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Hall Effect Sensor

We could not end this discussion on Magnetism
without a mention about magnetic sensors and
especially the very commonly used Hall Effect
Sensor.

Magnetic sensors convert magnetic or magnetically encoded information into electrical

signals for processing by electronic circuits, and in the Sensors and Transducers tutorials
we looked at inductive proximity sensors and the LDVT as well as solenoid and relay output
actuators.

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are becoming more and more popular because
they can be used in many different types of application such as sensing position, velocity or
directional movement. They are also a popular choice of sensor for the electronics designer
due to their non-contact wear free operation, their low maintenance, robust design and as
sealed hall effect devices are immune to vibration, dust and water.

One of the main uses of magnetic sensors is in automotive systems for the sensing of
position, distance and speed. For example, the angular position of the crank shaft for the
firing angle of the spark plugs, the position of the car seats and seat belts for air-bag control
or wheel speed detection for the anti-lock braking system, (ABS).

Magnetic sensors are designed to respond to a wide range of positive and negative
magnetic fields in a variety of different applications and one type of magnet sensor whose
output signal is a function of magnetic field density around it is called the Hall Effect Sensor.

Hall Effect Sensors are devices which are activated by an external magnetic field. We know
that a magnetic field has two important characteristics flux density, (B) and polarity (North
and South Poles). The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function of magnetic
field density around the device. When the magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds
a certain pre-set threshold, the sensor detects it and generates an output voltage called the
Hall Voltage, VH. Consider the diagram below.

Hall Effect Sensor Principles

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide
(InAs) passing a continuous current through itself. When the device is placed within a
magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor material which
deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab.
This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing
through the semiconductor material.

As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between
the two sides of the semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers. Then
the movement of electrons through the semiconductor material is affected by the presence
of an external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and this effect is greater in a flat
rectangular shaped material.

The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a magnetic field is called the Hall
Effect after Edwin Hall who discovered it back in the 1870’s with the basic physical
principle underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz force. To generate a potential difference
across the device the magnetic flux lines must be perpendicular, (90o) to the flow of current
and be of the correct polarity, generally a south pole.
The Hall effect provides information regarding the type of magnetic pole and magnitude of
the magnetic field. For example, a south pole would cause the device to produce a voltage
output while a north pole would have no effect. Generally, Hall Effect sensors and switches
are designed to be in the “OFF”, (open circuit condition) when there is no magnetic field
present. They only turn “ON”, (closed circuit condition) when subjected to a magnetic field
of sufficient strength and polarity.

Hall Effect Magnetic Sensor

The output voltage, called the Hall voltage, (VH) of the basic Hall Element is directly
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field passing through the semiconductor
material (output ∝ H). This output voltage can be quite small, only a few microvolts even
when subjected to strong magnetic fields so most commercially available Hall effect devices
are manufactured with built-in DC amplifiers, logic switching circuits and voltage
regulators to improve the sensors sensitivity, hysteresis and output voltage. This also
allows the Hall effect sensor to operate over a wider range of power supplies and magnetic
field conditions.

The Hall Effect Sensor

Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or digital outputs. The output signal for
linear (analogue) sensors is taken directly from the output of the operational amplifier with
the output voltage being directly proportional to the magnetic field passing through the
Hall sensor. This output Hall voltage is given as:
 Where:

VH is the Hall Voltage in volts

RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
I is the current flow through the sensor in
amps

t is the thickness of the sensor in mm

B is the Magnetic Flux density in Teslas

Linear or analogue sensors give a continuous voltage output that increases with a strong
magnetic field and decreases with a weak magnetic field. In linear output Hall effect
sensors, as the strength of the magnetic field increases the output signal from the amplifier
will also increase until it begins to saturate by the limits imposed on it by the power supply.
Any additional increase in the magnetic field will have no effect on the output but drive it
more into saturation.

Digital output sensors on the other hand have a Schmitt-trigger with built in hysteresis
connected to the op-amp. When the magnetic flux passing through the Hall sensor exceeds
a pre-set value the output from the device switches quickly between its “OFF” condition to
an “ON” condition without any type of contact bounce. This built-in hysteresis eliminates
any oscillation of the output signal as the sensor moves in and out of the magnetic field.
Then digital output sensors have just two states, “ON” and “OFF”.

