14/07/2017 Geography of India - Wikipedia

Geography of India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern portion of the

Indo-Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Geography of India
Indian subcontinent. The country is situated north of the
equator between 8°4' to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' to
97°25' east longitude.[2] It is the seventh-largest country in
the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres
(1,269,219 sq mi).[3] India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi)
from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to
west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a
coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).[4]

On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the

Indian Ocean –- in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the Continent Asia
southwest, the Lakshadweep Sea to the south, and the Bay of
Bengal on the southeast. The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar Region South Asia
separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and Indian subcontinent
the Maldives are some 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the Coordinates 21°N 78°E
southwest. India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some 1,200
Area Ranked 7th
kilometres (750 mi) southeast of the mainland, share
maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. • Total 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi)
Kanyakumari at 8°4′41″N and 77°32′28″E is the
• Land 100%
southernmost tip of the Indian mainland, while the
southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar • Water 0%
Island. Northernmost point which is under Indian Coastline 7,516.6 km (4,670.6 mi)
administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier.[4] India's Borders Total land borders:[1]
territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12
15,106.70 km (9,386.87 mi)
nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) from the coast baseline.[5]
Bangladesh:
The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi)
Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China (PRC):
China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan 3,488 km (2,167 mi)
lies in the Punjab Plain and the Thar Desert. In the far Pakistan:
northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested 2,910 km (1,808 mi)
mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. On the Nepal:
east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the
1,751 km (1,088 mi)
Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the
Myanmar:
Indo-Gangetic Plain.
1,643 km (1,021 mi)
The Ganga is the longest river originating in India. The Bhutan:
Ganga–Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, 699 km (434 mi)
central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies Highest point Kanchenjunga
most of southern India. Kanchenjunga, on the border
8,598 m (28,209 ft)
between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest
point in India at 8,598 m (28,209 ft) and the world's 3rd Lowest point Kuttanad
highest peak. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in −2.2 m (−7.2 ft)
the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper reaches of the Longest river Ganga (or Ganges)
[Link] covers about 2.4per cent of the total
2,525 km (8,284,121 ft)
geographical area of the world.
Largest lake Wular Lake
30 to 260 km² (12 to 100 sq mi)

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Contents
1 Geological development
2 Political geography
3 Physiographic regions
3.1 The Northern Mountains
3.2 The Peninsular Plateau
3.3 Indo-Gangetic plain
3.4 Thar Desert
3.5 Coasts
4 Islands
5 Water bodies
6 Wetlands
7 Climate
8 Geology
9 Natural resources
10 Antipodes
11 See also
12 References
13 Cited sources
14 Further reading

Geological development
India is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that
was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland
(ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent
of Pangea). The Indo-Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and
Australian plates. About 90 million years ago, during the late
Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about
15 cm/year (6 in/yr).[6] About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene
Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a
distance of 2,000 to 3,000 km (1,243 to 1,864 mi), having moved faster
than any other known plate. In 2007, German geologists determined that
the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as
thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.[7]
The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between
India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan
Plateau and the Himalayas. As of 2009, the Indian Plate is moving
northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north
at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr). India is thus referred to as the "fastest
continent".[7] This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the
Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr).

Political geography
The Indian Plate
India is divided into 29 states (further subdivided into districts) and 7
union territories.

India's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km (9,386.87 mi).[1] Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh
were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its
western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km (2,065 mi), dividing the Punjab region and running along
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the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch.[1] This border
runs along the Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
and Punjab.[8] Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve
as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered
areas of Kashmir. According to India's claim, it also shares a 106 km
(66 mi) border with Afghanistan in northwestern Kashmir, which is
under Pakistani control.[1]

India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km (2,545.57 mi).[1] West

Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the States which
share the border with Bangladesh.[9] Before 2015, there were 92
enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were
on Bangladeshi soil.[10] These enclaves were eventually exchanged in
Indian Kashmir, LoC and LAC order to simplify the border.[11] After the exchange, India lost roughly
40 km² (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.[12]

The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It
traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh.[13] The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km (1,021 mi) along the
southern borders of India's northeastern states viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.[14]
Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699 km (434 mi).[1] Sikkim, West
Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the States, which share the border with Bhutan.[15] The border with
Nepal runs 1,751 km (1,088 mi) along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.[1] Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the States, which share the border with Nepal.[16] The Siliguri
Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with
the northeastern states.

