Preparation No: 1

Subject: Timber Design

Name: Mary Joy D. Ruiles

Year and Section: BSCE 5B

Timber as Structural Material

1. The structure of timber

Timber

Definition

Wood suitable for building or other engineering purposes is called timber.

When it forms part of a living tree it is called standing timber. When the tree has

been felled it is called rough timber. When it has been sawn to various market

forms such as beams, battens and planks etc., it is called converted timber.

Structure:

Pith or medulla. - It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree. It consists entirely

of cellular tissues. The pith, which when the plant is young, contains a large amount

of fluid and nourishes the plant. It dies up and decays when the plant becomes old.

Sap is then transmitted by the woody fibres that deposit about the pith. Pith of

branches is a mere prolongation of the pith of stem.

Annual rings. - The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circle around the

pith are known as annual rings because one such ring is added every year.

Heart wood. - Innermost rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood. This

wood is darker in colour, stronger, more compact and durable.

Sap wood. - Outer annual rings of the tree constitute the sap wood which transmits

the sap from roots to branches. Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in

colour, weaker and more liable to decay.

Cambium layer. - Outermost one ring between the bark and sap wood which is not

yet converted into wood is known as the cambium layer. In due course, cambium

layer changes to sapwood. If the cambium layer is exposed by removing the bark,

the cells cease to be active and results in death of tree.

Medullary rays. - These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the

bark. They carry sap from outside to the inner parts of tree and nourish it. They keep

the annual rings tightly gripped together. In some trees they might be found broken

or may not even be clearly visible.

Bark. - It is outermost protective covering of cells and woody fibres on a tree. In

course of time older layer split and scale off.

2. Defects in timber

The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:

 Defects due to Natural Forces

 Defects due to Attack by Insects

 Defects due to Fungi

 Defects due to Defective Seasoning

 Defects due to Defective Conversion

Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces

Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the

growth of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those

branches remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection

known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose

and fall out.

Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.

Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber. But

in dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the

strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious

defects when the load is perpendicular to the grains.

Twist: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the timber in opposite directions. The main

reason behind this defect is twisting of the trees by the strong wind.

Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring

of a timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes. It may or

may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and use. The main problem

is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important, shakes are undesirable.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the

sapwood and sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary

rays. Cracks are wider on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually

sapwood, sometimes heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme

heat or frosting during the growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after

cutting off the timber. Extreme heat or frost causes temperature difference, which

causes shrinkage leading to the crack.

Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to

separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the

annual ring completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes,

but all cup shakes are not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for

this type of crack.

Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the pith to

the sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the

timber causes this crack.

Rind Galls: The meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So abnormal

growth of the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of branches

causes this abnormal growth. Wood from this portion of the timber lacks strength and

desirable in structure.

Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to crushing or

compression. Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during the young age of

the tree these are the main reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the

strength of the wood.

Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae

make tunnels through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.

Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels

through it. Only a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.

Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take

refuge or shelter. All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.
Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are stored, it

causes a stain. Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food materials and is not

affected by it. Stain action causes color but does not affect the strength of the wood.

Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect

in wood. This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both sapwood and

heartwood are affected by them. Considerable strength reduction occurs.

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of

timber, exterior or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So,

stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning

process, stress is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects

resulting from defective seasoning are as follows:-

Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.

Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.

Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from one

end to another.

Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.

Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process or

seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the pith

or the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.

Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.

Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.

Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of experience

in sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.

Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

3. Types of Timber

Timber can be divided into two categories - hardwoods and softwoods.

There are many types of timber under these two categories. They are-

 Bamboo  Oak

 Birch  Pine

 Cedar  Plywood

 Cherry  Sapele wood

 Cross-laminated  Tulipwood

 Glulam  Walnut

 Green timber  Wood ash

 Lime  Spruce

 Mahogany  Fir

4. Physical properties of timber

The quality of timber must be ensured before using it for a purpose. The

quality can be ensured by investigating the properties of timber. Here we have

discussed both physical and mechanical properties of timber which affects timber

quality.

Followings are the physical and mechanical properties of timber:

 Colour  Moisture Content

 Appearance  Grain

 Hardness  Shrinkage and Swelling

 Specific Gravity  Strength

  Density  Workability

 Toughness  Soundness

 Elasticity  Free of abrasion

 Warping

 Durability

Color is a uniform property by which most trees are characterized as they show

variation from tree to tree. Light color indicates weak timber. For example, freshly cut

teak, Deodar, and Walnut have a golden yellow, whitish and dark brown shades

respectively.

Appearance - Smell is a good property as timbers for few plants as they can be

identified by their characteristic aroma. Fresh cut timbers have a good smell. For

example resinous smell from pine.

Hardness - For the resistance of any kind of damage, hardness is an obvious

property.

Specific Gravity - Variation of timber in specific gravity (0.3-0.9) is found. It depends

on pores present inside timber. The specific gravity of this light material is less than

that of water (<1). But in case of compact wood where pores are almost absent and

become heavier, their specific gravity increases up to 1.5.

Moisture Content - Timbers are hygroscopic and gain water from nature

(atmosphere). The absorption of water or dehydration depends on atmospheric

humidity. If timbers moisture content is high that means the timber quality is low.

Water content is the risk of fungal attack.

Grain - Several types of grain arrangement found. On the grain structure quality of

timber varies. Grains remain closely related.

Straight grain: Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) is important

which grow parallel to the length of the timber that is termed as straight grain.
Coarse grain: vascular tissue and fibre arranged broadly and widely.

