lime the power is turned off or on, the coil will oppose these changes in current. When an inductor is used in an ac circuit, this opposition becomes continuous and constant and is known as inductive reactance. Inductive reactance X, is expressed in ‘ohms and is calculated by using the expression X, = afl For example, the inductive reactance of a 40-uH{ coil at 18 MHz is 1X, = 6.28(18 x 10°)(40 x 107%) = 4522.0 In addition to the resistance of the wire in an inductor, there is stray capacitance between the turns of the coil. See Fig. 2-10(a). The overall effect is as if a small capac- itor were connected in parallel with the coil, as shown in Fig. 2-10(b). This is the equivalent circuit of an inductor at high frequencies. At low frequencies, capacitance may be Chapter 2Figure 2-9 Types of inductors. (¢) Heavy self-supporting wire coll (b) Inductor made ‘as copper pattern. (c) Insulating form. (a) Toroidal inductor. (e) Ferrite bead inductor. (f) Chip inductor. = oN —e,) 6 Toroidal ‘tire indice a component Fonte sols comm Aeon | ignored, but at radio frequencies, it is sufficiently large to affect circuit operation. The coil then functions not as @ pure inductor, but as a complex RLC circuit with a self resonating frequency. Any wire or conductor exhibits a characteristic inductance, The longer the wire, the ‘greater the inductance. Although the inductance of a straight wire is only a fraction of Figure 2-10 Equivalent circuit of an inductor at high frequencies. (@) Stray capacitance between turns. (6) Equivalent ‘ircult of an incuictor at high frequencies. (C= sr capactarce ‘Stay capsctarce a & Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications 43Quality factor 0 Resistor ‘Skin effect ‘a microhenry, at very high frequencies the reactance can be significant. For this reason, it is important to keep all lead lengths short in interconnecting components in RF circuits. This is especially true of capacitor and transistor leads, since stray or distributed induc tance can significantly affect the pesformance and characteristics of a cixcuit, Another important characteristic of an inductor is its quality factor Q, the ratio of inductive power to resistive power: FR OR ‘This is the rato of the power retuned to the cicit tthe power actually disipated by the coil resistance. For example, the Q of a 3-H inductor with a total resistance of 450, at 90 MHz is calculated as follows: fl, _ 6.28(90 X 108)(3 x 107%) _ 1695.6 or 6 45 7.68 Resistors. Atlow frequencies, a standard low-wallage color-coded resistor offers neatly pure resistance, but at high frequencies its leads have considerable inductance, and stray capacitance between the leads causes the resistor to act as a complex REC circuit, as shown in Fig, 2-11, To minimize the inductive and capacitive effects, the Teads are Kept very short in radio applications ‘The tiny resistor chips used in surface-mount construction of the electronic circuits preferred for radio equipment have practically no Teads except for the metallic end pieces soldered (o the printed-circuit board. They have virtually no lead inductance and litle stray capacitance Many resistors are made from a carbon-composition material in powdered form sealed inside a tiny housing (0 which leads are attached. The type and amount of carbon material determine the value of these resistors. They contribute noise to the circuit in which they are used, The noise is caused by thermal effects and the granular nature of the resistance material, The noise contributed hy such resistors in an amplifier used to amplily very low level radio signals may be so high as (o obliterate the desired signal To overcome this problem, film resistors were developed, They are made by depos- iting a carbon or metal film in spiral form on a ceramic form. The size of the spiral and the kind of metal film determine the resistance value, Carbon film resistors are quieter than carbon-composition resistors, and metal film resistors are quieter than carbon film resistors. Metal film resistors should be used in amplifier circuits that must deal with very low level RF signals, Most surface-mount resistors are of the metallic film type Skin Effect. The resistance of any wire conductor, whether itis a resistor or capacitor lead or the wire in an inductor, is primarily determined by the ohmic resistance of the wire itself, However, other factors influence it, The most significant one is skin effect, the tendency of electrons flowing in a conductor (o flow near and on the outer surface Figure 2-11 Equivalent circuit of a resistor at high (radio) frequencies, Restor Losdinfuctarce Ic i Say eapaciance Chapter 2Figure 2412 Skin effect increases wire and inductor resistance at high frequencies. lectons No caentiow in canter cf wire of the conductor frequencies in the VHF, UHF, and microwave regions (Fig. 2-12). This, has the effect of greatly decreasing the (otal cross-sectional area of the conductor, thus, increasing its resistance and significantly affecting the performance of the circuit in Which the conductor is used. For example, skin effect lowers the Q of an inductor at the higher frequencies, causing unexpected and undesirable effects. Thus many high-frequency coils, particularly those in high-powered transmitters, are made with cop- per tubing. Since current does not flow in the center of the conductor, but only on the surface, tubing provides the most efficient conductor. Very thin conductors, such as a copper pattern on a printed-circuit board, are also used. Often these conductors are sil- ver- or gold-plated to further reduce their resistance. Tuned Circuits and Resonance ‘A tuned circuit is made up of inductance and capacitance and resonates at a specific frequency, the resonant frequency. In general, the terms tuned circuit and resonant circuit are used interchangeably. Because tuned circuits are frequency-selective, they respond best at their resonant frequency and at a narrow range of frequencies around the resonant frequency, Series Resonant Circuits. A series resonant circuit is made up of inductance, capacitance, and resistance, as shown in Fig. 2-13. Such circuits are often referred to as, LCR circuits or RLC circuits. The inductive and capacitive reactances depend upon the frequency of the applied voltage. Resonance occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. A plot of reactance versus frequency is shown in Fig. 2-14, where Jf is the resonant frequency Figure 243 Series ALC circu, Figure 2414 Variation of reactance with frequency. aK SOTO. x ak Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications Tuned (resonant) circuit Series resonant circuit LOR circuit ‘ALC crit 45‘The total impedance of the circuit is given by the expression FM, = Xe When X;, equals Xe, they cancel each other, Jeaving only the resistance of the circuit to oppose the current. At resonance, the total circuit impedance is simply the value of all series resistances in the circuit. This includes the resistance of the coil and the resistance of the component leads, as well as any physical resistor in the circuit ‘The resonant frequency can be expressed in terms of inductance and capacitance. A formula for resonant frequency can be casily derived. First, express X, and Xo as an equivalence: X; = Xe. Since X,=2mhl and Xe= we have Solving for f, gives In this formula, the frequency is in hertz, the inductance is in henrys, and the capacitance is in farads, Example 2-14 ‘What is the resonant frequency of x 2.7-pF capacitor and a 33-nHT inductor? 1 1 2MVLE 6.2833 x 10 X 2.7 X 10 33 x 10° Hz or $33 MHz f leis often necessary to calculate capacitance ot inductance, given one of those val- ‘us and the resonant frequency. The basic resonant frequency formula can be raztanged to solve for either inductance and capacitance as follows: L 1 d c 1 aPC © PPL For example, the capacitance that will esonate at a frequency of 18 MHz with a 12-pH inductor is determined as follows: 1 1 © 4fL 39.478(18 x 10°F 2 x 10) te 39.478(3.24 x 10%)(12 107%) = 65x 10" For 6.5 pF Chapter 2Example 2-15 ‘What value of inductance will resonate with a 12-pF capacitor at 49 MEL? 1 1 ane 39.478(49 x 10°12 x 107) = 8.19 x 1077 Hor 879 nF As indicated earlier, the basic definition of resonance in a series tuned circuit is the point at which X, equals Xe. With this condition, only the resistance of the cizcuit impedes the current. The total circuit impedance at resonance is Z = R. For this reason, resonance in a series tuned circuit can also be defined as the point at which the circuit impedance is lowest and the circuit current is highest. Since the circuit is resistive at resonance, the current is in phase with the applied voltage. Above the resonant fre- quency, the inductive reactance is higher than the capacitive reactance, and the induc- tor voltage drop is greater than the capacitor voltage drop. Therefore, the circuit is inductive, and the current will lag the applied voltage. Below resonance, the capacitive reactance is higher than the inductive reactance; the net reactance is capacitive, thereby producing a leading current in the circuit. The capacitor voltage drop is higher than the inductor voltage drop. The response of a series resonant circuit is illustrated in Fig. 2-15, which is a plot ‘of the frequency and phase shift of the current in the cigcuit with respect to frequency. At very low frequencies, the capacitive reactance is much greater than the induc tive reactance; therefore, the current in the circuit is very low because of the high impedance. In addition, because the circuit is predominantly capacitive, the current leads the voltage by nearly 90°. As the frequency increases, Xe goes down and X;, goes up. The amount of leading phase shift decreases. As the values of reactances approach one another, the current begins to rise. When X, equals Xe, their effects cancel and the impedance in the circuit is just that of the resistance. This produces a ccurtent peak, where the current is in phase with the voltage (0°). As the frequency Figure 245 Frequency and phase response curves of a series resonant circuit. $90" a) o 20 ta) ‘Below resonance fxpacive) =— , ——>Pnove resonance trdive) Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 47Bandwidth Halt-power points Figure 2-16 Bandwidth of a series resonant cireuit, continues to rise, X; becomes greater than Xe. The impedance of the circuit increases and the current decreases. With the circuit predominantly inductive, the current lags, the applied voltage. If the output voltage were being taken from across the resistor in Fig. 2-13, the response curve and phase angle of the voltage would correspond (o those in Fig. 2-15. As Fig. 2-15 shows, the current is highest in a region centered on the resonant frequency. The narrow [requency range over which the current is highest is called the bandwidth. This area is illustrated in Fig. 2-16. ‘The upper and lower boundaries of the bandwidth are defined by two cutoff frequen- cies designated f and fy. These cutoff frequencies occur where the current amplitude is, 70.7 percent of the peak current. In the figure, the peak circuit current is 2 mA, and the current at both the lower (/) and upper (f:) cutoff frequency is 0.707 of 2 mA, or 1414 ma. Current levels at which the response is down 70.7 percent are called the half-power points because the power at the cutoff frequencies is one-half the power peak of the FPR = (0.107 Toes S Tyas ‘The bandwidth BW of the tuned circuit is defined as the difference between the ‘upper and lower cutoff frequencies: BW=f-f For example, assuming a resonant frequency of 75 kHz and upper and lower cutoff frequencies of 76.5 and 73.5 kHz, respectively, the bandwidth is BW = 76.5 ~ 73.5 3 kHz, ‘The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is determined by the Q of the circuit, Recall that the Q of an inductor is the ratio of the inductive reactance to the circuit resistance, ‘This holds true for a series resonant circuit, where ( is the ratio of the inductive reactance to the total circuit resistance, which includes the resistance of the inductor plus any additional series resistance: = Ry Recall that bandwidth is then computed as aw @ 2 8/50 = Chapter 2Example 2-16 ‘What is the bandwidth of a resonant circuit with a frequency of 28 MHz and a Q of 70? fe _ 28 X10° wo 400,000 Hz = 400 Kitz ‘The formula ean be searanged to compute Q. given the fequeney and the nat fe Bw ‘Tous the @ of the civcuit whose bandwidth was computed previously is @ TSN SKIte = 25 Since the bandwid i approximately centered onthe resonant frequency, fis the same distance fom f, as fs tom This lat allows you to ealeulte te fesonant frequency by knowing only the eutlt equenciss t= VAX For example, if fj = 175 kHz and f, ~ 178 kH¥z, the resonant frequency is Sexe SE f= VIVE XO 178% 10" = 176.5 Ke 2 For a linear frequency scale, you can calculate the center or resonant frequency by using an average of the cutoff frequencies. hth a ite cet very high (2100 en he spas crv appoint diam fom be san feqeny oye amouno BW Tash en tegen saab een ithe bens ath roan equ ae kno, bw aw ap Pe pen et fh-Z fh z For inte, ithe st egy i 4 MI 8,00) a he brit f= 9000. 