Physiographic regions
India can be divided 6 physiographic regions. They are

1. The Northern Mountains

2. The Peninsular Plateau
3. Indo-Gangetic Plain
4. Thar Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

The Northern Mountains

A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas of Nepal, Hindu

Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These topography map
were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and
Eurasian plates. The mountains in these ranges include some of the
world's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon
winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the
fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two
of the Earth's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and
subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.

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The Himalayan range is the world's highest mountain range, with its
tallest peak Mt. Everest (8,848 metres [29,029 ft]) on the Nepal–China
border.[17] They form India's northeastern border, separating it from
northeastern Asia. They are one of the world's youngest mountain
ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for 2,500 km (1,600 mi),
covering an area of 500,000 km2 (190,000 sq mi).[17] The Himalayas
extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in
the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and
Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks
rise over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m Snow leopard at Hemis National
(20,000 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Kashmir. Park, Jammu and Kashmir
Kanchenjunga—on the Sikkim–Nepal border—is the highest point in
the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The
Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is
kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.

The Karakoram is situated in the disputed state of Jammu and

Kashmir. It has more than sixty peaks above 7,000 m (23,000 ft),
including K2, the second highest peak in the world 8,611 m
(28,251 ft). K2 is just 237 m (778 ft) smaller than the 8,848 m
(29,029 ft) Mount Everest. The range is about 500 km (310 mi) in
length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of
the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76 km (47 mi) and the
Biafo Glacier at 67 km (42 mi) rank as the world's second and
third-longest glaciers outside the polar regions.[18] Just to the
west of the northwest end of the Karakoram, lies the Hindu Raj
range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern Mt. Kanchenjunga from Sikkim
boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus and
Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end
of the Himalayas.

The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma. They were created by the
same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai
mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as
the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the Garo–Khasi–
Jaintia and the Lushai hills. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. Mawsynram, a village near
Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the
world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.[19]

The Peninsular Plateau

The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, extending
1,050 km (650 mi).[17] The average elevation of these hills is from 300
to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft) and rarely goes above 700 metres
(2,300 ft).[17] They are believed to have been formed by the wastes
created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.[20]
Geographically, it separates Northern India from Southern India. The
western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with
The Vindhyas in central India Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at
Mirzapur

The Malwa Plateau is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The average elevation of
the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north. Most of the
region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper
reaches of the Mahi River.
Kutch Kathiawar plateau
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Kutch Kathiawar plateau is located in Gujarat state.

The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the

Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western
Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km²
(735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from
300 to 600 m (980 to 1,970 ft). The average elevation of the
plateau is 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level. The surface slopes
from 3,000 feet (910 m) in the west to 1,500 feet (460 m) in the
east.[21] It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several
peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri Dry deciduous and thorny forests of
and the Mahanadi which drain into the Bay of Bengal. This plateau regions in India
region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both
Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest
scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot
summers to mild winters.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of
Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh. Its total area is approximately 65,000 km2 (25,000 sq mi) and is made up
of three smaller plateaus — the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the
largest, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 ft). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the
Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota
Nagpur plateau. The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the
Gulf of Khambat. The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern
thorn scrub forests ecoregion.
The Satpura Range begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It extends 900 km (560 mi) with many peaks rising
above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[17] It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being
parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers.[22] It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north,
and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of
River Narmada.
The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to
southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km (500 mi).[23] The northern end of the range
continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak in this
range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,650 ft), lying near the border with Gujarat.[24]
The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system.[25] The range rose in a
Precambrian event called the Aravali–Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that
make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand
segment to the southeast.
The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and
separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range runs approximately 1,600 km
(990 mi)[22] from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across Maharashtra,
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. The average
elevation is around 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[22] Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills 2,695 m (8,842 ft) in Kerala
is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.[26]