Interlocked grain: Instead of parallel arrangement twisted, a spiral arrangement may

be found.

Shrinkage and Swelling - The percentage of shrinkage and swelling varies from

plant to plant. Some give higher percentage after drying. Shrinkage starts when cell

walls of timber start to release water. In moisture atmosphere timber swells when cell

walls absorb water. Good quality timbers swell less. Timbers having thicker wall

swell more than a thinner one.

Strength - Best quality timbers have the highest strength. Strength means capable

to bear loads. Anisotropic material like timber has different structure at the different

portion. So, the strength of timber is different at different points. Grain structure

determines the strength of the timber. Some types of strength are

Compressive strength: 500 kg/cm2 to 700 kg/cm2 load is enough to test timbers

strength.

Tensile strength: When timber is enough strong to the tensile force. If perpendicular

force is made then timber is weaker. 500-2000 kg/cm2 is the range of tensile

strength load.

Transverse strength: Enough bending strength indicates good quality timber.

Density - Timber having higher density have a thicker wall. An important property

that quality of timber. Moisture content: Presence of defects: There may be some of

the natural and artificial defects in timber such as cross-grain, knots, and shakes,

etc. All of them cause a decrease in the strength of the timber.

Toughness - Timber has to have the capability to bear shocks, jerk. Anti-bending

and ant splitting characteristic is needed. Old timbers have annual rings which

indicate their age is a good indicator.

Elasticity - Another property elasticity means timber should attain its own shape

after use. Because of this quality, it is used in sports bat.

Warping - Environmental change with season can’t effect good quality timber.

Durability - A good quality timber has the property to resist the attack the infection of

fungus or other insects. This resistance quality makes timber better.

Workability - A good timber is always easy to work on it. Easy to drag using saw on

good timber. The finishing can be done well.

Soundness - A good quality timber gives good sound.

Texture - The texture of good timber is fine and even.

Free of Abrasion - Timber should not be damaged by the external environment. It

has to gain the ability to protect its skin.

5. Stress Grading of timber

Structural timber is generally sold as a (stress) graded product. A stress grade

is the classification of a timber when used in structural applications. Stress grades

are derived from either visual- or machine-grading, which specify the stress limits

that apply to timbers used for structural applications.

Stress grades are known by either:

 ‘F’ grades F4 to F34: E.g. F14 indicates that the basic working stress (in

bending) for that timber is around 14 MPa. Most native forest structural

timbers such as white cypress and eucalypt hardwoods are graded using the

F grade system; or

 Machine-graded pine MGP, MGP10 to MGP15: E.g. MGP10 indicates a

minimum threshold for stiffness properties of 10,000 MPa. Most exotic

plantation softwoods (Pinus species) are graded using this system.

Timber to be used in a specific structural application must meet the required stress

grade specified by the architect/designer.

 Grading methods used to predict the strength of a timber, are either machine-

based or visually-based, and each one described in an Australian Standard. The

system of stress grading is fundamental to the structural use of timber.

 Visual grading: stress grades determined by the inherent strength (strength

group) of the species and the visual quality (grade) of the timber piece. The

structural properties of individual stress grades are described in Australian

Standard specifications1,7. These identify the limits on the size or extent of

characters such as knots or sloping grain that reduce strength.

 Machine grading: stress grades determined by mechanical grading, using a

technique that correlates strength directly with stiffness.

6. Strength Classes

Strength classes range from C14 to C50 for softwood and D30 to D70 for

hardwoods. The higher the number, the stronger the timber. The most common

grade for softwood carcassing is C16.

Strength classes and structural softwoods and hardwoods physical properties:

7. Design considerations (Factors affecting timber strength)

 Density

Density of wood is defined as the mass or weight per unit volume.

Moisture in wood has a very large effect on the specific gravity as well as the

density. Timbers of young tree has a very low density, therefore reduced

stresses used for such material. Weight of timber reduced by drying while

most strength properties are increased. The higher the density, so the higher

its mechanical properties.

 Moisture Content

Moisture content in a living tree varies with the species. Even in the

same species, variation in moisture content depends on the age & size of the

tree and its location. Mechanical properties of wood influenced by moisture

content but modulus elasticity is less affected by changes in moisture.

Strength of wood increase as the moisture content decreases

 Temperature

Strength of timber decreases, together with increasing temperature.

Permanent loss of strength may happen if wood is held at high temperature

for a long period.

 Grain structure

 Position in tree

In the early tree’s life, wood often tends to become stronger with increasing

distance from the pith.

 Condition of growth

Environmental factor such as height above the sea level, temperature, type of

soil, rainfall, spacing between the trees have effect on the strength of the

properties of the timber

 Defects
 Common defect are cracks, knots and slope of grain and occur principally

during the growing period and the drying process.

It can be classified:

a) knots

b) shake

c) split

d) check

 Creep

8. Design of flexural members

Such structural members shall be investigated for the following:

a) Bending strength,

b) Maximum horizontal shear,

c) Stress at the bearings, and

d) Deflection.

Effective Span - The effective span of beams and other flexural members shall be

taken as the distance from face of supports plus one‐half of the required length of

bearing at each end except that for continuous beams and joists the span may be

measured from centre of bearing at those supports over which the beam is

continuous.

Width - The minimum width of the beam or any flexural member shall not be less

than 50 mm or 1/50 of the span, whichever is greater.

Depth - The depth of beam or any flexural member shall not be taken more than

three times of its width without lateral stiffening.

Instructor: Engr. Francis V. Villacorta