1

Exercise No. 8
Reproductive System and Human Development
 Identify the organs of the male and female reproductive system and their corresponding functions
 Describe the changes that happen in the endometrium during the different phases of menstrual cycle
 Relate the different hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland to the phases of menstrual cycle
 Relate the stages of the ovarian cycle and the ovarian hormones released during the cycle
 Identify the germ layer origin of several body organ systems of the human circulatory system, nervous system, skeletal
system, and lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts
 Tabulate the fetal structures, where it is connected, functions of these structures, and the fate of these structures after birth
 Identify the developmental stages of the human from fertilization to birth
 Determine the different methods of birth control and compare their effectiveness

SYLLABYTES

PREFIX/SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLE

Andro- Man Androgen
-arche Beginning Menarche
-blast To form Blastula
-centesis Puncture Amniocentesis
Cervix Neck Cervix of uterus
Corp- Body Corpus cavernosum
Crypt- Hidden Cryptorchidism
-genesis Formation Spermatogenesis
Gyn- Woman Gynecologist
Hyster(o)- Uterus Hysterectomy
Labia Lips Labia majora
Lact- Milk Lactation
Mamm- Breast Mammogram
Mast- Breast Mastectomy
Meio- Smaller Meiosis
Men- Month Menses, menopause
-metrium Uterus Endometrium
Mito- Thread Mitosis
oo-, ov- Egg Oogenesis
Orchi- Testis Orchidectomy
Rete Network Rete testis
Troph- Nutrition trophoblast

INTRODUCTION
I. Male genitourinary system
a. Paired gonads/Testes: produce male sex androgens (Testosterone and spermatozoa)
b. Excretory ducts: storage and transport of spermatozoa
i. Seminiferous tubules
ii. Efferent ducts
c. Accessory organs: produce fluid constituents
i. Epididymis
ii. Seminal vesicles
DELA CRUZ, JNC
 2
iii. Prostate gland
iv. Cowper’s gand
d. Penis: urine elimination and sexual function
II. The sex of the person is determined by sex chromosomes during TIME OF FERTILIZATION.
a. At the 7th week, the XY chromosome pattern develops.
b. Thus, the testes develops then and there is a subsequent production of testosterone and development of male
genital structures.
c. Before this, male and female are undifferentiated.
III. Female genitourinary system
a. Parts
i. Paired ovaries: INTERNAL STRUCTURE; production of estrogen and progesterone
ii. Uterine tubes
iii. Uterus: thick walled muscular organ
1. Outer perimetrium
2. Myometrium
3. Myometrium of fallopian tubes and vagina
iv. Vagina
v. External mons pubis
vi. Labia majora
vii. Labia minora
viii. Clitoris
ix. Urethra
x. Perineal body
b. Functions
i. Storage of female germ cells
ii. Production of sex hormones
c. Menstrual cycle
i. Cycle where changes happen in between menarche and menopause
ii. Controlled by hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, ovaries
iii. Associated target tissues are endometrium and vaginal mucosa
d. Anatomically separate from urinary system but their proximity provides a means for cross contamination and shared
symptomatology.
e. Mammary glands
i. Responds to cycle changes in sex hormones
ii. Milk for infant nourishment
iii. Pregnancy: development of alveolar structures in preparation for lactation
iv. Menopause: glandular tissues with adipose tissue

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 3

MALE GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

Testes
Epididymis
Vas Deferens
Vas Deferens (?)
Ejaculatory Duct
Prostatic Urethra
Intermediate Urethra
Seminal Vesicle Urethra
External Urethral Orifice

Prostate Gland

Cowper’s gland

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 4

FEMALE GENITOURINARY SYSTEM

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 5

Ovary

Uterine Tube

Uterus

Cervix

Vagina

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 6

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE

 Ranges from 24-36 days

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 7

Hypothalamus

LH
FSH

FSH

LH

Rupture of
Seconda
Graffian Corpus Corpus
ry
follicles luteum albican
follicles

Primary
follicles

Progesterone
Estrogen

Preovulatory Postovulatory
phase Ovulation phase

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 8

THE HUMAN OVARY

Corpus
luteum Theca loculi

Ovulated
oocyte

Graafian
follicle

Antrum

Follicular Secondary Primary

Cells follicles follicles

GERM LAYERS

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 9

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 10
FETAL DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITIONS

TERM DESCRIPTION
Inheritance Passage of hereditary traits from one generation to the next
Genetics Study of genes and heredity
Allele Variant form of a gene
Carrier A genetic carrier pertains to an organism carrying an unexpressed defective gene for
a recessive traitbut when mated with another carrier can produce
a homozygous offspring that expresses the recessive trait.
Genotype Genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype Observable expression of a genotype
Prolactin Hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates breast development and milk
production

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 11
Oxytocin A hormone that causes the contraction of the uterus in order to start labor or stop
bleeding following delivery
Amniocentesis Medical procedure used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal
infections, sampled from the amniotic fluid removed from the uterus using a needle

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the role of hCG assays for routine pregnancy testing.

The hormone hCG is produced in the earliest stages of pregnancy. During early pregnancy it plays a role in survival of the
corpus luteum and has a significant role in the implantation of the blastocyst and protection of the embryo against immune
attack at the fetal/maternal boundary. The hormone is initially produced by the embryo and therefore acts as a marker for its
presence.

Levels of hCG rise rapidly and predictably in the earliest days of pregnancy and it usually first appears in urine 9-10 days
following the estimated day of conception when using the most sensitive laboratory assays. The levels of hCG in early
pregnancy have also been found to be highly similar between women. This makes hCG an ideal urinary marker for quickly and
accurately assessing whether a woman is pregnant or not.

2. What are the general functions of the placenta?

The main function of the placenta is to supply the baby with adequate nutrition. It also acts like a lung for the baby, allowing
transfer of oxygen, and it also produces hormones such as human placental lactogen, estrogen, and corticotropin releasing
hormone.

3. Discuss how lactation occurs and how it is controlled.

The hormones of pregnancy, including estrogen, progesterone, prolactin, and others, cause complex changes to occur in the breast. The various
hormones each play a specific part in preparing the body for breastfeeding. However, the change that the majority of women notice first can be summed
up in one word: enlargement. During the first trimester of pregnancy, the ducts and alveoli in the breast multiply rapidly. The breasts may be tender, and
their size increases in preparation for breastfeeding.

Lactogenesis is the term denoting the origin, or the beginning, of lactation, and it occurs in three stages. Lactogenesis I starts at about 12 weeks before
delivery, as the mammary glands begin to secrete colostrum. Breast size increases further as the alveoli become filled with colostrum, but the presence of
high levels of the hormone progesterone in the mother's blood inhibits the full production of milk until after birth.

Lactogenesis II begins after birth when the placenta is delivered. Progesterone levels fall while prolactin levels remain high. Prolactin is the main hormone
in charge of lactation, and it, in turn, is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary, the thyroid, the adrenal glands, the ovaries, and the pancreas.
More blood flows to the breasts, carrying more oxygen. Two to three days postpartum, the "milk comes in." The amount of milk produced increases
rapidly, and its composition gradually changes from colostrum to mature milk. Sodium, chloride, and protein levels in the milk decrease, and levels of
lactose and other nutrients increase. The color gradually changes from the golden yellow typical of colostrum to a bluish white. Since this process is
controlled by hormones, the breasts begin to produce milk whether a mother is breastfeeding or not. At this stage of lactogenesis, it is important to
breastfeed often (and/or pump, if the baby cannot feed well), because frequent breastfeeding in the first week after birth seems to increase the number of
prolactin receptors in the breast. A receptor's job is to recognize and respond to a specific hormone. Having more prolactin receptors makes the breast
more sensitive to prolactin, which researchers believe affects how much milk a mother produces in the next stage of lactogenesis.

Stage III of the lactogenesis process is also known as galactopoiesis. This is the establishment of a mature milk supply. At this time, milk production
switches from endocrine (hormonal) control to autocrine control. This means that continued milk production depends more on the ongoing removal of milk
from the breasts than on the hormones circulating in the blood. The "supply and demand" principle takes over. The more a mother nurses, the more milk
she will produce. If she nurses less, milk production will slow down.