The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and quadrisected by
the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.[27] These
mountains extend from West Bengal to Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and
parallel to the Bay of Bengal. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over
1,000 m (3,300 ft) in height.[22] The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and
Western Ghats. Arma Konda (1,680 m (5,510 ft)) in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern
Ghats.[28]

Indo-Gangetic plain

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The Indo-Gangetic plains, also

known as the Great Plains are
large alluvial plains dominated
by three main rivers, the Indus,
Ganges, and Brahmaputra. They
run parallel to the Himalayas,
from Jammu and Kashmir in the
west to Assam in the east, and
drain most of northern and
eastern India. The plains
Kolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats near Matheran
encompass an area of
Tamil Nadu
700,000 km2 (270,000 sq mi).
The major rivers in this region
are the Ganges, Indus, and
Brahmaputra along with their
main tributaries–Yamuna,
Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara,
Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas,
Chenab, and Tista—as well as
the rivers of the Ganges Delta,
such as the Meghna.
Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain
Dry Evergreen Forests along the The great plains are sometimes across South Asia.
Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh classified into four divisions:

The Bhabar belt is adjacent to

the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and
pebbles which have been carried down by streams. As the
porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground.
The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 6
to 15 km (3.7 to 9.3 mi).
The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is
composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear
in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly
forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is
populated with a variety of wildlife. Many areas remain flooded during
The Bangar belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial the heavy rains brought by monsoon
terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low in the Indian state of West Bengal.
upland covered by laterite deposits.
The Khadar belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is
made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the
deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals.
The area is also rich in ground water [Link] plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The
main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region
include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated
areas.

Thar Desert

The Thar Desert (also known as the deserts) is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some
others the tenth.[29] It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of 200,000 to
238,700 km2 (77,200 to 92,200 sq mi).[30] The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of
the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.
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About 10 percent of this region comprises sand dunes, and the

remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake
bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas. Annual temperatures can
range from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to over 50 °C (122 °F) during the
summer. Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with
the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings 100 to
500 mm (3.9 to 19.7 in) of precipitation. Water is scarce and occurs at
great depths, ranging from 30 to 120 metres (98 to 394 ft) below the
ground level.[31] Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below
Thar desert, Rajasthan
120 mm (4.7 in) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.8 in) [Link]
only river in this region is Luni. The soils of the arid region are
generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features. The
low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.

In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region
(high risk) for earthquakes. The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which
claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million
homes.[32] The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.[33] Other areas
have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.[34]

Coasts

The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the
Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India. It stretches from
Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east. The Mahanadi,
Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The
temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds 30 °C (86 °F), and is
coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the
northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest
monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the
Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards
Visakhapatnam Beach View, Bay of crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of
Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000
and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 and 81 mi).[35] The
plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-
Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.

The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian
Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (31 to 62 mi) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends
through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region.
Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries.
Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. Vegetation is mostly deciduous,
but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion. The Western Coastal Plain can be divided
into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.

Islands
The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are
classified as union territories.

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The Lakshadweep Islands lie

200 to 300 km (120 to 190 mi)
off the coast of Kerala in the
Arabian sea with an area of
32 km2 (12 sq mi). They consist
of twelve atolls, three reefs, and
five submerged banks, with a
total of about 35 islands and
Aerial view of the Andaman Islands islets.
Varkala beach on Kerala's coast,
The Andaman and Nicobar Arabian Sea
Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94°
east longitude.[36] They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of Bengal
near the Burmese coast. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi)
from Cape Negrais in Burma.[36] The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the
Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands consists of 204 small islands across a total length of 352 km (219 mi).
India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in 2017. The Narcondum is a dormant
volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the
Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of
Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).

Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli,[37] a river island of the
Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette
Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in
the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.