3% 49,000 Kz. — 5 KHz = 48,995 kIT Je = 49,000 kita + 5 KE = 49,005 kz Keep in mind that although this procedure is an approximation, itis useful in many applications ‘The bandwidth of a resonant circuit defines its selectivity, ie., how the circuit responds to varying frequencies. Ifthe response is to produce a high current only over a narrow range of frequencies, a narrow bandwidth, the circuit is said to be highly selec- live. If the current is high over a broader range of frequencies, ic, the bandwidth is ‘wider, the circuit is less selective, In general, circuits with high selectivity and narrow bandwidths are more desirable, However, the actual selectivity and bandwidth of a circuit ‘ust be optimized for each application, Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Selectivity 49‘The relationship between circuit resistance Q and bandwidth is extremely impor tant, The bandwidth of a cizcuit is inversely proportional to Q. The higher Q is, the smaller the bandwidth. Low Qs produce wide bandwidths or less selectivity. In turn, Q is a function of the cizcuit resistance. A low resistance produces a high Q. a nar- row bandwidth, and a highly selective cizcuit. A high cizcuit resistance produces a low Q, wide bandwidth, and poor selectivity. In most communication circuits, eiteuit Qs ate at least 10 and typically higher. In most cases, Q is controlled directly by the resistance of the inductor. Fig. 2-17 shows the effect of different values of Q on bandwidth, Example 2-17 The upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a resonant circuit are found to be 8.07 and 7.93 MHz, Calculate (a) the bandwith, (6) the approximate resonant frequency, and (©) 0. a. BW = fy f, = 8.07 MHz — 7.93 MHz = 0.14 MHz = 140 kita be f= Vii = VBOTR TOT TSS RIOT = 8 Miz SL _ 8x 10 © O= Bw 40x10 S714 Example 2-18 What are the approximate 3-dB dowa frequencies of a resonant citcuit with a Q of 200 at 16 MHz? fe 16x 108 - BW = G = “IG > 80,000 He = 80 kHz BY ~ 16,000,000 - $20 = 15.96 nertz 80,000 = 16,000,000 + S°° = 16.04 Miz Resonance produces an interesting but useful phenomenon in a series RLC cireult Consider the circuit in Fig. 2-18(a). At resonance, assume X, = Xe = 500.0. The total circuit resistance is 10.0. The Q of the circuit is then Xz _ 500 g = Xt - 5 _ 5 2 R10 If the applied or source voltage V, is 2 V, the circuit current at resonance will be v, re% R 50 Chapter 2Figure 247 The effect of @ on bandwidth and selectivity In a resonant clrcut. High, aro in, 8 ‘andra banawiath Figure 2-18 Resonant step-up voltage in a series resonant cuit qual ane 180" wervQ) “a When the reactances, the resistances, and the current are known, the voltage drops ‘across each component can be computed: V, = IX; = 0.2(500) = 100 Ve = IXe = 0.2(500) = 100V Vg = IR = 0.2(10) = 2V As you can see, the voltage drops across the inductor and capacitor are significantly higher than the applied voltage, This is known as the resonant step-up voltage. Although Resonant step-up voltage the sum of the voltage drops around the series circuit is still equal to the source voltage, at resonance the voltage across the inductor leads the current by 90° and the voltage across the capacitor Iags the current by 90° [see Fig. 2-18(6)}. Therefore, the inductive and reac~ tive voltages are equal but 180° out of phase, As a result, when added, they cancel cach ‘other, leaving a total reactive voltage of 0, This means that the entire applied voltage appears across the circuit resistance, ‘The resonant step-up voltage across the coil or capacitor can be easily computed by ‘multiplying the input or source voltage by Q: Vi, = Ve = OV, (0(2) = 100 V. In the example in Fig. 2-18, Vs, Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 51Parallel resonant circuit Tank circuit Tank current 52 ‘This interesting and useful phenomenon means that small applied voltages can essen- tially be stepped up to a higher voltage—a form of simple amplification without active circuits that is widely applied in communication circuits. Example 2-19 A sories resonant circuit has a Q of 150 at 35 MHz, The applied voltage is 3 HV. What is the voltage across the capacitor? Vo = QV, = 150(3 x 10-4 Parallel Resonant Circuits. A paralfel resonant circuit is formed when the inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel with the applied voltage, as shown in Fig. 2-19(a) In general, resonance in a parallel tuned circuit can also be defined as the point at which the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. The resonant frequency is therefore calculated by the resonant frequency formula given earlier. If we assume lossless compo- nents in the circuit (no resistance), then the current in the inductor equals the current in the capacitor: t= le Although the currents are equal, they are 180° out of phase, as the phasor diagram in Fig, 2-19(6) shows. The current in the inductor lags the applied voltage by 90°, and ‘the current in the capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90°, for a total of 180°, Now, by applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the circuit, the sum of the individual branch ccurrents equals the total current drawn from the source, With the inductive and capacitive ‘currents equal and out of phase, their sum is 0. Thus, at resonance, a parallel tuned circuit appears to have infinite resistance, draws no current from the source and thus has inginite impedance, and acts as an open cicuit, However, there is a high circulating current between the inductor and capacitor, Energy is being stored and transferred between the inductor and capacitor, Because such a circuit acts as a kind of storage vessel for electric energy, it is, ‘often referred to as a tank circuit and the circulating current is referred to as the tank current In a practical resonant circuit where the components do have losses (resistance), the circuit still behaves as described above, Typically, we can assume that the capacitor has practically zero losses and the inductor contains a resistance, as illustrated in Fig. 2-20(a), ‘At resonance, where X; = Xe, the impedance of the inductive branch of the circuit is, higher than the impedance of the capacitive branch because of the coil resistance, The capacitive current is slightly higher than the inductive current, Even if the reactances are Figure 2-19 Parallel resonant circult currents. (@) Parallel resonant circu. (b) Current relationships in parallel resonant circuit, ‘© fk -—— Chapter 2Figure 2-20 A practical parallel resonant circult. (0) Practical parallel resonant crc ‘with coil resistance Ry, (b) Paase relationships. —" fe veetor um ot leads V, because ¥, 1 (age V,bylere man So because ot Ral @ C ‘equal, the branch cuents will be unequal and therefore there will be some net current flow in the supply line. The source current will lead the supply voltage, as shown in Fig. 2-20(). Nevertheless, the inductive and capacitive currents in most cases will cancel because they are approximately equal and of opposite phase, and consequently the line for source current will be significantly lower than the individual branch currents. The result is a very high resistive impedance, approximately equal to _Y, —7 ‘The citcuit in Fig. 2-20(a) is not easy to analyze. One way to simplify the mathematics involved is to convert the citcuit to an equivalent citouit in which the coll resistance is ‘wanslated to a parallel resistance that gives the same overall results, as shown in Fig. 2-21 ‘The equivalent inductance L4q and resistance Rg ate calculated with the formulas Zz Lg' +1) Leg = and R= RW? +1) @ and Q is determined by the forrmula Xe oR, where Ry is the coil winding resistance, If Q is high, usually more than 10, Ly is approximately equal to the actual induc~ lance value L. The tolal impedance of the circuit at resonance is equal to the equivalent parallel resistance: Z=R, Figure 2-21 An equivalent circult makes parallel resonant circults easier to analyze ‘ oon oa 3 enetaes te ciae Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 53GOOD TO KNOW ‘The bandwith ofa circuits in versely proportional tothe circuit 2 ‘The higher the 0, the sm the bandwidth. Low @ values produce wide bandwidths oF less selectivity. 54 Example 2-20 ‘What is the impedance of a parallel LC cigcuit with a resonant frequency of $2 MHz and a Q of 127 L = 0.15 pl. 6.28(52 x 10°)(0.15 x 10" 4 Bean 2 = Ray = Rw(Q +1) = 4.102? +1) = 4.10145) = 592.0 If the @ of the parallel resonant circuit is greater than 10, the following simplified formula can be used to calculate the resistive impedance at resonance: L Ry ‘The value of Ry is the winding resistance of the coil Example 2-21 Calculate the impedance of the circuit given in Example 2-20 by using the formula Z= LCR. L 0.15 pat 39.478(52 X 10°F (0.15 X 10" = 6245 x 107" L__ ois x10 2° Che 235 x1 VD) = 586.0 ‘This is close to the previously computed value of $92.0. The formula Z = LICRy is an approximation, A frequency and phase response curve of a parallel resonant circuit is shown in Fig. 2-22. Below the resonant frequency, X, is less than X¢, thus the induetive current is greater than the capacitive current, and the citcuit appears inductive. The line current lags the applied voltage. Above the resonant frequency, Xe is less than X,; thus the capacitive current is more than the inductive current, and the circuit appears capacitive ‘Therefore, the line current leads the applied voltage. The phase angle of the impedance will be leading below resonance and lagging above resonance. Ac the resonant frequency, the impedance of the circuit peaks. This means that the line current at that time is at its minimum. At resonance, the circuit appears to have a very high resistance, and the small line current is in phase with the applied voltage. Chapter 2Figure 2-22 Response of a parallel resonant cireut, 90" desing ae Impedance ove cure ony) 20 taaana) Been 7 Tove trace apace) Note that the Q of a parallel circuit, which was previously expressed as Q ccan also he computed with the expression Ry where Rp is the equivalent parallel resistance, Rj, in parallel with any other parallel resistance, and X, is the inductive reactance of the equivalent inductance Lag You can set the bandwidth of a parallel tuned circuit by controlling Q. The Q can bbe determined by connecting an external resistor across the circuit. This has the effect of lowering Rp and increasing the bandwidth Example 2-22 What value of parallel resistor is needed to set the bandwidth of a parallel tuned circuit to 1 MHz? Assume X, = 300.0, Ry = 100, and f, = 10 MHz. Xz _ 300 Ry 10 0 Ry = Ry(Q + 1) = 100" + 1) = 10(901) = 90100 (equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit at resonance) Le ° f _10MHz 2 > aw Tt Rosen = OX, = 10(300) = 3000 0 (tis is the total resistance of the circuit Ryuey made up of the original Rp and an externally connected resistor Rex) BW 10 (Q needed for I-MEz bandwidth) RR Pree = Ge Re Rx RrwaRp___9010(3000) Rey = Renee _ 201015000) 497 50 Rp = Rre 