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 12
4. What are the physiologic changes that a pregnant woman undergoes?
Pregnancy-induced physiological changes also occur, including weight gain due to the fetus, amniotic fluid, the placenta,
uterine enlargement, and increased total body water; increased storage of proteins, triglycerides, and minerals; marked breast
enlargement in preparation for lactation; and lower back pain due to lordosis (hollow back).

Several changes occur in the maternal cardiovascular system. Stroke volume increases by about 30% and cardiac output
rises 30–40%, expiratory reserve volume can be reduced by up to 40%, functional residual capacity can decline by up to 25%,
minute ventilation (the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute) can increase by up to 40%, airway resistance in
the bronchial tree can decline by 30–40%, and total body oxygen consumption can increase by about 10–20%. Dyspnea
(difficult breathing) also occurs.

The digestive system also undergoes changes. Pregnant women experience an increase in appetite due to the added
nutritional demands of the fetus. A general decrease in GI tract motility can cause constipation, delay gastric emptying time,
and produce nausea, vomiting, and heartburn.

Pressure on the urinary bladder by the enlarging uterus can produce urinary symptoms, such as increased frequency and
urgency by 20–30% due to increased maternal blood flow to the placenta and increased metabolism. Heart rate increases 10–
15% and blood volume increases 30–50%, mostly during the second half
of pregnancy. These increases are necessary to meet the additional demands of the fetus for nutrients and oxygen. When a
pregnant woman is lying on her back, the enlarged uterus may compress the aorta, resulting in diminished blood flow to the
uterus. Compression of the inferior vena cava also decreases venous return, which leads to edema in the lower limbs and
may produce varicose veins. Compression of the renal artery can lead
to renal hypertension. Respiratory function is also altered during pregnancy to meet the added oxygen demands of the fetus.
An increase in renal plasma flow up to 35% and an increase in glomerular filtration rate up to
40% increase the renal filtering capacity, which allows faster elimination of the extra wastes produced by the fetus.

Changes in the skin during pregnancy are more apparent in some women than in others. Some women experience increased
pigmentation around the eyes and cheekbones in a masklike pattern (chloasma), in the areolae of the breasts, and in the linea
alba of the lower abdomen (linea nigra). Striae (stretch marks) over the abdomen can occur as the uterus enlarges, and hair
loss increases.

Changes in the reproductive system include edema and increased vascularity of the vulva and increased pliability and
vascularity of the vagina. The uterus increases from its nonpregnant mass of 60–80 g to 900–1200 g at term because of
hyperplasia of muscle fibers in the myometrium in early pregnancy and hypertrophy of muscle fibers during the second and
third trimesters.
LECTURE ON CONTRACEPTION
Birth Control/Contraception (contra-against; cept-taking): restricting number of children by various methods designed to control
fertility and prevent conception
NOTE THAT:

 Abortion is not a form of birth control, since conception has already occurred.
 The only 100% reliable method is COMPLETE abstinence.
Factors affecting Use of Birth Control

 Side effects and the mother’s tolerance for it

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 13
 Compliance: may affect success rate
 Acceptability
 Faith/Religious belief
Reproduction Natural family planning

Production of
Production of viable sperm
viable oocytes
Pills, Implants Vasectomy

Transport down the male

Ovulation
duct system
Withdrawal
method, Condom
Capture of oocyte Deposition in the female
by the uterine tube vagina
Tubal ligation, Implants Spermicide, Diaphragm
Cup, etc.
Transport down Movement through the
the uterine tube female's reproductive tract

Meeting of sperm and oocyte at the uterine tube

Morning After Pill

Union of sperm and egg

Morning After Pill, IUD

Implantation in properly prepared endometrium

IUD

Birth

I. Withdrawal Method
 Also termed coitus interruptus, pull out, rejection of sexual intercourse
 Advantages: no cost
 Disadvantages: premature seminal fluid and increased risk for STDs