Water bodies
India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.[38] There are twelve rivers which are classified as
major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 km2 (976,000 sq mi).[22] All major rivers of
India originate from one of the three main watersheds:[22]

1. The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges

2. Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
3. Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year. The other two
river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season. The Himalayan
rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.[39]

The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment

area of about 1,600,000 km2 (620,000 sq mi).[40] The Ganges Basin
alone has a catchment of about 1,100,000 km2 (420,000 sq mi).[22] The
Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.[39] It flows
southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.[22] The Yamuna and Gomti
rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the
plains.[22] The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is
known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River (or "Tsangpo"). It enters India in
the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through
Bhagirathi River at Gangotri, source
Assam. The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh,
river of the Ganges
where it is known as the Jamuna River.[22][41]

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The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna,

originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows
eastward. Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the
Narmada and Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The
river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total
outflow.

The Western Ghats are the

source of all Deccan rivers,
which include the through
National Highway 31A winds along Godavari River, Krishna River
the banks of the Teesta River near and Kaveri River, all draining
Kalimpong (West Bengal), in the into the Bay of Bengal. These
Darjeeling Himalayan hill region. rivers constitute 20% of India's
total outflow.[39]

The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other
The Godavari River at Papi Hills
rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though
they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of
natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements
of people in such areas.

Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait,
which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the
Nicobar Islands; 'and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the
Minicoy Island to the south. Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the
southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama's
Bridge, and Point Calimere. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean
lie to the east and south, respectively. Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are
four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and
the Gulf of Kutch.[42] Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan,
Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir,
Chilka Lake(lagoon lake) in Orrisa, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.

Wetlands
India's wetland ecosystem is
widely distributed from the cold
and arid located in the Ladakh
region of Jammu and Kashmir,
and those with the wet and
humid climate of peninsular
India. Most of the wetlands are
directly or indirectly linked to
river networks. The Indian
government has identified a total
Pichavaram Mangroves, Tamil Nadu A map of the Indian Sunderbans in
of 71 wetlands for conservation
and are part of sanctuaries and West Bengal.
national parks.[43] Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian
coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. The mangrove area covers a
total of 4,461 km2 (1,722 sq mi),[44] which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. Prominent

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mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and
the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers. Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have
large mangrove covers.[42]

The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and
spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal. The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is
identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India). The
Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant
mangrove forests. The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds,
spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger. It is estimated that there are
now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of
Pakistan. It occupies a total area of 27,900 km2 (10,800 sq mi).[45] The region was originally a part of the
Arabian Sea. Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a
large saltwater lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the
monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth. After the monsoons, the region
turns dry and becomes parched.

Climate
Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west,
alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and
the island territories. The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a
monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December)'.[39]

The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia.' Thus, North India
is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.
Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle
of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.

Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures can exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during
the day. The coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert area
temperatures can exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure
system created by the Thar Desert. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the
Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The
Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats.
Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler.
Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is
plagued by fog during this season. The highest temperature recorded in India was 51 °C (124 °F) in Phalodi,
Rajasthan. The lowest was −45 °C (−49 °F) in Kashmir.

Geology
India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.[47] The Precambrian formations of
Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period
is spread over western and central India.[47] The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian
and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.[47] The
Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result
of sub-aerial volcanic activity.[47] The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The
Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic
system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.

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Tertiary
imprints
are seen
in parts
of
Manipur,

Temperature averages in India; units

are in degree Celsius.

Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the

Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen
in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the
Indo-Gangetic plains.[47] The Gondowana
system is seen in the Narmada River area in the
Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is
seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. India’s Köppen climate classification map[46] is based on native
Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and vegetation, temperature, precipitation and their seasonality.
Assam.[47] The Pleistocene system is found over (Af) (BWk) (Cwa) (Dsa)
central India. The Andaman and Nicobar Island Tropical Cold desert Subtropical Continental
are thought to have been formed in this era by rainforest (BSh) humid summ, hot summ
volcanoes.[47] The Himalayas were formed by (Am) Hot semi dry winter (Dsb)
the convergence and deformation of the Indo- Tropical arid (Cwb) Continental
Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued monsoon Subtropical warm summ
(BSk)
convergence raises the height of the Himalayas highland, dry
(Aw) Cold semi (Dwb)
by 1 cm each year. wint
Tropical arid Continental
Soils in India can be classified into 8 categories: savanna, wet (Csa) (Cfa) dry wint
alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid & desert, & dry Mediterr. Subtropical (Dwc)
saline & alkaline and peaty & organic (BWh) dry, hot humid summ (no Contin
soils.[48][49] Alluvial soil constitute the largest Hot desert summ. dry) subarctic,
soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total dry wint
land surface.[49] It is derived from the deposition
of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from
Punjab to the Assam valley.[49] Alluvial soil are generally fertile but
they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.[49] National Disaster
Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to
earthquake and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.

Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra,
Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.[50] These contain high percentage of clay
and are moisture retentive.[49] Red soil are found in Tamil Nadu, Eparchaean Unconformity of Detrital
Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the rocks of Tirumala Hills, Eastern
Aravallis.[50] These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and Ghats

humus.[49][50] Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy

rainfall. Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil. These are generally found
in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall. Forest soils

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occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats

and Eastern Ghats. These generally consist of large amounts of dead
leaves and other organic matter called humus.

Natural resources
India's total
renewable water
resources are
estimated at 1,907.8
km3/year.[51] Its
annual supply of
usable and
replenshable
groundwater Geological regions of India
amounts to 350
Indian coal production is the 3rd highest in the billion cubic metres.[52] Only 35% of groundwater
world according to the 2008 Indian Ministry of
resources are being utilised.[52] About 44 million tonnes of
Mines estimates. Shown above is a coal mine in
cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers
Jharkhand.
and waterways.[38] Groundwater supplies 40% of water in
India's irrigation canals. 56% of the land is arable and used
for agriculture. Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton,
linseed, etc. Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations. Red soil have a wide diffusion of iron
content.[50]

Most of India's estimated 5.4 billion barrels (860,000,000 m3) in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High,
upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.[53] India possesses about seventeen trillion
cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.[53] Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh.
India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven "provinces"
— the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.)[54]

India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.[55] India ranks second amongst the
world's largest producers of barites and chromites.[55] The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals. India is the
third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore.[53][55] It is the fifth-
largest producer of bauxite and crude steel, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of
aluminium.[55] India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.[56] India possesses 24%
of the world's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala.[57] Gold had
been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.[58]

Antipodes
The only land area antipodal to India is Easter Island, which is antipodal to the western corner of Rajasthan.
The triangular island closely reflects the triangle between the cities of Mokal, Kuchchri, and Habur. Habur
corresponds to Hanga Roa, and Mokal to the eastern cape.

Photo Gallery

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K2 Tso Moriri lake, Ladakh Valley of flowers, Indo-Gangetic Plain

Uttarakhand

Arawali Hills, near Madhya Pradesh Shola in western ghats Anaimudi, the tallest
Ajmer mountain is South India

Backwater in Kerala Minicoy island, Andaman and Nicobar

Lakshadweep

See also
Geospatial Information Regulation Bill

References
1. "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" ([Link]
p://[Link]/docs/BM_Intro%28E%[Link]). Archived from the original ([Link]
(DOC) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
2. India Yearbook, p. 1
3. "India" ([Link] Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 July
2012. Total area excludes disputed territories not under Indian control.
4. Manorama Yearbook 2006 (India – The Country). Malayala Manorama. 2006. p. 515. ISSN 0542-5778 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/0542-5778).
5. "Territorial extent of India's waters" ([Link]
fc/ezine/Trans2Trimph/chapters/27_law%20of%20the%[Link]). The International Law of the Sea and Indian
MaritimeLegislation. 30 April 2005. Archived from the original ([Link]
mph/chapters/27_law%20of%20the%[Link]) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2006.
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