9010 — 3000 Blecironie Fundamentals for Communications 55Fiter Passive filter Ac titer Low-pass filter (high cut iter) 56 2-3 Filters A filter is a frequency-selective circuit. Filters are designed to pass some frequencies and reject others. The series and parallel resonant circuits reviewed in Section 2-2 are exam- piles of filters ‘There are numerous ways to implement filter circuits, Simple filters created by using resistors and capacitors or inductors and capacitors are called passive filters because they use passive components that do not amplify. In communication work, many filters are of the passive LC variety, although many other types are used, Some special types of filters are active filters that use RC networks with feedback in op amp circuits, switched capacitor filters, crystal and ceramic filters, surface acoustic wave (SAW) fil- ters, and digital ters implemented with digital signal processing (DSP) techniques. ‘The five basic kinds of filter circuits are as follows: Low-pass filter. Passes frequencies below a critical frequency called the eutaff “frequency and greatly attenuates those above the cutoff frequency. High-pass filter. Passes frequencies above the cutofi but rejects those below it Bandpass filter. Passes luequencies over a narrow range between lower and up- per cutoff Lrequencies. Band-reject filter. Rejects or stops frequencies over a narrow range but allows frequencies above and below to pass, Alllpass filter. Passes all frequencies equally well over its design range but has 1 fixed or predictable phase shift characteristic, RC Filters ‘A low-pass filter allows the lower-frequency components of the applied voltage to develop output voltage across the load resistance, whereas the higher-frequency compo- nents are attenuated, of reduced, in the output. A high-pass filter does the opposite, allowing the higher-frequency components of the applied voltage to develop voltage across the output load resistance. ‘The case of an RC coupling circuit is an example of a high-pass filter because the ac component of the input voltage is developed across R and the dc voltage is blocked by the seties capacitor. Furthermore, with higher frequencies in the ac component, more ac voltage is coupled Any low-pass or high-pass filter can be thought of as a frequency-dependent voltage divider because the amount of output voltage is @ function of frequency. RC filters use combinations of resistors and capacitors to achieve the desized response. Most RC filters are of the low-pass or high-pass type. Some band-reject or notch filters are also made with RC circuits. Bandpass filters can be made by combining low-pass and high-pass RC sections, but this is rarely done Low-Pass Filter, A fow-pass iter is a circuit that introduces no attenuation at frequen- cies below the cutoff frequency but completely eliminates all signals with frequencies above the cutoff. Low-pass filters are sometimes referred to as high cut filters. ‘The ideal response curve for a low-pass filter is shown in Fig. 2-23. This response ccurve cannot be realized in practice. In practical circuits, instead of a sharp transition at the cutoff frequency, there is a more gradual transition between little or no attenuation ‘and maximum attenuation. ‘The simplest form of low-pass filter is the RC circuit shown in Fig. 2-24(a). The circuit forms a simple voltage divider with one frequency-sensitive component, in this case the capacitor. At very low frequencies, the capacitor has very high reactance com- pared to the resistance and therefore the attenuation is minimum. As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. When the reactance becomes smaller than the resistance, the attenuation increases rapidly. The frequency response of the basic Chapter 2Figure 2-23 Ideal response curve of a lowpass filter rraqueney 2] Staats nine 3] cassoana pass Uunafensaied signals above, Figure 2-24 RC low-pass fiker. (a) Clreut.(b) Low-pass filter. 0.707 Vesa ah rs @ cireuit is illustrated in Fig. 2-24(b). The cutoff frequency of this filter is that point where Rand Xc are equal. The cutoff frequency, also known as the critical frequency, is deter- ‘mined by the expression Xa 1 im 1 So” eRe For example, if R= 4.7k0 and C = 560 pF, the cutoff frequency is 1 ae = 0.469 Hz or 60.5 KZ 2m4700)(560 X 107 f= Example 2-23 ‘What is the cutoff frequency of a single-section RC low-pass filter with R = 8.20 and C = 0.0033 pF? 1 1 fa TaRE ~ TaB2X 100.0083 X10) Jog = 88156112 of S8BKE2 Blecironie Fundamentals for Communications 57Figure 2-25 Two stages of RC fiker Improve the response but increase signal loss. (a) Circult. (5) Response curve. isecade rot le AC eactone octave Decade Insertion loss 58 Ac the cutoff frequency, the output amplitude is 70.7 percent of the input amplitude at lower frequencies. This is the so-called 3-48 down poiat. In other words, this filter bas a vollage gain of —3 dB at the cutoff frequency. At frequencies above the cutolf frequency, the amplitude decreases ata linear rate of 6 dB per actave ot 20 dB per decade. An octave is defined as a doubling or halving of frequency, and a decade represents a one-tenth or ‘mes-10 relationship, Assume that a filter has a cutoff of 600 Ha. Ifthe frequency doubles to 1200 Hz, the attenuation will increase by 6 dB, ot {rom 3 dB at cutoff to 9 dB at 1200 Ha. If the frequency increased by a factor of 10 from 600 Hz. to 6 kHz, the attenuation would increase by a factor of 20 dB from 3 dB at cutolf to 23 dB at 6 Kidz If a faster rate of attenuation is requited, two RC sections set to the same cutofl frequency can be used. Such a circuit is shown ia Fig. 2-25(@). With this cieeuit, the rate of attenuation is 12 dB per octave or 40 dB per decade. Two identical RC circuits are used, but an isolation or buffer amplifier such as an emitter-follower (gain ~ 1) is used. between them to prevent the second section from loading the first. Cascading two RC sections without the isolation will give an attenuation rate less than the theoretically ideal 12-dB octave because of the loading effects Ifthe cutoff frequency of each RC section is the same, the overall cutoff frequency for the complete filter is somewhat less, This is caused by added attenuation of the second section, With a steeper attenuation curve, the cizcuit is said to he more selective. The disad- vantage of cascading such sections is that higher attenuation makes the output signal considerably smaller, This signal attenuation in the passhand of the filter is called insertion loss A low-pass filter can also be implemented with an inductor and a resistor, as shown in Fig. 2-26. The response curve for this RL filter is the same as that shown in Fig. 2-24(8), ‘The cutoff frequency is determined by using the formula _R ar feo Figure 2-26 A low-pass fiter implemented with an inductor. L Chapter 2Figure 2-27 Frequency response curve of a high-pass fiter. (2) kieal.(b) Practical ose "0 saeco oust Pasoand ¢ Frequency —e @ ‘The RL low-pass filters are not as widely used as RC filters because inductors are usually larger, heavier, and more expensive than capacitors. Inductors also have greater loss than capacitors because of their inherent winding resistance High-Pass Filter. A high-pass flter passes frequencies above the cutoff frequency with, Title oF no altenuation but greatly attenuates those signals below the cutoff. The ideal high-pass response curve is shown in Fig. 2-27(a). Approximations to the ideal response ‘curve shown in Fig. 2-27(b) ean be oblained with a variety of RC and LC filters. ‘The basic RC high-pass filter is shown in Fig. 2-28(a), Again, it is nothing more than a voltage divider with the capacitor serving as the frequency-sensitive component in a voltage divider. At low frequencies, X¢ is very high. When Xc is much higher than R, the vollage divider effect provides high attenuation of the low-frequency signals, AS the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases. When the capacitive reac- tance is equal to of less than the resistance, the voltage divider gives very litle atten- ation, Therefore, high frequencies pass relatively unattenuated. ‘The cutoff frequency for this filter is the same as that for the low-pass circuit and is derived from setting Xc equal to R and solving for frequency’ 1 Jo TRE ‘The roll-off rate is 6 dB per octave or 20 AB per decade A high-pass filler can also be implemented with a coil and a resistor, as showa in Fig. 2-28(b). The cutoff frequency is R fos 2nL ‘The response curve for this filter is the same as that shown in Fig, 2-27(6). The rate of sitentation is 6 dB per octave or 20 dB per decade, as was the case with the low-pass filter. Agsin, improved attenuation can be oblained by cascading filter sections Figure 2-28 (o) RC high-pass filter. (b) RL highpass filter. Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications High-pass iter 59Notch tor bandstop or band- reject fier) Parallel (twin-T) notch filter GOOD TO KNOW Twin-T notch fiters are used at low frequencies to eliminate ‘power fine hum from audio cireults and medical equipment amplifiers, Example 2-24 What is the closest standard EIA resistor value that will produce a cutoff frequency of 3.4 kHz with a 0.087-44F capacitor in a high-pass RC filter? 1 TmRC 1 1 2mfeC 23.4 X 10°)(0.047 X 10" “The closest standard values are 910 and 1000 0, with 1000 being the closest. fs RC Notch Filter. Notch filters are also referred to as bandstop or band: reject fil- ters, Band-roject filters arc used to greatly altenuate a narrow range of frequencies around a center point, Notch filters accomplish the same purpose, but for a single frequency A simple notch filter that is implemented with resistors and capacitors as shown in Fig. 2-29(a) is called a pavallel-T or nwin-T notch filter. This filter is a variation of a bridge circuit, Recall that in a bridge circuit the output is zero if the bridge is balanced, Ifthe component values are precisely matched, the circuit will be in balance and produce ‘an attenuation of an input signal at the design frequency as high as 30 to 40 dB. A typical response curve is shown in Fig. 2-29(b), ‘The center notch frequency is computed with the formula L TARE For example. if the values of resistance and capacitance are 100 kO and 0.02 MF, the notch frequency is Sosa = Soe = 79.6 Hn 1 62805002 x 10°) ‘Twin-T notch filters are used primarily at low frequencies, audio and below. A com- ‘mon use is to eliminate 60-Hz power line bum from audio cizcuits and low-frequency medical equipment amplifiers. The key to high attenuation at the notch frequency is Figure 2-29 RC notch fier: Chapter 2Example 2-25 What values of capacitors would you use in an RC twine! 120 He if R = 220k? notch filter o remove 1 c= — 2mfamenR — 6.28(120)(220 X 10°) C= 603 X 107 = 6.03 aF or 0.006 pF 2€ = 0.012 uF precise component values. The resistor and capacitor values must be matched to achieve high attenuation, LC Filters RC Gilters are used primarily at the lower frequencies, They are very common at audio frequencies but are rarely used above about 100 kHz, At radio frequencies, their passband attenuation is just (00 great, and the cutoff slope is too gradual. It is more common (o see LC filters made with inductors and capacitors, Inductors for lower frequencies are large, bulky, and expensive, but those used at higher frequencies are very small, light, and inexpensive, Over the years, a multitude of filter types have been developed, Filter design methods have also changed over the years, thanks to comput design Filter Terminology. When working with filters, you will hear a variety of terms to describe the operation and characteristics of filters. The following definitions will help you understand filter specifications and operation. 