There are two basic types of digital Hall effect sensor, Bipolar and Unipolar. Bipolar sensors
require a positive magnetic field (south pole) to operate them and a negative field (north
pole) to release them while unipolar sensors require only a single magnetic south pole to
both operate and release them as they move in and out of the magnetic field.

Most Hall effect devices can not directly switch large electrical loads as their output drive
capabilities are very small around 10 to 20mA. For large current loads an open-collector
(current sinking) NPN Transistor is added to the output.

This transistor operates in its saturated region as a NPN sink switch which shorts the
output terminal to ground whenever the applied flux density is higher than that of the “ON”
pre-set point.

The output switching transistor can be either an open emitter transistor, open collector
transistor configuration or both providing a push-pull output type configuration that can
sink enough current to directly drive many loads, including relays, motors, LEDs, and lamps.
Hall Effect Applications
Hall effect sensors are activated by a magnetic field and in many applications the device can
be operated by a single permanent magnet attached to a moving shaft or device. There are
many different types of magnet movements, such as “Head-on”, “Sideways”, “Push-pull” or
“Push-push” etc sensing movements. Which every type of configuration is used, to ensure
maximum sensitivity the magnetic lines of flux must always be perpendicular to the sensing
area of the device and must be of the correct polarity.

Also to ensure linearity, high field strength magnets are required that produce a large
change in field strength for the required movement. There are several possible paths of
motion for detecting a magnetic field, and below are two of the more common sensing
configurations using a single magnet: Head-on Detection and Sideways Detection.

Head-on Detection
As its name implies, “head-on detection” requires that
the magnetic field is perpendicular to the hall effect
sensing device and that for detection, it approaches the
sensor straight on towards the active face. A sort of
“head-on” approach.

This head-on approach generates an output signal, VH

which in the linear devices represents the strength of
the magnetic field, the magnetic flux density, as a function of distance away from the hall
effect sensor. The nearer and therefore the stronger the magnetic field, the greater the
output voltage and vice versa.

Linear devices can also differentiate between positive and negative magnetic fields. Non-
linear devices can be made to trigger the output “ON” at a pre-set air gap distance away
from the magnet for indicating positional detection.

Sideways Detection
The second sensing configuration is “sideways
detection”. This requires moving the magnet across
the face of the Hall effect element in a sideways
motion.
Sideways or slide-by detection is useful for detecting the presence of a magnetic field as it
moves across the face of the Hall element within a fixed air gap distance for example,
counting rotational magnets or the speed of rotation of motors.

Depending upon the position of the magnetic field as it passes by the zero field centre line
of the sensor, a linear output voltage representing both a positive and a negative output can
be produced. This allows for directional movement detection which can be vertical as well
as horizontal.

There are many different applications for Hall Effect Sensors especially as proximity
sensors. They can be used instead of optical and light sensors were the environmental
conditions consist of water, vibration, dirt or oil such as in automotive applications. Hall
effect devices can also be used for current sensing.

We know from the previous tutorials that when a current passes through a conductor, a
circular electromagnetic field is produced around it. By placing the Hall sensor next to the
conductor, electrical currents from a few milliamps into thousands of amperes can be
measured from the generated magnetic field without the need of large or expensive
transformers and coils.

As well as detecting the presence or absence of magnets and magnetic fields, Hall effect
sensors can also be used to detect ferromagnetic materials such as iron and steel by placing
a small permanent “biasing” magnet behind the active area of the device. The sensor now
sits in a permanent and static magnetic field, and any change or disturbance to this
magnetic field by the introduction of a ferrous material will be detected with sensitivities as
low as mV/G possible.

There are many different ways to interface Hall effect sensors to electrical and electronic
circuits depending upon the type of device, whether digital or linear. One very simple and
easy to construct example is using a Light Emitting Diode as shown below.

Positional Detector
 This head-on positional detector will be “OFF” when there is no magnetic field present, (0
gauss). When the permanent magnets south pole (positive gauss) is moved perpendicular
towards the active area of the Hall effect sensor the device turns “ON” and lights the LED.
Once switched “ON” the Hall effect sensor stays “ON”.

To turn the device and therefore the LED “OFF” the magnetic field must be reduced to
below the release point for unipolar sensors or exposed to a magnetic north pole (negative
gauss) for bipolar sensors. The LED can be replaced with a larger power transistor if the
output of the Hall Effect Sensor is required to switch larger current loads.

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