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 14
II. Natural Family Planning (Periodic Abstinence)
 Abstinence from sexual intercourse during fertility
 Estimation of time when egg will be released
 Methods
o Calendar method
 First physiologically based method
 Day 1 is the first day of menstrual period
 Sperms are viable up to 3-5 days
 To determine: get range of 12 previous menstrual cycles, subtract 18 days from shortest and
11 days from the longest
o Standard days method
 Use of cycle beads (Red: Day 1 of menstrual cycle; 1-7 sexual intercourse, 8-19 NO, 20-end
YES)
o Mucus method/Billings Ovulation
 Spinnobarkeit: consistency of a raw egg white
 Infertile: thick, scanty, tacky
 Fertile: thin, watery, transparent, slippery  promotes movement of sperm
o Basal body method
 Orally and vaginally
 Rise and fall in body temperature: BEFORE: 36.22-36.33C; AFTER: Up by 0.5C, greater than
37C due to progesterone action
o Symptothermal method
 Combination of temperature, mucus, and calendar method
o Lactational amenorrhea
 Breastfeeding suppresses a woman’s fertility in early months before delivery
 Inhibits secretion of GnRH no FSH and LH  no ovulation
 Criteria: Menses HAVE NOT continued, NO supplementary feeding, Baby is NOT GREATER
than 6 months old
 Colostrum: first voiding of breastmilk
III. Chemical Methods
 Spermicides
o Sperm killing agents making vagina and cervix unfavorable for sperm survival
o Nonoxynol-9
o More effective when in conjunction with barrier method
o Examples: vaginal foams and aerosols, creams and gels, vaginal tablets, suppositories (pessaries),
dissolvable film
IV. Barrier Methods
 Prevents sperm from gaining access to uterine cavity and tubes
 May provide some protection against STDs
 Methods

o Male condom: made of latex, traps semen: TEAT is pressed to release air, where semen goes after
ejaculation
o Female condom: Two rings
DELA CRUZ, JNC
 15

o Diaphragm: rubber shaped, dome shaped structure that fits over the cervix and used in conjunction with
spermicide; 6 hours before intercourse
o Cervical cap: more rigid diaphragm
o Contraceptive sponge: moistened before insertion
o Lea’s shield: silicone; has a valve so mucus secretions can be pushed out
V. Hormonal Methods
 Progesterone or estrogen inhibits ovulation by suppressing FSH and LH
 Methods:
o Combined Oral Contraceptive (The Pill)

 Estrogen and progestin

 Start at the beginning of a menstrual period OR the Sunday after it
 Use at same time of day
 Not effective for first 7 days
 Missed doses should be taken a day after
 Yasmin
 Contains iron supplements in the packet
o Mini Pills
 Progestin
 Changes uterine lining, preventing ovulation
 Micronar
o Progestin Only Injectable Contraceptive
 Less frequent: every 3 months
 Depot Medioxyprogesterone Acetate
o Progestin Implants

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 16

 Once a week for three weeks, no patch for four weeks

 Needle like instrument (Trocar) to implant under the skin of the inner arm above the elbow
o Morning After Pills
 Estrogen and progestin OR progestin alone
 Prevents pregnancy following unprotected sexual intercourse
 Take within 72 hours
VI. Mechanical device


Intrauterine device
o Progestin releasing IUD: preventing sperm from fertilizing egg and implantation
o Copper releasing IUD: oligodynamic action
 5-10 years
VII. Permanent methods
 Surgical methods
o Vasectomy: principal method of sterilization for males (renders an individual incapable of further
reproduction); portion of vas deferens is incised/punctured, and tied/cauterized. It may be reversible.
The sperms degenerate and are destroyed by phagocytosis.
o Tubal Ligation: both uterine tubes are tied closed and cut—clips and clamps can be placed on the
uterine tubes, etc.
 Nonsurgical methods

DELA CRUZ, JNC

 17
o Implants: Essure; a soft micro insert coil made of polyester fibers and metals is inserted with a catheter
into the vagina, through the uterus, and into each uterine tube. The insert stimulates growth of scar
tissues in and around itself, blocking the uterine tubes.

DELA CRUZ, JNC