1. Passband. This is the frequency range over which the filter passes signals. tis the frequency range between the cutoff frequencies or between the eulofT frequency and zero (Tor low-pass) oF between the cutoff frequency and infinity (for high-pass) 2 Stop band, This is the range of frequencies outside the passband, i.c., the range of frequencies that is greatly attenuated by the filter: Frequencies in this range are rejected, 3, Attenuation, This is the amount by which undesired frequencies in the stop band are reduced, It ean be expressed as a power ratio or vollage ratio of the output to the input, Attenuation is usually given in decibels, 4. Insertion loss, Insertion loss is the loss the filter introduces to the signals in the passband, Passive filters introduce attenuation because of the resistive losses in the components. Insertion loss is typically given in decibels 5. Impedance. Impedance is the resistive value of the load and source terminations of the filter. Fillers are usually designed for specific driving source and load impe ances that must be present for proper operation, 6. Ripple. Amplitude variation with frequency in the passband, or the repetitive rise and fall of the signal level in the passband of some types of filters, is known as ripple. It is usually stated in decibels. There may also be ripple in the stop bandwidth in some types of filters. Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Passband Stop band Attenuation Insertion loss Impedance Ripple 61‘Shape factor Poe Zoro Envelope delay Roll-off 62 Figure 2-30 Shape factor _—— srapeteor - Mbicsa ite 9g 7. Shape factor. Shape factor, also known as bandwidth ratio, is the ratio of the stop bandwidth to the pass bandwidth of a bandpass filter. It compares the bandwidth at minimum attenuation, usually at the ~3-dB points or cutoff frequencies, to that of ‘maximum alvenuation and thus gives a relative indication of attenuation rate or selec tivity, The smaller the ratio, the greater the selectivity, The ideal is a ratio of 1 which in general cannot be obtained with practical filters, The filter in Fig. 2-30 has a bandwidth of 6 KHlz at the ~3-dB attenuation point and a bandwidth of 14 KHz at the —40-dB attenuation point, The shape factor then is 14 KEIz/6 kHz = 2.333 ‘The points of comparison vary with different filters and manufacturers. The points fof comparison may be at the 6-dB down and 60-48 down points or at any other designated two levels. 8, Pole, A pole is a frequency at which there is a high impedance in the circuit. It is also used to describe one RC section of a filter. A simple low-pass RC filter such as that in Fig. 2-24(a) has one pole. The two-section filter in Fig. 2-25 has «wo poles. For LC low- and high-pass filters, the number of poles is equal to the number of reactive components in the filer. For bandpass and band-teject filters, the number of poles is generally assumed to be one-half the number of reactive components used, 9. Zero. This term refers to a frequency at which there is zero impedance in the circuit 10, Envelope delay. Also known as time delay. envelope delay is the time it takes for 4 specific point on an input waveform to pass through the filter. AL. Rolloff. Also called the attenuation rate, roll-off is the rate of change of amplitude with frequency in a filter, The faster the roll-off, or the higher the attenuation rate, the mote selective the filter is, ie., the better able itis to differentiate between (wo closely spaced signals, one desired and the other not, Any of the four basic filter types can be easily implemented with inductors and capacitors. Such filters ean be made for frequencies up to about several hundred mega- hertz before the component values get too small to be practical, At frequencies above this frequency, special filters made with microstrip techniques on printed-circuit boards, surface acoustic wave filters, and cavity resonators are common. Because two types of reactances are used, inductive combined with capacitive, the roll-off rate of attenuation Chapter 2Figure 2-31 Low:pass filter configurations and response. (a) L section. (b) T section (©) 7 section. (a) Response curve. S000) _666)__1 0500. Figure 2-32 Low-pass Butterworth fit frequency fe bre < Se € 1g 4S 20 28 a08s40 8 6 7 8 e 10 Froquoney rato tf, is greater with LC Gters than with RC filters. The inductors make such filters larger and more expensive, but the need for better selectivity makes them necessary. Low. and High-Pass LC Filters. Fig. 2-31 shows the basic low-pass filter configu- rations. The basic (wo-pole circuit in Fig. 2-31(a) provides an attenuation rate of 12 dB per oclave or 20 dB per decade, These sections may be cascaded to provide an even ‘greater roll-off rate, The chart in Fig. 2-32 shows the attenuation rates for low-pass fillers, ‘with two through seven poles. The horizontal axis f/f is the ratio of any given frequency in ratio to the filler cutoff frequency f., The value m is the number of poles in the filter. Assume a cutoff frequency of 20 Miz. The ratio for a frequency of 40 MHz would be 40/20 = 2. This represents a doubling of the frequency, or one octave. The attenuation Bleeironie Fundamentals for CommunicationsFigure 2-33 _High-pass ters. (a) L section. (b) T section (b) 7 section Butterworth ter Chebyshev fier ‘Cauer(eliptica) iter Bessel (Thomson) fier a r Tee ORL ‘on the curve with two poles is 12 dB, The 7 and T filters in Fig. 2-31(b) and (e) with three poles give an attenuation rate of 18 dB for a 2:1 {requency ratio. Fig. 2-33 shows the basic high-pass filter configurations. A curve similar to that in Fig. 2-32 is also used to determine attenuation for fillers with multiple poles. Cascading these sections provides ‘a greater attenuation rate, Those filter configurations using the least number of inductors ‘are preferred for lower cost and less space. Types of Filters ‘The major types of LC filters in use are named after the person who discovered and developed the analysis and design method for each filter. The most widely used filters are Butterworth, Chebyshev, Cauer (elliptical), and Bessel. Each can be imple- ‘mented by using the basic low- and high-pass configurations shown previously. The different response curves are achieved by selecting the component values during the design, Butterworth. The Butterworth filter effect has maximum flatness in response in the passband and a uniform attenuation with frequency. The attenuation rate just outside the passband is not as great as can be achieved with other types of filters. See Fig. 2-34 for an example of a low-pass Butterworth filter. Chebyshev. Chebyshev (or Tehebyschev) filters have extremely good selectivity; ic. their attenuation rate or roll-off is high, much higher than that of the Butterworth filter (Gee Fig. 2-34), The attenuation just outside the passband is also very high—again, better than that of the Butterworth, The main problem with the Chebyshev filter is that it has ripple in the passband, as is evident from the figure, The response is not lat or constant, as it is with the Butterworth filter. This may be a disadvantage in some applications Cauer (Elliptical). Cauer filters produce an even greater attenuation or roll-off rate than do Chebyshev filters and greater attenuation out of the passband. However, they ddo this with an even higher ripple in the passband as well as outside of the passband Bessel. Also called Thomson filters, Bessel circuits provide the desired frequency response (1e., low-pass, bandpass, etc.) but have a constant time delay in the passband. Chapter 2Figure 2-34 Butterworth elliptical, Bessel, and Chebyshev response curves pple in passbana Frequency = Bessel filters have what is known as a flat group delay: as the signal frequency varies in the passband, the phase shift or time delay it introduces is constant. In some applications, constant group delay is necessary to prevent distortion of the signals in the passband due to varying phase shifts with frequency. Filters that must pass pulses or wideband modu- lation are examples. To achieve this desited response, the Bessel filter has lower attenu- ation just outside the passband, Mechanical Filters. An older but still useful filter is the mechanical filter. This type of filler uses resonant vibrations of mechanical disks to provide the selectivity. The sig- nal to be filtered is applied to a coil that interacts with a permanent magnet to produce Vibrations in the rod connected to a sequence of seven or eight disks whose dimensions determine the center frequency of the filter. The disks vibrate only near their resonant frequency, producing movement in another rod connected to an output coil. This coil ‘works with another permanent magnet to generate an electrical output. Mechanical filters are designed to work in the 200- to $00-kHz range and have very high Qs. Their per- formance is comparable to that of crystal filters. Whatever the type, passive filters are usually designed and built with diserete com- ponents although they may also be put into integrated-circuit form. A number of filter design software packages are available to simplify and speed up the design process. The design of LC filters is specialized and complex and beyond the scope of this text. How- ever, filters can be purchased as components. These filters are predesigned and packaged in small sealed housings with only input, output, and ground terminals and can be used just as integrated cigcusts are. A wide range of frequencies, response characteristics, and attenuation rates can be obtained Bandpass Filters. A bandpass firer is one that allows a narrow range of frequencies around a center frequency J. to pass with minimum attenuation but rejects frequencies above and below this range. The ideal response curve of a bandpass filter is shown in Fig. 2-35(a). It bas both upper and lower cutoff frequencies f_ and fi, as indicated. The bandwidth of this filter is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies, or BW = fe ~ fy. Frequencies above and below the cutoff frequencies are eliminated ‘The ideal response curve is not obtainable with practical circuits, but close approxima- tions can be obtained. A practical bandpass filter response curve is shown in Fig. 2-35(b). ‘The simple series and parallel resonant circuits described in the previous section have @ response curve like that inthe figure and make good bandpass filters. The cutoff frequen- cies aze those at which the output voltage is down 0.707 percent from the peak output value, These are the 3-dB attenuation points. Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Bandpass fiter 65Figure 2:35 Response curves of a bandpass fiter. (a) Ideal. (6) Practical Ppsvand Pgesoand | ‘Two types of bandpass filters are shown in Fig, 2-36. In Fig. 2-36(a), a series resonant circuit is connected in series with an output resistor, forming a vollage divider, |At frequencies above and below the resonant frequency, either the inductive or the capacitive reactance will be high compared to the output resistance, Therefore, the ‘oulput amplitude will be very low. However, at the resonant frequency, the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel, leaving only the small resistance of the inductor, Thus most of the input vollage appears across the larger output resistance, The response ccurve for this circuit is shown in Fig, 2-35(b). Remember that the bandwidth of such 4 circuit is @ function of the resonant frequency and Q: BW = f./Q. A parallel resonant bandpass filter is shown in Fig. 2-36(6). Again, a voltage divider is formed with resistor R and the tuned circuit, This time the output is taken from across the parallel resonant circuit, At frequencies above and below the center resonant frequency, the impedance of the parallel tuned circuit is low compared to that of the resistance. Therefore, the output voltage is very low. Frequencies above and below the center frequency are greatly attenuated, At the resonant frequency, the reac~ lances are equal and the impedance of the parallel tuned circuit is very high compared to that of the resistance. Therefore, most of the input voltage appears across the tuned, circuit, The response curve is similar to that shown in Fig, 2-35(b). Improved selectivity with steeper “skirts” on the curve can be obtained by cascading several bandpass sections. Several ways to do this are shown in Fig. 2-37. As sections are cascaded, the bandwidth becomes narrower and the response curve becomes sleeper, ‘An example is shown in Fig, 2-38, As indicated earliet, using multiple filter sections ‘greatly improves the selectivity but increases the passband attenuation (insertion loss), which must be offset by added gain, Figure 2-36 Simple bandpass fiers Loe fn 6663 R ook! 3 L Te ta Seal Chapter 2Figure 2-37 Some common bandpass iter circuits SOC S| 089 wr: Lr: LL: +3 13 mn 723 fe sre ha dh How cascading filter sections narrow the bandwidth and improve selectviy. Figure 2-38 ne ier sect Frequency > Figure 2-39 LC tuned bandstop titers. (a) Shunt. (b) Series. (c) Response curve. ‘ay IF il “a 8 or Bleeironie Fundamentals for CommunicationsBan-roject iter (bandstop filter) Trap Bridge fier ative ft 68 Figure 2-40. Bridge-T notch fiter ie GSH oe y= wing resetanee a Band-Reject Filters. Band-reject filters, also known as bandstop filters, reject a nar row band of frequencies around a center or notch frequency, Two typical LC bandstop filters are shown in Fig. 2-39, In Fig, 2-39(a), the series LC resonant circuit forms a voltage divider with input resistor R. At frequencies above and below the center rejection for notch frequency, the LC circuit impedance is high compared to that of the resistance, ‘Therefore, signals at frequencies above and below center frequency are passed with ‘minimum attenuation, At the center frequency, the tuned circuit resonates, Ieaving only the small resistance of the inductor. This forms a vollage divider with the input resistor. Since the impedance at resonance is very low compared to the resistor, the output signal is very low in amplitude. A typical response curve is shown in Fig, 2-39(0), ‘A parallel version ofthis circuit is shown in Fig. 2-39(4), where the parallel resonant cireuit is connected in series with a resistor from which the output is taken. At frequen- cies above and below the resonant frequency, the impedance of the parallel circuit is very Tow; there is, therefore, litle signal attenuation, and most of the input voltage appears across the output resistor. At the resonant frequency, the parallel LC circuit has an extremely high resistive impedance compared to the output resistance, and so minimum vollage appears at the center frequency. LC filters used inthis way are often referred to as traps. Another bridge-type notch filter is the bridge-T filter shown in Pig. 2-40, This filter, which is widely used in RF circuits, uses inductors and capacitors and thus has a steeper response curve than the RC twin-T notch filter, Since L is variable, the notch is tunable. Fig. 2-41 shows common symbols used to represent RC and LC filters or any other type of filter in system block diagrams or schematics Active Filters Active filters are frequency-selective circuits that incorporate RC networks and amplifiers with feedback to produce low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, and bandstop performance ‘These filters can replace standard passive LC filters in many applications, They offer the following advantages over standard passive LC filters, Figure 2-41 Block diagram or schematic symbols for fers. owpace Highpass » SL » 1 Bancpass DBana-eeeyNech Chapter 21. Gain. Because active filters use amplifiers, they can be designed to amplify as well as filter, thus offsetting any insertion loss. 2. No inductors. Inductors are usually larger, heavier, and more expensive than capa- citors and have greater losses. Active filters use only resistors and capacitors 3. Easy to tune. Because selected resistors can be made variable, the filter cutoff frequency, center frequency, gain, Q, and bandwidth are adjustable. 4, Isolation. The amplifiers provide very high isolation between cascaded circuits because of the amplifier circuitry, thereby decreasing interaction between filter sections 5. Easier impedance matching. Impedance matching is not as critical as with LC filters. Fig, 2-42 shows two types of low-pass active filters and two types of high-pass active filters. Note that these active filters use op amps to provide the gain. The voltage divider, made up of R, and Rz, sets the circuit gain in the circuits of Fig. 2~42(a) and (c) as in any noninverting op amp. The gain is set by Ry and/or Ry in Fig. 2-42(b) and by C, and! ‘or C, in Fig, 2-42(d), All circuits have what is called a second-order response, which Second-order ‘means that they provide the same filtering action as a two-pole LC filter. The roll-off rate is 12 dB per octave, or 40 dB per decade, Multiple filters can be cascaded to provide faster roll-off rates, Figure 2-42 Types of active fiters. (a) Low-pass. (b) Low-pass. (c) Highpass. (@) High-pass, 5 response ‘a bs 6 ‘@ Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 9Figure 2-43 Active bandpass and notch filters. (2) Bandpass. (6) Bandpass. (c) High-O notch. 70 4 a ‘Two active bandpass filters and a notch filter are shown in Fig, 2-43. In Fig. 2-43(«), both RC low-pass and high-pass sections are combined with feedback to give a band= ppase result. In Fig. 2-43(b), a twin-T RC notch filter is used with negative feedback to provide a bandpass result. A notch filter using a Uwin-T is illustrated in Fig, 2-43(c), The feedback makes the response sharper than that with a standard pas- sive (win-T. Active filters aze made with integrated-cizcuit (IC) op amps and discrete RC net. works. They can be designed to have any of the responses discussed earlier, such as Butterworth and Chebyshev, and they are easily cascaded to provide even greater selec- tivity. Active filters aze also available as complete packaged components. The primary disadvantage of active filters is that their upper frequency of operation is limited by the frequency response of the op amps and the practical sizes of resistors and capacitors. ‘Most active filters ate used at frequencies below 1 MHz, and most active circuits operate in the audio range and slightly above. However, today op amps with frequency ranges up (© one microwave (1 GHz) mated with chip resistors and capacitors have made RC active filters practical for applications up to the RF range. Crystal and Ceramic Filters ‘The selectivity of a filter is limited primarily by the Q of the eizcuits, which is gen- erally the Q of the inductors used. With LC circuits, it is difficult to achieve Q values over 200. In fact, most LC circuit Qs are in the range of 10 to 100, and as a result, the roll-off rate is limited. In some applications, however, it is necessary to Chapter 2Figure 2-44 How selectivity affects the abily to discriminate between signals. ‘sharper Show root ts 7 © esa sara select one desired signal, distinguishing it from a nearby undesired signal (see Fig. 2-44). A conventional filter has a slow roll-off rate, and the undesired signal is rot, therefore, fully attenuated. The way to gain greater selectivity and higher Q, so that the undesirable signal will be almost completely rejected, is to use filters that are made of thin slivers of quartz crystal or certain types of ceramic materials. These ‘materials exhibit what is called piezoelectricity. When they are physically bent or otherwise distorted, they develop a voltage across the faces of the crystal, Altern tively, if an ac voltage is applied across the erystal or c at a very precise frequency, a frequency that is determined by the thickness, shape, and size of the crystal as well as the angle of cut of the erystal faces. In general, the thinner the crystal or ceramic element, the higher the frequency of oscillation Cuystals and ceramic elements are widely used in oscillators to set the frequency of ‘operation to some precise value, which is held despite temperature and voltage variations that may occur in the eiteuit Cxystals and ceramic elements can also be used as cizcuit elements to form filters, specifically bandpass filters. The equivalent citcuit of a crystal or ceramic device is a tuned, circuit with a Q of 10,000 to 1,000,000, permitting highly selective filters to be built. famic, the material vibrates Crystal Filters. Crystal filters are made from the same type of quartz erystals normally used in cxystal oscillators. When a voltage is applied across a crystal, it vibrates at a specific resonant frequency, which is function of the size, thickness, and direction of cet ofthe erystal. Crystals ean be ut and ground for almost any frequency in the 100-KF1z to 100-Mllz range. The frequency of vibration of crystal is extremely stable, and crystals, ae therefore widely used to supply signals on exact frequencies with good stability. ‘The equivalent circuit and schematic symbol of a quartz crystal are shown in Fig. 2-45, The exystal acts as a resonant LC citcuit. The series LCR pat of the equivalent circuit represents the crystal itself, whereas the parallel capacitance Cp is the capacitance of the metal mounting plates with the erystal as the dielectric. Figure 2-45 Quartz crystal (a) Equivalent cur. 2) Schematic symbol —jj— “9 ” Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Piezoelectiity Crystal ter 1nD Figure 2-46 Impedance variation with frequency of a quartz erystal Fig. 2-46 shows the impedance variations of the crystal as a function of frequency. At frequencies below the crystal's resonant frequency, the citcuit appears capacitive ‘and has a high impedance. However, at some frequency, the reactances of the equiv- alent inductance L and the series capacitance C; are equal, and the circuit resonates ‘The series circuit is resonant when X; = Xc,. At this series resonant frequency fs, the circuit is resistive, The resistance of the crystal is extremely low, giving the circuit an extremely high Q. Values of @ in the 10,000 to 1,000,000 range are common. This makes the crystal a highly selective series resonant citcuit. If the frequency of the signal applied to the crystal is above f, the crystal appears inductive. At some higher frequency, the reactance ofthe parallel capacitance Cp equals the reactance of the net inductance. When this occurs, a parallel resonant cigcuit is formed, At this parallel resonant frequency fp, the impedance of the citeuit is resistive but extremely high. Because the crystal has both series and parallel resonant frequencies that are close together it makes an ideal component for use in filters. By combining crystals with selected series and parallel resonant points, highly selective filters with any desired band- pass can be constructed The most commonly used crystal filter is the full crystal lattice shown in Fig. 2-47, Itis a bandpass filter. Note that transformers are used to provide the input to the fier and to extract the output. Crystals ¥, and Y, resonate at one frequency. and crystals ¥, and ¥. resonate at another frequency. The difference between the two crystal frequencies determines the bandwidth of the filter. The 3-4B down band- width is approximately 1.5 times the crystal frequency spacing. For example, if the ¥; to ¥, frequency is 9 MHz and the Ys to Ys frequency is 9.002 MHz, the differ cence is 9.002 ~ 9.000 = 0.002 MHz = 2kHz. The 3-dB bandwidth is, then, 1.5% 2 kHz ~ 3 kita The crystals are also chosen so thatthe parallel resonant frequency of ¥ to ¥, equals the series resonant frequency of ¥, to ¥.. The series resonant frequency of Ys to Ys is equal (0 the parallel sesonant frequency of Yi to ¥:. The result is a passband with extremely steep attenuation. Signals outside the passband are rejected as much as 50 to Figure 2-47 Crystal lattice fiter 1a EE Chapter 2Figure 2-48 | Crystal ladder ‘iter. eo ousost IIliliidtdt (60 dB below those inside the passband, Such a filler can easily discriminate between very closely spaced desired and undesired signals. Another type of crystal filer is the ladder filter shown in Fig. 2-48, which is also a bandpass filler, All the crystals in ths filter are cut for exactly the same frequency. The number of crystals used and the values of the shunt capacitors set the bandwidth, At least six crystals must usually be cascaded to achieve the kind of selectivity needed in com- ‘munication applications Ceramic Filters. Ceramic is a manufactured crystallike compound that bas the same piezoelectric qualities as quartz, Ceramic disks can be made so that they vibrate at a fixed frequency, thereby providing filtering actions. Ceramic filters are very small and inexpensive and ae, therefore, widely used in transmitters and receivers. Although the O of ceramic does not have as high an upper limit as that of quart, iC is typically several thousand, which is very high compared to the Q obtainable with LC filters. Typical ceramic filers are of the bandpass type with center frequencies of 455 KIlz and 10.7 MHlz. These are available in different bandwidths depending upon the application Such ceramic filters are widely used in communication receivers. ‘A schematic diagram of a ceramic filter is shown in Fig. 2-49. For proper operation, the filter must be driven from a generator with an output impedance of R, and be ter- minated with a load of Ry. The values of R, and Ry are usually 1.5 or 2 KO. Surface Acoustic Wave Filters. A special form of a crystal filter is the surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter. This fixed tuned bandpass filter is designed to provide the ‘exact selectivity required by a given application. Fig. 2-50 shows the schematic design Figure 2-49 Schematic symbol for a ceramic fiter Figure 2.50 A surface acoustic wave fiter versa bers ranedoets ranedoets Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications Ceramic fiter GOOD TO KNOW Ceramic filters are used in most ‘communication receivers and transmitters because they are relatively small and inexpensive. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) fier B‘Switched capacitor filter (SCF) ‘or analog sampled data or ccommutating fiter ‘Switched integrator of a SAW filter. SAW Gilters are made on a piezoelectric ceramic substrate such as Lithium niobate. A pattem of interdigital fingers on the surface converts the signals into acoustic waves that tavel across the filter surface. By controlling the shapes, sizes, and spacings of the interdigital fingers, the response can be tailored to any application. Inter- digital fingers at the output convert the acoustic waves back to electical signals. ‘SAW filters are normally bandpass filters used at very high radio frequencies where selectivity is difficult to obtain, Their common useful range is from 10 MHz to 3 GHz, ‘They have a low shape factor, giving them exceedingly good selectivity at such high frequencies. They do have a significant insertion loss, usually in the 10- to 35-4B range, ‘which must be overcome with an accompanying amplifier. SAW fikers are widely used in modern TV receivers, radar receivers, witeless LANs, and cell phones. Switched Capacitor Filters Switched capacitor filters (SCFs) ace active IC filters made of op amps, capacitors, ‘and transistor switches, Also knowa as analog sampled data filters ot commutating filters, these devices axe usually implemented with MOS or CMOS cizcuits. They can bbe designed to operate as high-pass, low-pass, bandpass, or bandstop filters. The pri- mary advantage of SCBS is that they provide a way to make tuned or selective circuits in an IC without the use of discrete inductors, capacitors, or resistors. ‘Switched capacitor filters are made of op amps, MOSFET switches, and capacitors. ‘All components are fully integrated on a single chip, making external discrete compo- rents unnecessary. The secret to the SCF is that all resistors are replaced by capacitors that are switched by MOSFET switches, Resistors are more difficult to make in IC form and take up far more space on the chip than wansistors and capacitors. With switched capacitors, it is possible to make complex active filters on a single chip. Other advan- tages are selectibility of filter type, full adjustability of the cutoff or center frequency, ‘and full adjustability of bandwidth. One filter ciscuit can be used for many different applications and can be set to a wide range of frequencies and bandwidths. Switched Integrators. The basic building block of SCFs is the classic op amp inte- ‘grator, as shown in Fig. 2-51(a). The input is applied through a resistor, and the feedback is provided by a capacitor. With this arrangement, the output is a function of the integral of the input ar Vi With ac signals, the circuit essentially functions as a low-pass filter with a gain of URC. Figure 2-51 IC integrators. (@) Conventional integrator () Switched capactor Integrator 4 Two-phaee Chapter 2work oer a wie range of equnses the integrator RC vals mist be hanged Maing low and big eit and apace aes nT fom i deat. However this problem can be solved by eplcing te inpat resister with swithed capacitor ae shown Ing 250. The MOSHE sytches ae driven bys clock peneratr whee fequnsy i sypcally 300 100 tne the simu iequnsyof the 26 signal tobe teed. The teste ofa MOSHE switch when ons usual less than 1000 f2 When th swith i off esstane ts many megehs The clock puts out two phase, designated $y and gy tht dive the MOSFET switches. When 3 son, Seis off nd vie vasa. The sites ae of he ea before ime pes ich means at ne sich opens beer the eters elosed, When 8, Close, the Gage on th capaste ellos the input sia. ine the clock peed aod time dustin hat he swith ion ae ery set Compared he inp signal vara, 2 et “sample of the mptwolagerenans stored tn Can 5 tans of Now 8, tums eo The cage on spacer Cys applied tothe Summing justin of the ep amp. I schage, causing acuren to fow nthe feedack capa Cy The teulng ouput veltape i proprional ote intel ofthe input. But tis tine. the fain ef the tei i a) (8) where fis the clock frequency. Capacitor C,, which is switched at a clock frequency of {f with period T, is equivalent to a resistor value of R = TIC; Mhe beauty of this arrangement is that itis not necessary to make resistors on the IC chip. Instead, capacitors and MOSFET switches, which are smaller than resistors, are used, Further, since the gain is a function of the ratio of C, to Cy, the exact capac itor values are Jess important than their ratio. It is much easier to control the ratio of ‘matched paits of capacitors than itis to make precise values of capacitance. By combining several such switching integrators, it is possible to cxeate low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, and band-reject filters of the Butterworth, Chebyshev, elliptical, and Bessel type with almost any desired selectivity. The center frequency or cutoff frequency ‘of the filter is set by the value of the clock frequency. This means that the filler can be tuned on the fly by varying the clock frequency. ‘A unique but sometimes undesirable characteristic of an SCF is that the output signal is really a stepped approximation of the input signal. Because of the switching action of the MOSFETs and the charging and discharging of the capacitors, the signal takes on a stepped digital form, The higher the clock frequency compated to the fre- quency of the input signal, the smaller this effect, The signal can be smoothed back into its original state by passing it through a simple RC low-pass filter whose cutoff frequency is set to just above the maximum signal frequency. Various SCBS are available in IC form, both dedicated single-purpose or universal versions. Some models can be configured as Butterworth, Bessel, Eliptical, or other formats with as many as eight poles. They can be used for filtering signals up to about 100 kHz. Manufacturers include Linear Technology, Maxim Integrated Products, and “Texas Instruments, One of the most popular is the MF10 made by Texas Instruments. It is a universal SCF that can be set for low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, or band-reject ‘operation. It can be used for center or cutoff frequencies up to about 20 kHz. The clock frequency is about 50 to 100 times the operating frequency, Commutating Filters. An interesting variation of a switehed capacitor filler is the ‘commutating filter shown in Fig. 2-52. Ibis made of discrete resistors and capacitors with MOSFET switches driven by a counter and decoder. The circuit appears to be a low-pass RC filter, but the switching action makes the circuit function as a bandpass filter. The ‘operating frequency fis related to the clock frequency f. and the number N of switches and capacitors used. f = Mx a fg = Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications CCommutating filter 5Figure 2-52 A commutating SC= a Bandpass OUD e ta si | si cheek, Chee 4 | 16 ‘The bandwidth of the circuit is related (© the RC values and number of capacitors and switches used as follows: 1 ANRC For the filter in Fig. 2-52, the bandwidth is BW = 1/(8mRC). Very high © and narrow bandwidth can be obtained, and varying the resistor value makes the bandwidth adjustable. ‘The operating waveforms in Fig. 2-52 show that each capacitor is switched on and off sequentially so that only one capacitor is connected to the circuit at a ime. A sample ‘of the input voltage is stored as a charge on each capacitor as itis connected to the input. ‘The capacitor voltage is the average of the voltage variation during the time the switch connects the capacitor to the circuit. Fig. 2-53(a) shows typical input and output waveforms, assuming a sine wave input. ‘The output is a stepped approximation of the input because of the sampling action of the switched capacitors. The steps are large, but their size can be reduced by simply using a greater number of switches and capacitors. Increasing the number of capacitors from four to eight, as in Fig. 2-53(6), makes the steps smaller, and thus the output more closely approximates the input. The steps can be eliminated or greatly minimized by passing the output through a simple RC low-pass filter whose cutoff is set to the center frequency value or slightly higher. ‘One characteristic of the commutating filter is that it is sensitive to the harmonics of the center frequency for which it is designed. Signals whose frequency is some integer multiple of the center frequency of the filter are also passed by the filter, although Chapter 2Figure 2.53 Input and output for commutating fiter. (a) Four-capactor filter (b) Eight-capactor titer. Ip sonal oupat Figure 2-54 Comb fier response of a commutating fier vp —> ‘at a somewhat lower amplitude. The response of the filter, called a comb response. is Comb response shown in Fig. 2-54. If such performance is undesirable, the higher frequencies can be eliminated with a conventional RC or LC low-pass filter connected to the output. 2-4 Fourier Theory ‘The mathematical analysis of the modulation and multiplexing methods used in com- ‘munication systems assumes sine wave carriers and information signals. This simplifies the analysis and makes operation predictable. However, in the real world, not all infor- ‘mation signals are sinusoidal. Information signals axe typically more complex voice and Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 7Fourier analysis Harmonic Square wave Duty cycle 0 Video signals that are essentially composites of sine waves of many frequencies and amplitudes. Information signals can take on an infinite number of shapes, including rectangular waves (Le., digital pulses), triangular waves, sawtooth waves, and other nonsinusoidal forms. Such signals requixe that a non-sine wave approach be taken to determine the characteristics and performance of any communication circuit or system. ‘One of the methods used to do this is Fourier analysis, which provides a means of accurately analyzing the content of most complex nonsinusoidal signals. Although Fou- rer analysis requires the use of calculus and advanced mathematical techniques beyond the scope of this text, its practical applications to communication electronics are rela- tively straightforward Basic Concepts Fig. 2-55(a) shows a basic sine wave with its most important dimensions and the equa- tion expressing it. A basic cosine wave is illustrated in Fig. 2-55(b). Note that the cosine ‘wave has the same shape as a sine wave but leads the sine wave by 90°. A harmonic is fa sine wave whose frequency is some integer multiple of a fundamental sine wave. For example, the thicd harmonic of a 2-kHz sine wave is a sine wave of 6 kHz. Fig. 2-56 shows the fist four harmonics of a fundamental sine wave. ‘What the Fourier theory tells us is that we can take a nonsinusoidal waveform and break it down into individual harmonically related sine Wave or cosine wave components. ‘The classic example of this is a square wave, which is a rectangular signal with equal- duration positive and negative alterations. In the ac square wave in Fig. 2-57, this means that fis equal to 1,. Another way of saying this is that the square wave has a 50 percent duty cyele D, the ratio of the duration of the positive alteration f, to the period T expressed as a percentage: ' p= 4x10 Fourier analysis tells us that a square wave is made up of a sine wave at the funda ‘mental frequency of the square wave plus an infinite number of odd harmonies. For example, if the fundamental frequency of the square wave is 1 kHz, the square wave can be synthesized by adding the I-kHr sine wave and harmonic sine waves of 3 kHz, 5 kHz, 7 kHz, 9 kHz, etc Fig, 2-58 shows how this is done, The sine waves must be of the correct amplitude and phase relationship to one another. The fundamental sine wave in this case has a value ‘of 20 V peak to peak (a 10-V peak). When the sine wave values arc added instantancously, the result approaches a square wave. In Fig. 2-58(a), the fundamental and third harmonic Figure 2.55 Sine and cosine waves. }+-—__—_r—__—: t v= Vos 2a v= Vosinot 8 Chapter 2 pod fone ele vl vate tvonage peak votage v= Vpcos wtFigure 2-56 A sine wave and its harmonics Fundamental) ‘Second rarmanie Tha harmone Fourth harmon ih are added. Note the shape of the composite wave with the thitd and fifth harmonies added, as in Fig. 2-58(6). The more higher harmonics that are added, the more the com- posite wave looks like a perfect square wave. Fig. 2-59 shows how the composite wave would look with 20 odd harmonics added to the fundamental. The results very closely approximate a square wave. Figure 2-57 A square wave, j—— + j-—— 1 ——+! 1. —+]—1—+| [—4—+]—1—+| (50% auy ete Duy 10 a Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 9Figure 2-58 A square wave Is made up of a fundamental sine wave and an Infinite number of odd harmonies. Congo wart 7 vars sete SM sli: Period = T “a Lo Warten With aed and sth harmonies (ests ranmenis) @ Figure 2-59 Square wave made up of 20 ode harmonies added to the fundamental ‘The implication of this is that a square wave should be analyzed as a collection of harmonically related sine waves rather than a single square wave entity. This is confirmed by performing a Fourier mathematical analysis on the square wave. The result is the following equation, which expresses voltage as a function of time: prot nap fama) ob) fae) | 80 Chapter 2tiv ec ies tsa ets arcane fe sa aca ho sig 0 oni een omnes so = 22 (nage banana anaes + snzen +) LORIE aaa tata T+ 5 Dein 2m sit lhe compe prt wen £0 Example 2-26 ‘An ac square wave has a peak voltage of 3 V and a frequency of 48 kHz, Find (a) the frequency of the fifth harmonic and (b) the rms value of the fifth harmonic. Use the formula in Fig. 2-60(a). a. 5X 48 KH = 240 KH b Isolate the expression forthe filth harmonic in the formula, which is {sin 2m(SIT)r. Muliply by the amplitude factor 4V/r. The peak value of the fifth harmonic Vp is mms = 0.707 X peak value Vins = 0.707Vp = 0.707(0.76) = 0.537 V ‘The triangular wave in Fig, 2-60(6) exhibits the fundamental and odd harmonies, but it is made up of cosine waves rather than sine waves, The sawtooth wave in Fig, 2-60(¢) contains the fundamental plus all odd and even harmonics. Fig. 2-60(d) and (e) shows half sine pulses like those seen at the output of half and full wave rectifiers, Both have an aver- age de component, as would be expected, The half wave signal is made up of even harmon- ics only, whereas the full wave signal has both odd and even harmonics. Fig. 2-60(,/) shows the Fourier expression for a de square wave where the average de component is Vi,/T. Time Domain Versus Frequency Domain Most ofthe signals and waveforms that we discuss and analyze ae expressed inthe fime domain. That is, they are variations of voltage, current, or power with respect to time, Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications Time domain 81Figure 2-60 Common nonsinusoidal waves and thelr Fourer equations. (a) Square wave. (b) Trangle wave. (e) Sawtooth, {@) Half cosine wave. (o} Full cosine wave. (f) Rectangular pulse. 82 Al the signals shown in the previous illustrations are examples of time-domain wave- forms, Their mathematical expressions contain the variable time f, indicating that they are a time-variant quantily, Fourier theory gives us a new and different way to express and illustrate complex signals. Here, complex signals containing many sine and/or cosine components are ‘expressed as sine of cosine wave amplitudes at different frequencies. In other words, a ‘graph of a particular signal is a plot of sine and/or cosine component amplitudes with respect to frequency ‘A typical frequency-domain plot of the square wave is shown in Fig. 2-61(a), Note that the straight lines represent the sine wave amplitudes of the fundamental and harmonics, and these are plotted on a horizontal frequency axis. Such a frequency- domain plot can be made directly from the Fourier expression by simply using the fie- quencies of the fundamentals and harmonics and their amplitudes. Frequency-domain plots for some of the other common nonsinusoidal waves are also shown in Fig, 2-61 Chapter 2he frequency-domain plots of common nensinusoldal waves. (a) Squate wave. (b) Sawtooth. (e) Tangle. () Half cosine wave, Figure 2-61 ots —- |_-Fundamental |_--Fundarents ots = nay 1 Frequency ] Liiiy Harmon fs) ——e Harmonic fn) ——> i 6) je Pansament component Le Furaamenil Vets > mana) Hsmene fn) ——e- 6 a Note that the triangle wave in Fig. 2-61(c) is made up of the fundamental and odd harmonics. The third larmonic is shown as a line below the axis, which indicates a 180° phase shift in the cosine wave making it up Fig. 2-62 shows how the time and frequency domains are related, The square wave discussed earlier is used as an example, The result is a three-axis three dimensional view. Figure 262 The lolonshp between une nd feauency dona An ( ‘emain Y ie ‘Tine oman Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 83Figure 2-63 Converting a square wave to sine wave by fitering out all Spectrum analyzer Pulse spectrum 84 fe harmonies. Frequency reponse Harmonie ———— SENS — kee Take Signals and waveforms in communication applications are expressed by using both time-domain and frequency-domain plots, but in many cases the frequency-domain plot is far more useful. This is particularly true in the analysis of complex signal waveforms as well as the many modulation and multiplexing methods used in communication. ‘Test instruments for displaying signals in both time and frequency domains are readily available. You are already familiar with the oscilloscope, which displays the volt- ‘age amplitude of a signal with respect to a horizontal time axis. ‘The test instrument for producing frequency-domain display is the spectrum analyzer Like the oscilloscope, the spectrum analyzer uses a cathode-ray tube for display, but the horizontal sweep axis is calibrated in hertz and the vertical axis is calibrated in volts or power units or decibels. The Importance of Fourier Theory Fourier analysis allows us to determine not only the sine wave components in any com- plex signal but also how much bandwidth a particular signal occupies. Although a sine fr cosine wave at a single frequency theoretically occupies no bandwidth, complex sig- nals obviously take up more spectrum space. For example, a 1-MHz square wave with harmonics up to the eleventh occupies a bandwidth of 11 MHz. If this signal is to pass ‘unattenuated and undistorted, then all harmonics must be passed. ‘An example is shown in Fig. 2-63. Ifa 1-kHz square wave is passed through a low- pass filter with a cutoff frequency just above 1 kHz, all the harmonics beyond the third harmonic are greatly attenuated or, for the most par, filtered out completely. The result is that the output of the low-pass filter is simply the fundamental sine wave at the square wave frequency. If the low-pass filter were set to cut off at a frequency above the third harmonic, then the output of the filter would consist of a fundamental sine wave and the third harmonic. Such a waveshape was shown in Fig. 2-58(a). As you can see, when the higher harmonics are not all passed, the original signal is greatly distorted. This is why 1t is important for communication circuits and systems to have a bandwidth wide enough to accommodate all the harmonic components within the signal waveform to be processed. Fig. 2-64 shows an example in which a I-kHz square wave is passed through a bandpass filter set to the third harmonic, resulting in a 3-kHz sine wave output. In this case, the filter used is sharp enough to select out the desired component. Pulse Spectrum ‘The Fourier analysis of binary pulses is especially useful in communication, for it gives ‘a way to analyze the bandwidth needed to transmit such pulses. Although theoretically Chapter 2Figure 2-64 Selecting the third harmonic with a bandpass fier. amon fe) ——e teste the system must pass all the harmonies in the pulses, in reality, relatively few must be passed to preserve the shape of the pulse. In addition, the pulse train in data communi cation rarely consists of square waves with a 50 percent duty cycle, Instead, the pulses are reclangular and exhibit varying duty cycles, from very low to very high. [The Fourier response of such pulses is given in Fig. 2-60(,/),] Look back at Fig. 2-60(f). The period of the pulse train is 7, and the pulse width is to The duty cycle is f/T. The pulse train consists of de pulses with an average de value of Vig/T. In terms of Fourier analysis, the pulse train is made up of a fundamental and all even and odd harmonies. The special case of this waveform is where the duty cycle is 50 percent; in that case, all the even harmonics drop out. But with any other duty cycle, the waveform is made up of both odd and even harmonics, Since this is a series of de pulses, the average de value is Vig/T. ‘A frequency-domain graph of harmonic amplitudes plotted with respect to frequency is shown in Fig, 2-65. The horizontal axis is frequency-plotted in increments of the pulse repetition frequency f, where f= I/T and T is the period, The first component is the average de component at zero frequency Vig/T, where V is the peak voltage value of the pulse Now, note the amplitudes of the fundamental and harmonics. Remember that each vertical line represents the peak value of the sine wave components of the pulse train, Some of the higher harmonies are negative; that simply means that their phase is reversed, Figure 2-65 Frequency domain of a rectangular pulse train pli 3 average de compcnen at zr rquency Funcsamertl sn wave Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 85Envelope ‘Sine funetion 86 ‘The dashed line in Fig. 2-65, the outline of the peaks of the individual compo- rents, is what is known as the envelope of the frequency spectrum. The equation for te entelpe cet he genet orm ani,» = andy se pai ‘width, This is known as the sinc function, In Fig. 2-65, the sine function crosses the horizontal axis several times. These times can be computed and are indicated in the figure, Note that they are some multiple of I ‘The sinc function drawn on a frequency-domain curve is used in predicting the harmonic content of a pulse train and thus the bandwidth necessary to pass the wave For example, in Fig. 2-65, as the frequency of the pulse train gets higher, the period T gels shorter and the spacing between the harmonics gels wider. This moves the curve ‘out to the right. And as the pulse duration fo gets shorter, which means that the duty cycle gels shorter, the first zero crossing of the envelope moves farther to the right, The practical significance of this is that higher-frequency pulses with shorter pulse durations have more harmonics with greater amplitudes, and thus a wider bandwidth is needed to pass the wave with minimum distortion. For data communication applications, itis gen- erally assumed that a bandwidth equal to the first zero crossing of the envelope is the ‘minimum that is sufficient (o pass enough harmonics for reasonable waveshape: BW = Example 2-27 A de pulse train like that in Fig. 2-60( f) has a peak voltage value of 5 V, a frequency of 4 MHz, and a duty cycle of 30 percent a. What is the average de value? [Ving = Vg/T. Use the formula given in Fig. 2-60(f).] Duty eyele = 2= 30% or 030 1 1 = os =ts—1 =25x 107s =250x 107s f 4x10 T= 250 ns ty = duty cycle X T= 0.3 X 250 = 75 ns Vtg Ving = pe = VX dy cycle = $ X03 = 15V 1b. What is the minimum bandwidth necessary to pass this signal without excessive distortions? 1 1 ‘Minimum bandwidth BW = + = ——\_, 15X10 = 0.013333 X 10” = 13.333 x 108 = 13.333 MHz Most of the higher-amplitude harmonics and thus the most significant part of the signal power are contained within the larger area between zero frequency and the M/fp ppoint on the curve. Chapter 2The Relationship Between Rise Time and Bandwidth Because a rectangular wave such as a square wave theoretically contains an infinite number of harmonics, we can use a square wave as the basis for determining the bandwidth ofa signal. Ifthe processing circuit should pass all or an infinite number of harmonics, the rise and fll times of the square wave will be zero. As the band- width is decreased by rolling off or filtering out the higher frequencies, the higher harmonics are greatly atenuated. The effect this has on the square wave is thatthe rise and fall times of the waveform become finite and increase as more and more of the higher harmonies ate filtered out. The more restricted the bandwidth, the fewer the harmonies passed and the grater the rise and fall times, The ultimate restriction is where all the harmonics ate filtered out, leaving only the fundamental sine wave ig. 2-63) ‘The concept of rise and fall imes is illustrated in Fig. 2-66. The rise time isthe time it takes the pulse voltage to rise from its 10 percent value to its 90 percem value ‘The fall time 118th time it takes the voltage to drop from the 90 percent vale (othe 10 percent value, Pulse width fs vsvally measured atthe 50 percent amplitude points on th leading (ise) and trailing (al) edges ofthe pulse. ‘A simple mathematical expression relating the rise time of a rectangular wave and the bandwidth ofa circuit required to pass the wave without distortion i ons Example 2-28 ‘A pulse train has a rise time of 6 ns, What is the minimum bandwidth to pass this pulse train faithfully? BW 1, = Ons = 0.006 ys 0.38 Minimum BW = >> = 58.3 Mita ‘This is the bandwidth of the circuit required to pass a signal containing the highest. frequency component in a square wave with a rise time of f,. In this expression, the bandwidth is really the upper 3-dB down cutoff frequency of the circuit given in mega- hertz. The rise time of the output square wave is given in microseconds. For example, if the square wave output of an amplifier has a rise time of 10 ns (0.01 is). the bandwidth ‘of the circuit must be at least BW = 0,35/0.01 = 35 MH. Rearranging the formula, you can calculate the rise time of an output signal from the circuit whose bandwidth is given: ¢, = 0.35/BW. For example, a circuit with a S0-MEz bandwidth will pass a square wave with a minimum rise time of 1, = 0.35/50 = (0.007 ps = 7 ns. ‘This simple relationship permits you to quickly determine the approximate band- ‘width of a circuit needed to pass a rectangular waveform with a given rise time, This relationship is widely used to express the frequency response of the vertical amplifier in Blectronic Fundamentals for Communications Rise timeFigure 2-66 Rise and fall times of a pulse. ‘raieg fae =sallime (= pale wish (surator) ‘an oscilloscope. Oscilloscope specifications often give only a rise time figure for the vertical amplifier. An oscilloscope with a 60-MHz bandwidth would pass rectangular ‘waveforms with rise times as short as 1, = 0.35/60 = 0.00583 ps = 5.83 ns. Example 2-29 ‘A circuit has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, What is the fastest rise time this circuit will pass? Similarly, an oscilloscope whose vertical amplifier is rated at 2 ns (0,002 is) has a bandwidth or upper cutoff frequency of BW = 0.35/0.002 = 175 MHz, What this means is that the vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope bas a bandwidth adequate to pass a sul ficient number of harmonics so that the resulting rectangular wave has a tise time of 2-ns, This does not indicate the rise time of the input square wave itself. To take this into account, you use the formula = lV rise time of input square wave rise time of amplifier composite rise time of amplifier output Chapter 2‘The expression ean be expanded to include the effect of additional stages of amplification by simply adding the squares of the individual rise times to the above expression before taking the square root of it Example 2-30 An oscilloscope has a bandwidth of 60 MHz. The input square wave has a rise time of 15 ns. What is the rise time of the displayed square wave? 0.38 1 (oscilloscope) 0.005833 jis = 5.833 ns Sns LV iR F the = LL WS) + 5.833)" = 11 V259 = 17.7 ns tn (composite) Keep in mind that the bandwidth or upper cut-off frequency derived from the vise time formula on the previous page passes only the harmonics needed to support the vise ‘ume. There ate harmonics beyond this bandwidth that also contaibute to unwanted emis- sions and noise. ‘The spectrum analyze: shows a frequency-domain plot of electronic signals. It is the key test Instrument In designing, analyzing, and troubleshooting communication ‘equipment Blectronic Fundamentals for CommunicationsCHAPTER REVIEW Online Activity 2-1 Exploring Filter Options ‘Objective: Examine several alternatives to LC and crystal fil Procedur: 1. Search on the terms dielectric resonator, mechanical filter, and ceramic filter 2. Look at manufacturer Websites and examine specitie products, 3. Print out data sheets as need to determine filter types and specifications. 4, Answer the following questions. Questions 1, What happens to capacitive reactance as the frequenc) ‘of operation increases? As frequency decreases, how does the reactance of a coil vary? 3. What is skin effect, and how does it affect the Q of a coil? 4, What happens to wire when a ferrite bead is placed around it? 5. What is the name given to the widely used coil form that is shaped like s doughnut? 6. Describe the current and impedance in a series RLC circuit at resonance 7. Describe the current and impedance in a parallel RLC circuit at resonance Problems 90 1. What isthe gain of an amplifier with an output of 1.5 V and an input of 30 pV? + 2. What isthe attenuation of a voltage divider like that in Fig. 2-3, where Ry is 3.3 kM and Ry is 5.1k0? 3. What is the overall gain or attenuation of the com bination formed by cascading the circuits deseribed in Problems | and 2? ¢ 4. Three amplifiers with gains of 15, 22, and 7 are «cascaded; the input voltage is 120 lV. What are the ‘overall gain and the output voltages of each stage? 5. A piece of communication equipment has two slages of amplification with gains of 40 and 60 and two loss stages with attenuation factors of 0.03 and 0.075. The output voltage is 2.2-V. What are the ‘overall gain (or attenuation) and the input voltage? + Chapter 2 Questions: 1, Name one manufacturer for each of the types of filters you studied, 2. What kinds of filters did you find? (LPF, HPF, BPF, etc.) 3. What frequency range does cach type of filter cover? 4. Define insertion loss and give typical loss factors for cach filter type 5, What are typical input and output impedances for each filter type? 8, State in your own words the relationship between Q and the bandwidth of a tuned circuit, 9. What kind of filter is used to select a single signal fre- quency from many signals? 10, What kind of filter would you use to get rid of an an- noying 120-Hiz hum? LL, What does selectivity mean? 12, State the Fourier theory in your own words, 13, Define the terms time domain and frequency domain. 14, Write the first four odd harmonics of 800 Hz, 15, What waveform is made up of even harmonics only? What waveform is made up of odd harmonics only’ 16, Why is a nonsinusoidal signal distorted when it passes through a filter? 6. Find the voltage gain or atenuation, in decibels, for each of the citcuits described in Problems 1 through 5 7. A power amplifier has an output of 200 W and an Input of 8 W. What is the power gain in decibels? 8. A power amplifier has a gain of 55 dB. The input power is 600 mW, What is the output power? 9. An amplifier has an output of 5 W. What is its gain in dBm? © 10. A communication system has five stages, with gains and attenuations of 12, ~45, 68, —31, and [Link], What is the overall gain? 11. What is the reactance of a 7-pF capacitor at 2 GHz? 12, What value of capacitance is required to produce 50 19 of reactance at 450 MHz? 13. Calculate the inductive reactance of a 0.9-pH coil at 800 MH,14, At what frequency will a 2-pH inductor have a re- actance of 300 27 1S, A.2.S-yHl inductor has a resistance of 23.0. Ava, frequency of 35 MHz, what is its Q? 16, What isthe resonant frequency of a 0.55-pHT coil with a capacitance of 22 pF? 17, What isthe value of inductance that will resonate with an 80-pF capacitor at 18 MHz? 18, What is the bandwidth of a parallel resonant circuit that has an inductance of 33 HI with a resistance of 14 01 and a capacitance of 48 pF? 19, A series resonant circuit has upper and lower cutoff frequencies of 72.9 and 70.5 MHz, What is its bandwidth? 20, A resonant circuit has a peak output voltage of 4.5 mY, What isthe voltage output atthe upper and lower cutoff frequencies? Critical Thinking 1 Explain how capacitance and inductance can exist in a circuit without lumped capacitors and inductor compo- nents being present. . How can the voltage across the coil or capacitor in a series resonant circuit be greater than the source volt- age at resonance? 3. What type of filter would you use to prevent the harmon- ies generated by a transmitter from reaching the antenna? 1. What kind of filter would you use on a TV set to pre- ‘vent a signal from a CB radio on 27 MHz from interfer- ing with a TV signal on channel 2 at 54 MHz? . Explain why itis possible to reduce the effective Q of a parallel resonant circuit by connecting a resistor in par- allel with it, A parallel resonant circuit has an inductance of 800 nF ‘a winding resistance of 3 2, and a capacitance of 15 pF. 21. What circuit Q is required to give a bandwidth of 36 MHz at a frequency of 4 GHz? 22, Find the impedance of a parallel resonant circuit, 22 pF, with L = 60 ull, Ry = 7.0, and C 23, Write the first four terms of the Fourier equation of a sawtooth wave that has a peak-to-peak amplitude of SV and a frequency of 100 kElz 24, An oscilloscope has a rise time of § ns. What is the highest-frequency sine wave that the scope can dis- phy? 25, A low-pass filer has a cutolf frequency of 24 MHz, ‘What is the fastest rise time that a rectangular wave that will pass through the filter can have? ‘Answers to Selected Problems follow Chap. 22. Calculate (a) resonant frequency, (b) Q, (c) bandwidta, (@ impedance at resonance. 7. For the previous circuit, what would the bandwidth be if you connected @ 33-KV resistor in parallel with the toned circuit? 8. What value of capacitor would you need to produce a high-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 48 kHz with aresistor value of 2.207 9. What is the minimum bandwidth needed to pass a peri- dic pulse train whose frequency is 28.8 kH and duty cycle is 20 percent? 50 percent? 10, Refer to Fig, 2-60, Examine the various waveforms and Fourier expressions. What circuit do you think might make a good but simple frequency doubler? Bleeironie Fundamentals for Communications 1